Articles and Summary

Articles
&
Summary
Index
Bhagavad Gita [Concepts] Sama Veda: Introduction
Bhagavatam [Advaita Vedanta] Sankara and Modern Physics
Bhagavatam [Episodes] Smritis: Way to Realisation
Chathuhshloki Bhaagavatham [Brief] Tantra: Mother Worship
Essentials of Hinduism Upanishads: Introduction
Evolution [Addendum] Upanishads: Overview
Guru Gita Vedanta: Concepts
Ishaavaasyopanishat [Brief] Vedanta: Glimpses
Jivanmukti Viveka [Summary] Vedanta Paribhasha [Summary]
Khyati Vada Vedas: Gods, Sages and Yajnas
Panchadasi [Summary] Vedas: Overview
Patanjali Vidhi - Vedic Injunctions
Prabodhasudhakara [Summary] Vivekachudamani [Summary]
Raja Yoga: Royal Road to Realisation
Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 2 of 372 Articles and Summary

Concepts in Bhagavad Gita
By S. N. Sastri
[Extracts from Sri Sankara's Bhashya dealing with some concepts in the Gita with explanatory notes by S. N. Sastri]
Contents:
Adhyasa - Superimposition
Ahankara
Atma - The Self
Bhakti - an essential requisite for liberation
Brahma - sakshatkara - Self - realisation
Karanam - Karyam - Cause and Effect
Dhyanam - Meditation
Jivanmukti
Jnanam - Knowledge
Kama and Raga
Tulapurushadih
Karma - Action
Krishna is Atma
Vairagyam - Detachment
Mumukshutvam - Yearning for Liberation
Omkarah
Prakrtih - The Nature [of a person]
Svabhavah
Paramam padam
Prarabdha karma
Prana, apana, etc
Purusha
Samadhih
Sankhyam/Sankhyah
Sannyasa and Tyaga
Sattva
Sthitaprajnah
Svadharmah - what is it?
Pratibimba - vada and Avaccheda - vada
Vedas - the sphere of their validity
Vedic rituals - their ultimate purpose
Yogah/Yogi
Yogakshemah
Yogabhrashtah
Three Levels of Reality
Abbreviations
GSB - Gita Sankara Bhashya
Br.up - Brhadaranyaka upanishad
Ch.up - Chandogya upanishad
Sv.up - Svetasvatara upanishad
Tai.up - aittiriya upanishad

Adhyasa - Superimposition
GSB13 - 26 Kshetrakshetrajnayoh vishayavishayinoh - apagacchatimithyajnanam.

The body, which is referred to as the field and the Atma, the indwelling Self, referred to as the knower
of the field in this verse are wrongly looked upon by us as equally real, though the body has no reality
in the absolute sense. The Self [Brahman] is alone real. The body appears to be real in the same
manner as, when a rope is mistaken for a snake, the illusory snake appears to be real. The snake is
said to be superimposed on the rope. This is known as superimposition or Adhyasa. Similarly the
identification of the body and the Self and looking upon the two as forming one entity is due to
superimposition of the body on the Self. They are the object and the subject, respectively, and are of
different natures. Their relationship is of the form of superimposition of each on the other as also of
their qualities, as a consequence of the absence of discrimination between the real nature of the field
and the knower of the field. This is like the association of a rope, nacre, etc, with the superimposed
snake, silver, etc, owing to the absence of discrimination between them. The association of the field
and the knower of the field in the form of superimposition is described as false knowledge [mithya
jnanam]. Afterhaving known the distinction between, and the characteristics of, the field and the
knower of the field according to the scriptures and having separated, like a stalk from the munja
grass, the above - described knower of the field from the field whose characteristics have been
shown earlier, he who realises the knower of the field, which, in accordance with 13.12 is devoid of all
distinctions created by adjuncts - - as identical with Brahman and who has the firm realisation that the
field is surely unreal like an elephant created by magic, a thing seen in dream, an imaginary city seen
in the sky, etc. though it appears as real - - for him false knowledge becomes eradicated, since it is
opposed to the right knowledge described above. [For further elucidation see 'The three levels of
reality' on page21].
Ahankara
GSB.3.27 - Ahankara is looking upon the aggregate of body and organs as "I".
Atma - The Self
GSB - 2.18 - The Self is self - established. It is not revealed by any pramana, including the scriptures
- Atma svatah siddhah - na tua jnatartha jnapakatvena...
The scripture becomes a Pramana or valid means of knowledge regarding the Self only by helping to
eliminate the superimposition [on the Self] of the attributes alien to it, and not by revealing the Self
directly as an object previously not known, [as Pratyaksha or direct perception does].
GSB.2.19 - The object of the Gita is to remove the cause of Samsara [transmigration], such as grief
and delusion and not to enjoin action for its own sake. [Action is to be performed only as a means to
the attainment of Self-knowledge through the purification of the mind.]
GSB.2.21 - The Self, while remaining immutable, is imagined to be the knower of objects such as
sound, which are actually perceived by the intellect and the organs of sense. This is because the Self
is not distinguished from the mental states, due to nescience.
Similarly, the Self is spoken of as having become enlightened only because of avidya [nescience]
associating it with that intellectual perception - which is also unreal - which takes the form of
discrimination between the Self and the not - Self, while in reality the Self has undergone no change
whatever. [That is to say, neither ignorance nor its opposite, enlightenment, pertains to the Self. Both
relate only to the intellect [or mind] and are wrongly attributed to the Self, which, however, is ever free
from avidya or ignorance.].
G - 2.18 - The Atma cannot be known through any of the pramanas [means of knowledge] - see
Sankarabhashya on ' aprameya' in Vishnu sahasranama. Being devoid of sound, form, taste, smell
and touch, Atma cannot be known by pratyaksha pramana. Nor can it be known by anumana
[inference] as it has no mark [linga] which can be the basis of inference. It cannot be known by
upamana [analogy] as it has no parts and as analogy functions by comparing one part of a thing with
the corresponding part of another thing.
Arthapatti [implication] too cannot apply. Atma cannot be known by the criterion of abhava [negation]
because it is always existent and is the witness of all negation. Nor can Atma be known by means of
the scriptures, because it is devoid of any peculiar features that can be deduced from the scriptures.
Then it may be asked, how is it said [in Brahma sutra 1.1.3] that the scriptures are the valid source of
knowledge of Brahman? The answer is - The Atma is the witness of all pramanas, being the Supreme
light and so it cannot be the object of any means of knowledge; yet nescience superimposes on
Brahman something which it is not. What the scripture does is only to remove this superimposition.
Then Brahman [or the Atma] shines in its own light.
GSB - 2.25 - As the self is inaccessible to any of the senses, it is not manifest.
GSB - 4.25 - The offering of the self in Brahman means the realisation that the indwelling self which is
associated with the limiting adjuncts such as the body is identical with the supreme Brahman devoid
of all limiting adjuncts. In this verse the word yajna is used in the sense of Atma.
GSB - 5.13 - The Self, by nature, is not an agent [doer], nor does it make the body and senses act.
See also Gita 2.25, 13.31, and Br. Up. 4.3.7 -
Bhakti - an essential requisite for liberation
GSB - 2.39 - The Lord says - "You will get rid of your bondage by the attainment of Self-knowledge
through God's grace.
GSB - 15.1 - [Introduction] - Yasmat madadhinam - moksham gacchanti. - those who worship Me with
devotion attain liberation by My grace.
SB - 18.62 - Tam evaIsvaram saranam - sasvatam nityam. - Take refuge in the Lord alone with your
whole being for getting rid of the sufferings of this transmigratory existence and to attain the eternal
supreme peace.
GSB - 18.65 - Here also the importance of devotion is stressed.

Brahma - sutra - 2.3.41 - SB thereon - Tadanugrahahetukena - bhavitum arhati. - Only through Self-
knowledge attained by His grace does one become liberated.
The extracts from Sri Sankara's commentaries given above disprove the contention of some western
scholars that there is no place for devotion to a personal God in Sri Sankara's philosophy.

Brahma - sakshatkara - Self - realisation
GSB - 18.50 - Purvapakshah - nanu vishayakaram - atmakaram jnanam iti anupapannam. -

Objection - Knowledge takes the form of its object. But it is not admitted anywhere that the Self is an
object, or even that it has form.
Pseudo - vedantin - Do not such texts as - 'radiant like the sun' [Sv.3.8], 'of the nature of effulgence'
[Ch.up.3.14.2] and 'self - effulgent' [Br.up.4.3.9] say that the Self has form?
Objection - No, because those sentences are meant to refute the idea that the Self is of the nature of
darkness. - There is specific denial of form in 'formless' [Katha up.1.3.15] and also in Katha - 2.3.9,
Sv.4.20, etc, which indicate that the Self is not an object of perception. Therefore it is illogical to say
that there can be knowledge which takes the form of the Self.
Siddhanta [Vedantin] - Na, atyantanirmalatva - svacchatva - sukshmatvopapatteh atmanah -

atmadrishtih kriyate. - No. Since it is established that the Self is supremely taintless, pure and subtle
and that the intellect also can have taintlessness etc, like the Self, it stands to reason that the intellect
can take a form resembling the Self, which is consciousness itself. The mind becomes impressed
with the semblance of the intellect, the organs become impressed with the semblance of the mind
and the body becomes impressed with the semblance of the organs. In other words the intellect, the
mind, the organs of perception and action and the entire physical body, which are all really insentient
matter, appear to be sentient because of the Self which is pure consciousness] This is why everyone
identifies himself with his body - mind complex.
Atah atma vishayam jnanam - grhyamanatvat. - Hence, knowledge about the Self is not a matter for
injunction. What has to be done is only the eradication of the superimposition of name, form, etc,
which are not the Self and not the [acquisition of] knowledge of the Self. Knowledge of the Self means
only the realisation that the Self [or Brahman] alone really exists and that all objects experienced are
only superimposed on it, just like the illusory snake on a rope.
Tasmatavidyaadhyaropana - prasiddhatvat. - Therefore it is only the elimination of what has been
superimposed on Brahman due to ignorance that has to be done. Since Brahman is self - luminous, it
becomes manifest when the superimposition is removed with the help of the scriptures. It is therefore
said here that no effort is necessary to attain knowledge of Brahman. All effort is only for removal of
the wrong notion that the universe is absolutely real.
Avidya - kalpita - nama - rupa - avivekinam. - It is because the intellect is distracted by the names and
forms which are conjured up due to nescience that Brahman, even though self - evident, easily
realisable, nearer than all else and identical with oneself, appears to be concealed, difficult to realise,
very far and different from oneself to the unenlightened.
- Bahyakaranivrtta - buddhinamtu - svasannam asti. But to those whose mind has been withdrawn
from external objects and who have received the grace of a teacher, as well as acquired purity of
mind, there is nothing more blissful, manifest, well - known, easily realised and nearer to oneself than
the Self.
Tasmat bahya - akara - bheda - nivrttih.eva karanam. - Therefore, the cessation of the perception of
differences in the form of external objects is alone the means for being established in the Self.
Tasmat yatha svadehasya - itisiddham - Therefore, just as for knowing one's own body there is no
need of any other [external] means of knowledge, so also there is no need of any other means of

knowledge for the realisation of the Self which is innermost. Hence it is established that steadfastness
in the knowledge of the Self is a fact very well known to discriminating people.
Yesham api nirakaram jnanam - abhyupagantavyam -

Even to those who hold the view that knowledge is formless [the Bhatta - mimamsakas], and not
cognised by direct perception, cognition of an object is dependent on knowledge. Hence it has to be
admitted that knowledge [of the Self] can be as immediate as the experience of happiness and other
states of the mind.
Paramahamsa - parivrajakah - Thisterm is found to be applied in the Gita - bhashya only to one who
has attained Self - realisation - See 13.31, 18.53 and 18,66.
Karanam - Karyam - Cause and Effect
GSB - 2.16 - Vikarahca vyabhicarati - anupalabdheh as an. - Every effect is temporary .For instance,
an effect such as an earthen pot, presented to consciousness by the eye, is not real, for it is not
perceived apart from clay. Thus every effect is unreal, since it is never seen as distinct from its cause.
An effect is not perceived before its production and after its destruction.
Dhyanam - Meditation
GSB - 13.24 - Dhyanam nama - Dhyanam.

Meditation means - contemplation [on the Self] after withdrawing into the mind the organs of hearing
etc, from their objects such as sound and then withdrawing the mind into the indwelling self. It is a
constant and uninterrupted current of thought like a line of pouring oil.
Jivanmukti
GSB - 2.51 - - ,5.24, - - 6.27 - - - 18.25 - - - Liberation consists in remaining identified with the
changeless Self even while living in the present body. Liberation is not something to be attained after
death..
Jnanam - Knowledge
Cannot be combined with karma -
GSB - 2.11 - Sankhyabuddhimyogabuddhim ca asritya dve nishthe vibhakte - pasyata - Thus, on the
basis of the Sankhya and yoga standpoints, two distinct paths have been laid down by the Lord [in
Gita - 3.3], considering the impossibility of Jnana and Karma being conjoined in the same person
simultaneously, Jnana being based on the idea of non - agency and unity and Karma on the idea of
agency and multiplicity.
Yasya tuajnanat ragadidoshatah va - yena buddheh samuccayah syat. - A person, who, having
undertaken an action [with the sense of doer-ship], because of ignorance [of the Self], or due to
defects like attachment, and having [even before the action has been completed] attained purity of
mind [and consequently detachment - vairagya] as a result of the performance of sacrificial rites, the
giving of gifts and the practice of austerities, [yajna,dana and tapa, - which lead to vividisha, the

desire to know the Self - see Br. Up.4.4.22], realises the supreme Truth that he is Brahman, the non -
doer, may still continue to perform the action [which he has been doing] in the same manner as
before, solely with the object of setting an example to the world, in spite of having nothing to gain
thereby. This is however only a semblance of action. [It is really akarma - inaction, since the notion of
agency is no longer there - see Gita - 4.18]. It cannot therefore be said that there is a combination of
Jnana and Karma here. [The doctrine of Jnana - Karma - samuccaya of the Mimamsakas and others
is refuted here.]
Liberation is due to knowledge alone -
GSB.2.11 - TasmatGitasu kevalat - iti niscitah arthah - The definite conclusion of the Gita is therefore
that liberation is attained by the knowledge of the Reality alone and not by knowledge combined with
action. [Once the knowledge of the Reality has arisen, liberation follows immediately and action or
karma is no longer necessary].
GSB - 2.21 - 'Manasaivanudrashtavyam' iti sruteh - [Br. Up. 4.4.19]. - karanam. - The sruti says - 'It
can be known by the mind alone'. The mind, refined by sama, dama, etc, and equipped with the
teachings of the scripture and of the guru is the means for the realisation of the Self.
GSB - Introduction - Tasya asya Gita sastrasya - dharmat bhavati. - The aim of the Gita is the
attainment of supreme bliss, a complete cessation of samsara , along with its cause. This is attained
by being established in the knowledge of the Self., preceded by the renunciation of all works [by the
knowledge that the Self is not an agent and that all action pertains only to the body - mind complex].
GSB - 2.11 - Pandaatmavishaya buddhih - iti sruteh. - 'Panda' means 'knowledge of the Self'. Those
who have it are Panditah - vide the sruti - 'securing the status of knowers of the Self - [Br. Up. 3.5.1].
GSB - 2.16 - Tattvadarsinah - The word 'Tat' is a pronoun, known in Sanskrit as sarvanama, which
also means 'the name of the "all"'. Brahman is "all' and so the name of Brahman is 'Tat'. The real
nature of Brahman is therefore 'Tattvam'. Those who see that Brahman are therefore
'Tattvadarsinah'.
GSB - 2.69 - Tatraapi pravartaka - pramana - abhave - sambhavati. - [the validity of all pramanas
holds good only so long as knowledge of the Self has not arisen].
Pramatrtvam hi atmanah - iva prabodhe. - Once the Self is realised, it is known as bereft of all limiting
adjuncts and is therefore no longer looked upon as a seer, etc. The Self is just pure consciousness. It
becomes a seer, hearer, etc, only when looked upon as associated with the limiting adjuncts in the
form of the body, etc. After the eradication of this wrong association by the knowledge of the real
nature of the Self, attained through the teachings of the Vedas, the Vedas themselves cease to be
authoritative for such a person. This is like the objects seen in a dream becoming non - existent on
waking up. The sruti which is valid in the state of ignorance [of the Self], and whose injunctions and
prohibitions are binding, loses its validity in the case of a person who has realised the Self, even
though the realisation was achieved only with the help of the sruti.
GSB - 3.1 - Tasmat kevalat eva jnanat - sarvopanishatsu ca. - Hence, the definite conclusion in the
Gita and all the Upanishads is that liberation follows from knowledge of the Self alone.
GSB - 3.3 - Jnanam eva yogah jnanayogah - Jnana itself is the means [to liberation].
In the words Jnanayoga, Bhaktiyoga and Karmayoga, the word 'yoga' signifies - 'the means to unity' -
yujyate anena iti yogah.
GSB - 3.3 - Jnananishtha tu karmanishthopaya - labdhatmika - anya - anapeksha - .
Steadfastness in knowledge [of the Self], having come into existence through the means of
steadfastness in action [karma], leads to liberation independently, without depending on anything
else.
GSB - 3.4 - Naishkarmyam - svarupena eva avasthanam - 'Freedom from action' is the state of being
established in the knowledge of the Self and abiding as the action - less Self.
GSB - 3.4 - Karmayogopayatvam - pratipadanat - Karma yoga is the means to the yoga of knowledge
characterized by freedom from action, as has been established in the Upanishads as well as in the
Gita -
GSB - 3.4 - Na kevalat karmaparityaga - matrat - prapnoti - By the mere renunciation of action without
the knowledge [of the Self], steadfastness in the yoga of knowledge, characterized by freedom from
action [naishkarmya] cannot be attained.
GSB - 3.41 - Jnanam sastratah - avabodhah. - Jnana means knowledge about the Self derived from
the scriptures and one's teacher [intellectual knowledge].
Vijnanam viseshatahtadanubhavah - Vijnana means the realisation as an actual experience of that
intellectual knowledge, the realisation in the form 'I am Brahman'.
GSB - 4.19 - Karmadau akarmadi - darsanam jnanam - Seeing action as non - action [i.e. knowing
that the Self does not perform any action], is 'jnanam'. See Gita 4.18.
GSB - 4.28 - Jnanam sastrartha - parijnanam - Here the word 'Jnana' is used in the sense of mere
book knowledge.
GSB - 5.12 - Sattvasuddhi - nishthakramenaiti vakyaseshah. - Liberation is attained through the

stages of purification of the mind, acquisition of knowledge [paroksha - jnanam], renunciation of all
action [which really means, looking upon all action [karma] as non - action [akarma], since they are
performed by the body and not by the Self] and remaining as the pure Self devoid of all adjuncts.
GSB - 6.8 - Jnanamsastrokta - padarthanam - svanubhavakaranam - nana is intellectual knowledge

of what is taught by the sruti. Vijnana is making that knowledge the subject of one's own experience.
To know Brahman is to be Brahman, that is, to realise that one is Brahman.
See also GSB - 6.46 and 16.1 for the meaning of the word 'Jnana'.
Kama and Raga
See GSB - 7.11 for the meanings.
Tulapurushadih
GSB - 11.48 - The reference here is to 'Tulabharam', well known in Kerala temples.

Karma - Action
Sri Sankara takes the word 'karma' in the Gita as meaning generally the various rites laid down in the
srutis and smrtis only and not secular activities. In some verses where he considers that both
religious and secular activities are meant, he specifically says so.
GSB - 2.11 - Itiavidyakamavata eva sarvani karmani srautadini darsitani - .Thus the Vedic rites are
intended only for him who has not attained knowledge of the Self and who has therefore desires to be
fulfilled.
GSB - 2.21 - Vidushahkarma - asambhava - vacanat - avagamyate - From the assertion of the
impossibility of action in the case of an enlightened man, the conclusion of the Lord is evident that the
acts enjoined by the scriptures are intended only for the unenlightened.
Difference between knowledge and action.
GSB - 2.21 - Agnihotradi - anushtheyambhavati - There remains something for the unenlightened
man to do, after having understood the meaning of the injunction regarding Agnihotra, etc. This
action, namely Agnihotra or other sacrificial rites, requires the acquisition of many necessary
accessories. The unenlightened man, while performing such actions, has the idea "I am the
performer, this is my duty". Nothing, however, remains to be performed subsequent to the realisation
of the truth of such teachings as are contained in 2.20,etc, regarding the real nature of the Self.
GSB - Introduction - Abhyudayarthahapi - phalabhisandhi - varjitah - Though the rites laid down in the
Vedas are intended to confer on the performer various benefits, such as worldly prosperity,
enjoyment of the pleasures of heaven after the present life and the like, the performance of the same
rites without desire for these benefits and in a spirit of dedication to God brings about purity of the
mind and makes the person fit for Self-knowledge.
Suddha sattvasya - pratipadyate - Since such work purifies the mind and makes it fit for the dawn of
knowledge, it is also indirectly the means to the attainment of liberation.
GSB - 2.46 - Tasmatprak jnananishtha - adhikara - prapteh - kartavyam - Therefore, for a man who is
ignorant of the Self it is necessary to perform action before he becomes fit for the path of knowledge.
GSB - 2.47 - Karmani eva adhikarah - avasthayam ityarthah - You [Arjuna and all others who have
not yet become fit for the path of jnana] are qualified for action alone. And, while performing action, let
there be no craving for the fruit. [This verse is very often misinterpreted as laying down the
performance of action for its own sake. From the context it is however clear that what is brought out is
the contrast between the paths of knowledge and action. As long as one has not attained purity of
mind, that is to say, one has not developed total detachment, one has to practise Karma yoga. The
path of Jnana is only for those who have acquired total detachment towards all enjoyments. This is
reiterated indifferent words in Gita - 6.3].
Yada hikarmaphala - trshna - prayuktah - bhavet - When a person performs action with desire for the
fruit thereof, then he will be subject to rebirth in order to experience the fruit of that action, [because
the fruits of all actions cannot be experienced in the same life].
[This verse makes it clear that karma yoga, or the performance of all actions without desire for the
fruit and as an offering to God, is meant only for those who yearn for liberation. The argument is often
heard that all action is motivated by the expectation of reward in some form or other and so it is
unrealistic to expect people to work without desire. This argument overlooks the fact that Karma yoga

is not advocated for everyone, but only for those very few who are not interested in the pleasures of
worldly life, but yearn only for liberation. Of course, performance of action in the spirit of Karma yoga
is good even for the purely worldly - minded, as thereby they can enjoy mental tranquility and
freedom from tension.].
GSB - 2.48 - Yogasthah san kuru - tyaktva Dhananjaya - Steadfast in yoga, perform action merely for
God's sake, casting off even such thoughts as - "May God be pleased", and being equanimous in
success and failure.
Kah asauyogah - yoga ucyate - What is this yoga which Arjuna has been advised to practice while
performing action? The answer is - Yoga is evenness of mind in success and failure. Here yoga
means karma yoga.
GSB - 2.50 - Buddhiyuktah - yujyasvaghatasva - A person who has evenness of mind casts off in this
world both punya [merit] and papa [sin] by the attainment of mental purity and, as a result, knowledge
of the Self. Therefore devote yourself to Karma yoga, the wisdom of equanimity.
GSB - 2.50 - The correct meaning of the statement - 'Yogah karmasu kausalam' is, according to the
Bhashya - Yoga is skill in the performance of action. The evenness of mind in success and failure
arising from the mental attitude of surrender of the fruit of all work to God is what is here described as
skill in action. This is because by such evenness of mind actions which are by nature the cause of
bondage are converted into an effective means for the purification of the mind and the attainment of
Self-knowledge.
[This is another verse which is often wrongly interpreted as meaning that efficiency in the
performance of any action is Yoga. This interpretation will be found to be totally untenable if it is
remembered that performance of action is advocated in the Gita only as a means to the attainment of
liberation and not as a means for worldly success. It is another matter that such an interpretation can
be used to urge people to perform their duties efficiently, but that would be tearing the verse out of
context].
GSB - 2.69 - Atah karmani - karmahetutvopapattih - See translation given under Sthitaprajna.
GSB - 3.1 - Natavat nityanam - sajjanma - asambhava - sruteh - It cannot be imagined that sin, which
is a positive entity, can be generated from the mere on - performance of obligatory duties [nitya and
naimittika karma], because of the Upanishadic text, "How can existence come out of non-existence?"
[Ch. Up. 6.2.2], which speaks of the impossibility of the birth of existence from non-existence.
GSB - 3.3 - Karma - nishthayah - na svatantryena - Action is a means to liberation only by virtue of
being the cause of the attainment of knowledge and not independently. [Knowledge of the Self is
alone the direct and independent cause of liberation].
In the words Karma - yoga, Jnana - yoga and Bhakti - yoga, the word 'yoga' is used in the sense of'
the means to union' - yujyate anena iti yogah.
GSB - 3.4 - Yajnadinamiha janmani - jnananishtha - hetunam - Vedic rites, such as sacrifices,
performed in the present life or in past lives are the cause of the purification of the mind. Thereby they
become the cause of steadfastness in Self-knowledge.
Jnanam utpadyate pumsam - atmani - Knowledge arises in a person after the attenuation of sins.
One sees the Self in oneself like the reflection in a clean mirror.
GSB - 3.9 - Karma yoga is the performance of action without desire for the fruit and as an offering to
God. This verse contains a complete definition of Karma yoga. It is clear from this verse that there is
the sense of agency [doer-ship] in Karma yoga.
In Gita verses 3.4 to 3.8 it has been emphasized that a person should engage himself in the path of
action till he attains Self-knowledge. The evils arising from non - performance of action are brought
out inverses 3.9 to 3.16.
GSB - 3.17 - The ideas contained in Br up 3.5.1 are brought out here.
GSB - 3.19 - Asaktah - sattvasuddhidvarena ityarthah - By performing actions without attachment and
as an offering to God a person attains purity of mind. Then he attains liberation through Self-
knowledge.
GSB - 3.30 - MayiVasudeve - buddhya - Dedicating all actions to Me, who am Vasudeva, the
omniscient supreme Lord, the Self of all, with the mind intent on the Self, with discriminating wisdom,
with the thought 'I am an agent and I do this action for God as His servant' and being free from
expectation of any reward - It is clear from this that in Karma yoga there is the sense of agency.
GSB - 4.14 - Iti evamyah anyah - bhavanti ityarthah - Anyone else, too, who knows Me as his own
Self and knows 'I am not the performer of action and I do not hanker after the fruit', does not become
bound by actions. For him actions cease to be the cause of further bodies.
GSB - 4.15 - Tasmattvam purvaih - nirvartitam - Till the attainment of Self-knowledge actions are
necessary for the purification of the mind. After the dawn of knowledge also actions should continue
to be performed in order to set an example to others and to prevent them from taking a wrong path.
GSB - 4.17 - Karma is action enjoined by the scriptures, Vikarma is prohibited action and Akarma is
inaction, which means action performed with the realisation that the Self is not the doer.
GSB - 4.18 - Na api nityanam - darsitam. - No evil, which is a positive entity, can arise from the non -
performance of nitya karma, which is negative. See also Tai. Up.1.1 - Introduction - Nityanam ca
akaranam abhavah -
GSB - 4.20 - Sahkutascit nimittat - A person who has already attained Self-knowledge may continue
to perform action, but that is really Akarma, inaction and is only for the welfare of the world.
Vidusha kriyamanam karma - In reality, actions performed by a Jnani are a karma since he is the
action less Self.
GSB - 4.22 - Lokavyavahara - samanya - darsanena - akarta eva - Seeing similarity with common
human behaviour, agency is attributed to a Jnani by ordinary people; but from his own point of view
he is not a Karta, performer of action. [See examples given in Pancadasi - 7.259].
GSB - 5.1 - [Introduction] - Atra ucyate atmavidah - asambhavah syat - For the knower of the Self,
since mithya - jnana - nescience - has been eradicated, karma yoga, which is based on nescience,
becomes impossible. [This again establishes that karma yoga involves the notion of agency.]
Janmadisarvavikriya - rahitatvena - uktamsyat - It is clear from this passage that Atma jnananishtha is
the same as Sarva karma sannyasa - that is, all Karma becomes in reality Akarma. In other words,
Sarva karma sannyasa is not giving up all action, but it is the realisation that all Karma is performed
only by the body - mind complex and that the Self is only an uninvolved witness.
In2.17, 2.19 and 2.21, it has been stated that the Jnani is not an agent, since he has realised that he
is not the body or the mind, but he is the action - less Self.

Anatmavitkartrka - karma yoga nishthatah - prthak - karanat - In this passage karma yoga which is
applicable only to those who are ignorant of the Self is distinguished from Jnana yoga, characterised
by dwelling in the state of identity with the action less Self.
GSB - 6.3 - Here it is made clear that karma yoga is not applicable to one who has attained Self-
knowledge. Here Yogarudha means one who has attained Self-knowledge.
GSB - 5.3 - Karmayogi nityasannyasi - A Karma yogi who is free from attachment and aversion is
considered to be a Sannyasi, a man of renunciation, even though engaged in action. [This is actually
said as a praise of karma yoga].
GSB - 5,10 - Yah tupunah atattvavit - sarva karmani - One who is ignorant of the Self and is engaged
in karma yoga, who surrenders all actions to God with the idea 'I am working for Him, as a servant for
his master' and renouncing attachment even to liberation, does not incur any bondage because of his
actions, just as a lotus leaf, even while remaining in water, does not become wet.
GSB - 5.11 - Mamatvavarjitaih - sattvasuddhayeityarthah - Here also it is clear that there is the sense
of agency, though there is no craving for the fruit.
GSB - 5.13 - Sarvani karmani - tishthati sukham - Having given up all karma - nitya, naimittika and
kamya - through discriminating wisdom, that is, by looking upon karma as a karma - - - - here also it is
clear that giving up all actions only means realising that one is the Self which does not act and that all
actions are done only by the body. This is the meaning of Sarva karma sannyasa.
GSB - 6.1 [Introduction] - Nityasya ca karmanah - We have said that since the nitya karmasare laid
down by the Vedas, they must produce some result. [The result is
purification of the mind or heaven].
GSB - 6.3 - Dhyana yogasya - darsayati - Since karma yoga is the means to make the mind fit for
dhyana yoga, it is praised as Sannyasa.
GSB - 12.12 - Kamah ca sarve - santihiti - 'All desires' means the fruits of all rites and duties enjoined
in the Srutis and Smrtis. From the renunciation of these, peace comes immediately to the enlightened
man.
GSB - 12.13 - Atra caatmesvarabhedam - samuddharta iti - The yoga consisting in the concentration
of the mind on God as the Cosmic Person, as also the performance of actions etc, for God have been
spoken of by assuming a difference between God and Self. Karma yoga is not possible for the
meditator on the Immutable, who is aware of the identity of the Self with God. The Lord is similarly
pointing out the impossibility of the karma yogin's meditation on the Immutable. In verse 12.4, having
declared that those who meditate on the Immutable are independent so far as the attainment of
liberation is concerned, the Lord shows in12.7 that others are dependent on God.
GSB - 13.31 - Ataetasmin - bhagavata - It has been declared by the Lord in various places that there
is no duty enjoined on those who have attained to the discriminating knowledge of the supreme
Reality, who remain steadfast in that knowledge, who have rejected all actions arising out of
nescience [presumably all desire - prompted actions] and who are Paramahamsa - parivrajakas. [In
this Bhashya this term seems to mean only a person who has become a Jivan mukta and not
necessarily one who belongs to a particular order of Sannyasis].

GSB - 18.3 - Yetu paramarthadarsinah - The enlightened ones who have realised the supreme truth
are alone competent for steadfastness in knowledge, or Jnana yoga, which is characterized by the
renunciation of all action [which means realising that one is the actionless Self, the uninvolved
witness of all the actions done by the body]. The path of action or Karma yoga is not for such a
person.
GSB - 18.6 - Etani api tukarmani - .uttamam - Even the actions such as sacrifice, charity and austerity
have to be performed without attachment to the result.
GSB - 18.9 - Nityanam karmanam - phalam ca iti - We said that the Lord's utterance is proof of the
fruitfulness of nitya and naimittika karma. Or, even if these are considered to be devoid of any fruit,
since no fruit is mentioned in the Sruti, still the ordinary, unenlightened man does certainly imagine
that these produce a result in the form of purification of the mind or avoidance of evil. The Lord
indicates by the words 'giving up the fruit' that even this thought should be given up. This giving up of
attachment and fruit in respect of Nityakarma arises from Sattva guna. [See commentary of
Anandagiri on Br.up.1.3.1].
GSB - 18.10 - In this verse the term 'Akusalam karma' has been interpreted by Sri Sankara as
meaning 'Kamya karma' and 'Kusalam karma' as 'Nitya karma'. This is in conformity with his
interpretation of the word 'kausalam' in Gita 2.50. The gist of this verse is - The man of renunciation
does not hate Kamya karma on the ground that it will lead to bondage and further birth. Nor does he
become attached to Nitya karma, thinking that it is the means to liberation. In short, he is totally free
from likes and dislikes.
Kada punah asau - samyuktah ityetat - When is it that a person becomes free from aversion towards
'Akusalam karma' or Kamya karma and attachment towards 'Kusalam karma' or Nitya karma? That
happens when he has become imbued with Sattva guna, which is the means to the knowledge that
discriminates between the Self and the not-Self.
GSB - 18.10 - Yah adhikrtah purushah - slokenauktam - The person, who, being competent to
perform rites, practises Karma yoga attains purity of mind and realises that he is the Self which does
not act and is free from all modifications such as birth, growth, etc. This is the state of 'Naish karmya'.
GSB - 18.11 - Yahpunah adhikrtah san - na tattyage - On the other hand, for the un-enlightened
person, who identifies himself with the body and has the firm conviction that he is the doer, it is not
possible to give up actions totally. He should perform actions without desire for the fruit.
GSB - 18.46 - God is the Antaryami.
GSB - 18.66 - Nityanamca karmanam - The Sruti says that Nitya karmas have heaven as their result.
See also Ch.up. 2.23.1 and Br.up. 1.5.16. See also Note no. 5on page 6 of Mahesh Research
Institute edition of Br. upanishad where it is said that heaven is the result of Nitya karma.
Madhusudana Sarasvati says in his commentary on Gita 18.6 - Kamya karma also produces purity,
but that is only the purity necessary for reaping the result of that karma and not the purity necessary
for attaining Self-knowledge. The Vartikakara [Suresvara] says - Even for enjoying the pleasures of
heaven purity is necessary; a pig cannot enjoy heavenly joys.

Krishna is Atma
GSB - 4.14 - Itievam yah anyah - bhavanti - Anyone else too, who knows Me thus, as his own self,
and realises that he is not a doer and has no craving for the fruits of actions [performed by the body]
incurs no bondage. His actions cease to be the cause of further birth. In verses 4.9 and9.11 also,
what is said about Krishna should be taken as applying also to every individual [contd. on p.21].
For the meaning of the word 'Krishna' see GSB - 6.34. See also Narayaneeyam - Dasaka 44, verse
5.'Krs' stands for Existence and 'na' for Bliss. The union of the two is Krsna, the Supreme Brahman.
In Gita 4.9 the Lord says that anyone who knows the truth about His birth and action will be liberated.
The truth is that He is the Atma, which has no birth and does not act. The real meaning of this verse,
therefore, is that one who realises that he too, like Krishna, is really the Atma and that he has neither
birth nor any activity will become liberated. The interpretation that by merely hearing the accounts of
the Lord's incarnations and the deeds performed by Him one can get liberation ignores the
significance of the word 'tattvatah' which means ' in reality.'
In Gita 9.11 the Lord says that fools disregard him, taking him to be just an ordinary human being.
Interestingly, an almost identical statement is made by Kapila, another incarnation of the Lord, in
Srimad Bhagavatam, Skandha 3,ch.29, verse 21. There Kapila says that he, as Brahman or Atma,
dwells in every living being, but unaware of this, people worship only images, thinking that God is only
there. A comparison of these two verses shows that the meaning of both is the same. The real
meaning of Gita 9.11 is not that people do not recognize Krishna as the Lord, but that they do not
realise that Krishna, as the Atma, dwells in every living being. Gita verses 9.12 and 13 are
comparable in their real import to verses22 to 25 of ch.29 of Skandha 3 of the Bhagavata. The real
meaning of the Gita verses 4.9, 4.14 and 9.11 is thus much more profound than what appears on a
superficial reading.
Vairagyam - Detachment
GSB - 6.35 - Vairagyamnama - vaitrshnyam - Vairagyam means being free from any hankering after
enjoyments because of the realisation of their evil consequences.
GSB - 15.1 [Introduction] Viraktasya hi - na anyasya - Only a person with complete detachment can
realise God.
Mumukshutvam - Yearning for Liberation
GSB - 4.11 - Nahi ekasya - sambhavati - It is impossible for the same person to be a seeker of
liberation and also a seeker of the fruits of action at the same time. The idea is that only a person who
is totally free from any desire for the pleasures of this world as well as of higher worlds can be termed
a mumukshu.
Sri Sankara says here that God's grace is necessary for attaining Self-knowledge and liberation. This
disproves the contention of some that there is no place for devotion in Sri Sankara's Advaita.
GSB - 4.21 - Dharmah api mumukshoh - Even Punya is an obstacle to a seeker of liberation because
it also causes bondage and further birth.

Omkarah
GSB - 8.12 - Parasya Brahmanah - arabhyate - Om is presented as a name of the supreme Brahman
and also as Its symbol, like an image. Meditation on Om leads to liberation in course of time. [Krama
mukti].
GSB - 8.13 - Omiti ekaksharam - mriyate - Uttering the single syllable Om, which is the name and the
symbol of Brahman, and thinking of Me, at the time of death, one attains the supreme Goal.
Prakrtih - The Nature [of a person]
GSB - 3.33 - Prakrtihnama - abhivyaktah - Nature means the impressions of virtue, vice, knowledge,
desires, etc, acquired in past lives which become manifest at the beginning of the present life.
Svabhavah
GSB - 5.14 - Svabhavah tu svo bhavah - maya - Nature - one's own nature, characterized as
ignorance, or Maya.
GSB - 7.20 - Svabhavah - viseshah - Nature - the particular tendencies gathered in past lives.
GSB - 8.3 - Here 'svabhava' means the presence of the supreme Brahman in every body as the
indwelling self.
GSB - 13.29 - - - Here Prakrti means God's Maya, constituted of the three Gunas.
Paramam Padam
GSB - 2.51 - Padam - mokshakhyam - the supreme state of Vishnu, called Liberation.
GSB - 8.21 - Dhama sthanam - padam - that supreme state of Vishnu.
See commentary of Madhusudana Sarasvati on Gita 2.51 - 'My state' means Vishnu's own real
nature. The expression "My state' is used by making an imaginary difference between Vishnu and His
state as in the expression 'the head of Rahu'. Rahu being the head alone, the expression 'Rahu's
head' implies a difference between Rahu and his head, which is really not there.
Prarabdha karma
GSB - 4.37 - Samarthyatyena karmana - kurute - The result of the past karma which produced the
present birth gets exhausted only through being experienced. Self-knowledge destroys only the
actions of past lives which have not begun to take effect and the actions performed in this life up to
the dawn of knowledge. Actions performed after the dawn of knowledge do not produce any result at
all.
GSB - 13.23 - Teshammukteshuvat - Prarabdha karma has already begun producing results, like an
arrow that has been shot. Other karma is rendered unproductive by knowledge.
Prana, Apana, etc
GSB - 4.29 - Mukhanasikabhyam - The outgoing of breath through the mouth and nostrils is the
movement of Prana; the movement of Apana is the going in of breath. Prana is exhalation and Apana
is inhalation.
Purusha
GSB - 8.4 - Purnam anena - sayanat va - He by whom all things are pervaded, or he who dwells in
everything is the Purusha.
GSB - 8.22 - The same as the above.
Samadhih
GSB - 2.44 - In this verse Samadhih means the mind.
GSB - 2.53 - Samadhiyate - That in which the mind is fixed is Samadhih. Here it means the Self.
GSB - 2.54 - Here the word Samadhisthah means one who is absorbed in the Self.
Sankhyam/Sankhyah
GSB - 2.11 - Asocyanityadina - The real nature of the Self as expounded in verses 11 to30 of chapter
2 by the Lord is known as Sankhya and the intellectual conviction of the truth expounded therein -
that the Self is not a doer, because of the absence in It of such changes as birth - is known as the
Sankhya - buddhi. Those who have this knowledge are called Sankhyas.
GSB - 2.21 - Tasmatviseshitasya - adhikarah - Therefore the enlightened man and the seeker after
liberation [one who desires liberation alone and not anything else in this world or other worlds] who
know that the Self is not a doer are called upon to renounce all actions. ['Renouncing actions' should
be taken to mean only giving up the notion of agency [doer-ship] in actions performed by the body -
mind complex and looking upon oneself as a mere witness]. It is however added here that the
Mumukshu should perform the actions enjoined on him by the scriptures, these actions being not
prejudicial to his goal, which is the attainment of Self-knowledge.
The idea is that, while a person who has already become a Jnani can give up even the actions
enjoined by the scriptures, since they are not obligatory for him, a person who is in the stage of a
Mumukshu is bound by the injunctions of the scriptures and should therefore perform the enjoined
actions, but without the notion that he is the doer. A Jnani may also perform karma, but that is only to
set an example to others, since he has nothing to gain thereby. Sri Sankara generally takes the word
'karma' as referring only to those spoken of in the Sruis and Smrtis, namely, Nitya, Naimittika and
Kamya, the obligatory daily and occasional duties and the actions laid down to fulfill specific desires .
In certain contexts, where he considers that secular activities also come within the scope of the word
'karma' he specifically says so.

The scheme of the Gita, as of the Upanishads, is that there are three stages. The first is that of the
Karmayogi, who performs all actions without craving for the fruit, but has the sense of doer-ship. This
is the Arurukshu, mentioned in Gita 6.3. The next higher is that of the Mumukshu, who looks upon
himself as the action - less Self and a mere witness of the actions performed by the body - mind -
complex. This is the Yogarudha stage Here an effort is necessary to keep the mind fixed on the Self.
This is what is spoken of as Sama in Gita 6.3, which is the same as Jnana yoga. As stated in Gita
6.4, this stage is reached when there is total detachment and the only desire is for liberation. This is
the Vividisha mentioned in Br up.4.4.22. The highest is that of the Jnani, to whom the conviction that
he is the action - less Self has become natural, having been acquired by the assiduous practice of the
disciplines such as control of the mind and senses, etc. See also GSB - 2.55 where it is said that the
characteristics of the Jnani are to be acquired by the aspirant by effort. While Sri Sankara takes the
word 'Karma' to mean only the actions laid down in the Srutis and Smrtis, Swami Vivekananda,
Lokamanya Tilak and other modern expounders take it as including all secular activities also. This
has the advantage of making the teaching fully relevant to the present - day social conditions and
applicable to all human beings, irrespective of religion, caste and other considerations. The three
stages mentioned above hold good with this interpretation also.
GSB - 2.21 - Tasmat Gitasastre - na karmani - .For the knower of the Self renunciation is prescribed
and not action.
Sannyasa and Tyaga
GSB - 18.2 - Kamyanamasvamedhadinam - Some learned people are of the view that Sannyasa
means the giving up of Kamya karma alone and that Tyaga is the abandonment of the fruits of the
nitya and naimittika karma.
Madhusudana Sarasvati, in his commentary, says - One view is that in the statement - Tametam
vedanuvacanena - anasakena - [Br. up. 4.4.22] - the duty of the Brahmacari is indicated by the word
'vedanuvacana' the duty of the householder by the words 'yajna' and 'dana' and the duty of the
vanaprastha by the words 'tapa' and 'anasaka'. These refer only to the obligatory duties of each of
these categories of persons. According to this view, an aspirant for mental purity as a means to
knowledge and liberation should perform only the obligatory duties laid down for his Asrama, as an
offering to God and should completely abandon all Kamya karma.
Another view is that all the Nitya, Naimittika and Kamya karma laid down should be performed,
without desire for the fruit. Even those karmas laid down for the fulfillment of specific desires, such as
the attainment of heaven, will lead to mental purification and fitness for knowledge of the Self if
performed without desire. [This is according to what is known as Sam yoga - prthaktva - nyaya. See
also Samkshepasarirakam - 1.64].
To sum up - the first view is that, since obligatory duties alone lead to the desire to know Brahman
[vividisha], Kamya karma is to be completely abandoned. The second viewis that Kamya karma
should also be performed, but without desire for the fruit.
Sattva
Increase of Sattva guna leads to increased manifestation of Consciousness.

Gita - 10.41 - Why is it said here that whatever is great, prosperous or powerful is a product of a part
of His splendour, while the Srutis say that everything is Brahman? The answer is found in GSB -
15.12.
GSB - 15.12 - Adityadishuhi - adhikam iti - Since, in the sun etc, the Sattva is very much in evidence,
they are specifically mentioned. It does not mean that Consciousness [or Brahman] is only there.
Yatha hiloke - Indeed, as a face is reflected only in a polished surface like a mirror and not in wood or
in a wall, Consciousness [or divinity] is more manifest in some [where Sattva is in abundance].
Sthitaprajnah
GSB - 2.54 - Sthitapratishthita - One whose realisation of the form 'I am the supreme Brahman'
remains steady is a Sthita prajna, a man of steady wisdom.
GSB - 2.55 - Sarvatraeva hi - bhavanti tani - In all the scriptures dealing with spirituality, the
characteristics of the man of realisation are themselves presented as the disciplines for an aspirant. It
is by assiduously practicing these disciplines that the man of realisation has attained that state.
Svadharmah - what is it?
Brahmasutra bhashya - 3.4.40 - Yo hi yam prati vidhiyate - sakyate - One's own duty is that which has
been prescribed [by the scriptures] for one and not what one can perform well, since duty is
determined by scriptural injunction. [This definition obviously applies only to the actions laid down in
the Srutis and the Smrtis].
In Gita 18.46, the performance of one's own duty is considered as worship of God. The word used
here is Svakarma and not Svadharma. The performance of secular duties can also therefore be taken
as worship of God, in accordance with the modern interpretation of the word 'Karma'.
Pratibimba - vada and Avaccheda - vada
GSB - 15.7 - Yatha jalasuryakah - Both these Vadas are used here.
GSB - 15.12 - Yasya ca padasya - Avacchedavada is applied here.
See also Br.up. 1.4.7 - Bhashya - Pratibimbavada.
Vedas - the sphere of their validity
GSB - 18.66 - Pratyakshadi - pramanyasya - The Vedas have authority only in matters which cannot
be known through the other Pramanas such as direct perception.
Na hi sruti satamapi - Even a hundred Vedic texts cannot become valid if they assert that fire is cold
or non - luminous. If there is any such assertion in the Vedas, it should be taken that the intended
meaning is different.

Vedic Rituals - their ultimate purpose
GSB - 18.66 - Naca karmavidhisruteh - The Vedic rituals are intended to turn the mind away from
purely worldly activities They help to purify the mind and turn it towards the indwelling Self. [They are
not an end in themselves, but only the means to the ultimate goal of human life, which is Self -
realisation and freedom from bondage].
Yogah/Yogi
GSB - 2.11 - Etasyah buddheh - yogah, Yogavishaya - yoginah - Yoga is that state prior to the dawn
of the conviction that the Self is not a doer. This is characterized by the performance of action as a
means to liberation, such performance being accompanied by discrimination between virtuous and
non - virtuous deeds. It is based on the understanding that the Self, though distinct from the body, is
the doer and the enjoyer. [The ordinary man does not see any distinction between the body and the
Self. Actions performed by such a person cannot be considered as Yoga within the meaning of the
word as used in the Gita. The word 'Yoga' is used in the sense of 'the means to liberation'. It is only
when a person begins to look upon his actions as a means to ultimate liberation that his actions
become fit to be described as Yoga'. This is why it has been specifically stated here that the Self
should be understood to be different from the body]. Those who perform action with this knowledge
are called 'Yogins'.
GSB - 2.39 - Yogetu - buddhim srnu - Now listen to the teaching concerning Yoga, which is the
means of attaining the wisdom concerning Sankhya. This Yoga, which constitutes the worship of
Isvara, consists in practicing samadhior in performing actions without attachment, remaining
unaffected by all pairs of opposites [such as heat and cold, success and failure and so on].
GSB - 2.39 - Here Sri Sankara says that the knowledge of the Self can be attained only through the
grace of God.
Different meanings of the word 'Yoga' -
GSB - 3.3 - Yogi here is one who is devoted to rituals,
GSB - 4.41 - Here 'Yoga' means 'knowledge of the supreme Reality'.
GSB - 4.42 - 'Yoga' means 'performance of action as a means to the attainment of Self-knowledge'.
GSB - 5.5 - Jnanapraptyupayatvena - yoginah - Yogis are those who perform action as a means to
the attainment of Self-knowledge, without desire for the fruit and as an offering to God.
GSB - 5.11 - Here the word 'Yogi' is used in the sense of 'Karma yogi'.
GSB - 16.1 - Avagatanam - yogah - Yoga here means making the knowledge acquired from the
scriptures and the teacher a matter of personal experience through concentration of the mind by
withdrawing the sense organs from external objects.

Yogakshemah
GSB - 2.45 - Anupattasya upadanamyogah. Upattasya rakshanam kshemah - The acquisition of what
one does not possess is called Yoga. The protection of what has been acquired is called Kshema.
Yogakshema - pradhanasya - dushkarah - - - For a person whose sole or main concern is about Yoga
and Kshema in the above sense practice of the means to liberation is impossible.
But if one surrenders oneself to the Lord, He will take care of one's Yoga and Kshema.
- See Gita - 9.22.
Yogabhrashtah
GSB - 6.44 - Nakrtam cet - If he had not committed any unrighteous act, the effect of which is more
powerful than the effect of the Yoga he has practiced, then he is carried forward by the latter effect. In
the contrary case the effect of the unrighteous act, which is more powerful, prevails. But when, in
course of time, the effect of the unrighteous action has got exhausted, the tendency born of Yoga
begins to take effect by itself. The idea is that the good effects of the practice of Yoga are never
destroyed, though they may be suppressed for some time.
According to Madhusudana Sarasvati's commentary on the Gita - 18.12, the Yogabhrashta must have
been a Vividisha Sannyasi in his previous birth.
Three Levels of Reality
Advaita Vedanta recognizes three levels of reality. A person, seeing a rope in dim light, mistakes it for
a snake. He is as much frightened as he would have been if there had been a real snake there. The
snake is said to have 'pratibhasika' reality. In Vedanta the illusory snake is described as a
superimposition [Adhyasa] on the rope. The snake is not real, because, it is found on examination
with a light, that it never existed there. At the same time, it was not absolutely unreal like the horn of a
hare because it was experienced. Similarly, this world is not unreal, because it is actually experienced
by us. But on the dawn of Self-knowledge it is known to have no existence apart from Brahman. The
world is therefore said to be superimposed on Brahman. The world is said to have 'vyavaharika'
reality, because it is real until the attainment of Self - realisation. Brahman alone has absolute or
'paramarthika' reality, because It is absolutely changeless and is never sublated.

Advaita Vedanta in Srimad Bhagavatam
By S. N. Sastri
It is well known that Srimad Bhagavatam, considered to be the greatest among the eighteen Puranas
attributed to Sage Veda Vyasa, is devoted to the exposition of the path of Bhakti and that the various
episodes described therein are intended to strengthen devotion in the minds of people. It is however
not so well known that it also expounds the path of Jnana or knowledge by conveying the essence of
the Upanishads in a very lucid and attractive manner. Such expositions of the path of Jnana are
found in almost every chapter. Here a few verses from the tenth Skandha are taken and explained to
illustrate this.
The tenth Skandha of Srimad Bhagavatam describes Krishna Avatara in detail. In chapter 14 of this
Skandha it is said that once Brahma, the Creator, wanted to know the extent of Krishna's power. He
therefore took away the cowherd boys and calves who were with Krishna in the forest and hid them.
Krishna, who knew what Brahma had done, took the form of all the cowherd boys and calves as well
as of all the things which the boys carried such as slings, staff etc. In the evening Krishna, in the form
of all these, went back to Gokula. There each boy went to his own house and each calf went to its
mother. The mothers and fathers of the boys did not see any difference between their own sons and
these boys. The cows also accepted the calves as their own. The next morning Krishna and all these
boys went to the forest along with the calves as usual and returned in the evening. This went on for a
year. Then Brahma came to the forest to find out what was happening. He was astonished to see all
the boys and calves there, though the boys and calves he had taken away were still in the place
where he had hidden them. As he was looking on in utter amazement, he saw each one of the boys
assuming the form of the Lord Himself, with four arms bearing a conch, discus, mace and lotus,
adorned with a diadem and a necklace of pearls and clad in yellow silk. Then all of them became
cowherd boys again and Krishna was standing in their midst, holding a morsel of cooked rice in his
hand, exactly as he was at the instant when Brahma took away the calves and the boys. Realising
that Krishna was the Supreme Brahman Himself, Brahma prostrated before him in great humility and
began to extol him with hymns. The gist of the Upanishads is brought out in these hymns. Some of
these verses are taken and explained below.
Bh. X.14.22:
"The universe appears by Maya in you, the Infinite, the eternal Bliss-consciousness. Though the
universe is only like things seen in a dream (and so unreal), and is devoid of consciousness and ever
full of misery, it appears as real (and also conscious and blissful)".
In Vedanta Reality is defined as that which does not undergo any change whatsoever in all the three
periods of time, i.e., past, present and future. Brahman is the only Reality. Because of Maya,
Brahman appears to us as the universe of names and forms. Maya conceals Brahman and projects
the universe. Just as everything seen in dream ceases to exist as soon as the dreamer wakes up, the
universe ceases to be real when Brahman is realized. The universe appears to be real only as long
as we are under the spell of Maya (or Avidya or ignorance). The fundamental principles of Advaita
Vedanta are brought out in this verse, namely, that the universe has no absolute reality, it is only a
superimposition on Brahman and appears to be real only because of our ignorance of the substratum,
Brahman, just as a rope appears as a snake in dim light when its real nature is not known.

Bh. X.14.23:
You (Krishna, the supreme Brahman), are the non-dual Self, the primordial Person, the Reality, self-
luminous, infinite, the first Cause, eternal, imperishable, ever Bliss itself, taintless, perfect without a
second, devoid of all adjuncts (Nirguna) and immortal.
This is exactly the description of the supreme Brahman as contained in the Upanishads. The
expression "devoid of all adjuncts" indicates Nirguna Brahman or Brahman without attributes. The
concept of Nirguna Brahman is peculiar to Advaita Vedanta.
Bh.X.14.25 to 28:
Those who do not know the Atman as their own Self, look upon the entire phenomenal universe as
real because of ignorance, but the universe disappears when Self-knowledge dawns, just as a snake
seen on a rope disappears when the rope is known. Bondage and liberation, which are both products
of ignorance, have no existence apart from the Atman whose nature is Truth and Consciousness.
For, rightly considered, there can be neither ignorance nor bondage, and neither knowledge nor
freedom from bondage for the supreme Self that is eternal and absolute Consciousness, any more
than there can be night and day for the sun. Taking the Atman for something else, and something
else for the Atman, the Atman is sought for outside oneself; how marvelous is the folly of the ignorant!
Men of discrimination seek the Infinite within the body itself, negating the unreal; without negating the
unreal snake first, how can one know the rope, though it is very close?
There are many such instances in Srimad Bhagavatam where Advaita Vedanta is expounded.

Episodes in Srimad-Bhagavatam
A Vedantic Interpretation
By S. N. Sastri
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Visit of Sanaka and other sages to Vaikuntha
3. Varaha Incarnation
4. Vamana Incarnation
5. Liberation of Gajendra
6. Churning of the Ocean of Milk
7. Slaying of Pralambasura
8. Rescue of cows and cowherds from forest fire
9. Slaying of Narakasura
10. Redemption of Sudarsana
1. Introduction
The ultimate goal of human life is Moksha or liberation from the cycle of birth and death. Liberation is
nothing but the realization of one's real nature. Srimad Bhagavatam defines Moksha succinctly as
"the establishment of the individual in his essence as the Self freed from all wrong identifications"
(Bh.II.10.6). Every individual identifies himself with the physical body, the sense organs and the mind.
When a person describes himself as stout or lean or fair-complexioned or dark, he is looking upon
himself as the physical body to which these characteristics belong. When he says 'I see', 'I hear', 'I
smell' and so on, he is identifying himself with the organs of sense which perform these functions.
When he says 'I am happy' or 'I am unhappy', he is identifying himself with his mind. The Upanishads
declare that all these identifications are wrong and that the human being is in reality not the body or
the sense-organs or the mind, but something beyond all these, known as the Atman or Self, which is
eternal, changeless and not affected by anything that happens to the body-mind complex. This wrong
identification is due to our ignorance of our real nature. This ignorance is what is called avidya or
nescience. When this ignorance is eradicated, the person remains established in his essence as the
Self or Brahman-Atman. The Upanishads lay down the means by which this wrong identification can
be brought to an end and the goal of Moksha attained.
Contrary to popular conception, the objectives of the Upanishads and the Puranas are not different,
but they are essentially the same, namely, to expound the means of attaining liberation. This is made
very clear in Srimad-Bhagavatam, Skandha12, ch.13, verse18, which says: "Srimad-Bhagavatam, the
flawless Purana, dear to the devotees of Lord Vishnu, extols the One Pure Supreme Consciousness,
which is the goal of the Paramahamsas. It describes Naishkarmya (the state of being firmly
established in the realization that one is the actionless Brahman-Atman), along with spiritual
knowledge, detachment and devotion. The man who hears it read or reads it himself with devotion
and meditates (on its teachings) attains liberation".
Passages bringing out the gist of the Upanishads are found in almost every chapter in this Purana
and particularly in the hymns of praise (stutis) addressed by various devotees to the Lord. Apart from
such direct teaching of Vedanta, many of the episodes lend themselves to interpretation as allegorical
stories which expound Vedanta. Srimad-Bhagavatam itself shows the way in this direction through
the allegorical interpretation given by sage Narada to a story narrated by him to king Prachinabarhis
(Sk.IV, ch 25 to 29). This Purana can thus be studied and appreciated at two different levels - one, as
describing the glorious deeds of the Lord by which He protects the virtuous and establishes Dharma
on this earth, and two, as expounding Vedanta through allegory. An attempt has been made in the
following chapters to give an allegorical interpretation of a number of episodes.
2. Visit of Sanaka and other sages to Vaikuntha

(Bhagavata, Sk.III, ch.15)
The four sages, Sanaka, Sanatana, Sanandana and Sanatkumara, who are known as the mind-born
sons (Manasa-putras) of Brahma, the Creator, set out for Vaikuntha to do obeisance to Lord
Mahavishnu (III. 15.13). On the way they passed through a divine orchard named 'Naissreyasa' which
was 'Kaivalya incarnate', as it were, which was resplendent with trees that yield all that is desired and
are laden with flowers and fruits in all seasons (III.15.16):
The abode of the Lord was surrounded by seven ramparts which had to be crossed before one could
reach the presence of the Lord. The four sages crossed the first six ramparts without any obstruction
and without being attracted in the least by the beautiful scenery all around, by the delightful singing of
divine birds, by the fragrance of the divine flowers and by the delicious fruits hanging on the trees,
their minds fixed on their goal, namely, seeing the Lord (III.15. 27).
At the entrance to the seventh rampart, these sages, who looked like boys of five and wore no
clothes, were rudely stopped by the two gate-keepers named Jaya and Vijaya and were not allowed
to proceed further (verse 30). Annoyed at being thus stopped, they pronounced a curse that since
Jaya and Vijaya still entertained the sense of difference and were therefore unfit to remain in
Vaikuntha, they would be born as Asuras on the earth (verse 34). That very moment the Lord, who
knew what had happened, Himself came to the spot where the sages were standing (verse 37). The
sages, in ecstasy, worshipped the Lord, singing His praises (verse 45). As cursed by the sages, Jaya
and Vijaya took three successive births as Asuras, first as Hiranyaksha and Hiranyakasipu, next as
Ravana and Kumbhakarna and finally as Sisupala and Dantavaktra and ultimately attained salvation
by the path of confrontation.
In this episode, the following features are of great significance for the spiritual seeker:--
(1) the orchard on the way is named 'Naissreyasa',
(2) seven ramparts have to be crossed before one can reach the presence of the Lord,
(3) the sages crossed the first six ramparts without their mind being distracted by the beautiful sights,
sounds and smells on the way, with total concentration on their goal,
(4) at the entrance to the seventh rampart they were obstructed by Jaya and Vijaya and
(5) as soon as the sages pushed Jaya and Vijaya away with a curse, the Lord Himself appeared
before them, without their having to go further.
The word 'Naissreyasa' means 'liberation' or 'the total cessation of transmigratory existence'. It is
significant that this is the name of the divine orchard through which the sages had to pass. This
orchard is further described as 'Kaivalya incarnate', which again means 'liberation'. It is therefore
quite logical to conclude that, allegorically, the journey of the sages to Vaikuntha stands for the
progress of the spiritual aspirant towards Self-realization. The seven ramparts to be crossed
represent the five organs of perception, the mind and the intellect; crossing these ramparts means
achieving complete control over the five sense-organs and the mind and ultimately transcending the
intellect also. This is indicated by saying that the sages were not at all distracted from their aim by the
delightful things on the way. The idea is that, in the same way, the seeker after liberation should not
allow himself to be attracted by sense-objects, but should concentrate his mind on the Self alone.

The obstruction caused by Jaya and Vijaya at the last rampart represents the last traces of raga
(attachment) and dvesha (aversion) which, as the Bhagavad-gita says, are the enemies of the
spiritual aspirant. The Gita compares them to two highway robbers who will rob us of our spiritual
wealth and warns us to be careful not to fall into their clutches (Gita 3.34).
Just as the sages pushed away Jaya and Vijaya from their path, the aspirant should push out even
the last traces of attachment and aversion from his mind and make his mind pure.
It is significant that as soon as the sages pushed away Jaya and Vijaya by a curse, the Lord
appeared before them. This indicates that, once the aspirant has become completely free from
attachment and aversion, Self-realization will dawn immediately.
Thus, through this episode, the path to Self-realization is brought out, step by step. Control the
senses and the mind, concentrate the mind on the Self, do not be attracted by worldly pleasures and
root out attachment and aversion. This is the path to Self-realization.
The Kathopanishad says (2.1.1) that the nature of the sense-organs is to proceed outward, to enjoy
sense-objects, such as sound, etc.
They are therefore not capable of knowing the indwelling Self. But a rare 'Dhira', desiring immortality,
withdraws his sense-organs from external objects and sees the indwelling Self. Kalidasa defines
'Dhira' as one whose mind is not distracted even in the presence of the most desirable objects
(Kumarasambhava, I.59).
The four sages are the best examples of such a Dhira. This episode thus illustrates the teaching
contained in the Kathopanishad mantra referred to above.
3. Varaha Incarnation
The incarnation of the Lord as Varaha (the Divine Boar) and the slaying of the demon Hiranyaksha
are described in chapters 13, 17, 18 and 19 of Skandha III of Srimad-Bhagavatam.
Svayambhuva Manu, the first of the fourteen Manus, was engaged in the task of creation at the
command of his father, Brahma. He suddenly noticed that the earth, the dwelling place for all
creatures, had been submerged in the waters. Manu approached Brahma and prayed to him to lift the
earth out of the waters. Knowing that he was helpless and that only the Supreme Lord, Narayana,
could come to his help, Brahma meditated on the Lord. While he was thus meditating, a tiny boar cub
of the size of a thumb emerged from his nostril. The boar immediately grew to the size of an elephant
and then to the size of a mountain, all in a trice. Brahma was very much amazed and guessed that
the boar could be none other than Narayana Himself. The sages in the jana, tapa and satya lokas
began to sing hymns extolling the Lord. The Lord in the form of the huge boar suddenly plunged into
the waters. Lifting up with His tusk the earth that had been submerged in the waters by the Asura
Hiranyaksha, the Lord placed the earth on the surface of the water. He then turned towards the Asura
who was rushing towards Him in uncontrollable anger. A fierce fight ensued, during which the Asura
employed many magical tricks, all of which proved to be of no avail against the Lord, who is Himself
the wielder of Maya. The Lord despatched His beloved weapon, the Discus, known as Sudarsana
and destroyed the phantoms conjured up by the Asura with his magical powers. The Lord then dealt
the Asura a severe blow, without any effort, as if it was mere play. The Asura dropped dead. The
earth was thus saved by the Lord from the clutches of the Asura.

Now let us try to find out the allegorical meaning of this story. The earth is proverbially considered to
be synonymous with forbearance. In the Valmiki Ramayana, Sri Rama is described by sage Narada
as 'equal to the earth in forbearance' (kshamayaa prithiveesamah- Bala Kanda, Ch.1, verse18).
Forbearance is one of the hallmarks of Sattvaguna. The earth therefore stands for Sattvaguna in this
episode.
The Lord says in the Bhagavadgita that everything in this universe is made up of the three gunas--
Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. Sattva stands for knowledge, calmness, serenity and similar virtues. Rajas
stands for ego-centred activity and Tamas for sleep, indolence and similar qualities. In the majority of
human beings Rajas predominates, making their minds ever go outward in search of happiness.
Spiritual evolution requires the withdrawal of the mind from external objects and directing it towards
the Self (Atma) within, which is Bliss itself and therefore the source of all happiness. This can be
achieved only by reducing the Rajoguna in the mind and increasing the Sattvaguna correspondingly.
Karmayoga and devotional practices help to achieve this. It is said by the Lord in the Bhagavadgita
that Sattva increases when Rajas and Tamas are subdued. (Ch.14, verse10). This process of
conquering our Rajasic tendencies and bringing up the Sattvaguna which is lying suppressed within is
what is allegorically brought out by this story.
Hiranyaksha, being an Asura possessing all the Asuric qualities spoken of in Chapter 16 of the Gita,
represents Rajoguna. When Rajoguna predominates, Sattvaguna is suppressed. This suppression of
Sattvaguna, represented here by the earth, by Rajoguna, represented by Hiranyaksha is the
significance of Hiranyaksha keeping the earth immersed in water. Brahma sought the help of the Lord
to save the earth from the Asura. So also, we have to pray for divine help to conquer our Rajoguna
and bring up the suppressed Sattvaguna. When Brahma meditated on the Lord, the boar came out of
his nostril, that is to say, the power which crushed the Asura came from within himself. This is very
significant. This indicates that when we resort to meditation on the Lord, the strength to conquer our
Rajoguna will come from within ourselves and not from outside. This strength, which, like the boar, is
small initially, grows with our devotion and meditation, as the boar did. Ultimately we acquire sufficient
spiritual strength within ourselves to conquer our Rajasic tendencies and make our mind
predominantly Sattvic. This is symbolized by the slaying of Hiranyaksha and the rescue of the earth.
Thus the import of this story, if looked at allegorically, is that by devotion to God and meditation the
seeker can generate within himself the power to get rid of the Rajasic (and Tamasic) tendencies
which stand in the way of spiritual evolution and make his mind predominantly Sattvic. Such a mind
alone can be completely withdrawn from external objects and concentrated on the Self. This is the
way to Self-realization.
4. Vamana Incarnation
The incarnation of the Lord as Vamana forms the subject-matter of Chapters 15 to 23 of the eighth
Skandha of Srimad Bhagavatam.
The Devas and the Asuras jointly churned the Milk Ocean for amrita (the nectar that confers freedom
from death). When the Lord emerged from the ocean in the form of Dhanvantari carrying a pot
containing amrita, the Asuras snatched the pot. The Lord then appeared in the form of Mohini and
distributed all the amrita to the Devas. The Asuras who were deprived of the nectar began to fight
against the Devas. In the fight Bali, one of the Asuras, was killed by Indra, the king of the Devas. Bali
was later brought back to life by Sukracharya, the Guru of the Asuras. Under the guidance of
Sukracharya Bali performed a Visvajit sacrifice and acquired extraordinary powers. He then attacked
the capital of Indra in heaven. Brihaspati, the Guru of the Devas, told Indra that Bali was very strong
at that time and that it would be futile for the Devas to resist his attack. He advised the Devas to go
into hiding and bide their time for a counter-attack. Accordingly the Devas left heaven and Bali
occupied it as the ruler of all the three worlds.
Sorely grieved at the plight of her sons, Aditi, the mother of the Devas, requested her husband, the
great sage Kasyapa, to devise some means by which the Devas could get back their kingdom and
their previous glory. The sage advised her to worship Lord Vishnu by observing a vow known as
'payovrata'. This consists of worship for a period of twelve days during the bright fortnight of the
month of phalguna, observing strictly certain disciplines and living on milk alone. Aditi observed the
vow, following all the instructions strictly. At the conclusion of the vow the Lord appeared before her
and told her that He would soon be born as her son. He asked her to keep the fact of His having
appeared before her a total secret.
The Lord was then born as Aditi's son on Sravana Dvadasi, the twelfth day of the bright fortnight of
the month of Bhadrapada. This day is celebrated even now as Vijaya Dvadasi. At birth the child was
in the resplendent form of Vishnu, clad in yellow silks, with four arms bearing the conch, the mace,
the lotus and the discus, but he changed immediately into the form of a dwarfish human child. The
delighted sages present, including Kasyapa, conducted the appropriate sacraments and invested him
with the sacred thread. The sacred Gayatri mantra was imparted by the sun-god, Savita himself.
Brihaspati gave him the sacred thread and Kasyapa the grass girdle. Goddess Earth gave him the
skin of the black antelope, the moon-god gave him his staff; his mother gave him a cod-piece and a
loin-cloth, while the goddess of the sky gave an umbrella. Brahma gave him a water pot and the
seven sages kusa grass, while Goddess Sarasvati gave him a garland of beads. The sovereign of the
Yakshas gave him the begging bowl, and Goddess Uma Herself, the Mother of the universe, gave
him his first alms. Thus honoured, Vamana outshone by his Brahmic splendour everyone in that
assembly of Brahmarshis. Then, hearing that Bali was performing horse sacrifices, Vamana set out
for the Yagasala. Dazzled by the splendour of Vamana even when he was at a distance, Bali and the
priests who were conducting the sacrifices wondered whether it was the sun-god himself, or god Agni
or the sage Sanatkumara who was coming towards them. They received Vamana with great respect.
Bali washed Vamana's feet and sprinkled the water purified by the touch of those feet on his own
head. He then asked Vamana what gift he wanted, saying in all arrogance that he could give anything
Vamana wanted-- food, house, land or a bride or anything else, or all of them. Vamana replied that all
that he wanted was just a small strip of land, three paces in length as measured by his own feet. On
hearing this Bali laughed and said, "O boy! You are a simpleton. Having approached me, the
undisputed ruler of all the three worlds, and so capable of gifting a whole continent, you are asking for
such a petty gift. My generosity is such that anyone who has obtained a favour from me will not
thereafter find it necessary to go to any one else for anything". Vamana replied that he would be
contented with just what he had asked for, because a person who is not contented with three paces
of land would not be satisfied even if he gets an entire continent. Bali then said, "Let it be as you
wish", and was about to give the gift asked for.
Bali's Guru Sukracharya then recognised Vamana as Lord Vishnu Himself and asked Bali not to give
the gift, because the intention of Vamana was to take away everything belonging to Bali and give it to
Indra. Bali told Sukracharya, "Having made a promise, I will not go back on it, whatever may be the
consequences. I am not afraid so much of the tortures of hell, poverty, loss of position or even death
as I am of breaking my pledged word. If indeed Lord Vishnu Himself has come to beg of me, there
can be no greater blessing for me. I will therefore honour my word and give the gift". Annoyed that
Bali did not heed his advice, Sukracharya cursed him, saying, "You have grown so arrogant as to
reject my advice. A highly conceited fool that you are, you will soon fall from you high position".

Undaunted by the curse, Bali insisted on honouring his word and proceeded to give the gift of three
paces of land to Vamana. Vamana immediately grew in size to such an extent that with the first stride
he covered the earth, the sky and the four quarters. With his second stride he covered heaven and all
the worlds up to Satyaloka, the world of Brahma. He then asked Bali to show him the place for his
third stride. Without flinching in the least, Bali said. "Pray place your third step on my head". The Lord
did so and sent Bali to one of the nether regions named Sutala, as the ruler thereof, promising that
He Himself would permanently stand guard there. The Lord further said that Bali would become Indra
in the next Manvantara and would thereafter go to the Lord's own realm, Vaikuntha.
We see from this story that Bali possessed many great virtues. He had great respect for holy men,
which is evident from the way he received and honoured the Brahmachari boy, Vamana (whom he
did not know to be Lord Vishnu). He was extremely generous. Above all, he kept his word and
refused to go back on it even after his Guru pronounced a terrible curse on him. Why was such a
person punished by the Lord? This is the question that comes up in everyone's mind. This very
question was put by Brahma to Lord Vishnu. Brahma asked, "This Asura gifted away the entire earth
and all the other worlds he had won by good works to Thee; and even his body has been offered
without the slightest hesitation. A man who is free from guile obtains the highest of goals by merely
offering arghya at Thy feet and worshipping them with just a blade of grass. That being so, how can
he who gave away the three worlds with a serene mind be subjected to such a punishment?" (Bh.VIII.
22.23).
To this the Lord replied: "O Brahma! I take away the wealth of those on whom I shower My grace.
For, it is because of being intoxicated with wealth that a person becomes arrogant and despises the
whole world and even Me" (Bh.VIII.22.24). He further adds, "If, in spite of high birth, great deeds,
youth, beauty, learning, power, affluence and the like, a person remains free from pride, it is due only
to My grace" (Bh.VIII.22.26).
Thus the great defect in Bali's character was the arrogance of wealth and power. This overshadowed
all his innumerable virtues. The lesson we learn from this episode is that as long as there is
arrogance spiritual progress is not possible, even though the person may possess many virtues.
When the Lord says that he takes away the wealth of the person he wishes to bless, what is meant is
that the conceit that one is affluent and powerful, which is the cause of arrogance, is removed by the
Lord, so that spiritual progress becomes possible. By surrendering all his possessions to the Lord Bali
became free from the notion of 'mine-ness' (mamakara). Then, by asking the Lord to place His feet on
his own head, he gave up his ego or 'I-ness' (ahamkara). With these two removed, he became fit for
the Lord's grace. Thus an attitude of detachment towards all possessions and total surrender to the
Lord are the virtues to be cultivated by every spiritual aspirant.
In fact, the Lord has not punished Bali, but has really blessed him, as may be seen from the following
words of the Lord Himself:--"You have been granted by Me a place unattainable even by the gods. In
the Meru-Savarni Manvantara you will be the Indra with my full support. Till then you will live in
Sutala; those who live there shall be vouchsafed My gracious glance and will ever be unaffected by
physical and mental ailments. You will always have My presence there. Constantly witnessing My
greatness there, you will become absolutely free from even the slightest trace of asuric tendencies
(Bh.VIII.22. 31 to 36).
Bali (or Mahabali) is believed to visit his land Kerala every year on Onam day; the day is therefore
celebrated as a great festival.

5. Liberation of Gajendra
The episode known as liberation of the lordly elephant Gajendra is narrated in chapters 2, 3 and 4 of
the eighth skandha of Srimad-Bhagavatam.
There was a Pandya king by name Indradyumna who was a great devotee of the Lord. Towards the
end of his life he had retired to a hermitage in a forest and used to spend all his time in worship of the
Lord. One day he was performing worship as usual and observing a vow of silence. Sage Agastya
then happened to come there along with his disciples. Being engrossed in worship, the King did not
notice the presence of the sage and so failed to offer him the customary honours. The sage took
offence at this apparent indifference and pronounced the following curse--"This king has insulted me.
Let him therefore be steeped in blinding ignorance. Since he is haughty like an elephant, let him be
born as an elephant". Before proceeding further with the story it would be worthwhile to examine what
is the underlying idea behind such curses by great sages who are expected to have conquered anger
and to remain unaffected by either praise or insult. Such curses are really blessings. In the present
instance, though the king was a sincere devotee of the Lord, he had not yet realized the truth that the
same God or Self dwells in all beings. Liberation is possible only with such a realization. In the normal
course he would probably have to go through many more births before attaining this state. The curse
inflicted on him and the consequent suffering he undergoes as an elephant make him surrender
totally to the Lord and become liberated immediately. Thus the curse was intended to hasten his
liberation and was really a blessing.
One point which puzzles us here is -- why does the sage curse the king whose failure to recognize
him is due only to his being absorbed in the highly laudable object of worship of the Lord? There is a
parallel to this in the Ramayanamahatmya in the Skanda Purana. There was a very righteous person
named Somadatta who was a disciple of the sage Gautama. One day, when Somadatta was
engaged in the worship of Lord Siva, sage Gautama happened to come there. Somadatta did not
notice his presence. The sage did not however find fault with him, considering that he was absorbed
in worship, and went away. But Lord Siva became angry at this insult to the Guru and cursed that he
would become a Rakshasa. On Somatta's pleading for forgiveness the Lord said that he would be
relieved of the effect of the curse if he heard the entire Ramayana with devotion over a period of nine
days. The main object of this episode is to bring out the greatness of Ramayana, but incidentally it
also points out that even inadvertent indifference to the Guru is a transgression.
As a result of the curse, king Indradyumna was born as a lordly elephant. The elephant used to roam
about in the forest accompanied by a herd of female elephants. One day he entered a lake to bathe
and drink water. Suddenly a very strong crocodile seized him by the leg and tried to drag him into the
water. The elephant tried his best to extricate himself from the hold of the crocodile, but all his efforts
proved to be in vain. The female elephants tried to pull him out, but finding that the crocodile was too
strong and that their efforts would only result in themselves also being dragged into the water, they
left him to his fate and went away.
After a long struggle the elephant realized that he could not save himself from the jaws of the
crocodile by his own efforts. The suffering which he underwent brought back to him the memory of
the devotion he had practised and the knowledge he had acquired in his previous birth as King
Indradyumna. He then surrendered himself totally to the Lord, chanting hymns of praise addressed to
the supreme unconditioned Brahman. Since the hymns were addressed to the supreme formless
Brahman, Brahma and the other gods did not go to his help, because they egoistically identified
themselves with their own forms. The supreme Lord, who is the soul of the whole universe, appeared
immediately and rescued him by severing the jaw of the crocodile with his discus. The crocodile was

none other than a Gandharva by name Hoohoo, who was now freed from the curse of sage Devala
and regained his original marvellous form.
The story ends thus - "Freed forever from the bondage of ignorance through the touch of the Lord, the
leader of the elephants attained a form similar to the Lord's; he was clad in yellow silks and endowed
with four arms (Saroopya)" - (Bh. VIII.4.6.)
Looking at this episode allegorically, it can be said that the elephant stands for the 'ego' which is the
result of the bondage of ignorance. This ignorance and its result, the ego, disappear by the grace of
the Lord and the individual realizes his identity with the supreme Self, here described as attaining the
same form as the Lord. The crocodile represents this transmigratory existence, or samsaara, which is
often compared to a crocodile in Vedantic texts such as Vivekachudamani. The individual, because of
his ego, i.e. identification with his body due to ignorance of his real nature, is caught in the jaws of the
crocodile, the samsaara. He can get release from this only by the Lord's grace. Neither his own
efforts nor the help of others will save him from his false identification.
The elephant's prayer is addressed to the Nirguna Brahman and contains the quintessence of all the
Upanishads. What is the idea in putting all this wisdom in the mouth of an animal? The object is to
bring out an important teaching of the Upanishads and the Gita. The elephant was, in his previous life
as King Indradyumna, a great devotee and had mastered the Upanishads. The knowledge acquired
in that life came back to him in his next life as an elephant, at the proper time. The Bhagavadgita says
in verse 43 of chapter 6 that the knowledge acquired in the previous body continues in the next birth
and enables the person to evolve further. In the Brihadaranyaka upanishad it is said that at the time
of death the departing self carries with it the knowledge acquired, the fruits of actions performed
(karma) and past experience (IV.iv.2).
The crocodile which caught the elephant was in its previous life a Gandharva by name Hoohoo. This
Gandharva used to indulge in various pranks. Once, when the sage Devala was bathing in a river,
Hoohoo went under the water and caught the sage by the leg. Since this behaviour was characteristic
of a crocodile, the sage cursed him to be born as a crocodile. This story brings out the principle
enunciated in the Upanishads that a person's next life will be determined by his actions and thoughts
in this life. The Kathopanishad says (II.ii.7): "Some souls enter wombs for acquiring bodies and others
are born as motionless beings in accordance with their actions and in conformity with their
knowledge" -- i.e. the next birth will be as a human being or an animal or as a plant or tree, depending
on his actions and thoughts in this life. The Gandharva Hoohoo was born as a crocodile because his
action in catching hold of the feet of sage Devala was characteristic of a crocodile. Thus several
teachings of the Upanishads are conveyed through this story.
6. Churning of the Ocean of Milk
The episode of the churning of the Ocean of Milk for getting the Nectar of immortality appears in
chapters 5 to 11 of the eighth Skandha of Srimad Bhagavata. The story may first be narrated before
going into its inner meaning.
Sage Durvasa had received a divine garland from a celestial damsel. Knowing that the wearer of this
garland would be blessed with all prosperity, Durvasa went to Indra and presented the garland to him.
Indra, who was then seated on his elephant, received it without caring to get down and make
obeisance to the sage, and nonchalantly placed it on the head of the elephant. The elephant shook its
head and, when the garland fell down, trampled on it. Sorely annoyed at this blatant display of

disrespect, Durvasa left immediately after pronouncing a curse that Indra, as well as the three worlds
ruled by him, would soon lose all their splendour. Taking advantage of the situation the Asuras
attacked the Devas and killed many of them. Indra and the other gods rushed to Brahma seeking his
help. Brahma told them that none but Lord Vishnu would be able to help them out of their
predicament. Lord Vishnu, to whom all of them then went, advised them to make peace with the
Asuras and seek their co-operation for churning the Ocean of Milk to get the nectar which would
make them immortal.
As commanded by Lord Vishnu, the gods got the co-operation of the Asuras and set about the task of
churning the ocean, using the Mandara mountain as the churning rod and the serpent Vasuki as the
churning rope. While the gods and the Asuras were carrying the mountain to the ocean they became
exhausted by the great effort and dropped the mountain. The Lord immediately appeared there on his
mount Garuda, placed the mountain on Garuda and carried it to the ocean with ease.
When the churning was to begin, the Lord asked the Asuras to hold the tail-end of Vasuki and the
Devas the head. The Asuras objected to this and wanted to be at the head-end. The Lord
immediately agreed to this. This was a stratagem adopted by the Lord to make the Asuras suffer
when poison would emanate from Vasuki's mouth during the churning. When the churning had gone
on for a little while, the mountain sank into the ocean because of its weight. The Lord again came to
their rescue by taking the form of a huge tortoise, going deep down into the ocean and lifting up the
mountain on His back. The Devas and Asuras then resumed the churning while the Lord Himself kept
the mountain in position by pressing it down with one hand so as to prevent it from springing up due
to the force of the churning. When Vasuki began to emit poison, the Asuras who were at th e head-
end were affected most and the Devas at the tail-end to a lesser extent. The Lord then caused cool
showers of rain to fall on the Devas, but not on the Asuras.
When nothing emerged from the ocean in spite of long churning, the Lord Himself took up the
churning, holding both ends of Vasuki in His hands. The first thing to emerge after the Lord took up
the churning was the deadly poison known as Haalaahala. As it spread in all directions, the terrified
Devas ran to Lord Siva for refuge. Lord Siva took the poison in the hollow of His palm and put it in His
mouth, but did not swallow it, lest the living beings inside His stomach be destroyed. He kept it in His
throat and thereby protected all the living beings, both within and outside Him. The poison left a black
mark around His throat and that became His special adornment.
Then there emerged from the ocean, one after another, Kamadhenu, whom Lord Vishnu gave to the
Rishis, the horse Uchchhaisravas, the elephant Airavata, the Kalpaka tree which grants all wishes,
and divine damsels, all of whom were given to the Devas by the Lord. Then Goddess Lakshmi
emerged and she chose the Lord Himself as her consort. The next to come up was the intoxicating
liquor Varuni, which the Lord permitted the Asuras to take for themselves. Finally emerged
Dhanvantari, another form of the Lord Himself, holding in his hands a vessel of nectar. The Asuras
immediately snatched the nectar, while the Devas looked on helplessly. The Lord again came to the
rescue of the Devas, taking the form of a beautiful young damsel, Mohini. The Asuras, who were
intoxicated with the liquor Varuni, became infatuated with Mohini and requested her to distribute the
nectar. Mohini asked the Devas and the Asuras to sit in separate rows and distributed all the nectar to
the Devas, while the Asuras, who had succumbed to her charms, merely looked on. One Asura,
Rahu, had disguised himself as a Deva and sat between the Sun and the Moon and he was also
served nectar, but, on being pointed out by a gesture by the Sun and the Moon, the Lord cut him into
two with his Discus. His trunk, which had not been touched by the nectar, fell down, but the head
having gained immortality because of the contact of nectar, Brahma turned him into a planet. It is that
planet which, entertaining animosity against them, swallows the Sun and the Moon, causing the
eclipses.
When the Asuras realised that they had been fooled by Mohini, they attacked the Devas, but with the
help of the Lord the Devas were able to vanquish them.
Now let us see what are the lessons conveyed by this story. The Devas and Asuras can be taken as
representing the divine and demoniac tendencies in the human mind, which are described in chapter
16 of the Bhagavadgita. This is supported by the explanation given by Sri Sankara in his Bhashya on
the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 1.iii.1. Sri Sankara says, "The Devas and the Asuras are the organs
of speech and the rest. They become Devas when they shine under the influence of thoughts and
actions as taught by the scriptures. Those very organs become Asuras when they are under the
influence of their natural thoughts and actions, based only on perception and inference, and directed
merely towards the attainment of worldly ends". The divine tendencies are fearlessness, purity of
mind, control of the senses, straightforwardness, non-covetousness, humility, and the like. The
demoniac tendencies are arrogance, anger, harshness, ignorance and the like. Both these types of
tendencies are present in every normal human being. The proportion of divine and demoniac
tendencies varies from person to person. Even in the same person sometimes the divine tendencies
may be dominant and sometimes the demoniac, making the person behave differently at different
times. Indra here represents such a human mind. When sage Durvasa came, the demoniac
tendencies were dominant in Indra and so he behaved arrogantly. His discrimination was clouded.
The curse of Durvasa shows that no one, however high the position he occupies, can escape the
consequences of actions performed under the influence of demoniac tendencies.
As soon as the sage uttered the curse, Indra realised the consequences and sought the grace of the
Lord which alone can help man. The Lord asked him to make peace with the Asuras temporarily
because they were at that time very strong and could not be defeated. This is another way of saying
that it is not possible to get rid of the demoniac tendencies by fighting against them and trying to
suppress them when they are strong. The divine tendencies must first be made stronger and then
only can the demoniac tendencies be countered. The Devas were therefore asked to strengthen
themselves by getting the nectar from the ocean.
The figure of 'churning' is one which appears in the Upanishads also. It stands for the extraction of
the essence. The Svetasvataropanishad says (1.14): "Making one's own body the lower piece of
wood and the pranava the upper piece of wood, and practising churning in the form of meditation, one
should realise God as one would find out something hidden". (For lighting the fire for yajnas one piece
of wood is placed vertically on another piece of wood placed horizontally and churning is done to
produce fire. The two pieces of wood are known as Aranis). The same upanishad also says that the
supreme Self can be perceived in the intellect, just as butter can be obtained from curd (1.16). So,
just as butter is obtained by churning curd, one can realise the Self by churning one's own intellect.
In Sivanandalahari, verse 37, Sri Sankara says that the wise man should churn the ocean of the
Vedas, using his virtuous mind as the rod and firm devotion as the rope, in order to realise God: "Just
as the Devas churned the ocean of milk and obtained the moon, the wish-fulfilling tree, the cow
Kamadhenu, the gem Chintamani, nectar and Goddess Lakshmi, so the wise churn the ocean of the
Vedas, using their virtuous mind as the rod and firm devotion as the rope and attain you (Lord Siva),
who confer the nectar of eternal bliss".
This is the significance of this episode of churning the ocean of milk.
It has been repeatedly brought out in this episode that no one can succeed in any action without the
grace and help of the Lord. When the Devas and the Asuras were carrying the Mandara mountain it
fell down and only the Lord could take it to the ocean. When the mountain went down into the water,

the Lord had to take the form of a huge tortoise and lift it up. It was only after the Lord Himself took up
the churning that things began to emerge from the ocean.
The first thing to emerge from the ocean was the deadly poison, which was removed by Lord Siva so
that it may not do any harm to living beings. The idea brought out here is that when a person
progresses sufficiently in meditation, all the impurities in his mind such as desire, anger, greed, and
the like, which harm his spiritual progress, are removed by the grace of God. The poison may be
taken as standing for such impurities.
While asking the Devas to churn the ocean for nectar, Lord Vishnu warned them not to covet any of
the things that might come up during the churning (Bh.VIII.6.25). This is similar to the warning given
to the spiritual aspirant not to be tempted by the siddhis which may come to him, but to keep his mind
fixed on the ultimate goal, liberation. The Kamadhenu, kalpaka tree, etc, represent the siddhis.
7. Slaying of Pralambasura
The Bhagavata Purana describes how Kamsa sent many Asuras to kill Krishna and how all of them
were slain effortlessly by Krishna. One of the Asuras who met with such a fate was Pralamba. The
story is narrated in chapter 18 of the tenth skandha.
One day, as usual, Krishna, Balarama and the cowherd boys took their calves to Brindavana for
grazing. There they entertained themselves by playing a game in which the boys were divided into
two teams, one under the leadership of Krishna and the other under that of Balarama. A boy
belonging to one team would wrestle with a boy from the other team. The boy who was defeated had
to carry on his shoulders the boy who won up to the foot of a particular banyan tree. Krishna allowed
himself to be defeated by his dearest friend Sudama and then carried Sudama up to the tree. This
action of the Lord is interpreted as indicating that He is the servant of His devotees.
An Asura named Pralamba, an emissary of Kamsa, came there in the guise of a cowherd boy, with
the intention of killing Krishna and Balarama. He requested Krishna to allow him to take part in the
game. Though Krishna knew who he was, he pretended ignorance and took Pralamba in his own
team. Pralamba wrestled with Balarama and was defeated. He then carried Balarama on his
shoulders as required by the rules of the game, but did not stop at the foot of the banyan tree to allow
Balarama to get down.
When Balarama found that he was being carried far away he became suspicious and increased his
weight in order to force Pralamba to put him down. Pralamba then assumed his real form as an
Asura. Seeing the huge form of the Asura and finding that the Asura was carrying him far away from
Krishna, Balarama became frightened. He then turned round and because of the great height of the
Asura he was able to see the face of Krishna at a distance. It is said in the Vishnupurana (5.9.23) that
Krishna then mentally transmitted the following message to Balarama: "O you who are the self of all!
Why have you, who are the most mysterious indwelling self, assumed the attitude of an ordinary
human being (and become frightened)?". On receiving this message and looking at the face of
Krishna, all fear disappeared from Balarama's mind and he got the courage and strength to crush the
Asura and extricate himself.
In this story Pralamba represents the evil vasanas (inherent tendencies acquired in past lives) in
every human being. These vasanas make the human being engage himself in various worldly
activities and carry him away from the Lord as Balarama was carried away from Krishna by
Pralamba.

The message which Krishna gave to Balarama is applicable not only to Balarama but to every human
being. The meaning of the message is-- "You are really the Atman, but you are wrongly identifying
yourself with your body-mind complex and looking upon yourself as a limited being. It is this wrong
identification that makes you a slave to your vasanas and results in your being carried away hither
and thither by them. Once you realise your real identity, namely that you are the indwelling self which
is none other than the supreme Brahman itself, you will be able to extricate yourself from the hold of
your vasanas". The destruction of Pralamba signifies the elimination of vasanas, which is the same as
liberation. Sri Sankara says in Vivekachudamani that the elimination of vasanas is itself liberation and
it is what is called 'jivanmukti' (verse 318). Sri Narayana Bhattatiri says in his Narayaneeyam (which
is a condensed version of Srimad Bhagavatam) that when Balarama came back to Krishna after
killing Pralamba, Krishna embraced Balarama and the gods showered flowers on both of them
(Dasaka 57, verse 10). Krishna's embrace represents union with the Lord or the realisation of the
identity of the individual self and Brahman. Even the gods worship such a human being because by
realising his real identity as Brahman he has become the self of the gods too.
8. Rescue of cows and cowherds from forest fire
In chapter 19 of the tenth Skandha of Srimad Bhagavatam is described how Lord Krishna rescued a
group of cowherd boys and their cows from a raging forest fire.
One day, as usual, Krishna and Balarama, along with a large number of cowherd boys, led their cows
to the forest for grazing. While the boys were engrossed in play, the cows went forward in search of
tender grass. As they moved on, they advanced beyond the limits of Vrindavana which was the
abode of Krishna and entered a forest called 'Aishikam'. This forest was full of a particular variety of
grass which had the tendency to catch fire easily. The forest was unbearably hot and the cows
became totally exhausted because of hunger and thirst. The tender grass which they hoped to find
was nowhere to be seen.
The cowherd boys, who were absorbed in play, did not notice for a long time that the cows had gone
far away from them. When they did not find the cows at the place where they had left them, they
became worried and went in search of them and found them in the Aishika forest. When they were
about to bring the cows back, a forest fire broke out. The boys found themselves and their cows
surrounded by the fire. In desperation they cried out to Krishna for help. Krishna came and asked
them not to be afraid but to close their eyes for a few moments. They did so, and when they opened
their eyes again they found themselves back in Vrindavana with no trace whatsoever of the fire. They
were thus saved by Krishna from the fire.
The story looks very simple, but every statement in it has profound philosophical significance. The
cows, which moved away from Krishna in search of tender grass represent human beings who forget
the Lord and seek happiness in the world outside. As happened to the cows, the search for
happiness in the world proves futile and results only in disappointment and suffering. The heat of the
Aishika forest and the forest fire represent the sufferings of man in this transmigratory existence.
Krishna asked the boys and the cows to close their eyes for a while and immediately all their
sufferings vanished. 'Closing the eyes' stands for withdrawal of all the organs of sense from their
objects. A very similar expression is used in the Kathopanishad, II.i.1 which says: "The Lord made the
senses outgoing. Therefore one can see only external objects and not the inner Self. A rare
discriminating individual, desiring immortality, turns his eyes away and then sees the indwelling Self".
In this mantra the term 'eyes' stands for all the organs of sense. The meaning of this mantra is: Our
sense-organs have been endowed by God with the power to experience only sense-objects in the

external world. They are not capable of knowing the indwelling Self. A rare person, who has acquired
total purity of mind, withdraws all his sense-organs from their objects and concentrates his mind on
the Self. He then realises the self and becomes free from all the sufferings of this world. The boys
and the cows found that the fire which was tormenting them had disappeared without a trace when
they closed their eyes for a moment. This episode thus brings out allegorically the meaning of the
mantra of the Kathopanishad quoted above.
9. Slaying of Narakasura
The slaying of Narakasura is described in chapter 59 of Skandha X of Srimad Bhagavatam.
Narakasura, described as a son of Bhumidevi, was a very wicked Asura who terrorised the whole
earth. He conquered many kings and carried away 16,100 young women from their families and kept
them in captivity. On coming to know of this, Krishna marched against him. Krishna was first opposed
by Mura, an Asura with five faces, who was an associate of Narakasura. After killing Mura, Krishna
killed Narakasura also and released all the women. He then married all of them.
A careful study will show that the entire teachings of Vedanta are conveyed through this simple story.
The first significant fact is the description of Narakasura as the son of Bhumi, the Earth. Bhumi or
earth is one of the five elements, the other four being water, fire, air and space. In Vedanta there is a
figure of speech called 'upalakshana' by which, when one item of a group is specifically mentioned, all
the other items of the group are also to be taken as implied. Thus the mention of 'earth' here is to be
taken as implying all the five elements. This conclusion is further supported by the following
statements in the Bhashya of Sri Sankara on Brahmasutra. 3.1.2:--"Water consists of three
components, according to the Upanishadic text about the elements becoming tripartite (Ch. Up. VI.
iii). So when water is admitted as the constituent, the other two elements must also be admitted.
Moreover, the body is the product of the three elements since all three, fire, water and earth, are seen
to be its constituents". Only three elements are mentioned here because the discussion is about a
statement in the Chandogya Upanishad which mentions only the triplication of these three elements.
When quintuplication of the five elements is considered, it follows that all the five elements should be
considered as represented by the term 'earth'.
Narakasura is said to be the son of the earth, which means allegorically that he is the product of the
five elements. Vedanta says that the body (both physical and subtle) is made up of, or is the product
of, the five elements. That is to say, Narakasura stands for the body.
All living beings are kept in bondage by the body. This is what is implied by the statement that
Narakasura had kept the women in captivity. The women are the jivas who are imprisoned in the
body. The name 'Narakasura' is also significant. Being a slave to the body is itself Naraka or hell.
Liberation is freedom from the bondage or limitation of the body. By slaying Narakasura the Lord, in
His infinite compassion for His devotees, liberated them from bondage. The story also brings out the
fact that God's grace is essential for getting liberation.
There is another very significant point in this story. Mura, the associate of Narakasura, is said to have
five faces. These five faces stand for the five organs of sense which have first to be conquered and
this is what the Lord did. The name 'Mura' is itself significant. The verb 'mura' means 'envelope'.
(mura samveshtane -- Panini's Dhatupatha, No. 1287). Mura therefore stands for ignorance or
'nescience' which envelopes the jiva.

On attaining liberation the jiva becomes one with Brahman. This is the real import of the statement
that the Lord married all the women who were released. 'Marriage' means becoming one with the
Lord.
10. Redemption of Sudarsana
The Upanishads declare that every living being will continue to be born again and again until
liberation from the state of transmigration is attained by the realisation of the Self. This realisation is
possible only in a human birth. In Mundakopanishad I.ii.10 it is said that even a human being who has
performed meritorious deeds and earned a sojourn in heaven will not necessarily be born as a human
being when he has to leave heaven on the exhaustion of the merit which took him there. He may be
born as an animal or a bird or any other creature, or even as a plant, depending upon the nature of
his residual karma. The Kathopanishad says (II.ii.7):--
One will be reborn from a womb (i.e. as a human being or as any other creature born from a womb)
or even as a plant, according to his actions and the nature and extent of the knowledge acquired by
him in the present birth.
There is a short story in chapter 34 of Skandha X of Srimad Bhagavatam which beautifully illustrates
the declarations of the upanishads mentioned above. It is the story of a Vidyadhara (a semi-divine
being) who became a python due to the curse of some sages and was subsequently restored to a
form even more resplendent than his original one by the touch of Sri Krishna's foot. This story has a
wealth of Vedantic implications.
On a certain day the cowherds of Gokula went, along with Krishna, to a place known as
'Ambikavanam'. Having bathed in the river Saraswati there, they worshipped Lord Siva and His
consort Goddess Ambika. They spent that night on the bank of the river, in prayer and fasting.
Suddenly a huge python appeared and began to devour Nandagopa. Hearing Nandagopa's cries the
cowherds rushed to his rescue and belaboured the python with firebrands. In spite of severe beating
the python did not release Nandagopa from its hold. Krishna then went there and touched the python
with his foot. At once the python disappeared and there stood in its place a most resplendent
Vidyadhara. When asked by Krishna who he was, he said, "I am a Vidyadhara named Sudarsana. I
was endowed with great wealth and beauty and used to fly in my aerial car all over the world. Being
very proud of my exceptional beauty, I was very haughty. One day I ridiculed some sages of the
Angirasa family for their ugly looks. For this sin those sages made me take this birth. The curse that
those compassionate souls pronounced on me has become a blessing to me; because of it I have
been blessed with the touch of the foot of the Lord of the universe, and have been cleansed of my
sin". So saying, he prostrated before Krishna and ascended to heaven.
What are the lessons that this story has for us? In the first place, what are called curses in the
Puranas are really blessings when they come from great sages who are full of compassion and do
not even wish ill of anyone, let alone inflicting punishment. They are beyond praise and ridicule and
are not in the least influenced or affected by them. Whatever they do is always for the good of others.
If we analyse the curses appearing in the Puranas, we will find that they fall into two broad
categories-- 1) those which, though outwardly appearing to be curses, really bless the person
concerned by placing him in circumstances in which he is able to free himself of the defects in his
character which stand as obstacles in the way of his spiritual advancement; (this can be compared to
the action of a surgeon who uses his scalpel on the patient with the noble intention of curing him of an
ailment which prevents him from leading a normal happy life) and 2) those which merely emphasize
the fact that the next birth of a person will be in accordance with his thoughts and actions in this birth.

Examples of the first category are the curses on Jaya and Vijaya by Sanatkumara and the other
sages, the curse on King Indradyumna who became Gajendra, and the curse on Nalakubara and
Manigriva by sage Narada. The curse laid on Sudarsana by the sages contains aspects which make
it fit into both the categories, as will be clear from the sequel.
It will first be explained how the present curse falls under the first category. The Vidyadhara named
Sudarsana had become very haughty because of his beauty. Haughtiness is the greatest of all
obstacles to spiritual progress. The sages therefore temporarily deprived him of the cause of his
haughtiness, namely his good looks and made him take the very repulsive form of a python. This
turned out to be a blessing because he got the touch of the Lord's foot. Not only did he then get a
form which was even more resplendent than his original form, but he also realized that what he had
done in his haughtiness was a great sin. He thus became free from pride and so fit for spiritual
progress.
The curse pronounced by the sages on Sudarsana can be brought under the second category also.
Since the Vidyadhara was so proud of his beauty that he was contemptuous of others who were not
so endowed, he would, on that count itself, be deprived of beauty in his next birth. This is what
happened to him when he was born as a python. The curse only reiterated what would have
happened even without it. The offence committed need not necessarily be against sages who have
the power to curse. Such an offence even against ordinary persons would have led to the same result
of depriving him of whatever he was proud of, in his next birth. The lesson conveyed by this story is
that one should never be proud of one's wealth, pedigree, good looks, learning or any other
accomplishment and look down on others not so fortunate. Everyone should remember that this is not
the only birth and what one has in this birth may not necessarily be his in a subsequent birth. It is the
thoughts and actions in this birth that will determine what the next birth will be. If a person who is rich
becomes arrogant and treats the poor with contempt or uses his wealth for doing harm to others, he
will be born as a beggar in his next birth. There is no guarantee that a person who is rich in this birth
will remain so in future births also. If he uses his wealth for good purposes he may have the good
fortune of being rich in the next birth also. This is the real meaning of the well-known saying that no
one can carry his wealth with him when he dies. The same logic applies to all natural talents and gifts
that one is born with. One should be humble about them and use them for good purposes. Leave
alone losing in the next birth; one may lose his or her beauty or wealth or other accomplishments
even during this birth itself because of illness and various other causes. We have to remember that
everything in this world is transient. If this thought is always kept in mind, one will never swerve from
the right path. These are the lessons that we can draw from this story.
A former Pontiff of the Sringeri Mutt explained in a discourse the reason for persons being born blind,
dumb, etc. If a person does not make use of his faculties of speech, etc., to help another person in a
situation in which such help is crucial, he will be born without that faculty in his next birth. To illustrate,
supposing two boys are playing in a village. One of them suddenly falls into a well. If the other boy
immediately shouts for help, neighbours would rush to the place and would probably be able to
rescue the boy from the well. If, instead, the other boy just walks away, fearing that he may be
blamed for his friend falling into the well, with the result that the boy who fell into the well loses his life,
the boy who did not use his faculty of speech at the proper time will be born dumb in his next birth. In
a Puranic story such an episode would be put this way. The boy did not try to save his friend by using
his voice and so he was cursed by the dead boy's parents or by some sage to become dumb.
It will be interesting to examine the various curses in the Puranas keeping the above views in mind.

A Brief on Chathuhshloki Bhaagavatham
By Major V Ramanujam
1. The Glory of Bhaagavatha Puraanam is given in the Uttara Kaanda of Padma Puraanam through
dialogues between Narada & Bhakthi and Narada & Sanaka and his 3 brothers and also through the
story of Mukthi or Salvation of Dhundukaari, son of Aathmadeva, by exposition of Bhaagavatham by
Gokarna.
2. Bhaagavatha Puraanam has 18,000 shlokaas and is divided into 12 Skandaas (chapters/books), in
the form of dialogue between King Parikshith ang sage Sukadeva, son of Rishi Veda Vyaasa .
3. Spirit or Aathma is pure and beyond the material Sheaths (Pancha koshaas) and is Pure
Consciousness or Awareness, though dwelling within the human body. It is due to delusion (Maaya)
that it gets the notions of ―I‖ and ―Mine‖ (Ahamkaara and Mamakaara). Rid of delusion and raising
above the Pancha Koshaas, ―I‖, ―Mine‖ and Trigunaas, Man revels himself in the glory of his Self or
Aathma.
4. Brahma resorts to perform Tapas: Brahma appeared from the navel (naabhi) of Sri Hari. The latter
entrusted him with the work of Creation. However much Brahma meditated, he could not get the
vision of Parabrahman to facilitate him to create the universe. At that time, he heard the command of
the Lord to perform Tapas (penance). Obediently Brahma controlled his breath, mind and senses and
practiced Tapas for a 1000 divine years (equivalent to 360,000 human years). Obviously for that
period Brahma was in a state of Asambhuthi and Kaarana Brahman.
5. Brahma gets divine vision: Pleased with Brahma‘s Tapas, Sri Hari showed him in His own Abode,
seated on a magnificent throne in full majesty and splendor, surrounded by His 25 Shaktis or
Potencies (the Spirit or Purusha, Prakrithi, the Mahat tatva, the Ego, the Mind, the ten Indriyaas, the
five Subtle Elements and the five Gross Elements, all in a personal form) and His 6 eternal and divine
attributes called Bhagaas (Lordship, Righteousness, Renown, Prosperity, Wisdom and Dispassion).
6. On Tapas, a side remark by the Lord: Sri Hari conveys to Brahma that Tapas is His very heart and
very dear to Him (Tapo mey hrudayam, saakshaath Aathmaaham tapo anagha!)He loves those who
perform Tapas! Pleased with his Tapas, Sri Hari asked Brahma to seek a boon.
7. Brahma‘s Prayer: Brahma in all modesty prayed to Sri Hari to bless him with an insight of the
Absolute (Maayaateetha, unmanifested form) and Relative (Maayaapahutha, manifested with Nama,
roopa and Guna) aspects of the Lord. He sought to know how the Lord creates, sustains and re-
absorbs all beings. He prayed that while creating and classifying the Jivaas as per their traits, let him
not get attached to any of them or become proud of his own immunity from birth etc.
8. Sri Hari‘s boons: Thus beseeched by Brahma, Lord Sri Hari then told him that by His Grace,
Brahma will receive the most esoteric Knowledge and Realisation of Creation. The Truth about
Devotion, the Knowledge, nature and Character, manifestation, virtues and doing etc of Sri Hari.
Equipped with that knowledge, Brahman then becomes Kaarya Brahma or Sambhuthi and goes
ahead with Creation as Hiranyagarbha.
9. Chathuhshloki Bhaagavatham: In what has come to be known as Chathuh shloki Bhaagavatham,

Lord Hari then tells Brahma about His nature etc briefly in four shlokaas (numbers 32 to 35,
Discourse 9, Second Skanda of Bhaagavatham).

10. Shloka 32: Eternity: Prior to this Creation, I alone existed and that too in my Absolute State. Other
than me there was nothing – Gross or Subtle or cause of both, viz., Prakruthi, the Primordial Matter. I
exist even after the Creation as well in the form of this phenomenal world and I am also that which
remains, after all this has disappeared (has been re-absorbed by me).
11. Shloka 33: Maaya: That which makes it possible for something inexplicable to appear in my Being
(as if apart from Me)without any corresponding Reality and which obscures (hides) my Being (in spite
of my being present everywhere)should be regarded as my Maaya. ( Strange that we imagine a
snake on the rope in darkness, whereas the truth is the rope and not the snake!)(We appreciate the
wonders of the world, without appreciating the power who instilled that wonder in the wonder!
12. Shloka 34: Omnipotency: Material and Efficient Cause (Upaadaana and Naimitthika Kaarana) of
all Creation: Even though the beings are ―materially made up‖ of the five great Elements (which are
Me only), yet the elements are said to have ―entered‖ them, similarly, I can be said to have ―entered‖
them, while in reality, there is no being other than me! Nothing exists other than Me!
13. Shloka 35: Parabrahman is the only Truth and he is Omnipresent: Seekers into Truth of Aathma
should enquire and find out that Truth (Sri Hari) alone exists everywhere and at all times.(Hands hold,
legs move, wind blows, Sun shines day in and day out without break; all because of the God behind
them, not because of them per se!)
14. Assurance: Finally the Lord concludes that if Brahma firmly establishes this Doctrine about
Parabrahman in his mind, he will never be overtaken by Ego etc.
15. Conclusion: The Chathuh shloki Bhaagavatham is a brief summary of the entire Bhaagavatham,
in four cryptic verses! Bhaagavatha Puraanam only elaborates the contents of these four shlokaas
with examples from real life to make the incomprehensible easily understood.
Jai Shri Krishna

Essentials of Hinduism
By Swami Samarpanananda
Ramakrishna Mission: Vivekananda Education and Research Institute
Belur Math, Howrah, W. Bengal
[This work is a shorter but complete version of the book, "The Hindu Way" brought out by M/S Pan Macmillan]
Basics
Hinduism is based on the spiritual principles and realisations of the sages, which over the length of
time got recorded in the books called the Vedas. Unlike other religions, it has no human founder, and
hence its date of origin can never be fixed; it has existed since the dawn of spiritual thoughts in the
world. Although the term "Hindu" is of relatively late origin, it has been accepted to signify the religion
of the ethnic Indians and their spread wherever in the world.
Hinduism does not claim any exclusive right over the spiritual truths it preaches, and it believes that a
person can reach the spiritual goal through any path. This makes it accept every faith and religion
with respect. Inclusiveness and universal acceptance, both as spiritual and social truth are the
characteristic of Hinduism.
Who is a Hindu?
Being an ultimate inclusive religion, it is difficult to define Hinduism the way Islam or Christianity can
be. However, for the sake of convenience, a Hindu is expected to have these core convictions:
1. Acceptance of the spiritual truths as preached in the Vedas, and elaborated in any of the sacred
books of the Hindus.
2. The belief in the transmigratory nature of the individual soul till it attains mukti. This is the state of
freedom from every kind of duality like birth and death, good and bad.
3. Acceptance of different paths of religions as ways to perfection.
In matters of religious and social practices, Hindus go by what the elders of the society practise.
a. Sacred Books
The Fountainhead of Hinduism: The Vedas
Hinduism is based on the teachings of the Vedas. These sacred books are the most ancient
preserved literature of the world, and it is difficult to say when exactly these works were composed.
According to educated guess, these are more than seven to eight thousand years old.
The contents of these books are the records of the spiritual realisation of the sages of that period.
Some of the mantras of the Vedas, including the Gaytri mantra are quite popular and are recited
regularly by millions.
The Vedas are also called Shruti (lit. heard), since they were passed down from the teacher to the
disciple orally, and were considered too sacred to be written down. These are four in number:
Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda, Atharva Veda. This division is based on poetic metres: Rigveda is in
rik metre (a particular Vedic metre), Samaveda can be sung, Yajurveda is in Yajus metre (used as
mantras during yajna), and Atharva Veda has composition both in prose and poetry.
Everything of Hinduism can be traced back to the Vedas. They contain spiritual truths, philosophy,
devotion, mythology, rituals, code of conduct, ethics, poetry etc. Sages and philosophers of later ages
elaborated the ideas expressed in the Vedas to enrich various class of literature.
The religious and social practices of the Hindus keep changing with time, but the eternal spiritual
principles, as recorded in the Vedas, continue to be the same. This unique style of dynamic
equilibrium gives Hinduism an orthodox core, but a flexible external.
Other Sacred Books
For thousands of years Hindus have been discussing and explaining various aspects of religion which
has resulted in a huge mass of religious literature. The more important of these books are:
Upanishads: These are the last sections of the Vedas, but because of their special philosophical
nature and importance, these are treated separately. These books contain the philosophical truths
realised by the sages, which now form the philosophical base of Hinduism. The most important of
these truths is the Oneness of everything -- sarvam khalu idam Brahma, and that the individual is one
with the universal -- aham Brahma asmi.
It is believed that there are one hundred and eight Upanishads, but ten of them are more famous.
Epics: Ramayana and Mahabharata: These are the two sacred epics that have served as the hope,
ideal and inspiration of the Hindus. Of these, Ramayana centres the life of Sri Rama, while
Mahabharata is woven around the story of Kaurava-Pandava clan in which Sri Krishna plays an
important role. Through narration, these sacred books highlight the struggle of an individual in holding
on to religious principles in good times and also during crisis. In addition, these contain most other
issues concerning religious life.
Many classics have been composed in every Indian and many South East Asian languages based on
these two sacred epics.
The Gita is the most popular Hindu sacred book that can be treated as the handbook of Hinduism.
Composed in mere seven hundred verses, it is a small part of the Mahabharata, but it stands in its
own majesty of poetry, philosophy and spirituality. Devout Hindus recite it daily as a source of
inspiration, and also chant it when someone dies.
The Puranas are eighteen in number and form the mythological base of the Hindus. These have
around 5.5 lakh verses through which the popular stories of gods and goddesses are described. The
most popular of these books is Srimad Bhagavata Purana which deals mainly with the story of Sri
Krishna. Shiva Maha Purana is another popular work centring Lord Shiva.
The Puranas were composed to suit the needs of the masses for an easy understanding of the
spiritual truths. Despite their mythological nature, they discuss philosophy, ethics and rituals of the
Hindus in detail.
The Smritis are the law books of the Hindus which prescribe the personal and social code. The rules
laid down in these books cover practically everything -- starting from the most trivial daily acts of an
individual, through the duties of a king, to the highest philosophical wisdom that one may require to
lead a good life. The aim of these books is to take a person to the highest spiritual realisation.

Unlike the codes of other religions, Smritis are not the dictates of God, or any divine personality, and
hence they do not have the same veneration as the scriptures, or as the codes as practised in other
religions. Sages like Manu took the more prevalent practices of the society and then gave them a
religious orientation so that people identify themselves not only with goodness, but with religiosity too.
The sages made sure to keep their respective Smritis in tune with the principles of the Vedas, even
though these were written for a particular period of time.
There are innumerable Smritis of which the most famous is Manu Smriti, written around the second
century B.C.E. The sages knew that a society ruled by archaic laws becomes stagnant. So, new
Smritis were codified from time to time according to the need of the age. Unfortunately, no new Smriti
has been written in the last thousand years or so.
The Tantras are mostly about Mother Worship through the ritualistic aspect of religion. Some of these
books are devoted to Lord Shiva, and the rest are devoted to Shakti, the female principle of God.
These books discuss ways and means to please Shakti so that one can attain the desired in life.
However, some of the practices of Tantra do not meet social approval, and hence these are not as
popular as other sacred books.
Most Hindu rituals are derived either from the Puranas or from Tantra traditions.
In addition to these, there are thousands of books which serve as the basis for various sampradaya
(religious sects) of the Hindus.
b. Principles of Hinduism
Aim of Hinduism
The fundamental principle of Hinduism has been to lead a person towards mukti (freedom). But
because not everyone is capable of taking up this great idea, Hinduism helps people improve their
quality of life by having an ideal. There are four of these, popularly known as Purusartha (goals of
life).
a. Dharma, Righteous living that results in a more meaningful life.
b. Artha, Acquisition of wealth through rightful means.
c. Kama, Enjoyment without transgressing the social and religious norms.
d. Moksha, Liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
The first of these three are for the householders, and the fourth one, spirituality, is for the tyagi
(renunciates). It is expected that every Hindu would give up worldly attachments at some point of time
to devote themselves fully to spirituality.
God
The supreme Reality in Hinduism is known as Sat-Chit-Ananda (Existence, Consciousness and

Bliss), which carries two ideas -- the impersonal, and the personal. The Impersonal God is ever
present and everywhere present God for whom no adjective can be employed. He is infinite, ever
free, without a form, and beyond the grasp of the human mind. This aspect of God is also known as
nirguna nirakara Brahman (without any qualifying traits and form). This aspect of God can be
experienced only in the highest non-dual state of meditation.

When this same Reality is perceived through mind, keeping one‘s individuality intact but pure, It is
known as Saguna Sakara Brahman (God with form and qualities, or simply God), who is merciful,
powerful, and with innumerable noble qualities. He is the omnipresent creator, preserver, and
destroyer of everything.
In essence, both these aspects of God are same, but people want to perceive them differently
according to their mental makeup.
The Divinities
The Personal aspect of God is worshipped by the Hindus in His different forms. Of these, Brahma is
accepted as the Creator, Vishnu as the sustainer, and Shiva as the destroyer of the universe,
although in essence they are same. Vishnu is also known as Narayana who is described as having
incarnated many times in various forms. Two of His popular human incarnations are Rama and
Krishna. The present day Hinduism worships mainly four forms of God: Vishnu, Shiva, Rama, and
Krishna.
The creative principle of God is known as Shakti, the power of God. Also known as Mother, this
aspect of God is worshipped variously as Durga, Kali, Lakshmi and others. Independent of these,
Saraswati is universally worshipped as the goddess of learning.
In addition to these, there are millions of gods and goddesses who represent the various aspects of
divinity. According to some, there are in total thirty three crore (three hundred and thirty million) of
them, which allows a Hindu to choose a God of his liking.
Maya
Why and how God creates this universe, is a problem that has baffled philosophers since ancient
times. For Hindus also, Creation is a mystery of God that cannot be satisfactorily explained. Different
philosophers offer different theories, but the most popular of them is the theory of Maya, according to
which, God creates the Universe with the help of His own inscrutable Maya (the great divine power),
which by its very nature cannot be described.
Maya is the Divine Ignorance which exists both at individual and cosmic level. Maya is responsible for
the wrong perception that people have regarding the presence or absence of a thing. Also, the
continuance of the universe is due to Maya; and time, space, events, name and form are all products
of Maya.
Maya exists only till one does not realise the Spiritual Truth. Thus, it exists and yet it does not exist. It
can be compared with the darkness of night that makes objects invisible, or makes them appear
differently. When one wants to see this darkness with the help of the darkness, it cannot be seen; and
when one wants to see it with the help of light, it vanishes. Just like that, maya cannot be seen
through maya, and it ceases to exist when the divine light of knowledge dawns upon a person.
The existence of maya as real, unreal, or part real is accepted by most Hindu philosophers, but they
differ about its exact nature. This gives rise to many schools of thoughts in Vedanta.

Creation
Hindus believe that life is eternal, and that it did not spring out of nothing at some point of time, as
science and many religions will have us believe.
The most popular theory of creation is that it comes into existence by the will of God through Maya,
and what we call Creation, is in reality projection. Nature (called variously as maya, Prakriti, and
Shakti) is without beginning and without end. At some point of time this gross universe goes back to
its finer state, remains there for a certain period, and then once again gets projected to manifest all
that is there in the nature. This cyclic creation-dissolution has continued since eternity, and would
continue eternally.
Two theories are advanced to explain the process of Creation. According to one, the will of God
creates Brahma, who gets down to the job of creation by meditating on the principles and process of
Creation that was there in the previous cycle. With time, the creation blooms in all its majesty.
The second popular theory with the philosophers is that there is Prakriti, the Universal Mother Nature,
which is composed of inertness (tamas), activity (rajas), and purity (sattva) in balance. For a divine
mysterious reason, whenever an imbalance takes place in the triad of these qualities, they start
combining with each other to give birth to more and more gross objects till the subtle aspects of earth,
fire, water, space, and air are produced. These five are not the physical objects that one sees, but are
finer, and are at the root of everything that is there in the universe. The final creation of the objects of
this universe proceeds from the combination of these five elements in a set order, and every object of
the universe, including the mind, contains these five elements in varying proportion.
Incarnation
God is beyond Creation and causation, but He expresses Himself in various forms, including human
beings to give a push to spiritual evolution through His divine powers. This is known as avatara.
Whenever God incarnates, He gives the knowledge of spiritual path best suited for that age. It is then
that people with devotional inclination feel the warmth of Lord's love, compassion, majesty etc., and
then turn towards Him with intensity.
God would continue to incarnate till there is creation and created beings.
Atman
Vedanta, the founding philosophy of the Hindus, is developed on the texts of Upanishads, Gita, and
Brahmasutras, according to which, the supreme Reality, known as Brahman, alone exists -- Sarvam
khalvidam Brahma. At the micro level, Brahman is known as Atman, the conscious principle present
in every living being, and so by its very nature Atman can neither be created, nor destroyed. It has all
powers, purity, omnipresence, and is full of all knowledge. But due to maya, Atman mistakenly
identifies itself with the body, mind and senses. It is then that it becomes transmigratory, and is
known as jivatman, which is equivalent to the popular idea of the soul.
The jivatman identifies itself with various kinds of action and their results, and thus goes on creating
karma -- good and bad. These karma cloud the pure nature of Atman, and make him forgetful of its
true nature, making it enjoys and suffer in the world. However, since the atman is infinite and eternal,
it passes and evolves through various bodies and finally attains perfection and freedom.

There are three major approaches in Vedanta philosophy that discuss the nature of Atman. According
to Advaita Vedantins, Atman is identical with the Supreme Reality, Brahman; and the multiplicity that
is seen everywhere is not real, but is imaginary due to Maya. For many other sages, Atman is related
to God in the same way as a leaf is connected with a tree. This view is called Visishta Advaita, which
was popularised by Ramanujacharya. According to some others, Atman and God are two eternally
separate beings and they have the relationship as between a servant and his master. This is called
Dvaita, popularised by Madhvacharya.
Hinduism accepts that the true individuality of a person does not lie with his body or the mind, but with
Atman; and the real consciousness does not belong to the mind, but to the Atman. It is the reflected
consciousness of the Atman in the mind (which serves like a mirror) that makes one perceive and
know the objects of the world. When one's mind is cleansed through sadhana, it serves as a perfect
reflector of the spiritual reality.
Karma
The most profound doctrine of the Hindus is the Law of Karma, according to which 'one gets what one
earns', and, what one thinks is as important as what one does in shaping one's future.
This law implies that the disparity in the world amongst people is not an act of God, but is due to
one's own doing. One thus has the freedom to change one's situation by performing right action, and
thinking right thoughts. So, ideas like destiny, predestination and fate have no place in Hinduism. The
grace of God, like the widespread rains, is everywhere, and one only has to make use of it through
one's actions and thoughts to reap the benefit.
There is no historical point when the karma of an individual became operative; it is without beginning
as maya and soul are. Like a flowing river, one may not know its source of origin, but one can go
across it through spiritual practices.
Rebirth
One important fall out of the Law of Karma is the continuation of life in some form to work out one's
karma. At the time of death, the individual Atman (jiva) leaves the body, along with the mind to take
up a new body. Depending on one's actions and attitude, one may be born in any of the visible or
invisible forms, but the best way to work out one's karma is through a human body.
The cycle of birth and death continues till one realises one‘s true nature as Atman. This knowledge is
popularly known as Self realisation. The ultimate goal of Hindu religion is to take every person to that
state of knowledge when one realises his nature and goes beyond the cycle of birth and death.
Heaven and Hell
Heaven and hell are places of temporary residence where the soul (which takes up a body suitable
for the place to enjoy or suffer) lands in its journey towards mukti -- the final liberation from the law of
karma. Since no one knows how these places look, the poets of the Puranas gave a free flight to their
imagination to construct various heavens and hells, even though they do not have any significance in
true spirituality.

Mukti
The goal of every soul is freedom from every kind of bondage. The ignorance, inherent in every mind
about one's true nature (the eternally pure, conscious, and free atman), gives birth to identification
with the non-eternal. This gives rise to desires to acquire the pleasurable, and run away from the
unpleasant. This results in an individual's compulsion to act and work, which in turn causes more
ignorance, more desires and more bondage. The cycle goes on.
The aim of Hinduism is to make a person conscious of this vicious cycle of ignorance-desire-action,
which ultimately binds one to the law of karma and makes him suffer and enjoy variously. So, the
spiritual practices in Hinduism are aimed at taking one beyond selfish action, and in making him
absolutely unselfish. It is only then that one becomes fit for self realisation, which leads to mukti.
Jivanmukti
The greatest contribution of Hinduism has been the idea that a person can attain the highest state of
realisation and go beyond pleasure and pain, sorrow and hope, heaven and hell, good and bad even
while living. In that state one realises oneself to be one with the supreme Reality -- Aham Brahma
Asmi – "I am the Supreme Reality". This is known as Jivanmukti – free while alive.
If not for anything else, the Hindu race must be preserved and respected for possessing this highest
spiritual truth. The echo of this truth has been heard many a times in other religions too, but it has
never entered the mainstream of any other religious thought.
Ethics
Hindu ethics is mostly elaborated in Smriti class of literature and deal with every possible issue that a
person may come across in life. These codes of conduct are not based on what one sage said or did,
but on the realistic ground of the ultimate spiritual truth of becoming all inclusive. The guiding principle
behind these ethics and moral code is unselfishness. The goal of Indian spirituality is oneness, which
implies that a person who is established in this knowledge, or wants to acquire this state, can never
have emotions like jealousy, greed, ambition, hatred, etc., which are the signs of exclusiveness.
Sin
Sin, as a theological principle, does not play any role in Hinduism. The general term for it is adharma,
to indulge in which implies transgression of certain code of conduct. Since these codes are not
permanent in nature, transgressions can never be sin against God, as the term is generally
understood. Sin is more like a mistake that can be corrected through penance and right action.

c. Practices
Philosophy
Philosophy is known as darshan (lit. to see) in Hindu religion. Speculative philosophy and word play is
a strict no-no in it. A philosophy to be acceptable in Hinduism has to be based on the Vedas, and has
to be preached by a sage. There are six such Vedic philosophies – Samkhya by Kapil, Yoga by
Patanjali, Nyaya by Gautama, Vaiseshika by Kanada, Mimamsa by Jaimini, and Vedanta by Vyasa.
Of these, Vedanta has three major and some minor schools of thoughts, and it has come to be the
chief philosophy of the Hindus.
Other than these Vedic philosophies, there is the Charvaka philosophy of the materialists, and some
schools based on Shiva and Shakti.
Sects
Hinduism accepts inequality as a fact of existence. No two objects are identical, and no two minds
can ever be same. So, the needs and aspirations of people can never be the same. Add to that a high
number of sacred books, and a higher number of Divinities, and the result would be a very high
number of paths of spirituality. In fact, as many persons, so many paths, is the approach of Hinduism.
This results in a very higher number of sects in Hinduism as compared to other religions. Each of
these sects has its own spiritual ideal, scripture, and practices. However, the ideals and scriptures of
all these sects are based on the spiritual truths of the Vedas only.
Rituals and customs
Although many consider Hinduism to be a ritualistic religion, the fact is that rituals are a non essential
thing in it. Rituals depend heavily on the local customs, and also on the sects to which one belongs.
They are also dynamic in nature, and hence they cannot be universalised.
The general practice of a Hindu in religious matters is to follow the elders of the family or the society.
Some Hindus outgrow these traditions and take up the practices of their Guru whom they choose as
the spiritual guide.
In spite of all this variety, there are some practices which most Hindus adhere to. Respecting Ganga,
repeating Aum, and performing Samskara (purificatory rites), and certain daily rituals, are some of the
more popular practices.
Amongst the daily rituals, the most important is the performance of panch mahayajna (the five great
daily sacrifices): Worship and meditation, offering to forefathers, serving the society¸ caring for
animals and birds, and study of scriptures.
Symbol
Aum, written in Sanskrit, is the universal sacred symbol of Hinduism. It is the nearest equivalent of
God, and through its three letters of composition, A, U, M, signifies everything that is there in the
universe. It is believed that japam (mental repetition) of this symbol, and a meditation on it can get a
person everything that he wants in this world, and this can also take a person to the highest spiritual
realisation.

Worship
A common mind can identify itself with the great only through a concrete object. It is due to this that
visiting sacred places and performing some form of worship or adoration is popular in every religion.
Hindus believe that God is present everywhere, and yet they worship anything that appeals to their
mind. The object of worship ranges from rocks through trees to images. This sense of identifying God
with external objects is not due to ignorance, but due to a strong feeling of seeing the manifestation of
the Divine even in objects and images.
Ganesh, Vishnu, Shiva, Sun and Durga are known as Pancha devata and their worship is mandatory
at the time of ritualistic worship.
Festivals
There are thousands of festivals in India to celebrate various occasions. But unlike in other religions,
Hinduism does not have a set of universally fixed festivals for all. Different festivals are important to
different people depending on the sect or the region to which they belong. However, Holi (the festival
of colours), and Diwali (the festival of lights) have universal appeal amongst the Hindus. Shivaratri,
Sri Krishna Janmashtami, and Ramanavami are also treated as festival days by most Hindus.
There are also sacred days like Ekadashi (eleventh day of the lunar fortnight), lunar and solar eclipse
etc. on which special rituals are observed.
Food
Hindus have been quite fussy about the rightness of food over the ages, but the choice of food is
local in nature. However, most Hindus (at least till now) avoid taking uchhistha (food already taken by
someone).
Castes
Since ancient times, Hindu religion has been wrongly tagged with the caste system. Caste is
essentially a socio-economical system which was taken up by religion to detail svadharma (the duties
of a person) for a smooth spiritual journey. The goal was to take the lowest in the social hierarchy
slowly towards the highest spiritual ideals. But the plot was lost somewhere. Today caste system
stands as the great blunder of the Hindu society that chose to neglect its masses.

Addendum to Evolution
Origins of the World by Eastern Speculative Philosophy
By BS Murthy
One might approach this postulation as an addendum to evolution for it comes in the wake of the
great works of the past. It would seem logical that any proposition about evolution cannot bypass the
idea of creation, buttressed with religious belief by those closer to the beginnings of life. Just the
same, though all religions propagate the word that God created the world, nevertheless their
scriptures differ about the way He went about it. Given the religious assertion that God is the
personification of perfection, one need to reckon whether He would have created an imperfect world
such as ours! Besides, how come His intellect that placed planets in the orbits failed to visualize a
quake free earth that is volcano prone as well! The scriptures that picture Him as the All Merciful,
however, prevaricate when it comes to the unjust 'species feeding upon species' way of His creation.
Would it not then make a case for viewing with suspicion the religious assertion that the world was
His creation? That was what many a Hindu seer of yore was obviously at, going by their advocacy
that the species of the world was the result of an evolutionary process. One such theory of evolution
in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad reads thus - He had no pleasure either: so when alone one has no
pleasure. He desired a companion. He became as large as a woman and man embracing. He made
that self split (pat-) into two: from that husband (pati) and wife (patni) came to be. She realized: "How
can he couple with me when he begot me from himself? Ah, I must hide!" She became a cow, the
other a bull, and so he coupled with her. From that cattle were born. She became a mare, the other a
stallion; she became a she-donkey, the other a he-donkey: and so he coupled with her. From that
solid- hoofed animals were born... - 'The Upanisads' by Valerie J Roebuck published by Penguin
Books India. This could as well be man's first thesis on evolution.
Well Spencer, Lamarck, Darwin and others of our times could have breached the religious idea of
creation with the collective force of pure reasoning. But would their standard of evolution thus erected
on the land of religion stand up to logic? After all, the three millennia or more of anthropological data
that modern man is in possession fails to indicate an iota of variation in the existing species not to
speak of the evolution of the new! That being the case, could it be then the world came into being on
its own, as it were! Well if it were so, the question that arises is, wouldn't have the first men made
their progeny privy to that story? But that didn't happen either, as we don't even have hearsay to go
by about our origins. Besides, the religious routes of creation shown by the later generations all led us
into blind alleys. Thus, far removed from our beginnings, we had to figure it out ourselves as to how
we came into being. After all, it's that quest for his origins that lead men to the theories of evolution.
Nevertheless, won't that be like putting the cart before the horse, for earth is the only planet known to
nourish life. Won't it be imperative to try to assess whether the way the earth itself came into being
would have had a bearing on the evolution of its species? It would seem there could be but mere
space in the beginning - infinite and empty. At some stage, its gathering cosmic charge, having
become boundless, would have disintegrated into infinite number nebulous stars of vast proportions.
Needless to say, these stars, in spite of being nebulous, would have acquired a definitive magnetic
moment of immense intensity of their own. And the attendant magnetic field could have kept the
residual cosmic charge around them at bay. In time, the interplay of magnetic moments would have
fragmented the residual nebulous energy around these stars into their planets. In the end, it could be
the powerful magnetic thrust the stars would have exerted on each other, that caused their cosmic
drift along with their planetary formations in tow.

In was in that altered station, far removed from the cosmic bosom that an intense centripetal force
would have come to exert on the sun and its planets in their nebulous state. Over the years, this
phenomenon would have occasioned their nebulous energy to compact into spherical formations.
This in turn would have brought to bear the centrifugal forces on the sun and its planets that tended
them to shed some of their heat energy. That in turn would have occasioned the peripheral cooling of
the planets. In time, all the expelled nebulous heat would have galvanized itself as the moon to turn
into the satellite of the earth. It would appear that the concept of astrology could be but the
appreciation of this cosmic phenomenon.
Be that as it may, where to begin to find out what could have helped the mother earth to bring beings
into being? Well won't it be in order to assume that the spread-split-steady syndrome that was behind
the formation of the solar system would have been at work in the evolution of the species as well?
Won't the procreative process, the feature of perpetuation of the species subscribe to this? Of course,
since neither custom stales nor age alters the procreative process of the species, we might reckon
that it is in that process must lay the clues to the origins of beings.
Well the world in its beginnings would have been but wilderness of earth, water and air - the gross
elements of nature - that would have been evolved owing to the altered cosmic equations. The day
and night phenomenon on the earth would have perpetually subjected these elements to some
annealing stress - while days would have warmed them by the sun-rays, nights could have gripped
them in their cold embrace. However, the landmass, once it got solidified to some depth, would have
rested on its laurels but for the jerk of an earthquake or a jolt by a volcano. On the other hand, air and
water, given their volatile state, would have been perpetually stressed and strained by the day-night
syndrome. Thus, the constant impingement of heat and cold on air and water, both containing oxygen
and hydrogen, would have come to impact upon the chemistry of them both in the climatic laboratory.
In the end, it would have been the atmospheric disturbances like cyclones and hurricanes that would
have brought about the fusion between the much strained water molecules and the turbulent atoms of
the air.
The outcome of this fusion could have altered the molecular structure of countless water particles in a
way to originate the organisms - O, that we might call onams. As the seas played the mother to this
earthly union, onams could have embraced their waters, though in time many might have made their
way into the sister rivers as well. But the cyclonic and such atmospheric convulsions that fathered
them would have been ever tending many of them into the atmosphere. Likewise, the ocean tides and
the flooding rivers would have displaced many an onam onto the ground around. Any way, it didn't
hurt them. Being fundamental organisms, the onams would have been unicellular in construct and
microscopic in size, sans digestive mechanism of note. Besides, their micro construct would have
only needed miniscule diet for self-sustenance. Thus irrespective of their station they would have
come to survive on their self-secretions in a unitary and conflict free environment. That was how the
onams would have come into being and came to exist as such. Thus, we might reckon that the
instinct of the species to prey upon their fellow species would have certainly been a non-onamic
character.
Having thus emerged from the nebulous state of non-being, the onamic state of being would have
been one of stagnant being. However, as nature could have caused more and more of them to come
into being, in time, there could have been the onamic clusters in their trillions all over. At some stage,
nature itself might have come to grips with its own waywardness, exemplified by the regulation of the
seasons. And all that would have changed the character of the prevailing environment itself, affecting
the climatic conditions conducive for furthering the onamic generation. As nature would have ceased
to occasion their propagation, the onams could have been compelled to self-generate so as to remain

in being. This could as well be the harbinger of the evolutionary process that could have led to the
emergence of the species
But how come the unicellular onams could have multiplied into a wide variety multi-cellular species?
And then, where from did the plant life emerge? Well the ebbs would have retrieved into the high
seas some onams that the tides could have washed ashore. Likewise, the receding river waters
would have salvaged some of its onams from the riverbanks that the floods inundated. This great
escape would have exposed such of those water onams to an amphibious experience of being.
Nonetheless, owing to this recurring phenomenon, many in their millions would have been
periodically left stranded in the unfamiliar environs of the beachheads and riverbanks. In time, the
stimuli of their clustered existence would have induced in the onams of the world the instinct to
spread. This in turn would have imbibed in them the urge to split. The very instinct for the individual
spread would have insensibly led to the collective onamic surge. Needless to stress, this could have
been achieved with each yielding space to the other in order to gain the same for the stability of the
self. This could well be the harbinger of life on earth, though in its rudimentary form. What is more,
this characteristic of yielding to gain seems to have shaped the nature of beings during their
evolutionary period and beyond. However, with their imbibed instinct to stay in air, the atmospheric
onams would have had a free access to the world at large and thus would have been less urged to
spread. Thus, the atmospheric onams would not have come to feel the need to split at that stage.
As the earthly onams began to gain in size, they would have needed extra secretions for sustenance
that the system was unaccustomed to generate. Besides, their state of growth would have
undermined the onamic sense of safety their unicellular compactness provided. Understandably, all
this would have ensured that the systemic pulls and pressures came to bear upon the onamic growth.
This, in turn, could have forced their survival instinct to cap further growth. Thus, at that state of
growth, there could have been duality of purpose in the enlarged onamic organisms - the acquired
habit to grow in order to gain and the innate need to remain small so as to survive. Naturally, this
clash of interests would have induced fission in the system that could have lead to the eventual
rupture of the mechanism itself. It was thus, the onams could have split into two and that would have
ushered in the second stage of evolution. Understandably, the coming into being of two organisms -
plunams - in place of one, would have enabled the agenda of unrestrained onamic growth. Dictated
by the inherited urge, the plunams would have pursued the old onamic agenda of growth till the need
arose for yet another plunamic parting of ways. This phenomenon of onamic split would have in time
led to the plunamic proliferation of exponential proportions on the ground as well as in waters. In the
process, though being unicellular, the plunams would have begun to experience a vague sense of
biological difference amongst themselves. However, the atmospheric onams would have been some
way away from the plunamic state of evolution on the earth.
Nonetheless, it appears, in spite of the plunamic evolution, the onamic urge for surge remained
unsullied. And abetted by habit, it would have indeed turned into a plunamic obsession. In turn, all
this might have enabled the plunamic organisms to gain some sense of memory. It is but natural that
the urge to grow and the need to split would have impacted on the plunamic memory to impart a
sense of separation to it. Thus, it could have been only time before the plunams would have seen the
means to reconcile the seemingly irreconcilable - that was by splitting within their body itself so as to
augment their individual growth! Thus, the plunams would have started splitting within themselves
into two organisms - qunams. Thus, in a continuing process, the emerging qunams in the individual
plunamic bosoms would have split in turn, to cause the cellular multiplication within the plunamic
bodies. Hence, the evolution of the qunams in the plunamic frames at once would have enabled the
overall organic growth of the latter. This qunamic state of being could be called the third stage of
evolution of beings that was probably the first triumph of something of a mind over matter.

In time, the lack of cohesion amongst the individual qunams of the enlarged plunams would have
ruined the plan in the making. Obviously, at some point of time in the growing process, the organic
self-secretions wouldn't have sufficed to sustain the overall plunamic health, not to speak of the
qunamic growth. Driven by the imbibed onamic urge to survive, the individual qunams in the plunamic
bosoms could have begun to feed on their weaker cousins. Incidentally, this altered nature of intake
would have occasioned the need for the plunams to develop some digestive system of their own.
However, this unexpected turn of events would have pitted the stronger qunams against the not so
strong of a given plunam. To begin with, the lesser breed would have made a common cause to ward
off the stronger elements amongst them. The emergence thus of qunamic sub-groups within the
plunamic frames would have caused the functional imbalance in their body organisms. This in turn
would have led to the schism in the plunamic systems that would have caused the eventual split,
though of a different kind.
Whereas the original onamic split that brought about the plunams into being was for the functional
growth, the plunamic split that followed, on the relative qunamic strength, was for the systemic
survival. Thus would have come into being plunams stratified by their relative strengths.
Nevertheless, the phenomenon of the relatively stronger qunams in a given plunamic organism
feeding on their weaker cousins would have continued thus occasioning the perennial parting of
ways. And this in turn would have in time ushered in countless plunamic cousins of varied strengths.
What was more, the compulsion of the weaker qunams to separate from the stronger would have at
length led to the reverse phenomenon whereby many plunams were reduced to the original onamic
unicellular and microscopic state of amoebae!
This split syndrome would not have helped ease the plunamic condition in any way for their qunams
could have tended to negate each other, though in the end the stronger overpowered the not so
strong amongst them. Needless to say, with the relatively weak qunams having been consumed in
time, the resistance against mutual qunamic poaching in the individual plunamic bosoms could have
resulted in an eventual stalemate. Besides, the qunamic need to prey upon the weak and escape
being one for the strong would have tended to weaken the plunamic strength at all levels. Inevitably
this would have hindered their collective survival not speak of growth. Thus this qunamic fight for
survival within the system would have brought the plunamic structures to the brink of extinction.
However, in the end, the survival instinct that would have become the second nature with all plunams
by then could have averted the collective calamity for all of them.
After all, it was this plunamic urge for survival that would have induced in them the urge to devour
others without as a way out. And that could have given the struggle for survival amongst the world of
plunams an altogether different dimension. Obviously, to avert the threat the stronger plunams posed,
the lesser kind would have tried to escape into the anonymity of the hinterland or plunged deeper
down into the safety of the seas. But as the plunams got scattered in their bid to survive, their very
survival would have been threatened just the same what with the scarcity of the relatively weaker
around to feed upon. Thus would have developed the need for the plunams for extra reach for
preying upon the weaker while themselves keeping away from the stronger. When at some stage, the
plunams of the world could have acquired near parity of mobility, it would have been back to the
square one for all of them. This in turn would have forced all of them to find ways and means to
ensure their individual survival.
All this would have made it imperative for the plunams to imbibe new attributes, the forerunners of the
characteristic survival instincts of the individual species. Thus, the survival instinct would have
impelled the plunams to grow big or turn bizarre besides acquiring the requisite speed to survive in a
given environment. The developments on the ground would have invariably hurt the atmospheric

organisms still in the onamic state for they would have made ready pickings for the plunams of the
world as and when the winds could have brought them down. Well in time, their own survival instinct
would have enabled them to reinvent the wheel to cope up with the hazards on the earth. However,
when evolved as the atmospheric plunams, ironically, their ability to be airborne would have limited
their size as well
This brings to the fore the question whether the plant life preceded, succeeded or contemporary to
the plunamic evolution. If there were plant life existing in the plunamic world, would there have been
the need for the plunams to prey upon each other in their struggle for survival. Wouldn't have all those
plants come in handy for the plunams to feed upon? Thus, it could be inferred that as there were no
plants in place at the plunamic state of evolution, the plunams, in their bid to survive, would have
been forced to feed upon each other. For that reason, the eventual evolution of the species that came
to depend on the plant produce as their means of survival could be but of post plunamic evolution. Be
that as it may, for the plunams it would have been a period of growth as their bigger bellies would
have occasioned greater appetites and their improved reach could have enabled them greater catch.
In time, all those dinner parties would have pushed the plunams to the brink all again, as the stronger
and the weaker alike facing extinction. Well the need of the strong for more prey would have tended
to deplete the ranks of the weak, in turn tending the former to famish and the latter to extinct. It was
thus all plunams, more so the weaker ones would have felt the need for procreating their own ilk for
their prey!
This could have been brought about by the more vulnerable weaker quanams in the plunamic
bosoms by tending to acquire female attributes that in turn would have galvanized the stronger ones
towards the male tendencies. In the end the plunamic splits would have come to assume male-female
dimension with the stronger qunams tending to be male plunams and the weaker, their female
counterparts. With the qunamic evolution having acquired biological differentiation, there would have
come into being male and female plunams that got together to procreate the preys for themselves.
This at once could have brought an end to the qunamic schisms within the organism that would have
helped the plunams recoup themselves to resume poaching the weaker lot that too would have got
multiplied through procreative means. In time, this would have removed the plunamic need to feed
upon what was self-procreated, and thus the progeny would have been left to grow up and in turn
further the flock. After all, what was needed was a single male in their midst for the females to keep
procreating in their numbers. In spite of the new procreative multiplication, the plunams would have
been still pressured for their survival for the demand for prey would have not matched with the supply
of the same. Owing to this or out of sheer force of habit some plunams might have continued with the
practice of eating their own produce.
However, the seeds of solace for some in the plunamic world would have been laid in an unexpected
way. It could be expected that the downpour of the monsoons would have embedded some of the
male and female plunams of all dispensations in the soil. At length, the minerals of the soil wealth
would have altered the biological characteristics of those entrapped plunams. Brought together by the
sub-soil conditions, the males and females of a given creed, and or hybrids of sorts, in due course
would have evolved themselves into seeds that the soil conditions would have fertilized as plants in
time. And of course, the seeds of a given category would have imbibed the respective or mixed
quanamic features and the plunamic attributes would have given raise to the individual plant
characteristics. In time, as some plunams would have found it expedient to feed on the sprouting
vegetation, in turn their survival instinct coupled with their organic habit of growth would have shaped
the latter into the varied vegetation on the earth. Like wise, as the atmospheric plunams would have
been hard pressed for prey, what with their earthly counterparts on the growth path, they would have
evolved as birds with the ability to swoop down on their pray and spirit away when threatened.

In time, in spite of it all, it would have dawned on all the plunams that being on the run alone was no
guarantee for their survival, and thus they would have been ever at augmenting their attributes to
acquire prey and escape from being one. Eventually, it was this process that would have enabled the
plunams to evolve into various species of the world with individual survival instincts and preying
abilities. The loose cannon that the evolution of species was, it was but natural that dinosaurs with
their insatiable appetites appeared in time. With their reach and approach they would have played
havoc in the animal kingdom as it got evolved. But as their pry would have run for cover in the wide
world, at some stage, the dinosaurs could have found their prey so scarce as to survive. And in time,
they would have become extinct for the same reason.
What about man, the acme of evolution? It would seem that with the weaker ones amongst them
having gone into the hinterland, to escape being their prey, the plunams of the stronger onams, would
have monopolized the seashores and the riverbanks. Feeding on their cousins that were washed
ashore or grounded by the winds these privileged plunams would have had it easy and it could be this
lack of threat from the others and the ready availability of prey that would have made the evolutionary
process of these apart and unique. While the survival and sustenance syndrome alone could have
governed the evolution of the rest of the onams into various species, these strong with no such
constraints by and large, would have evolved into the thinking animal that is man. If the evolution of
the animal kingdom was marked by the relative strength and speed so as to survive, the hallmark of
human evolution was the furtherance of strength through cerebral power to enable domination. Thus
while survival instinct would govern the animal behaviour, self-interest could rule the human conduct.
While the evolution of the animal kingdom itself framed the laws of the jungle, man had to evolve his
own framework of rules so as to coexist. And the subconscious of the procreative process,
symbolized by gives and takes, would have shaped his initial conduct. But at some stage, some
sense of insecurity would have come to dominate his conscious mind that insensibly altered the
boundaries of his subconscious comfort zone of give and take. Wanting to gain more to secure
against imaginary threats and concede less and less as if to avoid the feared erosion and/or both
became the credo of man that narrowed the give and take zone of human harmony. In time, in man,
the urge to gain became bereft of the purpose to gain and the need to retain lost the sense of the
need itself. Inevitably, in the end, man came to bring misery upon him and inflict injury on the world of
the species.
However, it is worth noting that the Hindu puranas would have it rather differently with regard to the
evolution of human nature as pictured in the Dasa Avatars - the ten incarnations in this world of Lord
Vishnu, the Supreme Hindu Deity. The first of His incarnations was as the fish, Mastya, in water, then
the amphibious tortoise, Koorma, followed by the pig, Varaaha, on the land. Then it was the half man-
half lion, Narasimha, the pygmean man, Vamana, the intemperate man, Parasurama, the principled
man, Sri Rama, the pragmatic man, Sri Krishna, the enlightened man, The Buddha, and finally the yet
to come destroyer of a man, Kalki. Going by the said progression of the Lord's incarnations, one
might infer what was hinted in the Dasa Avatars was indeed the process of evolution on the earth.
Given that the concept of Vishnu's Avatars, propagated by the puranas, came to be a feature of the
Hindu belief well before the advent of The Buddha, one might agree that the theory of evolution was
not all that modern after all.

Guru Gita
Download Link of Guru Gita [Separate PDF File]

A Brief on Ishaavaasyopanishat
By Major V Ramanujam
1. Of the six systems of Indian Orthodox Philosophy, Vaisheshikam of Sage Kanada, Nyaaya of Sage
Gauthama, Nirishwara Saankya of Sage Kapila, Sa-ishwara Saankya of Sage Patanjali, Poorva
Mimaamsa of Sage Jaimini and Uttara Mimaamsa of Sage Vyaasa, the last, also known as
Vedaantha, is the most popular.
2. The basis of Vedaantha is Prasthaana Traya – Upanishats, Brahma Sutra and Bhagavat Gita.
Initially there were said to be over 1000 upanishats, which with the passage of time has come to
around 250 today, of which some are doubtful too, being later additions possibly. However Aadhi
Shankaraachaarya, the earliest commentator on Upanishats, classified and commented on 10 out of
them as the Major Upanishats. Of this, he listed Ishaavaasyopanishat the first, the others being Keno,
Katho, Prashno, Mundako, Maanduukyo, Taittiriyo, Aithareyo, Chaandokyo and Bruhadaaranyako –
panishats. As Shankara has quoted from another 3 to 4 upanishats, these too have been recognized
as ancient and authentic upanishats.
3. Ishaavaasyopanishat, also known as Ishopanishat and Samhithopanishat (as it appears in the

Samhitha portion of Shukla Yajur veda, also called the Vaajasaneyi Samhitha) and contains 18
verses.
4. Maximum number of scholars has commented on Ishaavaasyopanishat; still it is baffling to the

readers, because of its high philosophy, in spite of the strenuous efforts of these intellectual giants!
5. The Upanishat discusses 4 worship levels. Level 1 refers to Murthi Puja (karma kaanda). Level 2
Upaasana on Hiranyagarbha or Brahma. Level 3 Worshipping Paramaathman or Saakaara
Brahman, Sriman Narayana (bhakthi kaanda). Level 4 Worshipping Bhagawaan or Niraakaara
Brahman, not confined to a Form, Name, Time, Space or Place (Jnaana).
6. A very brief note on the contents of the 18 verses (verse-wise) is attempted hereunder.
I should acknowledge that I might not have done enough justice to the full meaning and intent of the
verse, here! More light will be thrown by a Guru, when learnt in person.
i) God is Proprietor: (This addresses Jnaana Nishtaa devotees, those who struggle for the
attainment of knowledge of Brahman. This is Nivrutthi Maarga or the path of Renunciation.)
Everything in this world belongs to and is permeated by The Lord. Enjoy it with detachment. Do not
be greedy to possess others‘ wealth.
ii) Perform detached Karma: (This addresses Karma Nishtaa devotees, those who are unable to
take up Sannyaasa. This is Pravrutthi Maarga or the path of Action.) Aspire to live a full life of 100
years, spending that life for the welfare of others. Spent that way, Karma will not attach to you.
iii) Karma earned: (This addresses Aathmahanaas or slayers of their own souls.) If life is not spent
as advised above, such persons will have to suffer in the dark hellish worlds, as they work against
spiritual upliftment of their own Selves!
iv) Omnipresence of God: Although fixed in His heavenly abode, he is omnipresent. Senses can‘t
reach him. He controls everything. He surpasses everyone in excellence.
v) Omnipotency of God: God has inconceivable, limitless potencies. He is omnipotent. Nothing is
impossible for him. He is near and far, can walk and not walk and he is inside everything and outside
everything. None can limit what he can do. (You understand him as per your spiritual level.)
vi) The Self-realised Person hates none: He who sees Aathman in everything and everything as a
part and parcel of the Lord, never hates any.

vii) The Self-realised Person has no delusion or grief: One becomes a true knower of things, when
he looks at all as Divine Sparks. Where is the question of his being deluded or in sorrow, when he
sees the unity of Jiva with Brahman?
viii) Omniscience of God: The Self-realised Person knows the Greatest of all as non-embodied,
omniscient, beyond reproach, without gross body parts like veins, pure, uncontaminated, self
sufficient philosopher, who has, for time immemorial, been fulfilling the wishes of devotees.
ix) Vidhya and Avidhya pursuers reach Andham Tamah: (From here to shloka 14, interpretations of
commentators differ, because of obscurity of the verses. We shall first discuss shlokaas (ix) to (xi) in
one block): Avidhya refers to mundane knowledge – material sciences and Karma Kaanda part of
Vedaas (vedic rituals). Vidhya refers to Upaasana Kaanda and an exposure to the Theory of
Upanishats. Pursuers of both end up in what is called here as ―Andham Tamah‖ ie., darkest binding
regions of ignorance. To explain ―Andham Tamah‖; Pursuers of Avidhya, called Veda- rathaah, seek
sense – satisfaction and therefore reach upto Pitru lokaa and return. Pursuers of Vidhya are Jnaanis,
but not Yogis and they satisfy the Gods and thereby reach upto heaven and return. Since the
impressions of their past births are very strong, in their next births also, they seek and go to Pitru loka
/ heaven and keep returning. Thus both miss the royal path that leads to mukthi or freedom from
trans-migratory existence. This spiritual strategy is called ―Andham Tamah‖.
x) Destinations of both pursuers are different: The wise hold that one result is achieved by pursuing
Avidhya and another by pursuing Vidhya; but both are Andham Tamah, domains of Ignorance only.
xi) Balanced approach leads to immortality: Those who follow mundane as well as Upaasana
vidhyaas and balance them with vedaanthic knowledge, cross the cycle of Birth and Death and
become immortal, by virtue of their observing laid down duties and conducting themselves in god-
ward path, shown by Vedaantha.
xii) Sambhuthi and Asambhuthi worshippers reach Andham Tamah (We shall now discuss
shlokaas (xii) to(xiv) in one block): Interpretations are still more intriguing here!
(a) Shankara interprets Sambhuthi as all gods upto Kaarya Brahma or Hiranyagarbha (totality of
creation) and Asambhuthi as Kaarana Brahma (Prakruthi or Avyakrutha) or the subtle Causal State
before creation (when everything was still before Hiranyagarbha). Meditators on the former get super-
natural psychic powers and sense satisfaction and on the latter reach a state of inertness free from
experience of joy or sorrow; but neither attain liberation.
(b) Sambhuthi refers to Parabrahman and Asambhuthi, the body. Both, the worshipping of
Parabrahman torturing body or worshipping body taking that as God, are not conducive to liberation.
(c) Some call Sambhuthi as Personal Godhead Narayana or Krishna and Asambhuthi as
temporary manifestations as demi-gods or men or animals. Some hold that worshipping Sambhuthi
alone leads to liberation and some say that worshipping Asambhuthi also leads to liberation. This
shloka states that neither alone leads to liberation, but one has to know both. The latter is also called
Vinaasha.
xiii) Destinations of both worshippers are different: The wise hold that one result is achieved by
worshipping Sambhuthi and another by worshipping Asambhuthi; but both are Andham Tamah,
domains of Ignorance only.
xiv) Balanced approach leads to immortality: Whatever the interpretation given above, it is only by
transcending both worships, one can win over Death and reach Immortality.
xv) Death-bed Prayers: (The verses 15 to 18 are the prayers of a sadhaka in death bed to
Brahman seen as the Sun.) Prayer to Sun as Brahman: In verse 15, he prays to God to remove the
obstacles in his way to realize God, namely the material attractions of the world.
xvi) Prayer to Sun as Brahman: Praising God, the Saadhaka prays that he may see the glory of the
Lord, for (after all) he is the same as the Purusha in the Sun!
xvii) Prayer to Brahman as Agni: Realising that his death is imminent, he prays to Agni, the
presiding deity of the sacrificial (also funeral) fire to recollect that (after all) he has done some good
deeds (too).

xviii) Prayer to Brahman as Agni: Aware that he is going to be consigned to funeral fire, the
saadhaka offers repeated salutations and prays for the remission of his sins and to be lead towards
Immortality by the Path of light or Devayaana.
7. The Peace prayer itself sums up the Universality of God and Jagat – Jiva – Brahma Unity.

Jivanmukti Viveka
A Summary
By S. N. Sastri
Chapter-1
Scriptural Authority on Jivanmukti
This work consists of five chapters, known as Prakaranas. The first chapter deals with the scriptural
authority for the postulation of Jivanmukti or liberation while still living. The chapter opens with a
salutation to Sri Vidyatirtha, the author's Guru, who is identified with the Supreme Lord.
Sannyasais of two kinds, known as Vividisha Sannyasa and Vidvat Sannyasa, or, renunciation of the
seeker and renunciation of the knower. (These terms will become clear as we proceed further). The
first is the cause of liberation after death (Videha mukti) and the second of liberation while still living in
the body (Jivanmukti). The essential pre-requisite for both these kinds of Sannyasa is detachment.
Detachment is of three kinds -- weak, strong and stronger. The detachment that arises on the
occurrence of some calamity such as the death of a dear one, or loss of possessions, is not lasting
and is categorized as weak. Such a temporary feeling of detachment is of no use and does not make
a person eligible for Sannyasa. The determination not to marry, beget children and live the life of a
householder is categorized as 'strong' detachment. There are four varieties of Vividisha Sannyasa.
These are -- Kutichaka, Bahoodaka, Hamsa and Paramahamsa. The detachment described as
'strong' makes the person eligible only for the varieties of Sannyasa called Kutichaka and Bahoodaka.
Both of them are 'Tridandins' i.e. they carry three long thin sticks knotted together, emblematic of the
triple renunciation of everything connected with body, mind and speech. The Kutichaka resides in a
secluded hermitage. The Bahoodaka keeps moving from one holy place to another. The choice as to
which of these two varieties a person with the kind of detachment described as 'strong' should take
depends on whether he is physically fit to move about from place to place or not.
When a person is free from desire not only for the pleasures of this world, but even for those of higher
worlds such as heaven, because of the knowledge that they are transient and will result only in
repeated births and deaths, he is said to have 'stronger' detachment. This kind of detachment entitles
the person to take the Hamsa and Paramahamsa varieties of Sannyasa. A Hamsa Sannaysi goes to
Brahmaloka, realizes the absolute truth there and becomes liberated. This is known as Krama mukti
or liberation by stages. The Paramahamsa is the ascetic of the highest order, who has achieved
complete control over his senses. He attains liberation even while living in the body. This is called
Jivanmukti.
Paramahamsas are of two kinds: the seeker after liberation and the knower of the Self. The seeker is
one who has renounced all desires and wants nothing but the realization of the Self. He does not
desire any of the three worlds or spheres of enjoyment, namely, the world of men, the world of the
manes and the world of the gods. The means to the attainment of these three worlds are,
respectively, the begetting of a son, the performance of the prescribed Vedic rituals and meditation
(Br.Up.1.5.26). The seeker renounces all these means. He is intent only on attaining the world of the
Self, which means liberation. To attain this he has to achieve total control over the mind, body and
senses.

Vividisha Sannyasa - Renunciation of the seeker
The desire for Self-realization arises to a person as a result of the study of the Vedas and the
performance of the rites enjoined by the Vedas in this life or in previous lives. The renunciation
consequent on such desire is known as Vividisha Sannyasa or 'the renunciation of the seeker'.
(Vividisha means 'the desire to know'). This Sannyasa is the means to the knowledge of Brahman.
This is of two kinds: one, giving up the performance of only Kamya karma, or actions motivated by
desire for the fruit, and two, entering the Sannyasa Ashrama by muttering the Praisha formula and
accepting the staff, etc. It is said here that ladies also are entitled to this Sannyasa before marriage
and after the death of the husband, but it appears that they can become only 'tridandins', that is, only
the Kutichaka and Bahoodaka varieties. Those who are not able to take the Sannyasa Ashrama for
some reason can renounce mentally, while continuing to perform the duties of their own Ashrama.
Vidvat Sannyasa - Renunciation of the Knower
The entry into the Sannyasa order by those who have already attained Self-realization through
hearing, reflection and meditation is known as Vidvat Sannyasa. Sage Yajnavalkya is an example of
this. Having already realized the highest truth he declared his intention to renounce the world to his
wife Maitreyi. He then became a Sannyasin. (See Br.Up.4.5.2 and 4.5.15). This kind of Sannyasa is
also mentioned in the Kahola Brahmana in Br.Up. 3.5.1.
While the Vividisha Sannyasins hould devote himself to the study of the scriptures, reflection thereon
and meditation for the realization of the Self, the Vidvat Sannyasin should strive for the destruction of
the mind and the elimination of Vasanas in order to attain Jivanmukti. This matter will be dealt with in
detail later on.
In the Jabala upanishad, when Atri objects that giving up of the sacred thread by a Brahmana is not
permissible, Yajnavalkya replies that Self-knowledge is the real sacred thread for the Paramahamsa
Sannyasin (Jabala.Up.5). So the absence of the external sacred thread is the sign that the Sannyasin
belongs to the Paramahamsa category. It is further said in this Upanishad that Vidvat Sannyasins are
without the external signs of Ashrama, bound by no forms of conduct and behaving like mad men,
though not mad.
The procedure for a Tridandin to become a Vividisha Sannyasin who carries only one stick is the
following. The three sticks, water-pot, begging bowl with the suspension-strainer, tuft and sacred
thread should be offered to the Bhurloka, i.e. the earth, reciting the mantra: "Bhuh Svaha", meaning,
"oblation to Bhuh" and thrown into water. He should then seek the Self.
The Paramahamsa who is a Vidvat Sannyasin is described as one who is like a new-born baby,
whose mind is free from the effects of the pairs of opposites, devoid of all possessions, who is firmly
established in the path to Brahman, whose mind is free from desires, who, just to maintain life without
being under obligation to any one, goes about begging at the prescribed time, using his belly as the
begging bowl, and is unperturbed whether he gets it or not, without a fixed dwelling, lives in places
such as a derelict house, a temple, a hay-stack, under a tree, in a pottery, in a house where sacrificial
fire is kept, on the riverside, in a mountain cave, in the hollow of a tree, or a place for the performance
of sacrifices built near a spring. He is free from all striving, devoid of the feeling of "I and mine", ever
meditates on the pure Self, is established in the supreme Self, gives up all actions and ultimately
gives up his body with total detachment.

Both Vividisha Sannyasa and Vidvat Sannyasa fall under the category of Paramahamsa, but their
characteristics are different and, in some respects, even contradictory. In Arunika Upanishad it is said
that Vividisha Sannyasa is marked by the giving up of the tuft, the sacred thread, the study of the
(Karmakanda of the) Vedas, the repetition of the Gayatri, etc, and enjoins the acceptance of a staff,
bathing three times a day, meditation on the Self and study of the Upanishads. Though the same are
prescribed for Vidvat Sannyasa also, it is said in the Paramahamsa Upanishad that these are not the
essentials. A Vidvat Sannyasin is free from all rules regarding external symbols, social norms and
conventions. He ever remains established in the realization that he is Brahman.
In the Smritis also, the distinction between these two types of Sannyasa is clear. With regard to
Vividisha Sannyasa, Brihaspati Smriti says that those who find worldly life to be devoid of substance
enter the order of Sannyasins even before marriage. The Mahabharata says that the wise, who aim at
the attainment of Self-knowledge, renounce the world (14.43.39).
Regarding Vidvat Sannyasa, it is said-"When the eternal, supreme Brahman, becomes known (in a
general way), then taking only one staff, the person must give up the sacred thread and the tuft; he
should renounce everything and take Sannyasa, after having directly realized the supreme Brahman".
Desire for knowledge out of mere curiosity is no ground for renunciation. Vividisha implies desire for
knowledge alone, excluding everything else. It can be compared to the desire for food of a person
who is so hungry that he cannot tolerate even a moment's delay and will not accept anything else,
however valuable. (In his Bhashya on Gita, 4.11 Sri Sankara says that it is impossible for a person to
be a seeker of liberation and also a seeker of the fruits of action at the same time. This means that
Vividisha, the desire to know the Self, can be said to be there only when there is total detachment
towards everything else).
The culmination of knowledge is when the identification with the Self totally replaces the identification
with the body (See Upadesa Sahasri, 4.5). On the attainment of this culmination, the knot of the heart
is cut off, all doubts are destroyed and all latent impressions are annihilated (Mund.Up. 2.2.8).
The highest state attainable through karma is that of Hiranyagarbha. Even this pales into
insignificance compared to the Supreme Brahman. The 'knot of the heart' means the wrong identity of
the Self with the intellect, caused by beginningless ignorance; it is so called because it is as tight as a
knot. The doubts referred to are-- Is the Self a mere witness or the doer of actions? If it is only a
witness, is it Brahman or not? If it is Brahman, can it be known by the intellect or not? Does liberation
consist merely in this knowledge? The 'latent impressions' are those that lead to future births. These
three, being the results of Avidya, disappear on the realization of the Self. (See also Gita, 18.17).
A doubt now arises. Since Vividisha Sannyasa itself leads to the attainment of knowledge of the Self,
which itself prevents future birth, and the remaining portion of this life has to be lived because of
Prarabdha karma, what is the need for Vidvat Sannyasa? The answer is -- Vidvat Sannyasa is
necessary for the attainment of Jivanmukti or liberation in life. Vividisha Sannyasa leads only to the
attainment of Knowledge.
The nature of Jivanmukti
Bondage is the experience of pleasure and pain resulting from man looking upon himself as the
performer of actions and the enjoyer of the fruits thereof. Because of this bondage one is not able to
experience the Bliss which is natural to him. The cessation of this bondage is Jivanmukti or liberation
in life. Now the question arises -- is the bondage the natural characteristic of the Witness (Self) or of

the mind? Since bondage ceases on the dawn of knowledge, it cannot be a characteristic of the Self,
because what is natural can never be removed, like the heat of fire or the fluidity of water. If it is the
natural characteristic of the mind, then also it can never be got rid of. It may be argued that though
the natural characteristic of the mind cannot be completely removed, its effect can be neutralized by
the practice of yoga. To this the answer given by the objector is that Praarabdha karma will make the
person experience pleasure and pain and will prevent knowledge from destroying the ignorance along
with its effects in its entirety. The Siddhanti's reply to this is that the human efforts prescribed by the
scriptures can counteract even the effects of Praarabdha karma. If this is not so, all the sacred texts
on liberation will become useless. One should not give up further effort just because of failure once.
Nobody gives up eating for fear of indigestion or cooking for fear of being pestered by beggars or
covering oneself with a blanket in cold weather because of the fear that there may be lice in it.
The efficacy of the efforts prescribed by scripture is known clearly from the dialogue between
Vasishtha and Rama in Yogavasishtha. Rama says -- "My Vasanas (the impressions of previous
actions and thoughts) compel me to act in a particular way. I am powerless to go against them".
Vasishtha replies -"Since you are subject to your Vasanas, your own initiative, combined with
enthusiasm and effort by thought, word and deed is essential to liberate you from such dependence.
Vasanas are of two kinds: good and bad. If the good Vasanas are powerful, they will themselves lead
you to the attainment of liberation. If the evil Vasanas are powerful, you have to exert yourself to
conquer them. The mind can be turned away, by the company of the good, from objects which are not
conducive to spiritual progress. The mind is like a child. It can be disciplined by persuasion rather
than by force. Control of breath (Pranaayaama) and withdrawal of the mind from external objects
(Pratyaahaara) are the two methods of subduing the mind. By this method the mind becomes calm
soon. When good desires arise soon after the practice of Rajayoga, it should be attributed to the
practice of the yoga. One should continue with such practice in accordance with the instruction of the
teacher, scripture and other valid evidence (Pramaana) until complete mastery over the mind is
attained and the identity of Brahman and Atman is realized. After that, when the obstacles in the form
of evil desires have vanished, even the good desires should be given up. It is thus clear that all
desires (including those arising due to Praarabdha karma) can be got rid of through Yoga and so the
possibility of Jivanmukti cannot be disputed.
Characteristics of Jivanmukti
The Srutis and Smritis establish the existence of the state of Jivanmukti. The Kathopanishad says
(5.1),"the one already liberated is altogether liberated", which means that one who has become totally
free from bondage while alive is freed from all possibility of future bondage after the fall of the body.
Though during Pralaya and after death everyone remains free from another birth for some time, he
will certainly be born again, but one who has attained liberation in life will be freefrom birth for ever.
The Br. Up. says, "When all the desires that are in his heart fall off entirely, the mortal becomes
immortal and attains Brahman here (in this body) itself" (4.4.7). In another Sruti it is said, "Though
with eyes, he is, as it were, without eyes; though with ears, he is, as it were, without ears; though with
mind, he is, as it were, without mind; and though with life, he is, as it were, without life".
The Jivanmukta is described by different names such as, Sthitaprajna (man of steady wisdom),
Bhagavad-bhakta (Devotee of God), Gunaatita (beyond the three Gunas), Brahmana (who has
realized theSelf), Ativarnaasramin (beyond the pale of the four Varnas and the four Asramas).
Jivanmukti can be attained only by a person who has given up all other actions, both Vedic and
secular, who is in pursuit of knowledge alone and who is ever immersed in contemplation on the Self.
Jivanmukti and Videhamukti are distinguished only by the presence and absence of the body and the
sense-organs. The awareness of duality is absent in both of them.
The Jivanmukta is one for whom this phenomenal world, in which he moves and acts, has ceased to
exist. In the case of an ordinary person, his mind reacts to the various forms in the world and gives
him knowledge of their variety and their differences from one another. But the mind of the Jivanmukta
does not get so transformed and so he does not see differences, but sees all forms only as Brahman.
In deep sleep the mind does not undergo any transformation, but the seed for transformation
remains. So sleep cannot be equated with the state of Jivanmukti. The Jivanmukta remains
unaffected by both pleasure and pain. He is not elated by something good happening, nor is he
depressed when a calamity occurs. He does not crave for anything, but subsists on whatever comes
of its own accord. Though his senses function and can experience everything, his mind is absolutely
calm and does not react to anything. Though his eyes see everything before him, his mind does not
judge them as good or bad, favourable or unfavourable and so he is free from agitation and
attachment or aversion. The senses themselves do not cause any harm. It is the mind which judges
what is experienced by the senses and develops likes and dislikes in the case of an ordinary person.
Since the mind of the Jivanmukta does not make any such judgment, he is free from all attachment
and aversion. Because of the absence of transformation of the mind, the Jivanmukta is free from
Vasanas. His mind always remains pure. He never looks upon himself as a doer of actions since he
does not identify himself with the body-mind complex which alone performs all actions. Consequently
he is neither elated nor depressed by the good or bad results of the actions. Others do not have any
reason to fear him, because he never insults or harms others in any way. He is also not afraid of any
one. He remains unaffected even if some wicked man insults or harasses him. He does not
distinguish people as friend or foe. Though full of learning, he never exhibits it. His mind is absolutely
free from worldly thoughts and is always fixed on contemplation of the Self. He remains cool even in
matters concerning himself, just as a man attending a marriage or other ceremony in another's house
remains unaffected by the gain or loss of that other person. This coolness is due not only to his
freedom from worry, but also to his awareness of the fullness of his own Self. These are the
characteristics of the Jivanmukta.
Videhamukti
When the body of the Jivanmukta falls, he becomes a Videhamukta, freed from his empirical
existence and attains his real nature, like air resuming its tranquillity when the wind stops blowing. His
subtle body is dissolved here itself. He cannot be described as 'sat', that is to say, he cannot be
called 'praajna' conditioned by avidya or 'Isvara' conditioned by maayaa. He cannot be called 'asat',
or made up of mere matter. He does not experience the gross objects of sense. He is neither Virat,
nor Hiranyagarbha nor Isvara. Nor is he Visva, Taijasa or Praajna. Thus he does not come under the
category of microcosm (vyashti) or of macrocosm (samashti).
Sthitaprajna
The man of steady wisdom (sthitaprajna) is described in the Gita as one who has acquired supreme
detachment and gained complete mastery over his mind through the practice of yoga. His mind is
always fixed in the Truth. When he is in Samadhi, he is absolutely free from all desires, as his mind is
incapable of transformations in that state. The satisfaction he feels is reflected in the cheerfulness of
his countenance. This satisfaction is the result of realization of the Self. In Samprajnata Samadhi
there is the distinction of meditator, object of meditation and the act of meditation (known as Triputi).
In the Samadhi which is spoken of here, which is called Asamprajnata Samadhi, these distinctions
cease. The contentment in this state is not due to the transformation of the mind, but to the
impression left by such transformation in the earlier state of Samprajnata Samadhi. When such a
person is out of Samadhi, he is free from anxiety and pains, is indifferent to pleasures and is free from
passion, fear and anger. Such a sage may, when he has come out of Samadhi, have mental

transformations and experience of pleasure and pain brought about by Praarabdha karma. But he
does not feel any anxiety or craving because of them, since he has attained total discrimination and
detachment. Similarly passion, fear and anger, which are products of Tamo guna, have no place in
his mind. He has no attachment to any person or thing nor has he any likes or dislikes, these being
caused by Tamo guna, which is absent in him. As a tortoise draws in all its limbs, he withdraws his
senses from their objects. The mind of the Sthitaprajna, when he is out of Samadhi, is entirely free
from the grosser (Tamasic) kinds of transformation. When he is in Samadhi, his mind is subject to no
transformation whatsoever.
The actual enjoyment of sense objects can be given up by a person by avoiding them, but the desire
for them would still remain. This desire will go only when the Self is realized. A realized person does
not need any external objects for getting happiness, he being Bliss itself. The Br. Up. says," What
shall we achieve through children, we who have attained this Self" (4.4.2).
The constant practice of meditation on the Self is necessary to safeguard against inadvertently
slipping down from the spiritual level reached, even for a person who has brought all his senses
under control.
How a person may slip down is described in Gita, 2.62 & 63. When a man keeps on thinking of
sense-objects, he develops attachment to them. Attachment leads to intense longing for the objects.
If the longing is not fulfilled, anger arises. Anger leads to loss of the power of discrimination between
what is right and what is wrong. This results in his giving up the practice of pondering over the Truth.
This makes him unfit for liberation because of the current of opposite ideas which act as obstacles.
But a man who has controlled his mind and is free from attachment and aversion even when he is in
the midst of sense-objects, attains peace.
The means for the attainment of realization, such as control of the mind and senses and meditation
on the Self have to be deliberately practiced by the aspirant for liberation, but these become the
intrinsic characteristics of the realized person. The condition of being firmly established in the
knowledge of the Self, wherein all sense of separateness is obliterated by the uninterrupted flow of
the light of the Self, is called Jivanmukti or liberation in life.
Bhagavadbhaktah -The True Devotee of God
He is described in Gita, ch.12, verses 13 & 14. In Samadhi the devotee's mind is fixed on God and so
it is not distracted by any other thought. When out of Samadhi, though he experiences objects, he
feels neither joy nor sorrow, he being indifferent to both. Verses 15 to 19of the same chapter describe
him as unaffected by all the pairs of opposites. In Naishkarmya siddhi, 4.69 Suresvaracharya says
that the good qualities such as absence of hatred manifest of their own accord and are not the result
of any effort by him. They are natural to him and do not constitute the means to an end as in the case
of those who are still in the stage of aspirants.
Gunaatita- one who has transcended the Gunas
Such a person is described in chapter 14 of the Bhagavad-gita. The whole world is made up of the
products of the three Gunas, Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. One who transcends these Gunas is a
Jivanmukta. Illumination, activity and delusion are the result of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas respectively.
They are active in the waking and dream states, but subside in sleep, Samadhi and absent-
mindedness. Activity is of two kinds, agreeable and disagreeable. The unenlightened man hates the
disagreeable and longs for the agreeable. The Gunaatita, being free from the notions of 'agreeable'
and 'disagreeable', feels neither hatred nor desire. The discriminating Gunaatita remains entirely

indifferent, like a disinterested onlooker witnessing two parties fighting with each other. This is
because of his conviction that the Gunas in the form of the senses act and react upon the same
Gunas in the form of objects and he, as the pure Atma, has nothing to do with them. The wrong
notion that one is the doer of actions (and consequently the enjoyer of the results) is the cause of
mental agitation. This is totally absent in the Gunaatita and so he is ever free from agitation. He is
balanced in pleasure and pain. Service to the Supreme Being by the practice of knowledge and
meditation accompanied by unswerving devotion are the means to be adopted by a person who
wants to become a Gunaatita.
Braahmanah- the knower of Brahman
The word Braahmana denotes the knower of the supreme Self. He is entitled to become a Vidvat
Sannyasin. He is devoid of all possessions. He is not concerned about the kind of garment he wears
or the food he eats or the place where he rests. He accepts only the bare minimum of food, clothing
and shelter necessary for bodily sustenance. He should wear only a loin cloth and carry a staff for the
purpose of instilling faith in his listeners while engaged, purely out of his grace, in imparting the
knowledge of Brahman to them. He should never, in spite of his sympathy for others, utter even a
word about the worldly concerns of his pupils, but should always remain absorbed in meditation. He
should avoid all talk other than about Brahman. Meditation is unimpeded when one is alone. The
Smriti says that the religious mendicant should remain alone, because if there are two or more there
is a possibility of talk among themselves on subjects such as politics or about the alms received by
each. He should not give any blessing to any one because that will create distractions in his mind
because of thoughts about what each person wants to have. Another Smriti says that knowledge can
never be attained by one whose mind is concerned with the things of the world or with mere bookish
learning or the preservation of one's body. The liberated man must give up all these. In lieu of words
of blessing he should merely utter the word 'Narayana' which serves the purpose of all blessings. He
should not engage himself in any effort to gain anything either for himself or for others. It is said In the
Gita,18.48 that all undertakings are clouded by defects as fire by smoke. Salutation is prescribed only
for Vividisha Sannyasins thus - "A senior monk should be saluted if he belongs to the same order of
monks, but never any one else". Enquiry about the relative seniority of monks and whether they
belong to the same order leads to distraction of the mind and so salutation is not prescribed for Vidvat
Sannyasins. Sri Sankarasays in Upadesa Sahasri, 17.64- "Whom should a knower of the Self salute,
when he is established in the infinite, non-dual Self which transcends all names and forms? He has
nothing to do with action of any kind". Although salutation of the kind likely to cause disturbance of the
mind is prohibited, that salutation which brings about tranquility of mind is permitted. Srimad
Bhagavata, 3.29.34 & 11.29.16say -- "One should salute, prostrating oneself even before a dog, a
Chandala, a cow and an ass, realizing that God is present in them all in the form of the Jiva". Praise
of men is forbidden, but praise of God is enjoined, because it will lead to freedom from bondage. He
who is steadfast in the knowledge of the Self should not become dejected when he does not get any
food, nor should he be overjoyed when he gets it, because both are governed by destiny. He is not
bound by the injunctions or prohibitions of the Vedas. Sage Narada has said in Narada-pancha-ratra,
4.2.23 that the all-pervading Lord Vishnu should be treasured up in memory and not forgotten even
for a moment; all injunctions and prohibitions are subservient to this. Mahabharata, Santiparva,
237.13 says that the gods consider him to be a Braahmana who is afraid of a crowd as of a snake, of
conventional honour as of death and of woman as of a corpse. This is because the company of
others may lead to futile talk and honour leads to attachment which sets up tendencies adverse to the
true aim of life. The Yogi, keeping in mind the path of the wise, must conduct himself in such a way
that people treat him with contempt and never seek his company. Manu smriti says that one should
avoid sitting close to even one's own mother, sister or daughter because the powerful sense organs
can drag down even a man of wisdom (2.215).

Men of the world should avoid being alone as that may cause fear, but the opposite is applicable to
Yogis. To the Yogi the vast expanse of space appears to be full of the supreme bliss of the Self since
he is always absorbed in meditation and so there is no cause for fear. A crowded place is unsuitable
for meditation and so the Yogi should avoid it and seek solitude.
Ativarnaasramin - One who is beyond the pale of the four Varnas and Ashramas
The Ati varna asramin is described in the fifth chapter of the section on liberation in the Suta Samhita.
He is the teacher of disciples belonging to all the four Ashramas. He never becomes the disciple of
anyone else. He is the Teacher of teachers. There is none in the world equal or superior to him. He is
one who has realized the supreme Truth. He is all Bliss and is the witness of the three states of
waking, dream and deep sleep. He has attained the firm conviction that Varna and Ashrama are
imaginary super-impositions on the body, brought about by Maayaa and that he, being the pure Atma,
has no connection with them. He knows from the Upanishads that the whole universe functions in the
mere presence of the Atma which is identical with himself, just as human beings perform all their
activities with the help of the light of the sun, while the sun itself is not at all involved in their activities.
Just as various ornaments made of gold are nothing but gold, the universe of multifarious names and
forms projected by Maayaa is nothing but Brahman. The appearance of Brahman as the universe is
similar to the appearance of nacre as silver. The great Lord who is one, devoid of any relation, is like
the all-pervading space, pervading all beings, big or small, high or low. He has realized that the world
of the waking state is a fabrication of Maayaa, just as all objects seen in dream are the creation of
delusion. Having realized that he is the Self, he is beyond all the duties enjoined for the four
Ashramas.
Thus it is conclusively established in the Srutis that Jivanmukti is a reality.
Chapter-2
On the obliteration of latent impressions (Vaasanaas)
The means to Jivanmukti are knowledge of the Reality, the dissolution of the mind and the obliteration
of latent impressions. All these three have to be practiced simultaneously to get the result. It is only
by prolonged practice of these three that the knot of the heart can be cut. The world appears to us to
be real because of having been experienced in innumerable past births. Only the prolonged practice
of yoga can remove the wrong notions cultivated over numerous lives. The knowledge of the Reality,
the dissolution of the mind and the elimination of vaasanaas are related mutually as cause and effect.
Until the mind is dissolved, elimination of vaasanaas is not possible and until the vaasanaas are
eliminated, dissolution of the mind cannot take place. The mind undergoes modifications in
consonance with the objects experienced by it through the sense organs. The 'dissolution of the mind'
means the mind becoming free from such modifications and remaining controlled. vaasanaa is the
cause of mental modifications, such as anger, rising up all of a sudden and without any thought of
past happenings or future consequences. The effacement of vaasanaas means the elimination of the
scope for the rise of anger and the like, even when causes for such anger and the like exist. This is
achieved by discrimination which brings about pure vaasanas such as control of the senses and the
mind. If the mind is not dissolved, it will continue to react to external stimuli and emotions such as
anger will arise and then there can be no effacement of vaasanaas. So also, as long as vaasanaas
exist, transformation of the mind in the form of anger, etc, continues and there can be no dissolution
of the mind. The two are thus related mutually as cause and effect.

The knowledge of the Reality and the dissolution of the mind are also mutually related as cause and
effect. 'Knowledge of the Reality' means the conviction to the effect, "All this is verily the Atman. The
phenomenal world of forms, tastes and the like is illusory, it has no real existence". As long as such a
conviction has not been attained, forms, tastes and the like will continue to be looked upon as real
and the mind will continue to undergo corresponding modifications. And as long as such mental
modifications continue, the conviction that Brahman alone is real will not take root.
The reciprocal causal relationship between the obliteration of latent desires (vaasanaa-kshaya) and
knowledge of the Reality can also be established. Knowledge of the Reality will not arise until the
mind becomes free from anger and the like, which are caused by the vaasanaas. Conversely, the
elimination of vaasanaas is not possible as long as false knowledge, which invests the causes of
anger and other emotions with a semblance of reality, is not removed.
When one sees everything as Brahman there can be no reason for anger, fear and other such
emotions. Virtues such as self-control are strengthened by the knowledge of the Reality and the
knowledge of the Reality is strengthened by such virtues. Thus all the three, knowledge of the Reality,
obliteration of latent impressions and the dissolution of the mind help one another to progress further.
The means of accomplishing these three are personal effort accompanied by discrimination, and
giving up all desire for enjoyment. Personal effort involves the determination to succeed in the effort.
Discrimination means the conviction that sravana, manana and nididhyaasana are the means to the
attainment of knowledge, that yoga is the means to the dissolution of the mind and that the setting up
of an opposite current of vaasanaas is the means to the obliteration of impure vaasanaas. The desire
for enjoyment has to be totally eliminated because once the smallest desire arises, it will grow and
become stronger and stronger if left unchecked.
It has been shown before that knowledge of the Reality (Brahman) is the result of vividishaa
sannyaasaa and Jivanmukti that of vidvat sannyaasaa. That means that, after having first acquired
knowledge of the Reality, one should become a vidvat sannyaasi and strive for obliteration of
vaasanaas and dissolution of the mind. Since he has already acquired knowledge, a doubt may arise
as to why it is said that even at this stage such a person should continue to strive for all the three,
namely, attainment of knowledge, obliteration of vaasanaas and dissolution of the mind. The answer
is that while, for the vividisha sannyaasi, knowledge is the principal aim and the other two are
subordinate thereto, for the vidvat sannyaasi the reverse is true. Though the vidvat sannyaasi no
more needs sravana, etc, having already acquired knowledge, he should constantly remember the
sublime truth. This is done by always thinking about the Reality, talking about it to others and
meditating on it. In the episode of Lila in Laghu yoga vaasishtha it has been said, "Reflecting on
'That', speaking about 'That', instructing one another about 'That', this is considered by the wise to be
single-minded dedication and the practice of the knowledge.
When attachment and aversion are reduced to the minimum as a result of the realization of the
unreality of the objective world there arises a new sense of happiness. This is called 'Brahma-
abhyaasa' or the practice of Brahman. This is the means of effacing the latent impressions.
To one seeking liberation, the aims are Jivanmukti and Videhamukti. Katha Up. 2.2.1 says - " Having
been liberated from ignorance while still alive, he is altogether liberated on the fall of the body". One
who has divine qualities attains liberation, while one with demoniac qualities remains in bondage, as
said in Gita, Ch.16. These qualities are described in the same chapter. When the evil vaasanaas
inherent in a person from birth are eliminated by the cultivation of good vaasanaas through personal
effort, there results Jivanmukti.

The dissolution of the mind is also mentioned in the sruti as the cause of Jivanmukti, along with the
obliteration of latent impressions. Amritabindu Up. says that the mind alone is the cause of bondage
as well as of liberation. A mind attached to objects of sense causes bondage and when free from
attachment the very same mind is the cause of liberation. The seeker after liberation should therefore
keep his mind free from attachment. The mind, devoid of attachment to sense objects, becomes free
from all modifications and comes to rest in the heart. The mind should be prevented from attaining
modifications (caused by desires, likes, dislikes, anger, and the like) till its dissolution in the heart.
This is knowledge and also liberation.
Bondage is of two kinds: strong and moderate. Demoniac qualities, being the direct cause of misery,
make up the strong kind. The mere perception of duality, not being by itself the cause of misery, is the
bondage of the moderate kind. By the obliteration of latent impressions the bondage of the strong
kind alone is removed, while both kinds are removed by the dissolution of the mind. It should however
not be thought that the dissolution of the mind alone is sufficient since it removes both kinds of
bondage. When the powerful praarabdha karma, which is the cause of happiness and misery, brings
the mind into action, then the effacement of the latent impressions is necessary to remove the first
kind of bondage. All the mental transformations caused by tamoguna are to be considered as strong
bondage. Transformations caused by sattva and rajoguna constitute moderate bondage.
It should not be thought that, since the moderate kind of bondage (which is the mere perception of
duality) is inevitable, and the strong kind can be removed by the obliteration of latent impressions, the
dissolution of the mind serves no purpose. The inevitable experience of happiness and misery,
caused by a weak praarabdha, can be counteracted only by the dissolution of the mind and so this is
also necessary. It has been said (Panchadasi,7.156), " If it were at all possible to prevent the
experience of happiness and misery, then, Nala, Rama and Yudhishthira would never have been
stricken with misery". Thus the obliteration of latent impressions and the dissolution of the mind are
the direct means to Jivanmukti, and knowledge of the Reality is subordinate, being only a mediate
cause, as producing the other two.
To sum up, obliteration of latent impressions and dissolution of the mind are the principal causes of
Jivanmukti, while knowledge is the principal cause of Videhamukti.
A person who, without making efforts to attain knowledge of Nirguna Brahman (by sravana, etc),
practices, to the extent possible, the effacement of latent impressions and dissolution of the mind and
devotes himself only to Brahman with attributes (saguna), cannot attain Kaivalya, because his subtle
body is not destroyed. By Kaivalya, brought about by knowledge (of Nirguna Brahman), the person is
freed from bondage.
Bondage is of various kinds, signified by the expressions-- knot of ignorance, the conviction of being
not Brahman, the knot of the heart, doubt, karma, hankering after objects of sense, death, rebirth and
the like. All these are removed by knowledge. See Mundaka up. 2.1.10, 3.2.9, 2.2.8, Taitt.up.2.1,
Sveta.up. 3.8, Katha up. 1.3.8, Br.up. 1.4.10, Br. Su.1.1.4 &4.1.13.
Here Swami Vidyaranya says that Videhamukti is attained at the very moment in which knowledge
arises, because when all bonds, which are all due to ignorance, are destroyed by knowledge, they
can never come into being again. He supports this view with the statement in Sri Sankara's Bhashya
on Brahma sutra, 4.1.13- "On its attainment, future and past sins are destroyed". This view is at
variance with the generally accepted definition of Videhamukti which is that when the body of a
Jivanmukta falls, he becomes a Videhamukta. Ch.up, 6.14.2 says "He remains here only as long as
he is not released (from the body). The moment he is released, he becomes one with the All". In

Vakyavritti, 52-53 it is said, "Through the effect of praarabdha karma he becomes a Jivanmukta.
Then, on the exhaustion of that karma he attains the supreme state of bliss, called Kaivalya, from
which there is no return". In Brahma sutra, 4.1.19, it is said, "After exhausting the other two (the good
and bad effects of Prarabdha karma), he attains it (Brahman)". Laghu Yogavaasishtha, 5.98 says that
when the body falls, the Jivanmukta gives up that state and becomes a Videhamukta.
Vidyaranya says that these two positions are not contradictory because they are based on different
points of view. The views quoted above take the word 'deha' in Videhamukti to mean the existing and
all future bodies collectively. Therefore, according to them Videhamukti can take place only when the
present body has ceased to exist and no future body is possible. But Vidyaranya uses this word in the
sense of 'future body' only. Thus, as soon as it becomes clear that there can be no future
embodiment for the person, he becomes a Videhamukta. Therefore, Videhamukti, in the sense of
preclusion of future embodiment, is simultaneous with the rise of Self-knowledge.
Thus it is established that knowledge is the direct means of attaining Videhamukti, while the
obliteration of latent impressions and the dissolution of the mind are subordinate, being only the
means of attaining knowledge. For Jivanmukti the obliteration of latent impressions (vaasanaa-
kshaya) and dissolution of the mind (mano naasa) are the principal means.
Now a doubt arises. When a Vividisha Sannyasi has accomplished these three means and thereby
reached the stage of Vidvat Sannyasa, has he still to endeavour afresh for acquiring these? The
answer is that knowledge will continue to exist, but the other two have to be striven for afresh. The
student fit for the acquisition of knowledge is of two kinds: he who has practiced meditation and he
who has not yet done so. To the student who has practiced meditation to the extent of actually
realizing the object of meditation, Vidvat Sannyasa and Jivanmukti will follow of their own accord
because of his firm hold over the obliteration of vaasanaas and the dissolution of the mind. Nowadays
men rush in quest of Self-knowledge, out of sheer curiosity, without going through the preliminary
stage of upaasanaa. They accomplish obliteration of vaasanaas and dissolution of the mind
temporarily. By study, reflection and meditation on the Vedantic texts ignorance, doubt and false
perception are removed and knowledge is attained. In the absence of amore powerful means which
could resuscitate the ignorance, the knowledge remains steady. But the obliteration of vaasanaas and
dissolution of the mind can be easily extinguished, like a lamp exposed to the breeze, for want of
steady application and because of being influenced by praarabdha karma. This means that for such
Vidvatsannyaasis only the knowledge continues, but the other two are to be accomplished by effort.
Vaasanaa or latent impression has been described by Vasishtha as intense hankering after things to
such an extent that the mind becomes totally obsessed by it. This results in the real nature of things
and their past or future effects being completely lost sight of. The person then identifies himself with
the thing he hankers after and his vision becomes clouded. The blind attachment that people have
towards their traditional customs and manners, their countries and their communities is cited as an
example. Keeping in view the vaasanaa of this kind, it is said in Br. up,4.5.4:-- 'He shapes his ideas in
accordance with his desires, he does such acts as fulfill his ideas, he becomes that which he does'.
Vaasanaasare of two kinds: pure and impure. Impure vaasanaas result in continuation of the cycle of
birth and death. The pure vaasanaa is like seeds sown after being roasted on fire, which do not
sprout. It does not cause rebirth. The impure vaasanaa is described as of the form of very dense
ignorance. Ignorance is that which veils the distinction between the five sheaths and the Witness
Consciousness. This kind of vaasanaa is spoken of as demoniac nature in Bh. Gita, ch.16.

The pure vaasanaa is of that kind which knows what is to be known, namely, the Self. This is
described in Gita, ch.13, verses 13 to 18. The conditioned and unconditioned forms of Brahman are
set forth in these verses to enable the comprehension of Its tatastha-lakshana and svarupa-lakshana.
The former is a random quality applied exclusively to signify a thing, for instance, pointing out the
house of a particular person as that on which a crow is sitting. The latter is the quality which defines a
thing by its permanent feature, as for example, 'that which is highly luminous is the moon'.
That activity of the senses which is pervaded by an undercurrent of the perception of the Reality is
called 'pure vaasanaa'. This is of use only for maintaining life in the body. It does not produce either
demoniac qualities like hypocrisy, vanity and the like or dharma or adharma, which lead to future
birth. It is like roasted grains which do not germinate.
Impure vaasanaa is of three kinds: desire for (unblemished reputation in) the world (loka vaasanaa),
obsession with learning (saastra vaasanaa) and undue attachment to the body (deha vaasanaa). The
first one takes the form 'I want to be always praised by everyone'. This is called impure because it is
something impossible of achievement. No one, however good, can always escape slander. Even
absolutely blemishless Sita was slandered. People speak ill of others merely because of local
peculiarities. The southern Brahmanas censure the northerners, well-versed in the Vedas, as meat-
eaters. The northern Brahmanas retaliate by ridiculing the southern custom of marrying the daughter
of a maternal uncle and for carrying earthenware during travel. A pure man is looked upon as a devil,
a clever man as presumptuous, a man of forbearance as weak, a strong man as cruel, an absent-
minded man as a thief, and a handsome man as lewd. Thus nobody can please everyone. So the
scriptures advise us to treat censure and praise alike.
The obsession with learning (saastra vaasanaa) is of three kinds: addiction to study, addiction to
many scriptural texts and obsession with the mechanical observance of injunctions with regard to the
performance of rituals. The first only is exemplified by sage Bharadvaja, who was not satisfied with
having devoted three successive lives to the study of the Vedas and continued the same in his fourth
life also. This is also an impure vaasanaa because it is not possible of achievement. Indra cured him
of this by explaining to him the impossibility of his undertaking and initiated him into the knowledge of
the conditioned Brahman for the attainment of a higher end.
Addiction to many scriptural texts is also an impure vaasanaa because it is not the highest aim. The
example for this is Durvasa. Once he went with a cart-load of scriptural works to Lord Mahadeva.
Narada ridiculed him by comparing him to a donkey carrying a huge load. Durvasa became angry and
threw away the books into the ocean. Lord Mahadeva then imparted to him the knowledge of the Self
which does not come from study alone.
Obsession with injunctions relating to the performance of rites is exemplified by Nidagha, as

described in Vishnu purana. Another example of this is Daasura who, because of the intensity of his
desire to adhere to the injunctions, could not find any place in the whole world pure enough for the
performance of rites. This mad desire for performing karma is also an impure vaasanaa because it
results in the person continuing in the cycle of repeated birth and death. Saastra vaasanaa is also
impure for another reason, namely, that it is the cause of vanity.
Deha vaasanaa is of three kinds-- looking upon the body as the Self, concern about making the body
attractive and desire to remove defects in the body. The first two are clearly impure vaasanaas
because they are obstacles to spiritual progress. The third is impossible of achievement because the
body is essentially impure and so it is also an impure vaasanaa.

All these three vaasanaas should therefore be given up by discriminating people, since they obstruct
the rise of knowledge in the seekers and affect the permanence of the knowledge acquired by the
knower. The impurity of the vaasanaas arising from a demoniac nature, which take the form of
hypocrisy, vanity and the like, is well-known and so it goes without saying that this has to be
destroyed.
Justas the vaasanaas have to be obliterated, the mind has also to be dissolved. The Tarkikas hold
that the mind is an eternal substance of atomic dimension. In this view the mind can never be
dissolved. This view is not accepted by Vedantins. They hold that the mind is a substance with parts,
is not eternal and is capable of transforming itself into various forms. The mind is defined thus in the
Br. up,1.5.3 -- "Desire, will, doubt, belief, disbelief, resoluteness, irresoluteness, shame, intelligence,
fear, --- all these make up the mind". These transformations are directly perceived by the Witnessing
Self. The sense organs cannot experience their objects without the co-operation of the mind. This
internal organ is called manas when it performs the function of thinking and debating; it is called chitta
when it performs an act of perception. This chitta is of the nature of sattva, rajas and tamas. When
tamas predominates, demoniac qualities make their appearance. The predominance of rajas gives
rise to the three vaasanaas -- loka vaasanaa, saastra vaasanaa and deha vaasanaa. When sattva
gains mastery, divine qualities become established. Sattva is the principal material cause of the mind;
rajas and tamas are only accessories. Therefore sattva is the residual native form of the mind of an
enlightened person, since he has got rid of rajas and tamas. Such a mind is one-pointed, being free
from rajas which is the cause of fickleness. It is also very subtle, being free from tamas which is the
cause of the gross forms assumed by the not-self. Such a mind is fit to receive enlightenment.
Bondage is nothing but the bond of vaasanaas and liberation is the obliteration of vaasanaas. One
should first give up the three kinds of vaasanaas relating to the world, learning and the body
mentioned above, as well as the desire for objects of enjoyment. Then one should set up a current of
pure vaasanaas such as friendship, compassion, contentment and indifference towards happiness
and sorrow, and other pairs of opposites. The hankering after pleasures contaminates the mind. If a
person is friendly towards those who are happy and looks upon their happiness as his, hankering
after pleasures will vanish. Attaining mental equilibrium in this manner, one should remain attached
only to knowledge of the Reality. Ultimately even the desire for knowledge should be given up,
because it is also only something conceived by the mind and the intellect.
The three vaasanaas described above, namely, loka vaasanaa, saastra vaasanaa and deha
vaasanaa are collectively called 'mental vaasanaa'. There is another kind of vaasanaa known as
vishaya vaasanaa which relates to objects of enjoyment. By objects are meant sound, touch, form,
taste and smell. Mental vaasanaa is that impression which is born of the desire for these; vaasanaas
relating to objects are impressions born of actual enjoyment of desired things.
It may be asked, how is it possible to give up vaasanaas, which have no form? Things which have
form, like dust and straw, can be swept away with a brush, but how to remove vaasanaas which have
no form? The answer is that this can be done by cultivating friendship and similar virtues. These are
described by Patanjali in his yoga aphorisms: 'The mind becomes serene by the practice of
friendship, compassion, joy, and indifference respectively, towards those who are happy, those who
are suffering, those who are virtuous and those who are sinful' (Yoga sutra 1.33). If one adopts a
friendly disposition towards those who are happy, and identifies himself with them to such an extent
that he looks upon their happiness as his own, he will not hanker after happiness and his mind will be
calm and serene. If one has compassion for every miserable being and feels that no one should
experience sorrow of any kind, then too, the mind will become serene. It has been said, "Life is as
dear to all beings as it is to oneself; the wise feel compassion for every being, taking their own selves
as the standard of comparison".
If one feels joy at the sight of virtuous men, one would, of one's own accord, perform virtuous acts. If
one adopts an attitude of indifference towards sinful men, and is not tempted to adopt their means,
one can keep away from sin. By all these means the mind can be made calm. By adopting an attitude
of friendliness towards those who are happy, one not only becomes free from attachment, but also
free from malice, jealousy, and similar defects. Malice results in maligning the virtuous. Jealousy is
the unwillingness to tolerate the superiority or virtue of another. When, out of friendliness, one looks
upon the happiness of others as one's own, malice and jealousy will have no place. When one feels
compassion for the miserable the vanity arising from one's own state of prosperity vanishes. This
vanity is what has been referred to in the Bhagavadgita thus: "I am the lord, I am the enjoyer, I am
perfect, powerful, happy; I am rich, well-born; who is there equal to me?" (16. 14-15).
It has been said above that if a person cultivates the habit of becoming exalted when he sees a
virtuous person he will become more inclined to perform such virtuous acts himself. Now a question
may arise, will not such an inclination be inappropriate in a yogin? It has been said earlier under
'saastra vaasanaa' that the mad desire for performing karma is also an impure vaasanaa because it
also leads to rebirth. The answer is that what was implied there was only acts of virtue done with a
motive. The virtuous acts referred to here are those which, being 'neither white nor black' do not lead
to rebirth. Patanjali's yoga sutra 4.7 says: "Actions are neither white nor black in the case of yogins; in
the case of others they are of three kinds". Actions sanctioned by the scripture, when performed with
desire for the fruit are 'white'. Actions prohibited by scripture are 'black'. Actions which partake of both
these qualities are 'mixed'. These three lead to three kinds of re-embodiment as stated by Sri
Sureshvaracharya in Naishkarmyasiddhi, 1.41: "A person who, because of ignorance, considers
himself as the performer of actions, attains the status of a god by doing desire-prompted good deeds,
goes to hell by doing prohibited actions and attains the status of a human being by doing both good
and bad deeds".
The actions performed by a yogi are described as non-white because they are not prompted by
desire.
The real yogis are only those whose minds are serene because of the cultivation of qualities such as
friendliness mentioned earlier. They naturally perform only virtuous actions.
The qualities described in the previous chapter as the characteristics of the Jivanmukta and
Sthitaprajna, if cultivated by the spiritual aspirant, will destroy all impure vaasanas.
One should examine one's own mind and find out what are the impure vaasanas there. He should
cultivate such pure vaasanas as are necessary to counteract his impure vaasanas. Just as a person
who is disgusted with worldly life takes to renunciation, a person afflicted by impure vaasanas such
as arrogance due to learning, opulence, pedigree, etc., should cultivate discrimination to counteract
them.
In Laghu Yoga vaasishtha king Janaka points out the means of attaining discrimination thus: One
should ask oneself, "How can one place faith in greatness? Those who were considered great in the
past are no more now. Where has the fabulous wealth of emperors gone? Where are the
innumerable worlds created by Brahma? The old order of things has gone into oblivion. Millions of
Brahmas have come and gone. Myriads of heavens have vanished one after another. The most
powerful emperors of the past are now nothing more than dust. This being so, how can the existence
of persons like me be of any consequence?"

Now a question arises. The discrimination mentioned above should precede the rise of the knowledge
of the Reality because such knowledge can arise only after discrimination between the eternal and
the ephemeral has been acquired. Here the means to Jivanmukti such as the obliteration of
vaasanaas for one who has already realized Brahman are being dealt with. Is a discussion of
discrimination not out of place here?
Svami Vidyaranya explains that normally one can realize Brahman only after the acquisition of the
four preliminary requisites, namely, discrimination between the eternal and the ephemeral,
detachment, the six qualities starting with control of the mind, and yearning for liberation. But king
Janaka is said to have attained realization as soon as he heard the Siddhagita in Yogavaasishtha.
This happened because of the merit (punya) accumulated by him in past births. After that he had to
cultivate discrimination in order to attain calmness of mind. So reference to discrimination at this
stage is relevant in his case.
It may be objected that since all impure vaasanaas must have disappeared on the attainment of
knowledge, effort to cultivate pure vaasanaas is not necessary. The answer is that it is not so as a
general rule. For example, impure vaasanaas are seen to have existed even after dawn of knowledge
in Yajnavalkya, Bhagiratha and others. Yajnavalkya as well as his opponents Ushasta, Kahola and
others had vast pride of learning as is evident from the fact that they entered into a debate with the
desire for victory. It cannot be said that they had only other knowledge and not knowledge of
Brahman, because all the questions and answers in the debate related to Brahman. Their knowledge
of Brahman cannot be said to be only mediate and not immediate, because in that case our
knowledge of Brahman arising from their statements would be also only be mediate. Moreover, the
questions put were concerned with the direct and immediate knowledge of Brahman.
Now an objection may be raised: Acharya Sankara says in Upadesa Sahasri,12.13 that only a person
who has given up the egoism that he is a knower of Brahman is a real knower of the Self and not
others. In Naishkarmyasiddhi, 1.75, Sureshvaracharya says, "Identification with the body which is due
to demoniac delusion is not possible for an enlightened person. If even an enlightened person has
such delusion then Brahman-realization would be of no use". It follows from these that there cannot
be pride of learning in an enlightened person.
The answer to this objection is: the enlightenment referred to in these verses is that of a person who
has become a Jivanmukta. It is accepted by us also that there cannot be any pride of learning in a
Jivanmukta. Here we are making a distinction between a Sthitaprajna (i.e. a Jivanmukta) and a mere
knower of the Self. As regards the mere knower, Sureshvaracharya says in Br. Up. Bhashyavartika,
1.4.1539 and 1.4.1746, "Let attachment and the like remain, their presence does not do any harm.
What harm can avidya do when it is like a snake whose fangs have been removed? Desire, etc.,
arising from ignorance of the Reality are the cause of bondage, but for a knower of the Reality these
do not cause bondage just as seeds which have been roasted cannot sprout even though they retain
their appearance. It has been said in Varahopanishad, 3.24, 25, "Attachment, etc., are burnt out by
the fire of discrimination as soon as they arise; how can they sprout?".
Yajnavalkya, while engaged in debate with Ushasta, Kahola and others (as described in the
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad) had not attained the state of Jivanmukta because he was to enter vidvat
sannyasa in order to obtain peace of mind. He shows, not only the desire to win over his opponents,
but also greed for gold. Later he cursed Sakalya to death. But it should not be thought that such a
heinous sin as killing a Brahmana would bar him from liberation; for the Kaushitaki upanishad says,
"He does not lose that state by any act whatever, whether it is matricide, patricide, theft or foeticide"
(3.1).

Even reputed knowers of Brahman, like Yajnavalkya, are subject to the influence of impure vaasanaa.
Vasishtha says in Yoga vaasishtha that Bhagiratha, though a knower of the Reality, could not get
peace of mind while engaged in ruling over his kingdom because of the impact of impure vaasanaas.
He therefore renounced everything and only then attained peace. It therefore follows that we should
carefully examine our defects caused by impure vaasanaas, with the same strictness with which we
detect the defects of others, and apply the necessary remedies. It has been said in a smriti, "If a man
of the world, who is adept at detecting the defects of others, applies his skill to detect his own faults,
he will certainly be liberated from the bonds of ignorance".
To answer the question, "What is the remedy for the pride born of leaning", it has first to be decided
whose pride is meant. Is it the pride of the leaned man who seeks to show that others are inferior to
him, or is it the pride of some other person who wants to show that he is superior? In the first case,
the learned man should always keep in mind that someday it will be crushed by someone superior. If
the pride is in some other person who wants to show that he is superior to us in knowledge, the best
course will to say to oneself, "That man is puffed up with pride; let him insult or slander me; I do not
lose anything thereby". It has been said: "If they slander the Self in me, they slander only themselves.
If they slander my body, I should look upon them as my friends". In Naishkarmya siddhi
It has been said: "What does it matter to a person who has cast off his excreta, if someone comments
on its unclean nature? In the same manner, when a person has dissociated himself from both the
gross and subtle bodies through discrimination, will he be affected in the least if some one speaks ill
of them?" (2.16-17).
The sruti says: "Without deviating from the path of rectitude, the yogin should so conduct himself as
to make people avoid his company in sheer disgust" (Narada parivrajakopanishad, 5.30).
The two varieties of pride of learning described above which were seen in Yajnavalkya and others
should be got rid of by discrimination.
The method of getting rid of the greed for wealth is described thus: "There is considerable effort and
trouble involved in the acquisition of wealth, as also in its preservation; if it is spent or lost there is
great anguish. O fie upon wealth, which produces unhappiness at every step".
Anger is also of two kinds: anger in oneself directed at others, and anger in others directed to oneself.
With regard to the first it is said: "While you become angry with someone who has done you some
harm, why do you not feel angry with that same emotion which does even more harm by blocking
your way to the attainment of the four purusharthas and which affects even your physical and mental
well-being?"
With regard to the second kind, it has been said: "One should never give room for the thought, 'I have
offended none. So anger towards me is not justified'. On the other hand every one should consider as
his gravest offence the inability to free himself from bondage. He should bow to the god of anger who
burns away his own seat and bestows detachment by imparting the knowledge of his faults".
Attachment to wife and children should also be eradicated in the same manner as greed and anger.
All impure vaasanaas should thus be eradicated by reminding oneself of the evil consequences that
flow from them. Sage Vasishtha says in Yoga vaasishtha: "If you put forth sufficient effort and destroy
all vaasanaas, all your ills, physical and mental, will get dissolved. Then access to the highest state
will become attainable".

As stated by the Lord in Bhagavadgita, 2.60, 67, the turbulent senses carry away the mind of even a
wise man striving for perfection. If the mind yields to the senses, its discrimination is carried away,
just as a gale carries away a ship". So one should restrain all the senses and fix the mind on the Lord
as the supreme goal. The wisdom of a person who has brought his senses under control becomes
steady.
When qualities such are friendship are cultivated and become firmly established, the impure
vaasanaas will be obliterated.
The Narada parivrajakopanishad says: "The mendicant who is tongue-less, impotent, lame, blind,
deaf, and mad certainly attains liberation. He is tongue-less who, while eating, is not attached to the
food and does not concern himself with its pleasantness or unpleasantness; while speaking he is
moderate and always tells the truth with the intention of doing good to others. He is impotent who
remains unaffected at the sight of a young woman of sixteen, as of a girl just born, or a woman bent
double with the weight of years. He whose movements are confined to begging alms or answering the
calls of nature, and do not by any means exceed a yojana (about five miles) is a lame man. He is
blind, the ken of whose eye, whether standing or walking, does not extend far beyond four yoke-
lengths. He who turns a deaf ear to words uttered within ear-shot, however friendly or pleasing, is
said to be deaf. The mendicant who, though alert and with senses unimpaired, behaves as if he is
asleep is said to be a mad man. Such a person never indulges in censure or praise, nor talk too much
and treats all alike. He would never be in the company of a woman, nor recall to mind any woman
seen before (3.62-68)".
Realizing that all the insentient objects in this universe are only manifestations of pure consciousness
(Brahman),one should fix the mind only on pure consciousness. Just as a goldsmith, when buying an
old bracelet of gold, fixes his mind only on the weight and the colour of the gold and not on the form
of the bracelet or its beauty, the seeker should fix his mind only on pure consciousness while seeing
the various objects in the world. The effort in this regard should be kept up until the consciousness of
the phenomenal objects is obliterated and the consciousness of Brahman becomes as natural as
breathing.
He who, though awake, keeps his mind in a tranquil state and does not react to the world around, as
in sleep, is the truly liberated person. The liberated man with a virile intellect, who has eradicated all
desires from his heart, is ever free from all agitation of the mind, and is himself the great Isvara.
Whether he is in samadhi or not, whether he performs the rituals laid down for his order or not, he
stands liberated, free from all attachment. With his mind cleared of all vaasanaas, it makes no
difference whether he performs karma or not. He has no concern with efforts to attain samadhi or with
performing japa, etc. He may engage himself in action in the world, but he remains untouched by
them. He is not dejected by adversity. He never swerves from the path of self-restraint.
King Janaka had attained this state. He therefore performed his duties as the king without the least
attachment to the results. He did not think of the past or worry about the future, but lived in the
present, his heart ever filled with bliss.

Khyati Vada
Download Link of Khyati Vada [Separate PDF File]

Panchadasi of Sri Vidyaranya Swami
A Summary [Chapter by Chapter]
By S. N. Sastri
Introduction
Sri Vidyaranya Swami flourished in the fourteenth century A.D. He was the Guru as well as the Prime
Minister of Harihara I and Bukka, the founders of the Vijayanagara Kingdom. He is reputed to the
greatest among post-Sankara Advaitins. He was the head of the Sringeri Sarada Pitha established by
Sri Adi Sankara Bhagavatpada from 1377 to 1386 A.D. Panchadasi is one of the works attributed to
him. This work is so named because it consists of fifteen chapters. It is a comprehensive manual of
Advaita Vedanta. The fundamental teachings of Advaita are presented in this work in a clear and
lucid manner. It is therefore the best text for the novice who desires to get acquainted with this
philosophy. At the same time the work is very profound and is of interest to advanced students of
Advaita as well.
The fifteen chapters of this work are divided into three groups of five chapters each. Brahman or the
supreme Self, which is the only reality according to Advaita, is described in the Upanishads as
Existence-Consciousness-Bliss. The first group of five chapters deals with the Existence aspect of
Brahman, the second group with the Consciousness aspect and the third with the Bliss aspect.
The core of Advaita is that Brahman is the only reality. 'Reality' is defined as that which does not
undergo any change at any time. By this test, Brahman, which is absolutely changeless and eternal,
is alone real. The world keeps on changing all the time and so it cannot be considered as real. At the
same time, we cannot dismiss it as unreal, because it is actually experienced by us. The example of a
rope being mistaken for a snake in dim light is used to explain this. The snake so seen produces the
same reaction, such as fear and trembling of the limbs, as a real snake would. It cannot therefore be
said to be totally unreal. At the same time, on examination with the help of a lamp it is found that the
snake never existed and that the rope alone was there all the time. The snake cannot be described
as both real and unreal, because these two contradictory qualities cannot exist in the same
substance. It must therefore be said that the snake is neither real nor unreal. Such an object is
described as 'mithya'. Just as the snake appears because of ignorance of the fact that there is only a
rope, this world appears to exist because of our ignorance of Brahman. Thus the world is also neither
real nor unreal; it is also 'mithya'. Just as the snake is superimposed on the rope, the world is
superimposed on Brahman. Our ignorance of Brahman is what is called Avidya or Ajnana or
Nescience. This ignorance not only covers Brahman, but it projects the world as a reality. The world
has no reality apart from Brahman, just as the snake has no reality apart from the rope. When the
knowledge of Brahman arises, the world is seen as a mere appearance of Brahman. Another
example may be taken to explain this. Ornaments of different sizes and shapes are made out of one
gold bar. Their appearance and the use for which they are meant vary, but the fact that they are all
really only gold, in spite of the different appearances and uses, cannot be denied. The appearance
may change, a bangle may be converted into rings, but the gold always remains as gold. Similarly, on
the dawn of the knowledge of Brahman (which is the same as the Self), though the different forms of
human beings, animals, etc., continue to be seen by the Jnani, he sees them all only as appearances
of the one Brahman. Thus the perception of difference and the consequences of such perception,
such as looking upon some as favourable and others as the opposite, and the consequent efforts to
retain or get what is favourable and to get rid of or avoid what is not favourable, come to an end. This
is the state of liberation even while living, which is known as Jivanmukti.

The Jiva, or individual, is Brahman itself, but because of identification with the body, mind and senses
he looks upon himself as different from Brahman and as a limited being, subject to joys and sorrows
caused by external factors. This identification with the body, mind and senses is what is called
bondage. In reality the Jiva is the pure Brahman and is different from the body-mind complex. When
this truth is realized as an actual experience, the identification with the body-mind complex ceases.
This is liberation. Thus liberation is not the attainment of a state which did not exist previously, but
only the realization of what one has always been. The illusory snake never existed. What existed
even when the snake was seen was only the rope. Similarly, bondage has no real existence at all.
Even when we are ignorant of Brahman and think of ourselves as limited by the body, we are really
none but the infinite Brahman. Liberation is thus only the removal of the wrong identification with the
body, mind and senses. The attainment of the state of liberation-in-life or Jivanmukti is the goal of
human life according to the Upanishads.
Maya, which is also known by other names such as Prakriti, Avidya and Nescience, is what conceals
Brahman and projects the universe. It is because of this that everyone identifies himself with his
body-mind complex and is ignorant of the truth that he is none other than Brahman. Sri Vidyaranya
points out that Maya may be looked upon from three different standpoints. For the ordinary worldly
individual who looks upon the world as real, Maya which is the cause of the appearance of the world
is real. For the enlightened person who has realized his identity with Brahman, Maya does not exist at
all. For the person who attempts to understand Maya through reasoning, Maya is indeterminable
because it cannot be described as either real or unreal or both.
There is a wrong notion that according to Advaita the world is a mere illusion. What Advaita says is
that the world is not real in the sense in which Brahman is real. Advaita accepts three orders of
reality. Brahman, which is eternal and changeless, is the absolute reality, known in Vedanta as
paaramaarthika satyam. The world has empirical reality, known as vyaavahaarika satyam, which
means that as long as a person has not become free from avidya and has not realized his real nature
as Brahman, the world is real for him. It is on this basis that all the rituals, injunctions and prohibitions
laid down in the Vedas become applicable to such a person. In other words, until a person realizes
that he is not the body or mind or senses but Brahman, the world is real for him. The object of
Vedanta is to make man give up his wrong identification with the body and realize his true nature.
What is meant here is not mere intellectual knowledge, but actual experience, which is otherwise
known as realization.
The third order of reality consists of such cases as a rope appearing as a snake, a piece of nacre
being mistaken for silver, and the experiences in dream. This order of reality is known as
praatibhaasika satyam.
Panchadasi is a metrical work in Sanskrit. In the following chapters a summary of this work, chapter
by chapter, is given. It is hoped that this will serve as an introduction to the work and will motivate the
reader to go on to a detailed study, verse by verse.
Chapter - 1
Tattvaviveka - The discriminative knowledge of the ultimate Reality
In the first verse of the first chapter Sri Vidyaranya salutes his Guru, Sri Sankarananda, who
"dedicated his life to the task of destruction of the monster of primal ignorance together with its
manifestation, the phenomenal universe". This verse serves also as a prayer to the Supreme Being
for the successful completion of the work, since the name 'Sankarananda' also means the Supreme
Brahman who is Bliss itself.
In the second verse the author says that the discriminative knowledge of the ultimate Reality (Tattva)
is being presented in this work for the easy understanding of those whose minds have been purified
by service to the lotus feet of their Guru.
These two verses also bring out, by implication, the four topics that are required by tradition to be
indicated at the commencement of any work (sambandha-chatushtaya), namely, the vishaya or
subject-matter of the work, the prayojana or purpose of the work, the adhikari or person for whom it is
intended, and the sambandha or the connection of this work with Vedanta. 'Sankara' means
Paramatma, and 'ananda' stands for the jivatma or individual soul. So the term Sankarananda
indicates the identity of the jivatma and Paramatma, which is the subject-matter of this work. The
purpose of this work is the destruction of primal ignorance, which leads to the attainment of the
supreme bliss of liberation. The person who has attained purity of mind is the adhikari or the person
for whom this work is intended. The sambandha is the fact that this work elucidates the teachings of
the Upanishads for the easy understanding of the adhikari.
The actual subject-matter of the work starts from verse 3. We experience innumerable objects in this
world through our sense-organs in the waking state. The objects are different from one another, but
the consciousness behind the senses, which is different from the objects experienced, is only one.
The consciousness of A is not different from that of B or C. Since consciousness by itself has no
distinguishing features, it cannot vary from person to person.
The same is the case with the dream state. The objects experienced in dream are transient and
disappear when the dreamer wakes up, but the objects experienced in the waking state are relatively
permanent. But the consciousness in both the states is the same.
When a person wakes up from deep sleep he remembers that he slept happily and did not know
anything during his sleep. Remembrance is possible only of objects experienced earlier. It is therefore
clear that in deep sleep absence of knowledge and happiness are experienced.
The same consciousness is present in all the three states, as is proved by the fact that a person
identifies himself as the same in all the states. This consciousness is thus the same in all persons
and at all times. It is therefore only one and is eternal, without any beginning or end. It is self-
revealing and does not need another consciousness to reveal itself or its objects.
This consciousness alone remains unchanged in all the three states. The sense-organs are not
present in the dream state and the mind itself is not experienced in deep sleep. Therefore this
consciousness is the unchanging essence of every living being and it is therefore called the self. This
self, or essence of all living beings, is of the nature of supreme bliss, for it is the object of
unconditional love. All other objects and persons are loved only if they are conducive to one's own
happiness. Even one's own body may be disliked when it causes suffering. But the self is never
disliked; on the other hand it alone is the perennial object of love. Sometimes a person may say that
he hates himself and wants to put an end to his life, but that is because he identifies himself with his
body which is the cause of suffering due to disease, poverty or other reasons. From the fact that the
Self is the object of the highest love it follows that it is of the nature of the highest bliss, since what
every human being wants always is happiness. All other things, such as money, house, children and
the like are desired only because they are expected to make the person happier; but happiness is
desired for its own sake.
It has thus been established by reasoning that the individual self is of the nature of existence,
consciousness and bliss. The Upanishads declare that the supreme Brahman is also of the same
nature and that the individual self and Supreme Brahman are the same.
If an object exists at a particular place but is not actually seen, it must be due to some obstruction
such as darkness or a wall in between. Similarly there must be some obstruction because of which
the self, though existing, is not revealed to us. This obstruction is avidya. This avidya is beginningless
in the sense that we cannot know how and when it originated, because it is logically prior to time.
Prakriti is composed of the three gunas, namely, sattva, rajas and tamas and has in it the reflection of
Brahman which is pure consciousness and bliss. This Prakriti is of two kinds. When the element of
sattva is pure, it is known as Maya; when impure, due to the admixture of rajas and tamas, it is called
avidya. Brahman reflected in Maya is the omniscient Isvara, who controls Maya. Brahman reflected in
avidya (impure Prakriti) is the jiva who is under the control of Maya. Jivas are innumerable in number
and are of different grades due to the different degrees of admixture of rajas and tamas. Avidya is the
causal body or kaaranasarira of the jiva. The word 'sarira' means, by derivation, 'what is perishable'.
Avidya is called sarira or body because it will cease to exist on the dawn of self-realization. It is called
'kaarana' or causal because it is the cause of the subtle and gross bodies. When the jiva identifies
himself with the causal body he is called praajna. This happens in the state of deep sleep when the
senses as well as the mind cease to function and there is only avidya.
At the command of Isvara the five subtle elements, namely, ether, air, fire, water and earth, arose
from the part of Prakriti in which tamas predominates, in order that every jiva may have experiences
in accordance with its karma. The five subtle organs of sense, namely, those of hearing, touch, sight,
taste and smell, respectively arose from the sattva part of the five subtle elements, ether, air, fire,
water and earth. From a combination of the sattva parts of all the five subtle elements arose the
antahkarana or the mind. Though only one, the mind is given different names according to the
different functions performed by it. When the mind cogitates it is known as the manas or mind. When
it comes to a decision it is called buddhi or intellect. The function of storing information and
experiences is called cittam. The notion of 'I-ness' which is behind all these functions is called
ahankara or ego.
From the rajas part of the subtle elements arose the subtle organs of action - the organ of speech
arose from the rajas part of ether, the hands from the rajas part of air, the feet from the rajas part of
fire, the organ of excretion from the rajas part of water and the genital organ from the rajas part of
earth. (Note: These, it should be noted, are not the physical organs bearing those names, but their
subtle counterparts in the subtle body. The presiding deities of these organs are, in order, Agni, Indra,
Vishnu, Yama and Prajapati.)
From a combination of the rajas parts of all the five subtle elements arose prana or the vital air. This
prana is given five different names according to the five different functions performed by it- prana,
apana, samana, udana and vyana.
[Note: These functions are described in Sri Sankara's Bhashya on Prasnopanishad 3.5, thus: He
(prana) places apana, a division of himself, in the two lower apertures, as engaged in the work of
ejecting the excreta. Prana himself, who occupies the position of the sovereign, resides in the eyes
and the ears and issues out through the mouth and nostrils. In the navel is samana, which is so called
because it assimilates all that is eaten or drunk, distributes them equally in all parts of the body and
effects digestion. Udana, another division of prana, moves throughout the body and functions
upwards. It leads the soul out of the body at the time of death and takes it to other worlds according
to one's punya and papa. Vyana regulates prana and apana and is the cause of actions requiring
strength. According to Sankhya, there are five more subsidiary vital forces known as naaga, koorma,
krikara, devadatta and dhananjaya). Their functions are, respectively, causing vomiting, winking,
creating hunger, producing yawning and nourishing the body).

The five organs of sense, the five organs of action, the five vital airs (prana, apana, samana, udana
and vyana), mind and intellect - all these seventeen together constitute the subtle body, which is
known as sukshma sarira or linga sarira. (Though the cittam and ahankara, which are also names of
the antahkarana as stated earlier, are not specifically mentioned here, they should also be taken as
included in mind and intellect).
When the jiva identifies himself with the subtle body, he is known as Taijasa. This happens in the
state of dream. Isvara identified with the totality of subtle bodies is known as Hiranyagarbha. The
difference between the two is the same as the difference between the individual and the collective.
Hiranyagarbha is called 'samashti' or 'totality' because of his identification with all the subtle bodies of
the universe. Taijasa identifies himself only with his own subtle body and so he is called 'vyashti' or
'individual'.
After the five subtle elements came into existence, a process of combination of the elements took
place. This process is known as 'quintuplication' or 'pañcikaranam'. What happened was that each
subtle element was first divided into two equal halves. One of the halves of each element was then
divided into four equal parts, resulting in four one-eighth parts of each element. The other half of each
element then combined with one-eighth part of each of the other elements. Thus, one half of the
element 'earth' combined with one-eighth of each of the other four elements, to become the gross
element 'earth'. The same thing happened with the other elements. As a result, each gross element
has half of itself and one-eighth of each of the other four elements. All the gross objects of experience
in the universe and all the gross bodies of all living creatures were created out of these five gross
elements.
It has been said above that Isvara identified with all the subtle bodies is called Hiranyagarbha. The
same Isvara identified with the totality of gross bodies is known as Vaisvanara. When the jiva
identifies himself with his own gross body he is known as Visva.
The jivas go helplessly from one birth to another, just as worms that have fallen into a river are swept
from one whirlpool into another. As a result of good deeds performed in many births, a particular jiva
may be fortunate to receive initiation from a Guru who has himself realised Brahman. Then he
differentiates the self from the five sheaths which make up his gross and subtle bodies and attains the
supreme bliss of liberation. The five sheaths are those of food, vital air, mind, intellect and bliss,
known respectively in Vedanta as annamayakosa, pranamayakosa, manomayakosa,
vijnanamayakosa and anandamayakosa. The jiva, being enveloped in these five sheaths, identifies
himself with them and forgets his real nature. This is the cause of repeated births and deaths, known
as transmigration.
The five sheaths
The gross (or physical) body, which is the product of the gross elements, i.e., the elements after
quintuplication, is known as the food sheath or annamayakosa. The five vital airs and the five organs
of action, which are the products of the rajas aspect of Prakriti, together constitute the vital sheath or
pranamayakosa. The cogitating mind (manas) and the five organs of perception, which are the
product of the sattva aspect of Prakriti make up the mind sheath or manomayakosa. The buddhi or
deciding intellect, together with the five organs of perception, forms the intellect sheath or
vijnanamayakosa. The causal body (avidya or kaaranasarira) is the bliss sheath or anandamayakosa.

The self, which is identical with the supreme Brahman, should be realised by distinguishing it from the
five sheaths in the following manner. The physical body, which is present in the waking state, is not
experienced in the dream state, since the organs of sense and of action do not function then. In the
state of deep sleep neither the physical body nor the subtle body is experienced, since the mind is
also dormant then. The witnessing self, which is pure consciousness, is however, present in all the
three states. Though the causal body, (avidya or nescience) is present in the state of deep sleep, it is
negated in the state of deep meditation, but the self is present in that state also. Thus all the five
sheaths are seen to be impermanent and only the self is permanent. The self can thus be
distinguished from the five sheaths (or the three bodies) through reasoning, just as the slender,
internal pith of the munja grass is detached from its coarse external covering. The identity of the
individual self and Brahman is taught in sentences such as 'That thou art' in the Upanishads.
Brahman associated with the tamasic aspect of Maya is the material cause (upadana-kaaranam) of
the universe. Brahman associated with the sattvic aspect of Maya is the efficient cause (nimitta-
kaaranam) of the universe. Brahman associated with (or reflected in) Maya, is Isvara and he is thus
the material as well as the efficient cause of the universe. It is Isvara that is primarily denoted by the
word 'That' in the sentence (mahavakya) 'That thou art'. Brahman reflected in avidya is the jiva. The
primary meaning of the term 'thou' in the above sentence is the 'jiva'. The difference between Maya
and avidya has already been pointed out earlier.
In the sentence 'This is that Devadatta', the word 'that' refers to a person named Devadatta
associated with a former time and place, whereas the word 'this' refers to the person seen at the
present time and place. The sentence brings out the identity of the person seen at the two different
times and places by ignoring the particular connotations of 'this' and 'that'. Similarly, the sentence
'That thou art' brings out the identity of Brahman and the jiva by negating Maya and avidya, which are
both 'mithya' (i.e, which cannot be characterised as either real or unreal). The truth of both jiva and
Isvara is thus the indivisible supreme Brahman, who is pure existence, consciousness and bliss.
This is further elaborated below, based on the Commentary of Sri Jagadguru Chandrasekhara
Bharati on verses 243 to 251 - of Vivekachudamani of Sri Sankara. The word tat stands for Brahman
as qualified by the functions of creation, sustenance and dissolution (i.e. Isvara). The word tvam
stands for the Atma as qualified by the mental states of waking, dream and deep sleep (i.e. jiva).
These two are of mutually opposed qualities, like the glow-worm and the sun, like the servant and the
king, like the well and the ocean and like the atom and the earth (verse 244). There can be no identity
between these two, which are the literal meanings (vacyartha) of the words tat and tvam. The identity
is only between their implied meanings (lakshyartha). The opposition between the literal meanings is
due to the upadhi, since the literal meaning of tat is Brahman with the upadhi or limiting adjunct of
Maya and the literal meaning of tvam is Atma with the limiting adjunct of the five sheaths. When these
limiting adjuncts, which are not real from the absolute standpoint, are negated, there is neither Isvara
nor jiva. The two terms tat and tvam (That and Thou) are to be understood properly by their implied
meanings in order to grasp the import of the absolute identity between them. This is to be done
neither by total rejection of their literal meaning nor by total non-rejection, but by a combination of
both.
Implied meanings are of three kinds: jahal-lakshana, ajahal-lakshana and jahadajahal-lakshana.
Jahal-lakshana - The literal meaning is to be rejected and some other meaning consistent with it is to
be adopted. An example is - Gangayam ghoshah, the literal meaning of which is - 'a hamlet on the
river Ganga'. Since there cannot be a hamlet on the river itself, it is the bank of the river that is meant.
Here the literal meaning of the word 'Ganga' has to be given up completely and the implied meaning
'bank' has to be adopted.
Ajahal-lakshana - Without giving up the literal meaning of the word, what is implied by it is also
adopted to get the meaning intended to be conveyed. An example is - the sentence, 'The red is
running', which is intended to convey that the red horse is running. Here the literal meaning of the
word 'red' is retained and the implied word ''horse'' is added to get the correct sense of the sentence.
Jahadajahal-lakshana - Here a part of the literal meaning is retained and the other part discarded.
The sentence 'This is that Devadatta' is interpreted by using this lakshana. The meaning intended to
be conveyed by this sentence is that Devadatta who is seen at the present time in the present place
is the same as the person who was seen earlier in another place. The literal meaning of the word
'this' is Devadatta associated with the present time and place. The literal meaning of the word 'that' is
Devadatta associated with the past time and some other place. Since this sentence purports to
convey the identity of the person seen in different places at different times, we get this meaning by
discarding the reference to the place and time conveyed by the words 'this' and 'that' and retaining
the reference to Devadatta. This is also known as bhagatyaga-lakshana. The meaning of the
sentence tat tvam asi is obtained by using this method. Just as in the sentence 'This is that
Devadatta' the identity is stated by rejecting the contradictory qualities, so also in the sentence 'That
thou art' the contradictory qualities (namely, the limiting adjuncts) are rejected. Thus it follows that the
jiva and Brahman are in essence one when the limiting adjuncts, Maya and the five sheaths, are
rejected}.
The realization of the identity of the individual self (jivatma) and Brahman (paramatma) is liberation.
This is not some state to be attained after death in some other world, but it is what is to be realised
during one's lifetime itself. This is known as liberation-in-life or jivanmukti. The means for this
realization are three - hearing (sravana), reflection (manana) and unbroken meditation
(nididhyasana). 'Hearing' is not merely listening to the teacher who expounds the upanishads, but
arriving at the conviction that the purport of all the upanishads is the identity of the individual self and
Brahman. 'Reflection' is churning in the mind what has been heard from the teacher, by making use
of arguments in a constructive manner, to arrive at the conviction of its correctness. 'Meditation' is
keeping the mind fixed on the thought of Brahman, uninterrupted by any other thought.
The result achieved by 'hearing,' etc.
'Hearing' removes the doubt whether the upanishadic text which is the pramana (source of
knowledge) expounds Brahman or something else. This doubt is known as pramana asambhavana,
or the doubt about the pramana itself.
'Reflection' removes the doubt whether Brahman and the jiva are the same or not. This doubt is
called prameya asambhavana.
'Meditation' is intended to remove wrong notions such as 'The universe is real; the difference between
Brahman and jiva is real', which are contrary to the teachings of the upanishads, by developing
concentration of the mind. Such wrong notions are known as viparitabhavana.
Thus the purpose of hearing, reflection and meditation is the removal of obstacles in the form of
doubts and wrong notions that stand in the way of Self-realization.
When the mind gradually leaves off the ideas of the meditator and the act of meditation and gets
merged in the Self which is the object of meditation, it is called the state of samadhi. In this state the
mind is steady like the flame of a lamp kept in a place where there is no breeze at all. This has been
mentioned in Bhagavadgita, ch. 6, verse 19. Though in this state there is no subjective cognition of

the mental function having the Self as object, its continued existence in this state is inferred from the
recollection after emergence from samadhi. This shows that only the modifications of the mind cease
in samadhi, but the mind itself is not dissolved. By such a samadhi, known as nirvikalpa samadhi, all
the accumulated karma and all desires, which are the seeds of transmigratory existence, are
destroyed. Then the mahavakya 'That thou art' gives rise to the direct realization of Brahman. The
indirect knowledge of Brahman, received from the Guru, burns up all sins committed upto the
attainment of that knowledge. The direct realization of Brahman totally destroys nescience which is
the root cause of the cycle of repeated births and deaths.
Thus the Self should be distinguished from the five sheaths and the mind should be concentrated on
the Self in order to attain liberation from bondage.
Chapter - 2
Mahabhutaviveka - The discriminative knowledge of the five elements
Brahman, the non-dual reality, can be known by discriminating it from the five elements. To enable
this, the five elements are first described.
The element ether has only one quality, sound. The element air has sound and touch as its qualities.
The element fire has sound, touch and colour. The element water has sound, touch, colour and taste.
The element earth has sound, touch, colour, taste and smell. These elements are perceived by the
corresponding five organs of perception.
All actions of man can be classified into five groups. These are speech, grasping, movement,
excretion and reproduction. These are performed through the corresponding five organs of action,
namely, tongue, hands, feet, anus and genitals.
The subtle organs of perception and action are known as 'indriyas'. These form part of the subtle
body. The corresponding organs in the physical or gross body are known as 'golaka'. The mind is the
ruler of the ten organs of perception and action. It is situated within the heart-lotus. It is known as the
inner organ (antahkarana). It depends on the ten organs for its functions in relation to external
objects. The mind is constituted of the three gunas, sattva, rajas and tamas. The mind undergoes
changes which are caused by the gunas. Sattva guna produces non-attachment, forgiveness,
generosity and similar virtues in the mind. Rajas gives rise to emotions such as desire, anger, avarice
and is the cause of the person undertaking various actions. Tamas is responsible for lethargy,
confusion, drowsiness, etc. When sattva is predominant in the mind, merit (punya) is acquired; when
rajas predominates, demerit (papa) results. When tamas is predominant, life is merely wasted.
All the objects in the world, as well as the senses and the mind are made up of the five elements.
There are three kinds of differences. A tree has the trunk, branches, leaves, flowers and fruits. These
are all different from one another. These are differences within one object, namely, the tree. Such a
difference is known as 'svagatabheda' or internal difference. The difference of one tree from another
is known as 'sajatiyabheda' or difference within the same species. The difference of a tree from a
stone (or from any object other than a tree) is called 'vijatiyabheda' or difference between objects of
different species. Since Brahman is the only reality, and there is nothing else of the same species or
of a different species, there can be no difference of the last two kinds in Brahman. Since Brahman is
homogeneous and without parts, there can be no internal difference. Brahman is therefore described
as 'one only, without a second'. The word 'one' negates 'sajatiyabheda'; the word 'only' rejects

'svagatabheda'; and the words 'without a second' negate 'vijatiyabheda'. Brahman can be
experienced when the mind becomes absolutely tranquil. Brahman is self-revealing and is the witness
of the cessation of all modifications of the mind. Maya is the power of Brahman and has no existence
independent of Brahman. Maya cannot be known directly, but can only be inferred from its effect, the
universe. Before the manifestation of the universe Maya existed in Brahman in a potential form. Maya
is neither existence nor non-existence. It is indefinable.
The Sruti says that the created universe forms only a part of Brahman. In the Gita Sri Krishna says to
Arjuna, "The universe is sustained by a part of Me". Though Brahman is without parts, the Sruti
speaks of it as having parts, using the language familiar to us. With Brahman as the substratum,
Maya modifies itself into all the objects in the world, just like various pictures drawn on a wall. The
first modification of Maya is space. Space derives its existence from Brahman. That is to say, space
appears to exist only because of its substratum, Brahman, which is existence itself. Space has sound
as its quality. It is Brahman or Existence which appears as akasa (space), but ordinary people and
the logicians consider existence as a property of akasa. This wrong notion is due to Maya. Space has
no existence apart from Brahman. Similarly, the other elements, air, fire, water and earth too have no
existence apart from Brahman. They are not real in the absolute sense, but appear to be real
because of the substratum, Brahman. Brahman is all-pervading, but the range of Maya is limited, that
of space is more limited and that of air yet more so.
Space has the property of (communicating) sound. Air has the property of perceptibility to the sense
of touch. Colour is the specific property of fire, in addition to the properties of space and air. The
specific property of water is taste. In addition it has the properties of its predecessors, space, air and
fire. Earth has the specific property of smell, in addition to the properties of space, air, fire and water.
Brahman alone is the absolute Reality. The universe has only empirical reality. When duality, which is
not real, is negated, one becomes established in the non-dual Brahman. Such a person is known as a
jivanmukta (liberated-in-life).
A jivanmukta is not affected by delusion and it makes no difference whether he dies healthy or in
illness, whether while in meditation or rolling on the ground, whether in a conscious state or in an
unconscious state, since he has already given up identification with the body.
Thus the discrimination of the elements from the non-dual Reality leads to supreme bliss.
Chapter - 3
Panchakosaviveka - The discrimination of the five sheaths
The Taittiriya upanishad describes Brahman or the Self as "hidden in the cave". The 'cave' is the five
sheaths known as annamayakosa (physical sheath), pranamayakosa (the sheath of the vital airs),
manomayakosa (the mental sheath), vijnanamayakosa (the sheath of the intellect) and
anandamayakosa (the sheath of bliss). The outermost is the physical sheath or the gross physical
body or sthula sarira. Within it are the vital, mental and intellect sheaths, in that order. These three
sheaths together constitute the subtle body or the sukshma sarira. The innermost sheath is the
sheath of bliss. This is the causal body or karana sarira.
The physical body is produced from the seed and blood of the parents, which are formed out of the
food eaten by them. It grows by food. It does not exist either before birth or after death. It comes into
existence as the result of past actions. It cannot therefore be the Self which is eternal and has neither
birth nor death. The vital sheath consists of the five pranas, namely, prana, apana, samana, udana
and vyana. These pervade the physical body and give the power to the sense organs to function. This
sheath cannot be the Self, since it is devoid of consciousness. The mental sheath is what gives rise
to the notions of 'I' and 'mine' with regard to the body, relations and possessions. It too cannot be the
Self because it has desires, is subject to delusion and is always changing. The intellect, on which
there is the reflection of pure Consciousness, and which is dormant in the state of deep sleep is the
intellect sheath. It cannot be the Self because it undergoes changes.
The inner organ, though one, is treated as two, namely, the intellect or buddhi and the mind or
manas. The mind collects information through the sense-organs and presents it to the intellect which
judges and decides. In deep sleep the inner organ becomes dormant and bliss is experienced. This is
the bliss sheath. This too cannot be the Self because it is impermanent. The source of this bliss is the
Self. The Self is always the subject and can never be the object of experience. The Self is
consciousness itself and imparts consciousness to the mind and body, just as sugar is sweetness
itself and imparts sweetens to all dishes which taste sweet. The Self cannot be described because it
is not an object. It is self-revealing. This Self is Brahman. Being all-pervasive, Brahman is not limited
by space. Being eternal, it is not limited by time. Being the substratum of the whole universe, it is not
limited by any object, just as the rope is not limited by the illusory snake. Thus Brahman is infinite in
all three respects.
Brahman, who is Existence, Consciousness and Infinite is the only Reality. Isvara and jiva are mere
superimpositions on Brahman by Maya and avidya respectively. Maya is the power of Isvara, which
controls the whole universe, but is itself under the control of Isvara. It appears to have consciousness
because of the reflection of Brahman in it. Brahman is pure Consciousness, while Isvara is
omniscient because of His power, Maya. Brahman is called jiva when It is looked upon as associated
with the five sheaths, just as a man is called a father and a grandfather in relation to his son and
grandson. When considered apart from Maya and the five sheaths Brahman is neither Isvara nor jiva.
He who realises that he is in essence Brahman (and not the body-mind complex) is not born again,
since Brahman has no birth and is eternal.
Chapter - 4
Dvaitaviveka - Discrimination of Duality
In this chapter the duality created by Isvara and that created by the Jiva are described and
differentiated. This will show what is the cause of bondage and what has to be rejected by the
aspirant for liberation.
The Svetasvatara Upanishad says (4.10): "Know Maya to be Prakriti and Brahman associated with
Maya as Isvara". Isvara is the creator of the universe. The Aitareya Upanishad says that before
creation there was Atman (i.e. Brahman ) alone. He willed, "Let me create", and He created the world
by His will. The Taittiriya Upanishad says that from the Self or Brahman arose in succession ether,
air, fire, water, earth, vegetation, food and bodies. Isvara willed, "Let me become many, let me
create", and meditated and thus created the universe. The Chandogya Upanishad says that before
creation Brahman alone existed as pure Existence. He desired to become many and created fire,
water, earth and all living beings such as those born of eggs, those born from wombs, etc. The
Mundaka Upanishad says that from the immutable Brahman arose the various sentient beings and
insentient objects, in the same way as sparks emanate from a blazing fire. The Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad says that before it became manifest the universe existed in an unmanifest state. It
assumed names and forms and manifested as Virat. From Virat came into being the Manus, human
beings, cattle, asses, horses, goats, etc, of both sexes, down to ants. According to these Srutis Isvara
entered into all these bodies as the Jiva. The Jiva is so called because it bears Prana, or the vital air.

The Jiva is a blend of the substratum or Pure Consciousness, the subtle body and the reflection of
Pure Consciousness in the subtle body. Maya, which is the Power of Isvara, has, in addition to the
power to create, also the power to delude. The latter deludes the Jiva. The Jiva, thus deluded,
identifies himself with the body, considers himself to be a limited, helpless being and thus becomes
subject to grief. What has been described so far is the duality created by Isvara.
The duality created by the Jiva is described in the section known as Sapta-anna Brahmana of the
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Jiva creates seven kinds of food (or objects of experience) by his
actions and meditations. Of these seven, one kind is meant for human beings in general, two for the
gods, one for animals and the remaining three for himself. Grains such as wheat are for human
beings. The ingredients of the full-moon and new-moon sacrifices are for the gods. Milk is for animals.
The mind, speech and vital airs (Prana) are for the Jiva himself. These are the seven kinds of food
created by the Jiva. Though these objects are also created by Isvara, the Jiva converts them into
objects of enjoyment for himself and so they are spoken of here as the creations of the Jiva. The idea
is that each Jiva creates his own world by his actions and thoughts in previous births and so whatever
objects he experiences and whatever joys he enjoys and sorrows he suffers, are all the result of his
own actions and thoughts.
An object such as a gem, which is a creation of Isvara, always remains the same, but the attitude of
each individual human being towards it differs. The man who gets possession of it feels happy, while
another man who has not got it is sad. A third man, who is indifferent to such objects, feels neither
happy nor sad. The feelings of happiness, sorrow and indifference are created by the respective Jivas
towards the gem, but the nature of the gem as created by God does not undergo any change.
Similarly the attitudes of different persons towards the same woman differ, depending on whether he
is her father or brother or husband or a stranger. Correspondingly the attitude of the same woman
towards each of these different persons will be different, depending on her relationship with them.
Thus, while the physical body of the woman as well the other men remains the same, the mind of
each of them undergoes changes in accordance with their relationships. These changes are created
by the Jivas. Thus each human being or Jiva has two aspects, the material and the mental. It is this
mental aspect, which is the creation of each Jiva, that is the cause of bondage. Each Jiva develops
likes and dislikes towards various objects. depending on his mental attitude which is governed by the
impressions (called Vasanas) left by his own past actions. These likes and dislikes are the cause of
joy and sorrow. In dream a person experiences joys and sorrows because of objects conjured up by
the mind, though there are no external objects. In deep sleep, when the mind does not function, no
joy or sorrow is felt by the person, even if there are objects by his side which can cause joy, sorrow,
fear, anger, etc. Thus it is clear that it is the mind that is the cause of joys and sorrows; not other
persons or objects.
A person whose son had gone to a far-off country was wrongly informed by someone that the son
had died. Though this information was wrong, the father was plunged in sorrow. At the same time, his
neighbour, whose son it was who had died in a foreign country, remained calm, believing that his son
was safe. This shows that the real cause of a man's bondage and sorrow is the mind and not any
actual event.
Unlike the Buddhist Vijnanavadins, Advaita accepts the existence of external objects and holds that,
in perception, the mind takes the form of the external object. It may be argued that, since it is the
mind that causes bondage by projecting the phenomenal world, the world could be made to
disappear by controlling the mind through the practice of yoga. The answer to this is that though
duality can be made to disappear temporarily by control of the mind, final elimination of bondage is
not possible without the realization of Brahman, which alone will destroy Nescience (avidya).

Even after the realization of Brahman, the duality created by Isvara will continue to be perceived by
the Jnani, but he will not be affected by it, since he has realized their unreality. Once a person has
been convinced that the water that appears in a mirage is illusory, he will no longer go after it, though
the water will continue to appear as before when looked at from a distance. The mere disappearance
of duality cannot eliminate bondage without realization of Brahman. At the time of the dissolution of
the universe all objects cease to exist, but they will come into manifestation again when the next cycle
of creation starts. At that time all Jivas who have not realized Brahman in the previous cycle of
creation will be born again. Thus total freedom from rebirth can be attained only by the realization of
Brahman.
The world of objects created by God is a help for the realization of non-duality and not an obstacle. It
does not get destroyed even when a person attains knowledge of the non-dual Brahman. It is the
duality created by the Jiva that hinders the attainment of Self-knowledge. The duality created by the
Jiva is of two kinds- that which is in conformity with the scriptural teachings and that which is not. The
first should be accepted and practised till Self-knowledge is attained. Enquiry about Brahman by
hearing the scriptures from a Guru, reflecting on its teachings and meditating on them is the duality
which is in conformity with the scriptures. This enquiry necessarily involves the acceptance of
different entities such as Guru, disciple and the Sastras, but this duality is necessary to enable the
disciple to conduct the enquiry into Brahman and so it is acceptable. But even this difference (or
duality) has to be given up after the realization of Brahman, because then there is nothing other than
Brahman. The Amritananda Upanishad says: "A wise person, having studied the scriptures and
repeatedly practised their teachings, should renounce them after realizing Brahman, just as a traveller
throws away a flaming torch after reaching his destination, or as a person throws away the husk after
taking the grain". He should thereafter keep his mind fixed on Brahman and should not burden his
mind with mere words (Br. Up. 4.4.21).
The duality (or multiplicity) that is not in conformity with the scriptures is that resulting from looking
upon all living beings and objects as different from one another. It is this mental attitude that gives
rise to attachment, aversion, anger, greed and other emotions. The mental attitude that gives rise to
craving, anger and similar emotions is called 'violent'. That which gives rise to fanciful thoughts is
called 'mild'. Both these should be given up by the spiritual aspirant because calmness of mind and
concentration are the essential pre-requisites for an aspirant. One can become fit for liberation only if
he gives up the desire for objects of sense. The way to do this is to remember always the adverse
consequences of the enjoyment of sense pleasures. Even mental preoccupation with the objects of
desire should be given up, because it is the seed of all evils. It is said in the Bhagavadgita that
dwelling mentally on objects leads to attachment to them. Attachment gives rise to longing for the
object. If the desire is not fulfilled, anger results. Anger makes a person forget all the good lessons
that he has learnt, and this in turn results in loss of discrimination. Ultimately he becomes unfit for
spiritual progress. (Gita, 2.62- 63).
The tendency to think of objects of desire can be overcome by meditating on Isvara, which will lead to
meditation on Nirguna Brahman and to liberation. When the mind is thus controlled, it becomes calm
and free from all modifications. When one realizes that the phenomenal world has no absolute reality,
one experiences the bliss of Nirvana. Such a person is not merely a knower of Brahman; he is
Brahman itself.

Chapter - 5
Mahavakyaviveka - Understanding the import of the 'Mahavakyas'
In this chapter the meaning of four Mahavakyas from the four Vedas is explained.
The first Mahavakya taken for explanation is 'Prajnanam Brahma' (Aitareya Upanishad, 3.1.1 in the
Rigveda). This means that Brahman is pure Consciousness. It is because of this Consciousness that
all creatures are able to see, hear, smell, speak and distinguish different tastes.
The same consciousness enlivens gods, men and all other creatures. This consciousness is
Brahman.
The next Mahavakya is 'Aham Brahma asmi' (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 1.4.10 in the Sukla
Yajurveda), which means 'I am Brahman'. The infinite, supreme Brahman, which, as the indwelling
Self of all, is the witness of all the functions of the intellect, is known as 'I'. The person who has
acquired the necessary qualifications such as control of the senses, control of the mind, total
detachment towards all pleasures and an intense yearning for liberation is fit to realize his identity
with this Self.
The Mahavakya in Chandogya Upanishad (6.8.15) in the Samaveda is 'Tat tvam asi', which means
'That thou art'. Before the creation of the universe there existed only one non-dual Existence without
name and form. Even now it exists in the same condition (but with the universe of names and forms
superimposed on it by Maya). This Existence is indicated by the term 'That'.
The indwelling self in individual beings that transcends the body, mind and senses is indicated by the
term 'thou'. The identity of 'That' and 'thou' is expressed by the term 'asi'.
The Mahavakya 'Ayam atma Brahma' is in the Mandukya Upanishad in the Atharvaveda. This means
that the indwelling self in every creature is Brahman.
The identity declared in the above-mentioned Mahavakyas is not with reference to the primary
meanings of the terms, but only with reference to their implied meanings. This has been elaborated in
the summary of chapter 1, which may be referred to.
How knowledge arises from the Mahaavaakya - two theories.
According to one theory, known as the prasankhyaana theory, attributed to Mandana Misra, the
knowledge which arises from the Mahavakya is relational and mediate, like any other knowledge
arising from a sentence. Such a knowledge cannot apprehend Brahman which is non-relational and
immediate. Meditation (prasankhyaana) gives rise to another knowledge which is non-relational and
immediate. It is this knowledge that destroys nescience.
The view of Suresvara is the opposite of the above. Knowledge of Brahman arises directly from the
Mahavakyas. According to him also, meditation is necessary, but it is only for perfecting the hearing.
The difference between the two theories is that, while, according to Suresvara, the knowledge which
arises from the Mahavakya is immediate and non-relational, according to the other theory this
knowledge is only mediate and relational. For an elaborate discussion Suresvara's
Naishkarmyasiddhi may be referred to.

Following the view of Mandana, Vachaspati Misra holds that the mind is the instrument for the
attainment of Self-knowledge. Following the other view stated above, Prakasatman, the author of
Vivarana says that the Mahavakya itself is the instrument, though the knowledge no doubt arises in
the mind.
The Mahavakya gives rise to Self-knowledge by making the mind take the form of Brahman. The
question arises - since Brahman has no form, what is meant by saying that the mind takes the form of
Brahman (akhanda-aakaara-vritti)? This is explained by Vidyaranya in Jivanmuktiviveka, chapter 3 by
taking an example. A pot made of clay is full of the all-pervading space as soon as it is made. Filling it
afterwards with water, rice or any other substance is due to human effort. Though the water, etc, in
the pot can be removed, the space inside can never be removed. It continues to be there even if the
mouth of the pot is hermetically sealed. In the same manner, the mind, in the act of being born,
comes into existence full of the consciousness of the self. It takes on, after its birth, due to the
influence of virtue and vice, the form of pots, cloths, colour, taste, pleasure, pain, and other
transformations, just like melted copper, cast into moulds. Of these, the transformations such as
colour, taste and the like, which are not-self, can be removed from the mind, but the form of the self,
which does not depend on any external cause, cannot be removed at all. Thus, when all other ideas
are removed from the mind, the self is realized without any impediment. It has been said-"One should
cause the mind which, by its very nature, is ever prone to assume either of the two forms of the Self
and the not-Self, to throw into the background the perception of the not-Self, by taking on the form of
the Self alone". And also - "The mind takes on the form of pleasure, pain and the like, because of the
influence of virtue and vice, whereas the form of the mind, in its native aspect, is not conditioned by
any extraneous cause. To the mind devoid of all transformations is revealed the supreme Bliss".
Thus, when the mind is emptied of all other thoughts Self-knowledge arises.
The meaning of the Mahavakya 'aham brahma asmi'
This Mahavakya is explained by Suresvara in Naishkarmyasiddhi, 2.29 thus:-Just as in the sentence,

"This post is a man", the earlier cognition that there is a post is sublated by the subsequent cognition
that it is a man (and not a post), the cognition "I am Brahman" removes entirely the cognition as "I".
Sures'vara explains the statement aham brahma asmi, (I am Brahman), through what is known as
baadhaayaam saamaanaadhikaranyam. In a sentence in Sanskrit, words which, having the same
case-endings, denote one and the same thing are said to be in samaanaadhikaranam. The relation
between the words is called saamaanaadhikaranyam. This relation is of two kinds, mukhya
saamaanaadhikaranyam and baadhaayaam saamaanaadhikaranyam. In the former, the objects
denoted by the words will have the same ontological status (or the same order of reality). For
example, in the sentence, the pot-space is but the great (outer) space, the space within the pot and
the great space are both empirically real (vyaavahaarika satyam). The difference between them is
only due to the upaadhi in the form of the pot. When the upaadhi is removed, they become one,
which they really are, even earlier. But if the words of a sentence, having the same case-endings,
denote objects which have different ontological status, and if they purport to convey only one idea,
they are in baadhaayaam saamaanaadhikaranyam. For example, in the statement "This post is a
man", the words "post" and "man" have different ontological status. Since what exists is a man and
not a post, "man" is empirically real (vyaavahaarika) and "post" is only apparently real
(praatibhaasika). Thus, just as the idea that what is seen is a post is removed when the person hears
the statement "This post is a man", the wrong cognition of the form 'I am a man', 'I am happy' etc, is
removed when a person realizes that he is Brahman on hearing the statement aham brahma asmi.
The essence of the entire universe is Brahman. The same Brahman is the self-luminous indwelling
self or atma.

Chapter - 6
Chitradeepa - The Picture on Pure Consciousness
The titles of chapters 6 to 10 contain the word 'dipa' which means 'lamp'. This word denotes the
Consciousness aspect of Brahman which is dealt with in these chapters.
The supreme Self is explained by comparison with the canvas on which a picture is drawn. Just as
there are four stages in the painting of a picture, there are four stages in the apparent modification of
the supreme Self. In the painting of a picture the four stages are, a clean white canvas, the canvas
stiffened with starch, the canvas with outlines drawn on it with a black pencil, and the canvas with
colours applied to the picture. The corresponding four stages with regard to the Self are, pure
Consciousness, Consciousness as the indwelling controller in all beings, Consciousness as
associated with the totality of subtle bodies, and Consciousness as associated with the totality of
gross bodies.
Just as in a picture there are superior and inferior objects, there are in the universe various grades of
beings from Brahma and other gods to human beings, animals, birds, etc. In a picture human beings
are painted as wearing clothes of different kinds, and the clothes painted appear to be as real as the
canvas on which the pictures are painted. All the forms in the universe are superimposed on
Brahman which is pure consciousness. This consciousness is reflected in these forms and the forms
with the reflection of consciousness in them are known as Jivas. The Jivas go through the cycle of
repeated births and deaths. Ignorant people would think that the clothes painted in a picture are as
real as the canvas itself. Similarly, ignorant people think that the transmigrations of the Jivas are
undergone by pure consciousness itself. Just as the inanimate objects in a picture are not painted as
dressed in clothes, inanimate objects in the universe do not have the reflection of consciousness in
them. The wrong notion that transmigration is real and that the Self, which is pure consciousness, is
subject to it is what is called 'Avidya' or nescience. This nescience is removed by the knowledge of
the real nature of the Self. Transmigration is only for the Jiva, which is a reflection of the Self, and not
for the Self. This understanding is knowledge and it is gained by enquiry. Therefore one should
always enquire into the nature of the Jiva, the universe and the supreme Self. When the Jiva and the
universe are negated, the pure Self alone remains as the only reality. Negation does not mean that
the Jiva and the universe cease to be perceived, as that happens even in deep sleep or in a faint.
Negation means the conviction that the Jiva and the universe do not have absolute reality and that
they are only 'mithya', i.e., they have only empirical reality.
The knowledge that Brahman exists is only mediate (paroksha) knowledge. The knowledge 'I am
Brahman' is called realization.
The same Brahman is spoken of in four ways: as 'kutastha' or immutable, Brahman, Jiva and Isvara,
just as the same space is spoken of as pot-space, all-pervading space, space conditioned by water
and space conditioned by a cloud. The sky with clouds and stars reflected in a pot of water is known
as space conditioned by water. The sky reflected in the water particles in a cloud is known as space
conditioned by a cloud. The Self or pure Consciousness which is the substratum on which the gross
and subtle bodies are superimposed, and which is not affected by any change in the two bodies, is
known as 'kutastha' or immutable, since it is changeless, like the 'kuta' or anvil on which the goldsmith
fashions his jewellery. The reflection of the Self in the subtle body is the Jiva or individual who goes
from one birth to another (transmigrates). He is known as the Jiva because he is animated by prana
(the vital air). (The verbal root 'jiva' means 'to be endowed with prana' or vital air). Because of
nescience which is beginningless, the jiva identifies himself with the body and does not realize that he
is in reality the kutastha or Brahman. This nescience has two powers; the power to conceal Brahman,
known as Avarana sakti and the power to project the universe, known as Vikshepa sakti. The power
to conceal Brahman makes the jiva totally ignorant of the existence of Brahman. Because of the
power of projection, the jiva experiences the subtle and gross bodies and looks upon them as real.
This is what is known as the superimposition of these bodies on Brahman. It is like a rope being
mistaken for a snake in dim light when the rope is not clearly seen. Because of such superimposition
caused by nescience, the mind, with the reflection of Consciousness in it, is mistakenly thought to be
the pure Self or Consciousness itself. The mind with the reflection of consciousness in it is known as
the 'ego' or 'Ahankara'.
Brahman or pure Consciousness is the substratum on which all animate beings as well as inanimate
objects are projected. The animate beings have life and are able to function because they have a
subtle body which receives the reflection of pure Consciousness. Because of this reflection of
Consciousness they themselves appear to have consciousness, just as the moon shines because of
the reflection of the light of the sun on it. The inanimate objects do not have a subtle body to receive
the reflection of Consciousness. Death is the separation of the subtle body from the gross body.
When the subtle body departs from the gross body, the living being becomes lifeless.
It is nescience that conceals the real nature of the Self and makes the Jiva identify himself with the
body. This concealment as well as the wrong identification cease when nescience is destroyed. But
as long as the praarabdha karma which gave rise to the present body lasts, the mind and body, which
are the effects of nescience continue.
The word 'karma' is used in two different senses in Vedanta - (1) the results of actions performed, in
the form of merit and demerit (punya and paapa), which produce their effects later on, usually in
another birth, and (2) the action itself, whether secular or religious. Here we are speaking about
karma in the first sense. This karma is of three kinds - known as sanchita, praarabdha and aagaami.
The karma accumulated over innumerable past lives is known as sanchita karma. Out of this, a
portion gives rise to the present birth. This portion is known as praarabdha karma, meaning 'what has
already started (aarabdha) giving its effect'. The karma that results from the actions performed during
this life is known as aagaami karma. This gets added to the sanchita karma. On the dawn of
Brahmajnaana the entire sanchita karma as at that time is destroyed. Actions performed after the
dawn of knowledge do not produce any karma because identification with the body-mind complex,
which is the cause of karma, has ceased to exist. Thus there is no further aagaami karma. But
praarabdha karma is not destroyed by knowledge. It continues to give its results until it is exhausted.
Therefore the present body-mind complex continues to exist till the exhaustion of the praarabdha
karma. But since the jnaani does not identify himself with his body and mind, he is not affected by
whatever happens to them, but remains established in his real essence as Brahman. This is the state
known as 'jivanmukti' or liberation-in-life. (Reference may be made in this context to Sri Sankara's
Bhashya on the following:- Br.up.1.4.7., Br.up.1.4.10.,Ch.up.6.14.2., Br.up.4.4.22., Bhagavadgita,
4.37).
Various views are held by different schools regarding the Self. One group of Lokayatas (materialists)
consider the physical body to be the Self. Another group holds the senses to be the Self, another the
vital airs, another the mind, and yet another the intellect. All these are undergoing changes all the
time and so they cannot be the Self which is changeless. The Buddhists say that perception, as well
as the objects of perception are creations of illusion. The Vedantins reject this view by pointing out
that there can be no illusion without a substratum. There can be no illusion of a snake without a rope
as the substratum. The Buddhists hold that there is only void, but even a void must have someone to
witness it; otherwise it would be impossible to say that there is a void. We are therefore led to the
conclusion that there must be a changeless substratum for the changing universe. That substratum is
Brahman or the Self. There are also different views about the size of the Self. Some hold that it is
atomic, some that it is all-pervading and some that it is of medium size.
The Vedantins hold that the Self is pure consciousness, infinite, devoid of parts and all-pervading.
Maya or Prakriti, which is the power of Brahman is neither real nor unreal; it is indeterminable. Maya
can be looked upon in three ways. For the ordinary people it is real. For the enlightened person
(jnaani) it does not exist at all. For those who try to understand Maya through reasoning it is
indeterminable. Maya projects the universe without in anyway affecting Brahman. Making the
impossible happen is the nature of Maya.
Brahman reflected in Maya is Isvara. Isvara controls Maya, but the jiva is under the control of Maya.
Isvara is the indweller and inner controller (antaryaami) in every living being. He is omniscient and is
the cause of the universe. He causes the manifestation of the universe and creates beings in
accordance with their past karma. Creation is like the unrolling of a painted canvas. If the painted
canvas is rolled up, the picture is no longer visible. In the same way, when the karma of living beings
is exhausted, Isvara withdraws the universe into Himself. Then the universe and all beings remain in
a latent form till the commencement of the next cycle of creation. Isvara is the cause of the inanimate
objects through the tamasic aspect of Maya. He is the cause of the jivas through the reflection of pure
consciousness in Maya. Brahman is unconditioned by Maya, while Isvara is conditioned by Maya and
is the creator of the universe. The Upanishads declare that Brahman is reality, consciousness and
infinity. The sense organs and the mind cannot grasp it.
Hiranyagarbha is the totality of the subtle bodies of all jivas. Virat is the totality of all gross bodies.
The whole world is a creation of Isvara and jiva. From the determination of Isvara to create, down to
His entrance into the created objects as the inner controller, is the creation of Isvara. From the waking
state to liberation is the creation of the jiva.
A person who has realized his identity with the changeless Self that is pure Consciousness is not
affected by anything that happens to the body.
Detachment, knowledge of the Reality and giving up desire-prompted actions mutually assist one
another. Detachment arises from the realization that the happiness arising from objects is
impermanent. Knowledge of the Reality is attained by hearing the scriptures, reflecting on them and
meditation. Cessation of desire-prompted activities results from control of the mind. Of these three,
the knowledge of the Reality is the most important. These three come to a person who has acquired a
vast store of merit (punya) in innumerable past lives. The summit of detachment is the total absence
of desire even for the pleasures of the world of Brahma (the Creator God). The summit of the
knowledge of the Reality is reached when a person experiences his identity with the supreme Self as
firmly as an ordinary man identifies himself with his physical body. The height of cessation of desire-
prompted activities is the complete forgetfulness of all worldly affairs even in the waking state as in
the state of deep sleep.
Enlightened people may behave in different ways according to their fructifying karma, but there is no
difference in their knowledge of the Reality or in the nature of their liberation.
The universe is like a picture drawn on the supreme Brahman. When we ignore the distinctions,
which are all caused by Maya, pure Consciousness alone remains.
This chapter, when regularly studied, frees the intelligent aspirant from the delusion that the world is
real, even though he may continue to see the world as before.

Chapter - 7
Triptidipa - Fulfillment on Realization of Pure Consciousness
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 4.4.12, says that a person who has realized that he is the pure Self
(Brahman) will not afflict his body for the fulfillment of any desire. This statement is analyzed
thoroughly in this chapter to enable us to understand the state of perfect bliss of a liberated person.
Isvara and the jivas are both reflections of Brahman in Maya. The whole universe is the creation of
Isvara and the jivas. From the determination of Isvara to create, down to his entrance into the created
objects, is the creation of Isvara. (The term 'entrance' means only the presence of Isvara as the
Antaryami or inner controller in all jivas). From the waking state up to liberation, which constitutes
'samsaara', is the creation of the jiva.
The universe appears on the substratum Brahman which is pure consciousness, the Self of all beings
and immutable. The reflection of Brahman in the intellect is known as chidaabhaasa. Because of
mutual superimposition between Brahman and the intellect, the chidaabhaasa identifies itself with the
intellect. The chidaabhaasa identified with the intellect is the jiva. The jiva looks upon himself as an
agent and an enjoyer. Because of identification with the gross and subtle bodies, the jiva attributes to
himself the joys and sorrows which pertain to the bodies alone. When the jiva gives up his
identification with the bodies he realizes that he is the substratum, Brahman, which is pure
consciousness and devoid of association with anything.
A story is told in Vedantic works to illustrate how knowledge of the reality dawns as a result of hearing
from a guru the mahavakya 'That thou art'. Ten ignorant villagers crossed a river. On reaching the
other bank one of them counted their number to see if all of them had reached safely. He counted
only nine and felt that one of them must have been drowned in the river. Each of the others then
counted and got the same result. When they were grieving about the loss of one of them, a man who
was passing by offered to count their number. After counting nine, when he came to the last man he
told him, "You are the tenth". Each one then realized that he had forgotten himself while counting,
because of his ignorance. In the same way, every human being has forgotten his real nature and
realizes it only when instructed by a competent teacher with the mahavakya 'That thou art'.
There are seven stages in the process of realization of the Self. They are, ignorance, obscuration,
super-imposition, indirect or mediate knowledge, direct or immediate knowledge, cessation of sorrow
and a sense of supreme fulfillment. The jiva is ignorant of the truth that he is Brahman in essence.
Because of this ignorance he says that Brahman is not manifest and does not exist. This is
obscuration. He looks upon himself as a doer and an enjoyer because of identification with his body
and mind. This is super-imposition. When he is instructed by a competent teacher, he gets the
knowledge that Brahman exists. This is mediate or indirect knowledge. Then by acquiring the
requisites such as detachment, etc., and reflecting and meditating on the teachings, he realizes that
he is Brahman and remains established in that experience. This is direct or immediate knowledge.
Now he is free from the wrong notion that he is a doer and an enjoyer. With this all sorrows come to
an end. He feels that he has accomplished the ultimate goal of life and has a sense of supreme
fulfillment.
The statement in the Upanishad that before creation Brahman alone existed (Ch.up. 6.2.1) gives
indirect knowledge (paroksha jnana) of Brahman. The statement 'That thou art' (Ch.up. 6.8.7) gives
direct knowledge (aparoksha jnana) of Brahman. The sage Bhrigu acquired indirect knowledge of
Brahman from the indicatory statement that Brahman is that from which the universe arises, that by
which it is sustained and that into which it merges. He got direct knowledge of Brahman by enquiry
into the five sheaths. (Taittiriya Upanishad, Bhrigu valli).
In the statement 'That thou art', the word 'thou' primarily denotes pure Consciousness or Brahman
limited by the mind, which is what is denoted by the word 'I'. Pure Consciousness conditioned by
Maya is Isvara who is omniscient and is the cause of the universe. He is primarily denoted by the
word 'That'. The entities denoted by the primary meanings of these two words possess totally
contradictory qualities and so there can be no identity between them. The identity is only between the
implied meanings. This point has been dealt with in detail in chapter 1.
When this identity between the jiva and Brahman is realized, there remains only pure consciousness
which is absolute bliss. The view held by some schools that the mahavakya can give only indirect
knowledge of Brahman is wrong.
The difference between jiva and Brahman consists only in the fact that the former has the upadhi or
limiting adjunct in the form of the mind, while the latter does not. But for this adjunct the two are
identical. Just as a reflection exists only as long as there is a reflecting medium, jivahood exists only
as long as the mind, which is the reflecting medium, exists.
In the mahavakya, 'Aham Brahma asmi', which means 'I am Brahman', the primary meaning of 'I' is
the blend of the pure self and the mind. The implied meaning of 'I' is the pure self alone. The identity
is thus between this pure self and Brahman.
There is a distinction between the cognition of an external object such as a pot, which is of the form
'this is a pot' and the direct knowledge of Brahman, which is of the form 'I am Brahman'. In the former
case, the mind first becomes modified in the form of the pot. This modification is known as vritti. This
vritti removes the ignorance covering the pot. Then the reflection of Brahman or pure Consciousness
on the vritti produces the knowledge 'this is a pot'. In the case of the knowledge of Brahman also,
there is a vritti in the form of Brahman, known as akhanda-aakaara-vritti. After this, the second step of
the reflection of Brahman falling on the vritti is not necessary here, because Brahman is self-
luminous, unlike inert objects. This is similar to the difference between perceiving a pot and
perceiving a lighted lamp. In the former case both the eye and a light are necessary, but in the latter
case another light is not necessary. Therefore, while in the case of external objects the reflection of
Brahman in the vritti is necessary, in the case of realization of Brahman it is not necessary. The
reflection of Brahman or Consciousness in the vritti is known as 'phala'. Thus the cognition of an
external object is brought about by 'phala', but the direct knowledge (which is called realization) of
Brahman is brought about by the vritti itself, without the aid of any phala. It is therefore said in
Vedanta that all objects are 'phala vyapya', while Brahman is 'vritti vyapya'.
It has been stated above that the mind takes the form of Brahman. The question arises- since
Brahman has no form, what is meant by saying that the mind takes the form of Brahman? This is
explained by Svami Vidyaranya himself in Jivanmuktiviveka, chapter 3, by taking an example. A pot
made of clay is full of the all-pervading space as soon as it is made. Filling it afterwards with water,
rice or any other substance is due to human effort. Though the water, etc, in the pot can be removed,
the space inside can never be removed. It continues to be there even if the mouth of the pot is
hermetically sealed. In the same manner, the mind, in the act of being born, comes into existence full
of the consciousness of the self. It takes on, after its birth, due to the influence of virtue and vice, the
form of pots, cloths, colour, taste, pleasure, pain, and other transformations, just like melted copper,
cast into moulds. Of these, the transformations such as colour, taste and the like, which are not-self,
can be removed from the mind, but the form of the self, which does not depend on any external
cause, cannot be removed at all. Thus, when all other thoughts are removed from the mind, the self is
realized without any impediment. It has been said-"One should cause the mind which, by its very
nature, is ever prone to assume either of the two forms of the Self and the not-Self, to throw into the

background the perception of the not-Self, by taking on the form of the Self alone". And also - "The
mind takes on the form of pleasure, pain and the like, because of the influence of virtue and vice,
whereas the form of the mind, in its native aspect, is not conditioned by any extraneous cause. To the
mind devoid of all transformations is revealed the supreme Bliss". Thus, when the mind is emptied of
all other thoughts Self-knowledge arises.
The mahavakyas such as 'That thou art' produce direct knowledge of Brahman, but this knowledge
does not become firmly established because of defects in the mind such as doubts and wrong
notions. It is therefore necessary to hear the scriptures, reflect on them and meditate on their purport
repeatedly and also practise the disciplines such as control of the senses, control of the mind, etc.
'Hearing' is the process by which the conviction is attained that the identity of jiva and Brahman is
declared throughout in the Vedas. 'Reflection' is satisfying oneself of the validity of what has been
heard by the test of reasoning. Meditation removes the wrong notion, acquired over innumerable
births, that the body is the Self and that the world is real. Concentration of mind is acquired by the
worship of God.
A person who has realized that he is the self knows that the world is only an appearance on Brahman
due to Maya and that it has no absolute reality. He is therefore not affected by the joys and sorrows of
the world. But he engages himself in various actions solely for the welfare of the world, according to
his karma. The karma which brought about the present birth (praarabdha karma) continues even after
enlightenment, but the enlightened person remains undisturbed by whatever happens, while the
ignorant persons suffers when anything adverse happens. When the realization that the world has no
reality has become firmly established, there are neither desires nor the desirer. Consequently all
sorrows cease, just as the flame of a lamp gets extinguished when the oil is exhausted. A spectator in
a magic show who knows that the objects produced by the magician are not real merely enjoys the
show and does not desire those objects. Similarly the enlightened person is convinced of the unreality
of all worldly objects and does not harbour any desire for them. The efforts to earn wealth cause
suffering; there is always anxiety about the safety of what has been earned, and there is grief when it
is spent or lost. Thus wealth causes sorrow at every stage. All objects in the world which are sought
by people hoping to get joy from them have their negative aspects. A wise man should see the
defects and give up desire for them. All sorrows are caused by the erroneous notion that the objects
and happenings in the world are real. Desires can never be quelled by enjoyment; they only increase,
like fire fed by clarified butter. But when the impermanence of worldly pleasures is realized,
gratification of desires brings about cessation of desire. One who has controlled his mind is satisfied
even with a little enjoyment, because he knows that pleasures are impermanent and are followed by
sorrow. A king who had been imprisoned by an enemy and is released will be satisfied by becoming
the ruler of even a single village, whereas a king who has never been conquered by anyone else is
not satisfied even with his kingdom.
The praarabdha karma functions in three ways-producing actions motivated by desire, producing
actions without desire, and producing actions through the desire of another person. The first type is
where the praarabdha karma itself produces desire and makes the person act for its fulfillment. The
second is where even without desire a person is compelled by circumstances to undertake a
particular action. An example of the third type is that of a realized person teaching his disciples in
response to their sincere entreaties. Here it is the karma of the disciples that makes him take up the
task of teaching them.
Whatever is destined to happen will certainly happen and what is not destined to happen will never
happen in spite of all efforts. The realization of this truth will make a person free from anxiety and
grief.
Praarabdha karma produces its effect for the enlightened person as well as for the ignorant. But while
the ignorant person looks upon the results as real and enjoys or suffers, the enlightened person is
indifferent to the result and is therefore never affected by sorrow or disappointment.
If a person carefully examines his experiences in the waking state and in dream, he will realize that
they are very similar. He should then give up the notion that the objects in the world are real and
become free from attachment towards them. This world of duality is similar to something created by
magic. It cannot be explained logically. The wise man who remembers this will not be affected by the
effects of his praarabdha karma. By the realization of Brahman the unreality of the world from the
absolute point of view is realized. But this does not destroy the praarabdha karma which continues to
give its effect until it is exhausted. Knowledge and the effects of praarabdha karma are not opposed
to each other and can co-exist, just as a spectator can enjoy a magic show even when he is fully
aware that what he sees is not real.
Control of the mind is essential for the realization of the unreality of the world. Even though desires
may arise in the mind of an enlightened person, they do not bind him as in the case of an ignorant
man, because he is free from all attachment. An enlightened person does not consider himself as a
doer or enjoyer. This is what is meant by the statement in the first verse of this chapter that "a person
who has realized that he is the pure Self (Brahman) will not afflict his body for the fulfillment of any
desire".
The question as to who is the doer and enjoyer, whether it is the immutable Kutastha (Brahman) or
the reflected consciousness (Chidaabhaasa) or a blend of the two, is now being examined.
Enjoyment implies change as a result of identification with the experience of pleasure and pain. Since
Brahman is changeless, it cannot be the enjoyer. The reflection of consciousness has no separate
existence apart from pure consciousness and so it too cannot be the enjoyer. So it is generally
thought that the blend of the two is the enjoyer. But this too cannot be correct because the Sruti says
that Kutatha or pure consciousness alone exists in reality. Because of ignorance the jiva attributes to
himself the reality which is the nature of Kutastha alone. Consequently he thinks that his enjoyment is
real and does not like to give it up. He wishes to have a wife, son, properties, etc, for his enjoyment.
The Br. up. 2.4.5 says that wife, son and all others are loved by the jiva only for his own sake and not
for the sake of the wife, son etc. A person loves his wife, son, etc, only as long as they give him
happiness. One's own self is thus the object of unconditional love. Therefore a spiritual aspirant
should acquire dispassion towards all objects of enjoyment in the world and direct his love towards
the Self, which is his own self. He should keep his attention fixed on the Self at all times and
differentiate the body from the Self.
It is common experience that the states of waking, dream and deep sleep are distinct from one
another. The experiences in each state are totally different from the experiences in the other two
states. But the consciousness, which is the experiencer, is the same in all the states. When a person
has realized the identity of his self with this pure consciousness, which is Brahman, he is released
from the bondage caused by ignorance. This self, which is Brahman, is beyond the three states of
waking, dream and deep sleep. It is the witness, ever blissful, and is neither the enjoyer nor the
enjoyment, nor the object of enjoyment. When the self has been differentiated in this way, what
remains as the enjoyer is the chidaabhaasa or jiva, who is also known as the intellect-sheath and who
is ever undergoing change. This world is like a creation of magic and chidaabhaasa is part of it. By
repeatedly differentiating the chidaabhaasa from pure consciousness one becomes convinced that
the jiva has no existence apart from Kutastha and that the jiva is nothing but Kutastha. Then all desire
for enjoyment of external objects ceases. A person harbours desire only for objects thought to be
different from himself. When a person has realized that he is Kutastha or Brahman, there is no object

different from himself, since everything is Brahman. He then no longer looks upon himself as an
enjoyer of happiness or an experiencer of sorrow.
The physical body is subject to various diseases. The subtle body is afflicted by desire, anger, greed,
etc. On the other hand, it experiences happiness when there is control of the mind and the senses. In
deep sleep the jiva knows neither himself nor others. This is the state in which the causal body
predominates. The causal body is the seed of sorrow in this birth as well as in future births. These
sufferings are natural to these bodies. Chidaabhaasa, which is the reflection of pure consciousness in
the mind, is however free from all these sorrows. But due to ignorance the chidaabhaasa identifies
himself with the three bodies and considers himself to be suffering. When he realizes that he is not
the bodies, but the Kutastha itself, he becomes free from all sorrow. The sruti says: "The knower of
Brahman becomes Brahman". By fixing his mind on Brahman alone, the jiva realizes that he is
Brahman. But the jiva continues in the body until the praarabdha karma is exhausted. He is, however,
a jivanmukta and remains established in the knowledge that he is Brahman. He enjoys total
fulfillment. The satisfaction arising from external objects is limited, but the satisfaction arising from
direct realization of Brahman is unlimited and absolute. The realized person has no further duties to
be performed, and there is nothing more to be achieved by him. The onlookers may, out of ignorance,
attribute worldly actions and qualities to him, but he is not in the least affected by such attribution, just
as a bush of red gunja berries may be mistaken for a blazing fire by a person looking at it from a
distance, but such an imaginary fire does not affect the bush in the least. Even the scriptures are no
longer necessary for him. There is no more any need for meditation or Samadhi. He has attained all
that was to be attained and has done all that was to be done. He may still engage himself in action for
the good of the world. His senses may still perceive duality, but he knows that it is not real and so he
is not affected. When he is in the midst of ordinary people he may behave like them, just as a father
plays with his baby, pretending to be like it. When he is praised or blamed by other persons, he does
not praise or blame them in turn, but behaves in such a way as to awaken the knowledge of the
ultimate reality in them. The enlightened person has no duty other than awakening the ignorant to the
reality.
The wise who study this chapter repeatedly will realize Brahman and attain the goal of perfect bliss.
Chapter - 8
Kutasthadipa - The Immutable Consciousness
In this chapter Kutastha or pure consciousness, which is eternal and immutable, is being
distinguished from the reflection of pure consciousness in the modifications of the mind (vrittis) with
the help of an example. When the rays of the sun fall on a wall, the wall is illumined and looks bright,
though by itself the wall has no brightness. When the rays of the sun fall on a mirror and the rays
reflected from the mirror fall on the wall, the wall looks even brighter. Similarly, because of the
presence of pure consciousness within, the physical body acquires sentiency. When the mind
functions through any of the sense organs and becomes modified into the form of an external object,
the pure consciousness becomes reflected in this modification (which is known as vritti). Then the
sentiency of the body becomes even more manifest because the person sees external objects, hears
external sounds, etc. Even when there are no mirrors to reflect the rays of the sun the wall on which
the sun's rays fall directly remains illumined. Similarly even when there are no vrittis of the mind, pure
consciousness illumines the body and gives it sentiency. Even in the state of deep sleep, when the
mind and the senses are dormant, pure consciousness illumines the body.

The process of visual perception, according to Advaita Vedanta, is described in chapter 1 of Vedanta
Paribhasha thus: Just as the water in a tank, issuing through a hole, enters, through a channel, a
number of fields and assumes the shapes of those fields, so also the luminous mind, stretching out
through the eye, goes to the space occupied by an object and becomes modified into the form of that
object. Such a modification is called a vritti of the mind. This vritti removes the ignorance covering the
object. Then the reflection of pure consciousness falls on the vritti and the person perceives the
object. Before the rise of the vritti the object was not known. In other words, there was ignorance of
the object. This ignorance becomes known only because of the pure consciousness or Brahman.
Later, when the object is perceived, the knowledge of its existence also arises only because of pure
consciousness. Thus the ignorance as well as the knowledge of any object arises only because of
pure consciousness which is the witness of both. It is therefore said that all things are objects of the
witnessing consciousness, either as known or as not known. It is only when the pure consciousness
is reflected in the vritti of the mind that an object becomes known. The vritti, the reflection of
consciousness in the vritti and the object itself are illumined by Brahman or pure consciousness;
whereas only the existence of the object is made known by the reflection of consciousness in the
vritti.
It is thus seen that the cognition of any object, such as a pot, is brought about by the chidaabhaasa or
reflection of consciousness in the vritti, combined with pure consciousness or Brahman which is the
substratum of the mind. The Naiyayikas hold that the cognition 'This is a pot' becomes known only
through another cognition which they call 'anuvyavasaaya'. This view is not accepted by Vedanta,
because it will lead to infinite regress, as the second cognition would need a third cognition to
become known, and so on, ad infinitum. In Vedanta pure consciousness or Brahman itself takes the
place of this anuvyavasaaya, and since Brahman is self-luminous it does not need another cognition.
Therefore, the cognition 'This is a pot' is brought about by chidaabhaasa, but the knowledge 'The pot
is known' is derived from Brahman or pure Consciousness. Thus the distinction between
chidaabhaasa and Brahman has been brought out in respect of cognition of objects outside the body.
The same distinction applies also in respect of cognitions within the body, because the chidaabhaasa
pervades also the inner states such as desire, anger, the ego-consciousness, etc., just as fire
pervades a red-hot piece of iron. All vrittis of the mind arise one after another. But vrittis are absent
during deep sleep, swoon and Samadhi. The consciousness that witnesses the interval between two
successive vrittis as well as the period during which vrittis are absent is called Kutastha. This is
immutable.
The objects of internal cognition are the states of the mind such as happiness, sorrow, anger, etc.
The mental modification (vritti) naturally coincides with them. The mind has not to go out to unite with
them as in the case of external perception. So the mental states of happiness, etc., are said to be
revealed by the witnessing consciousness itself, as soon as they arise. These cognitions are
pratyaksha, or perceptual knowledge. Vedantaparibhasha says: "Being cognized by the witnessing
consciousness itself does not mean that the mental states are the objects of the witness self without
the presence of corresponding mental modifications, but that they are the objects of the witnessing
consciousness without the activity of the means of knowledge such as the sense organs".
Chidaabhaasa, which is the reflection of pure consciousness in the mental modification, has a
beginning and an end. But pure consciousness is eternal and immutable. Brahman or pure
consciousness, its reflection in the mind and the mind itself are related in the same way as a face, its
reflection and the reflecting medium.
With regard to the manner in which the appearance of the jiva is to be understood, there is a
difference of opinion between the two main post-Sankara Advaita schools - the Vivarana school and
the Bhamati school. According to Vivarana, the jiva is reflection (pratibimba) of Brahman in
nescience, and Brahman as the prototype reflected is Isvara. This is known as the 'reflection theory'.
The Bhamati view, which is known as the 'limitation (avaccheda) theory', is that the jiva is Brahman
as delimited by nescience. The analogy for the former view is the reflection of the face in a mirror; for
the latter view it is the delimitation of ether by a pot, etc. Swami Vidyaranya rejects the limitation
theory by pointing out that if Brahman becomes a jiva by being merely delimited by the intellect, even
a pot which is also pervaded by Brahman would become a jiva. He accepts a modified form of the
reflection theory, known as aabhaasa-vaada, or 'semblance theory'. While according to the Vivarana
theory the reflection is real and is identical with the prototype, in the semblance theory the reflection is
a mere appearance, an illusory manifestation. In the reflection theory the apposition between the jiva
and Brahman is through identification, like the identification of the space within a pot with the total
space. In the semblance theory the apposition between the jiva and Brahman is by sublation, as in
the case of the illusory snake and the rope, where one says: "What appeared as a snake is really a
rope".
The jiva is in reality none other than Brahman, but because he identifies himself with his gross and
subtle bodies he wrongly thinks that he is different from Brahman. When the jiva realizes that he is
Brahman, the identification with the two bodies ceases. The sruti text, "All this is indeed Brahman"
(Ch, up. 3. 14. 1) means that what appears as the universe is in reality Brahman. Similarly, by the
text, "I am Brahman" (Br. Up. 1. 4. 10), the identity of jiva and Brahman is declared.
Brahman has been described as Existence-Consciousness-Bliss. As the support of the universe

Brahman is Existence. As the cognizer of all insentient objects it is Consciousness. As it is always the
object of love it is Bliss. Its relationship with the world is only as the substratum, like the relationship
of the rope to the illusory snake. In fact, there can be no relationship between Brahman which is the
only reality and the universe which is mithya, i.e., neither real nor unreal.
Both jiva and Isvara are reflections of Brahman in Maya. They can reflect consciousness, unlike the
inert objects in the world. Though both the mind and the body are products of food, the mind is subtler
than the body and so it can reflect consciousness. Similarly, jiva and Isvara are subtler than inert
matter and so they can reflect consciousness.
In dream we ourselves create so many objects. So there is no wonder that Maya creates everything
that we experience in our waking state.
Brahman is pure consciousness. Brahman reflected in Maya is Isvara, who is omniscient.

Omniscience is possible only when there are things to be known. These things are the creation of
Maya. So it will be correct to say that Brahman, which is pure consciousness, becomes a knower of
everything only because of Maya.
Brahman is ever associationless and changeless. Brahman is the only reality. Since Maya is not real
from the absolute point of view, bondage which is caused by Maya is also not real. If bondage is not
real, release from bondage is also not real. So from the point of view of absolute reality, there can be
no such thing as an aspirant for liberation or a liberated person. Bondage, release, aspirant and
liberated exist only when we are speaking from the empirical point of view. This distinction between
the two standpoints has always to be kept in mind. When what was taken to be a snake is found, with
the help of a lamp, to be only a rope, no one would say that a snake was previously there, but has
gone away and a rope has come in its place. On the other hand one would say that there never was
any snake and there was only a rope all the time. Similarly, when a person becomes liberated, it
would be wrong to say that the person was previously in bondage and has now become liberated.
The correct position is that he was never in bondage, but was liberated all the time, though he
wrongly thought that he was in bondage.
When it rains in torrents, the ether is not affected at all by it. Similarly pure consciousness is not
affected by the phenomenal world which is the creation of Maya. The enlightened person knows that
he is the pure consciousness and so he is not affected by whatever happens in the world.
He who studies this chapter and reflects on it ever abides as the self-luminous Kutastha.
Chapter - 9
Dhyanadeepa - Meditation on pure Consciousness
According to the teachings of Vedanta, a person who has acquired the four preliminary requisites,
namely, discrimination between the eternal and the ephemeral, total dispassion towards all pleasures
in this world and in higher worlds, the spiritual disciplines such as control of the mind, control of the
senses, etc., and intense yearning for liberation, attains liberation through hearing of the scriptures
from a Guru, and reflecting and meditating on them. For those who, even after the study of the
Upanishads, are not able to attain realization due to some obstruction, such as lack of subtlety of
mind, meditation on the attributeless (Nirguna) Brahman is prescribed as an alternative means in this
chapter. Such meditations are laid down in the Uttaratapaniya Upanishad.
Sometimes even by acting on a wrong notion one may by chance attain a desired end. For example,
a man sees the gleam of a gem coming from a distance. Mistaking the gleam for a gem itself he runs
towards it and gets the gem. Though he was wrong in thinking that the gleam itself was a gem, he
succeeded in getting a gem. Such a notion which, though wrong, results in a successful conclusion, is
called 'samvaadi bhrama'. Another person mistakes the gleam of a lamp for a gem and runs towards
it, but is disappointed. Such a wrong notion is called 'visamvaadi bhrama'.
If a person mistakes mist for smoke and goes towards it expecting to find fire and accidentally finds
fire there, it is called 'samvaadi bhrama'. A person sprinkles on himself the water of the river
Godavari, thinking it to be the water of the river Ganga. He is purified, because the water of Godavari
is also a purifier according to the scriptures. Here his mistaking Godavari water for Ganga water is
'samvaadi bhrama' because though it is an error, it leads to the desired result. A man in delirium
because of high fever unconsciously repeats the name 'Narayana' and dies. He goes to heaven
because of having uttered the name of the Lord at the time of death. This is another instance of
'samvaadi bhrama'. (In Srimad Bhagavata it is said; "The name of the illustrious Lord, whether uttered
consciously or unconsciously, destroys a person's sins as surely as fire destroys a heap of wood; just
as a powerful medicine has its effect, even if taken by chance by one who does not know its potency,
so has the Lord's name when uttered even by an ignorant person"- Bh. VI. 2. 18-19).
In direct perception (pratyaksha), inference (anumana) and scriptural authority there are innumerable
instances of samvaadi bhrama. The worship of images made of clay, wood and stone as deities is
one such instance. In Chandogya Upanishad (Chapter 5) heaven, rain-god, earth, man and woman
are to be meditated on as the sacrificial fire. These are also instances of samvaadi bhrama.
Samvaadi bhrama, though it is a bhrama (error), leads to a desirable result. So also, meditation on
Brahman leads to liberation. Brahman with attributes which is meditated on, is not a reality (in the
absolute sense) and so such meditation is samvaadi bhrama. Any upasana or meditation is based on
looking upon one thing as another, such as the linga as Siva, salagrama as Vishnu, or Brahman with
attributes (Saguna Brahman) as the ultimate Reality. It is therefore a bhrama.
After knowing the one indivisible homogeneous Brahman indirectly from the scriptures (getting
paroksha jnanam), one should meditate identifying oneself with Brahman. The knowledge that
Brahman exists, derived from the study of the scriptures, without the actual realization that Brahman
is one's own Self, is what is known as indirect knowledge. It is like the knowledge of the forms of
Vishnu and other gods. The knowledge of the form of Vishnu as described in the scriptures is not
false, though indirect, because the scriptures are authoritative. One can know from the scriptures that
Brahman is Existence-Consciousness-Bliss, but he cannot be said to have direct knowledge of
Brahman until he has realized Brahman as the inner witness within himself. The indirect knowledge
is, however, not illusory. As long as identification with the body continues, one cannot realize one's
identity with Brahman. The indirect knowledge of non-duality gained from the scriptures is not
opposed to the perception of duality in the world. The perception that an image of Vishnu is made of
stone is not opposed to the idea that the image represents Vishnu and to the worship of the image as
Vishnu.
Indirect knowledge of Brahman can arise even from a single instruction by a competent preceptor.
Like the knowledge of the form of Vishnu, it does not need any enquiry. The methods of worship have
been laid down in the Kalpa-sutras by the sages, Jaimini, Asvalayana, Apastamba, Bodhayana,
Katyayana and Vaikhanasa. These form limbs of the Vedas. Worship can be performed by a study of
these and with the help of instructions from a knowledgeable person. But, for direct realization of
Brahman the instruction of a preceptor, though essential, is not sufficient. In addition, the spiritual
aspirant must perform reflection and one-pointed meditation. Want of faith obstructs the rise of
indirect knowledge, but want of enquiry (i.e. hearing, reflection and meditation) is what obstructs the
rise of direct knowledge. The enquiry should be continued until realization. If one does not get
realization in this birth even after practising enquiry till death, he will get it in a future life when all
obstacles have been eliminated. By virtue of the practice of spiritual enquiry in a previous birth,
Vamadeva attained realization even when he was in his mother's womb, says Aitareya Upanishad,
2.1.5.
If, in spite of the practice of enquiry over a long period realization does not arise, it is due to various
impediments. Realization will dawn when the impediments are removed. A person who does not
know that one of his ancestors had buried a large quantity of gold under the ground in the compound
of his house lives in poverty. When someone who knows the secret informs him about the treasure,
he collects it and lives happily. A monk could not attain realization because of his past attachment to
a she-buffalo. His teacher instructed him to meditate on Brahman, looking upon it as the substratum
of the buffalo. By doing so he was able to attain realization.
Some of the impediments are: intense attachment to sense-objects, lack of subtlety of the intellect,
indulging in perverse arguments about the truth of the Upanishadic teachings, and the deep-rooted
conviction that the Self is a doer and an enjoyer. These should be removed by the practice of
disciplines such as control of the mind, control of the senses, dispassion, etc., and enquiry into the
nature of the reality. It is said in the Bhagavadgita that the spiritual development attained by a person
in one life will not be lost on death, but will be with him in his next birth and will enable him to
progress further from the stage reached (B.G.6.41-45). The essential condition for the attainment of
realization is complete freedom from all desires, including desire for the pleasures of heaven and
even of Brahmaloka.
If a person is unable to practice enquiry, he should keep his mind always fixed on the thought of
Brahman. Just as it is possible to meditate on Brahman with attributes, it is also possible to meditate
on the attributeless Brahman. The latter may be meditated on as being beyond the reach of the
senses, speech and the mind. Meditation on Nirguna Brahman has been spoken of in the Nrsimha-
uttaratapaniya Upanishad (1.1), Prasna Upanishad (5.5), Katha Upanishad (1.2.15-17), and
Mandukya Upanishad (1.12). This meditation has been mentioned also in the Panchikarana Vartika
by Suresvaracharya. It is a means towards the indirect knowledge of Brahman. The Self is indicated
in the Upanishads by implication by means of positive attributes such as bliss, etc and also negatively
as 'not gross', etc. One should meditate on the indivisible, homogeneous Self as 'That I am'.
The difference between knowledge (jnana) and meditation (upasana) is that the former depends on
the object, while the latter depends on the will of the meditator. To explain, knowledge reveals an
object as it actually is, but in meditation an object is looked upon as representing something else.
Seeing the sun as the sun is knowledge, but thinking of the sun as Brahman is meditation.
Knowledge of Brahman arises by the practice of enquiry. Such knowledge puts an end to the notion
that the world is real. On the attainment of this knowledge the person enjoys permanent satisfaction
and feels that he has accomplished the goal of life. He becomes liberated even while living and
merely awaits the exhaustion of the karma which brought about his present birth (praarabdha karma).
A person who is not able to practise enquiry should meditate in the manner prescribed by his Guru
with complete faith, without allowing his mind to be distracted by other thoughts. He should continue
the practice of meditation until he becomes identified with the object of meditation and thereafter also
continue it till the last moment of his life.
A diligent student of the Vedas recites them even in his dreams. Similarly, one who practises
meditation without any distraction continues the meditation even in his dreams, because of the deep
impression produced by the meditation in his mind. Such a person can meditate without interruption
even while continuing to experience his fructifying karma, just as a worldly person keeps on thinking
of the objects to which he is attached even while he is engaged otherwise.
A person who has realized that he is the Self (and not the body-mind complex) fulfills his worldly
duties also well, because they do not conflict with his knowledge. The knowledge that the world is not
real but only Maya and that the Self is pure consciousness is not opposed to worldly activities. In
order to perform worldly activities it is not necessary to believe that the world is real. Only the right
means are necessary. These means are the mind, speech, body and external objects. They do not
disappear on the attainment of enlightenment.
The injunctions and prohibitions of the scriptures have no application to the enlightened. They apply
only to those who look upon themselves as belonging to a certain caste or station or stage of life. The
enlightened person knows that caste, stage of life, etc., are creations of Maya and that they pertain
only to the body and not to the Self which is pure consciousness. The enlightened person whose
mind is completely free from all desires and vasanas has nothing to gain from action or inaction,
meditation or japa.
A person who meditates continuously attains identity with the object of meditation, but this identity
ceases if the practice of meditation is given up. But the realization of the Self, once attained through
knowledge, is never lost. Every living being is in reality Brahman, but is ignorant of this fact.
Knowledge only reveals this truth and does not create Brahmanhood.
Because of nescience which conceals their real nature, people do not realize the purpose of life. But
just as begging is better than starving, it is better to practice devotion and meditation rather than other
pursuits. Performance of the rituals laid down in the scriptures is superior to being engrossed in
worldly affairs alone. Better than that is worship of a personal deity. Even better than that is
meditation on the attributeless Brahman which leads to direct realization.
A samvaadi bhrama which leads to the desired result becomes valid knowledge (prama). Similarly,
meditation on Brahman, when it ripens, leads to liberation and becomes knowledge of the reality.
Though meditation on the form of a deity and chanting of mantras also lead to liberation, meditation
on the attributeless Brahman is nearest to the goal of Self-realization.
Meditation on the attributeless Brahman matures into savikalpa samadhi in which there is still the
distinction of meditator, the act of meditation and the object of meditation. This, when pursued, leads
to nirvikalpa Samadhi where such differences vanish. There is then a perfect realization of Brahman
as immutable, associationless, eternal, self-luminous, without a second and infinite, as declared in the
scriptures.
Those who undertake pilgrimages and chanting of mantras instead of meditation on the attributeless
Brahman may be compared to a person who licks his hand after dropping the sweets held by him.
Enquiry into the nature of the Self by hearing the scriptures from a teacher and then reflecting on
them and practicing meditation is the direct means to Self-realization. Meditation on the attributeless
Brahman is prescribed only for those who are unable to practise such enquiry.
If a person is not able to perfect his meditation in this life, he may attain liberation by acquiring Self-
knowledge in Brahmaloka or in another life. The Bhagavadgita says that one attains that which he
thinks of at the time of death (8.6). Thus the future life of a person is determined by his thoughts at
the time of death. So the worshipper of a Personal God will attain identity with Him, and the meditator
on the attributeless Brahman will obtain liberation.
One who studies this chapter and reflects on its contents is freed from all doubts and constantly
meditates on Brahman.
Chapter - 10
Natakadipa - The lamp of the theatre
In this chapter the supreme Self is compared to the lamp which lights the stage in a theatre. The lamp
illumines the empty stage before the play starts; it illumines the play when it is in progress; and after
the play is over and there is no one on the stage, the lamp continues to illumine the empty stage.
Similarly, the supreme Self which is self-luminous exists before the origination of the universe, during
the period of appearance of the universe, and also after the dissolution of the universe.
Before the creation of the universe the supreme Self which is non-dual, infinite bliss, alone existed.
Through its Maya it appeared as the universe of names and forms and entered into them as the jiva
or the individual self. Entering into divine bodies, the same Self became all the deities such as
Vishnu. Entering into the bodies of human beings, it became the worshipper of the deities.
As a result of the practice of devotion in many lives, the desire to enquire into his real nature arises in
the jiva. When such enquiry and reflection attain perfection, Maya is negated and the Self alone
remains.
As long as the jiva, who is in reality the Self which is non-dual and of the nature of supreme bliss,
perceives duality and looks upon it as real because of ignorance, he experiences misery. This state of
ignorance of his real nature and the consequent suffering is what is known as bondage. Realizing his
own nature as the supreme Self and remaining established in that realization is liberation.
The jiva who is ignorant of his real nature identifies himself with his body and mind and looks upon
himself as the performer of action and the enjoyer of the fruit thereof. The mind is his instrument of
action. The mind undergoes a twofold modification, namely, internal and external. The internal
modification takes the form 'I'. It makes him the performer of action. The external modification takes
the form of objects which are referred to as 'this'. The external objects are cognized by the five organs
of sense distinctively as sound, touch, colour, taste and smell. The consciousness which
simultaneously illumines the agent, the action and the external objects is known as the 'witness'.
While revealing all these, the witness remains changeless like the lamp illumining the stage in a
theatre. The lamp reveals the patron, the performer on the stage, as well as the audience and
continues to shine even when all of them have left. The witness-consciousness illumines the ego, the
intellect and the sense-objects. Even when these are absent, as in deep sleep, the witness remains
self-luminous. The intellect functions only in the light of the ever-luminous and ever present witness.
In the above illustration the patron is the ego, the various sense-objects are the audience, the intellect
is the performer on the stage, the musicians playing on their instruments are the sense-organs, and
the lamp lighting up all of them is the witness-consciousness. Just as the lamp lights up all these
while remaining in its own place, the witness, which is motionless, illumines external objects as well
as the states of the internal organ. The distinction as internal and external is only from the point of
view of the body and not the witness. The ego is internal while objects are external. The qualities of
the mind such as fickleness are wrongly attributed to the witness-consciousness by the ignorant.
When the mind becomes absolutely quiet, the witness shines as it is.
The Self illumines all the modifications of the mind as the witness, but is itself beyond the grasp of
speech and the mind. When the unreality of all duality is realized, the Self alone remains. Since the
Self is self-luminous, its existence need not be proved by any pramana (valid means of knowledge).
The Self can be realized as the witness of all the internal and external creations of the intellect if one
hears the instruction of the sruti from a Guru and reflects on the teachings.
Chapter - 11
Yogananda - The Bliss Of Yoga
Chapters 11 to 15 expound the various aspects in which Bliss which is Brahman manifests itself. In
this chapter it is pointed out that the bliss attained through the practice of Yoga is an aspect of the
supreme Bliss that is identical with Brahman.
On the attainment of the bliss of Brahman one becomes free from all present and future miseries. He
who realizes that he is the supreme Self and remains established in that realization becomes free
from all fear; but he who perceives even the slightest difference from the Self is overcome by fear.
The Taittiriya Upanishad says that the deities Vayu, Surya, Agni, Indra and Yama are in constant fear
of Brahman. They attained these positions as a result of very meritorious actions performed in
previous lives, but because they have not realized their identity with Brahman they are still subject to
fear.
One who has attained the bliss of Brahman does not experience any fear at all and is not troubled by
thoughts such as whether he had done meritorious deeds or not, because his actions do not taint
him. So says Taittiriya Upanishad, 2.9.1. Giving up all actions and going beyond all thoughts of good
and evil, he ever remains engaged in meditation on the Self. He looks upon all actions as identical
with the Self. All the desires which bind him are destroyed, all his doubts about the Self are dispelled
and all his actions perish in the sense that they do not cause any bondage for him. Only by realizing
Brahman one goes beyond death and transmigratory existence. There is no other means to attain this
end. All bonds are cut when the effulgent Self is known. All afflictions come to an end and he is not
born again. One who has realized that he is none other than the supreme Self becomes free from all
worldly joys and sorrows even while living in this world. He is not tormented by thoughts about his
acts of commission or omission. The srutis, smritis and puranas repeatedly declare that the
realization of Brahman puts an end to all sorrows and confers supreme bliss.
Bliss is of three kinds: The bliss of Brahman, the bliss born of knowledge, and the bliss derived from
external objects. Of these, the bliss of Brahman is being described now.
Bhrigu heard the definition of Brahman from his father Varuna. By negating the sheaths of food, vital
air. mind and intellect, he realized Brahman reflected in the bliss-sheath. The Taittiriya Upanishad
says that all beings are born from bliss, they are sustained by bliss and they finally merge in bliss.
(This statement is not elaborated in Panchadasi, but Ramakrishna, in his commentary named
Padadipika, explains this verse as follows: Procreation is due to the pleasure derived from physical
union, sustenance of life is due to the happiness derived from sense-objects, and happiness is
experienced in sleep when the individual soul temporarily merges in the supreme Self). Therefore
there is no doubt that Brahman is bliss. Before creation of beings there was only the infinite Brahman
without the triad of knower, object known and the act of knowing. In dissolution also the triad will
cease to exist. When the created world is in existence, the intellect-sheath is the knower,
consciousness reflected in the mind-sheath is knowledge and sound, etc., are the objects known.
Before creation none of these three existed. Before the creation of the world and in the states of
Samadhi, deep sleep and swoon also the Self alone exists.
Bhagavan Sanatkumara told sage Narada that the infinite Self alone is bliss. There is no happiness in
anything finite. (Ch.Up.7.23.1). Even though Narada had mastered the Vedas, Puranas and various
scriptures, he still suffered misery because he had not known the Self. Before he began to study the
Vedas he suffered only from the three kinds of afflictions natural to all human beings, namely,
adhyatmika, those arising from bodily ills, adhibhautika, those caused by other creatures, and
adhidaivika, those caused by calamities such as floods, earthquakes, etc. But after he had mastered
the Vedas and other scriptures he was, in addition, burdened by the need to keep on reciting what he
had learnt, and beset by the fear of forgetting what he had learnt, the fear of being defeated in
argument and the pride of learning. So he approached Bhagavan Sanatkumara and prayed for the
knowledge that would lift him out of all sorrow. Sanatkumara told him that the ocean of sorrow could
be crossed only by attaining Brahman which is pure Bliss. The happiness derived from external
objects is always accompanied by sorrow. There is no real or unmixed happiness in the finite realm. It
is true that there is no triad of knower, knowing and known in the non-dual Brahman and so there can
be no experience of happiness as from sense-objects, but one who has realized Brahman remains as
pure bliss. In deep sleep the bliss of Brahman is experienced though there are no objects and no
triad. This bliss is therefore self-revealing. In deep sleep one does not suffer the miseries experienced
during the waking state, caused by blindness, wounds and sickness. In deep sleep one is united with
Brahman and so becomes bliss itself.
The Upanishads give various illustrations to describe the bliss enjoyed in sleep. A falcon, tied to a
post by a long string, flies hither and thither and finally, when exhausted and in need of rest, goes
back to the post to which it is tied. Similarly, the mind, after experiencing joys and sorrows in the
waking and dream states, becomes absorbed in its cause, avidya, in the state of deep sleep. The jiva
then becomes one with the supreme Self and enjoys bliss (Ch.Up. 6.8.2 and Br.Up. 4.3.19). A baby,
having fed at the breast of its mother, and being free from attachment and aversion, lies in its bed,
enjoying its natural bliss. A sovereign emperor, endowed with discrimination and having at his
command all the virtuous pleasures within the reach of human beings, and consequently being free
from further desire, remains as bliss personified. A great Brahmana who has realized Brahman
remains established in the supreme bliss of enlightenment in the state of jivanmukti, having achieved
all that was to be achieved. The innocent child, the discriminating emperor and the enlightened
Brahmana are examples of supreme bliss. Others are subject to sorrow and not entirely happy. In
deep sleep, however, everyone enjoys the bliss that is Brahman. In that state he is not conscious of
anything internal or external, like a man in the tight embrace of his beloved wife (Br. Up. 4.3.21). The
experiences of the waking state are external and those of dream are internal. The Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad says that in the state of deep sleep, a father ceases to be a father, a mother ceases to be
a mother, worlds cease to be worlds, and so on (4.3.22). Thus all worldly ideas are absent. Then
jivahood ceases and Brahman alone remains. Grief is the consequence of identifying oneself as
father, son etc. In deep sleep, when such identification is absent, there is no sorrow. One who has
woken up from sleep recollects that he slept happily and knew nothing. Recollection presupposes
experience. In deep sleep the Self reveals itself as bliss and it also reveals ignorance. Brahman is
self-luminous bliss. In deep sleep the mind and intellect remain latent in their cause, avidya. They
become manifest when the person wakes up. The person then remembers his experience of
happiness and total ignorance during sleep. The state of deep sleep in which the mind and intellect
are latent is called the bliss-sheath. When the person wakes up, the mind and intellect sheaths again
become manifest. It is the sheath of bliss that is the enjoyer and it is the bliss of Brahman that is
enjoyed. In the waking state the modifications of the intellect, which are the instruments of cognition,
cover various objects of knowledge, but in deep sleep they become one undifferentiated mass of
consciousness. In deep sleep there are no mental modifications in the form of sorrow. The state of
deep sleep, in which bliss is enjoyed, ceases and the person wakes up when prompted by his karma.
The impression of the bliss enjoyed in sleep remains for a short time after waking up. Then, impelled
by his karma, he sets about performing his duties and gradually forgets the bliss of Brahman.
Even though everyone enjoys bliss during sleep, he does not realize that bliss to be Brahman itself.
Mere intellectual knowledge about Brahman is not enough; Brahman should be realized as one's own
self.
Whenever happiness is experienced even without any external object or any event to which it could
be attributed, it should be understood to be the impression (vasana) of the bliss of Brahman. The
happiness experienced on the fulfillment of any desire is due to the reflection of the bliss of Brahman
in the mental modification (vritti). This happiness is called vishayananda, or happiness from the
enjoyment of external objects. There are thus only three kinds of happiness: Brahmananda or the
bliss of Brahman, Vasanananda or the happiness which is an impression of Brahmananda, and
Vishayananda or the reflection of the bliss of Brahman in the mind. Brahmananda is self-revealing
and it is what gives rise to the other two kinds of happiness.
The fact that the bliss of Brahman is self-revealing in the state of deep sleep is testified by the
scriptures, by reasoning and by experience. The jiva is called Anandamaya in the state of deep sleep
when he enjoys the bliss of Brahman. In the states of dream and waking the jiva is identified with the
intellect-sheath or Vijnanamayakosha. The sruti says that in the waking state the jiva abides in the
eye, in the dream state in the throat and in deep sleep in the lotus of the heart. In the waking state the
jiva identifies himself with the gross body and looks upon himself as a man, woman, etc. He then
experiences joys and sorrows. When at some time he is free from worries and at the same time is not
experiencing joy from any external object, his mind is calm. Then he experiences the natural bliss of
the Self. But this bliss is not the supreme bliss of Brahman, as the notion of egoity is also present; it is
only an impression of the supreme bliss. This is like the outer surface of an earthen pot full of water
being cold to the touch, even though there is no water outside. Just as the presence of water inside a
pot can be inferred from the coldness of the outer surface, one can comprehend one's own nature of
supreme bliss when one's egoity becomes extremely attenuated by continued practice. The bliss in
which there is no experience of duality and which is not the state of deep sleep is the bliss of
Brahman. Lord Krishna tells Arjuna in the Bhagavadgita that one should gradually withdraw the mind
from all other thoughts and keep it fixed on Brahman. Whenever the mind, which is by nature restless
and fickle, strays away, it should be restrained and again fixed on the Self. The Yogi who has made
his mind perfectly tranquil and free from all taint, who is sinless and who has realized his identity with
Brahman attains supreme bliss. When by the practice of yoga the mind is withdrawn from other
objects and concentrated on the Self, the supreme bliss which is beyond the senses and which can
be grasped only by the intellect, is attained. There is nothing higher than this state. The person who
has attained this state is not disturbed even by the greatest calamity. Yoga is the state of being totally
free from any association with sorrow. This Yoga must be practised with determination and a
dispassionate mind. The Yogi who is free from all taint and whose mind is ever fixed on the Self
experiences the supreme bliss of identity with Brahman. Control of the mind can be achieved by
assiduous practice as pointed out in the story about the bird which set about to dry up the ocean by
baling out its waters drop by drop with its beak. The story is that the eggs laid by a bird on the
seashore were washed away by the waves. The angry bird decided to get back its eggs by drying up
the ocean and began to bail out the water with a blade of grass. Sage Narada who was passing by
happened to see the bird and was impressed by its determination. He went to Garuda and asked him
to go to the rescue of a member of his own species who was pitched against the mighty ocean.
Garuda came and threatened the ocean with severe punishment if it did not restore the eggs to the
bird. The ocean then returned the eggs to the bird. The moral of this story is that if one has the
necessary determination, divine help will come and enable him to achieve his objective.
Just as fire becomes extinguished when the fuel is exhausted, the mind merges in its cause when all
modifications cease. When the mind is fixed on Brahman, the ultimate reality, all joys and sorrows
resulting from praarabdha karma will be seen to have no reality. It is an ancient truth that the mind
assumes the form of the object towards which it is directed. The mind is the cause of transmigratory
existence. It should be purified with untiring effort. By the purification of the mind all the impressions
left by actions, both good and evil, are destroyed. The purified mind abiding in the Self enjoys infinite
bliss. If a person fixes his mind on Brahman with the same intensity with which people fix their mind
on sense-objects, all bondage would be definitely eradicated.
The mind which is tainted by desires is an impure mind and the mind which is free from desires is a
pure mind. The sruti says that the mind alone is the cause of bondage as well as liberation.
Attachment to objects of sense leads to bondage and freedom from attachment is the means to
liberation. The bliss arising from absorption in the contemplation of the Self, when the mind becomes
cleansed of all impurities, cannot be described in words. It can only be felt in the heart. The
enlightened person always enjoys this supreme bliss inwardly even when he is outwardly engaged in
worldly activities. The wise man gives up all desire for sensual pleasures and concentrates his mind
on the Self so that he can enjoy that supreme bliss. A man whose mind is free from worldly concerns
and is fixed on Brahman is not affected by any sorrows resulting from the operation of his fructifying
karma. When worldly pleasures which are not opposed to Dharma come to him because of his
praarabdha karma, without his seeking them, he looks upon them only as aspects of the bliss of
Brahman. He experiences the bliss of Brahman in the waking state as well as in dream, because
dreams consist only of the impressions left by the experiences in the waking state.
In this chapter is described the realization of supreme bliss by the Yogi.
Chapter - 12
Atmananda - The Bliss of the Self
The Yogi experiences the bliss of Brahman as stated in the previous chapter. In this chapter the bliss
experienced by the unenlightened person is examined.
In the Brihadaaranyaka Upanishad it is said that everyone loves others only for his or her own
happiness and not for the happiness of the person loved. The husband, wife, son, wealth, animals
and all other things are loved only because they give happiness. This is evident from the fact that
when a person's wife or son acts in a manner contrary to his wishes, he does not like them. Even an
inveterate miser is willing to spend all his money to cure himself of a life-threatening disease, showing
that his love of himself takes precedence over his love of money. All other things are loved only as
long as they contribute to one's own happiness. So all other persons and things are only means to
one's own happiness, and are not desired for their own sake; but happiness is desired for its own
sake and not as a means to something else. A child, when kissed by its father feels pain by being
pricked by the father's bristly beard and cries, but the father goes on kissing the child because he
feels happy thereby. This is a clear instance to show that all love is only for one's own happiness.
Love of the means to happiness shifts from one object to another, but love of one's own self ever
remains the same. Even when a person desires to end his life because of poverty, disease,
humiliation or any other reason, it is the body that he wants to get rid of and not the self. Thus the self
is the dearest to everyone.
The word 'Self' is used in three different senses, namely, figurative (gauna), illusory (mithya) and
primary (mukhya). In the sentence 'Devadatta is a lion', the identification of Devadatta with a lion is
figurative. The purport of this sentence is that Devadatta possesses some of the characteristics of a
lion such as courage, majesty, etc. At the same time the difference between the two is also clearly
understood. In the scriptures sometimes a son is identified as the self of his father. This identification
is figurative.
When a post is wrongly taken to be a man the identification is illusory. The identification of the self
with the body and mind which constitute the five sheaths falls under this category.
The primary meaning of the word 'Self' is the pure unconditioned witness-consciousness or non-dual
Brahman.
When a person desirous of attaining heaven performs the prescribed yajna, he knows that it is his
subtle body that will go to heaven and not his physical body. He thus looks upon his subtle body as
his self.
An aspirant for liberation strives for the realization that he is the pure unconditioned Self. Here the
word 'Self' is used in its primary meaning.
Supreme love is felt for the primary Self. One loves everything related to the Self, but the love for
them is limited and conditional on their giving happiness. No love is felt for other things.
The degree of love towards various objects of enjoyment varies according to their proximity to the
Self. A son is dearer than wealth, one's own body is dearer than one's son, the sense-organs are
dearer than the body, life is dearer than the sense-organs and the Self is dearer than everything else.
A married couple intensely desires to have a son and is very unhappy till the wife conceives. After
conception there is great worry about safe delivery. When the child is born there are anxieties about
its health and whether all its faculties such as eyesight, hearing, etc., would be sound. When the child
grows up there is worry about whether he would be intelligent and industrious in studies. Thereafter
there is anxiety about whether he would earn well and become rich or suffer from poverty and also
whether he would lead a good moral life or not. There is also anxiety about whether he would be
healthy and live long or die prematurely. Thus there is no end to the sorrows of parents. The only way
to avoid sorrows is to avoid attachment to persons and things and to focus his love on the Self. It
should be noted here that attachment is different from love. Attachment puts one at the mercy of the
person or thing to which the attachment is directed. But love, which by definition is free from any
selfish motive, makes a person independent of the object of love. Love directed equally towards all
living beings ennobles.
Love for the supreme Self is in effect love for all creatures, since they are not different from the
supreme Self.
Since the Self is of the nature of bliss as well as consciousness, the question arises as to why bliss is
not experienced in all modifications of the mind and only consciousness is experienced. This can be
answered by taking the example of a lamp. When a lamp burns it emits both heat and light, but only
light fills the room and not heat.
When the Self is both bliss and consciousness, how is it that when consciousness is revealed in a
mental modification bliss is also not revealed at the same time? This is answered by pointing out that
though an object has colour, odour, taste, and touch, only one of these properties is cognized by a
particular sense organ. It is not correct to say that colour, odour, and other properties of a flower are
different from each other and so the example given is not applicable because bliss and
consciousness are not different from each other. The properties of a flower are not different from one
another. If it is said that they are different because they are cognized by different sense-organs, then
it must be pointed out that there is similarly a seeming difference between bliss and consciousness
brought about by difference in the composition of the mental state. When Sattvaguna predominates in
the mind, both bliss and consciousness are revealed, while when Rajoguna predominates, only
consciousness is revealed and bliss is obscured.
The Lord says in the Bhagavadgita that there are two paths to liberation. One is Yoga and the other is
the path of knowledge.
One who knows that the Self is dearest does not desire any external object of enjoyment. Nor does
he have aversion towards anything because he sees no object inimical to himself.
Chapter - 13
Advaitananda - The Bliss of Non-Duality
The Taittiriya Upanishad says that the world is born from bliss, it abides in bliss and finally merges in
bliss. This bliss is the same as Brahman. Brahman is thus the material cause of the world.
The relationship between the material cause and the effect is explained in different ways in the
different schools. According to Vaiseshika, the effect is something new and absolutely different from
the cause. This is known as Arambhavada.
The Sankhyas hold the view that the effect is an actual transformation of the cause, like milk
changing into curd, clay into pot and gold into ornaments. This is known as Parinamavada.
In the case of a rope appearing as a snake, there is no real transformation. The snake is only a
Vivarta or apparent modification of the rope. The appearance of the snake is due to ignorance of the
rope. Similarly, the world is only a Vivarta of Brahman. Maya conceals Brahman and projects the
world.
Maya is the power of Brahman. Power does not exist apart from its possessor. At the same time,
power is not identical with its possessor, because even when the power is obstructed, its possessor
remains the same. Power cannot be directly perceived, but can only be inferred from its effect. Maya,
the power of Brahman, manifests as action, knowledge and will. The supreme unconditioned
Brahman is eternal, infinite and non-dual. When associated with Maya, Brahman is described as
omnipotent.
Brahman becomes manifest as consciousness in all living beings. Its power appears as movement in
air, hardness in stone, liquidity in water, and heat in fire. Just as a tree with its branches, leaves,
flowers, fruits, etc., is latent in the seed, so is this world latent in Brahman (before manifestation).
When Brahman assumes the power of cognition it is called the mind. The notions of bondage and
liberation arise in the mind.
In Yogavasishta it is said that a nurse narrated the following story to amuse a child. Once upon a time
there were three handsome princes. Two of them were never born and the third was never even
conceived. They lived righteously in a city which never existed. While moving about in the city the
princes saw trees laden with fruits growing in the sky. Then they went to another city which had not
yet come into existence and lived there happily, spending their time in games and hunting. The child
believed all this to be true because of lack of discriminating capacity. In the same way this world is
accepted as real by those who have no discrimination. Sage Vasishta described the power of Maya
through such stories.
Maya is different from its effect as well as from its substratum. It can only be inferred from its effect,
just as the burning power of an ember can be inferred only from the blister caused by it.
An effect is non-different from its cause. A clay pot is not different from the clay, because it has no
existence apart from the clay. At the same time, the pot is not identical with clay, because it is not
perceived in the un-molded clay. Therefore the pot has to be called indescribable, like the power
which produced it. Because of this, the Chandogya Upanishad says that the pot is not real, being only
a name, reality being attributed only to the clay (Ch.Up. 6.1.4). Of the three entities, namely, the
product of power which is perceptible, the power itself which is not perceptible, and the substratum in
which they both inhere, only the third persists; the first two exist by turns. So only the third is real. The
pot has a beginning and an end. It is therefore not real. Before the pot was made it was only clay.
When the pot exists, it is also only clay. After the pot is destroyed there is only clay. Thus clay alone
is real. (It should be noted that this reality is only from the empirical point of view).
The illusory snake disappears when the substratum, rope, is known. But a pot continues to appear as
such even after its substratum, clay, is known. So the question is, how can the pot be said to be
illusory? The answer is that though the pot is still seen, it is realized that it has no reality apart from
clay. The substitution of the notion that the pot has a reality of its own by the realization that it is
nothing but clay with a particular name and form can be described as destruction of the pot.
The world is superimposed on Brahman. Even after the realization that Brahman is the only reality the
world continues to be perceived by the realized person, but it is not accepted as real by him. He is not
affected by the joys and sorrows in the world. It is in this sense that the world is said to have ceased
to exist when Brahman is realized.
In an actual transformation, as in the case of milk becoming curd, the original substance, milk,
disappears. But in the modification of clay into pot, or gold into ornaments, the substratum, clay or
gold, remains as such. Chandogya Upanishad says that by knowing a lump of clay, everything made
of clay is known. Similarly, by knowing Brahman the whole phenomenal universe is known. Brahman
is existence, consciousness and bliss, whereas the world consists of name and form.
Before the manifestation of the universe Maya remained unmanifest in Brahman. The Svetasvatara
Upanishad says: "Know Maya to be Prakriti (the material cause of the universe), and the supreme
Lord to be the Ruler (or substratum) of Maya". Name and form are merely superimposed on
Brahman.
By the continuous practice of meditation on Brahman a person becomes established in the

knowledge of Brahman. Then he becomes liberated from Samsara.
In dream a man sees impossible things happening, but at that time he does not even realize that they
are impossible, but accepts them as correct. When such is the power of dream, what is there to
wonder about the power of Maya which projects this universe and makes it appear real? The whole
universe is only the projection of names and forms in Brahman by Maya. When one realizes that all
names and forms have no reality and rejects them he remains as the pure Brahman. Even if he
continues to be engaged in worldly matters he is not affected by the joys and sorrows arising from
them.
Just as a huge rock lying in the bed of a river remains unaffected even though water continuously
flows over it, Brahman remains unchanged while names and forms keep on changing.
Realizing that Brahman is existence, consciousness and bliss, one should keep his mind fixed on
Brahman and restrain it from dwelling on names and forms. Thus the bliss of non-duality will be
realized.
Chapter - 14
Vidyananda - The Bliss of Knowledge
In this chapter the bliss experienced by a person who has attained the knowledge (realization) of
Brahman through one of the three paths described in the preceding three chapters, namely, the
practice of yoga, discriminative knowledge of the Self, and constant contemplation of the unreality of
duality, is described.
The happiness arising from external objects is a modification of the intellect. Similarly, the bliss
arising from the realization of Brahman is also a modification of the intellect. This bliss has four
aspects. These are absence of sorrow, the fulfillment of all desires, the satisfaction of having done all
that had to be done, and the feeling of having attained the goal of life.
The jiva identifies himself with the subtle and gross bodies and thinks of himself as an agent (doer)
and an enjoyer. The names and forms in the universe are looked upon as objects of enjoyment.
When the jiva realizes that he is the supreme Brahman and gives up identification with the bodies,
there is neither enjoyer nor objects of enjoyment. It is the identification with the bodies that is the
cause of all desires, since all desires are for the comfort of the body. Sorrow results when a desire is
not fulfilled. The knower of Brahman realizes that worldly objects have no reality and so he has no
desire for them.
Just as water does not stick to the leaves of the lotus, actions performed after realization do not
attach to the knower, because actions are performed by the body and the knower of Brahman has no
identification with the body. The accumulated actions (sanchita karma) are burnt by the fire in the
form of the knowledge of Brahman.
The injunctions and prohibitions of the Vedas do not have any application to the enlightened person.
These are applicable only as long as one identifies oneself with the body and the mind. Any action
performed by a realized soul is not action at all, because he has no sense of doership. Whatever
action he performs is only for the welfare of the world and not for any benefit for himself, because he
is the pure Self which has no desires. He enjoys supreme bliss. The present body continues till the
praarabdha karma which brought it into existence is exhausted. On the fall of this body he will not be
born again because there will be no karma left to give him another birth.
The bliss of the Self is beyond the grasp of the mind and the senses. It is superior even to the
happiness enjoyed by Brahma and other gods.
Chapter - 15
Vishayananda - The happiness from external objects
In this chapter the happiness derived by the contact of the sense-organs with external objects is
described. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad says that this happiness is only a particle of the bliss of
Brahman (Br. Up. 4.3.32).
Mental modifications (vrittis) are of three kinds - calm (sattvic), agitated (rajasic) and dull (tamasic).
The sattvic modifications are detachment, forbearance and generosity. The rajasic modifications are
craving, attachment, greed, and the like. The tamasic modifications are delusion, fear, etc. The
consciousness aspect of Brahman is reflected in modifications of all kinds, but the bliss aspect is
reflected only in sattvic modifications.
The same supreme Self dwells in all bodies. Though it is only one, it appears as many, like the
reflections of the moon in different vessels of water. The reflection of the moon is clear if the water is
pure and faint if the water is muddy. Similarly, Brahman appears differently in different bodies,
depending on the nature of the mental modification.
Brahman is Existence-Consciousness-Bliss. The existence aspect alone is manifested in inanimate

objects, but not consciousness and bliss. This is because inanimate objects have no subtle body
which alone can reflect consciousness and bliss. The consciousness aspect is manifested in all
animate beings, even when the mind is agitated, for we see that even a person who is unhappy is
conscious. But the bliss aspect is manifested only when the mind is calm. A doubt arises as to why,
when Brahman has both the aspects of consciousness and bliss, only one of them, consciousness, is
reflected in an agitated mind. When you look at the reflection of your face in a mirror, you find that the
face in its entirety is reflected and not only some aspects of it. This doubt is answered by giving two
examples. When water is in contact with fire, only the heat aspect of fire is absorbed by the water and
not the light of fire. But when a log of wood comes into contact with fire, it absorbs both the heat and
the light aspects. Similarly, only the consciousness aspect of Brahman is reflected in an agitated
mind, but both the consciousness and the bliss aspects are reflected when the mind is calm.
When there is some desire in the mind there is anxiety about whether the desired object will be
attained or not. In such a condition there can be no happiness. But as soon as the desired object is
attained, the mind becomes calm. The bliss of Brahman is then reflected in the mind. The happiness
experienced then is wrongly attributed to the attainment of the desired object, while it is really due to
the mind becoming calm. This happiness continues only till another desire arises and agitates the
mind. When a person has attained complete detachment towards worldly pleasures and is free from
desires, his mind is absolutely calm and then supreme bliss is experienced.
Brahman is existence, consciousness and bliss. In inanimate objects such as stones, only the
existence aspect is manifest, because they have no subtle body which alone can reflect
consciousness. In all living beings both existence and consciousness are manifest. All the three
aspects of Brahman are manifest in a mind that is predominantly sattvic.
Brahman is in reality devoid of all attributes. The multifarious names and forms in the world are
superimposed on Brahman by Maya. For those who are incapable of meditating on the attributeless
Brahman meditation on Brahman with attributes is prescribed in the scriptures.
When the non-dual, self-luminous, attributeless Brahman is known, there is no triad of knower,
knowing and known. Then there is infinite bliss.
May the Lord who is both Hari and Hara protect all those who, with a pure mind, surrender
themselves to Him.
Patanjali
Download Link of Patanjali [Separate PDF File]
Prabodhasudhakara of Adi Sankara
The Ocean of the Nectar of Enlightenment
A Summary
By S. N. Sastri
Introduction
Prabodhasudhakara is one of the lesser-known works of Sri Sankaracharya. It consists of 257 verses
divided into 19 chapters. One distinguishing feature of this work is that it recognises the paths of
knowledge (jnana) and devotion (bhakti) as equally valid and expressly declares the oneness of
Brahman with and without attributes.
What is it that human beings desire most? It would seem that there is no single answer to this
question. Desires seem to be as numerous as there are individuals. Some crave for wealth, some for
fame, some for power and so on. But is it possible to reduce all these desires to one single desire, of
which all these are only different manifestations? The answer of Vedanta is in the affirmative. The
one desire that is common to all human beings, nay, all living beings, is: "May I always be happy, may
I never have to experience sorrow". Thus everything in this world is desired for the happiness it is
expected to bestow, but happiness is desired for its own sake and not for the sake of anything else.
Vedanta says that this universal desire happiness is because happiness is our real nature. We suffer
misery only because we have not realized our real nature and wrongly think of ourselves as the body,
senses or mind. When a person says he is stout or lean or tall or short, etc, he looks upon himself as
his body. When he says, "I see", "I hear", "I smell", etc, he identifies himself with his sense organs.
When he says, "I think", "I understand", etc., he identifies himself with his mind. All these
identifications are wrong and result from ignorance of our real nature.
The highest goal of life according to Advaita Vedanta is the attainment of a state of supreme bliss by
the realization of our real nature. This is not a state to be attained in some other world after the end of
the present life, as in other schools of Vedanta. On the other hand it is to be attained here, in this
world and during this life itself. This is the state known as Jivanmukti or liberation-in-life. This is
attained when one realizes that he is not the body, or the senses, or the mind, but the self or Atma,
which is identical with Brahman. The Upanishads and the Bhagavadgita expound the means of
attaining this state. One essential requisite for this is purity of mind, which means a mind free from
cravings for worldly pleasures. This should not be misunderstood as meaning that one has to
renounce the world and take sannyasa. What has to be cultivated is an attitude of detachment. One
who has cultivated such an attitude will be able to engage himself in his normal worldly activities,
without becoming unduly distressed by adversities or unduly elated by favourable happenings. Only a
person who has attained such a state of equanimity of mind will be able to concentrate his mind on
the teachings of the Upanishads and give up his wrong identification with the body, senses and mind.
When this wrong identification is given up, he remains as what he is in reality, namely, the Atma or
self, which is identical with Brahman. Brahman is bliss and so when one realizes his identity with
Brahman he enjoys supreme bliss. The first few chapters of the present book deal with the means by
which such a detachment can be cultivated. Thereafter the book proceeds to deal with such matters
as the nature of the Self, and leads step by step to the ultimate goal.
Chapter-1 - Censure of the physical body
The work commences with a salutation to Krishna, described as the Supreme Lord of the Yadava
race, who is none other than the Unborn, Self-effulgent, Supreme Being, who is Pure Existence,
Consciousness and Eternal Bliss. Thus the identity of the Personal God with Nirguna Brahman is
established at the very outset. The next verse points out that Brahman whom even the Vedas are
unable to describe, is certainly not accessible to the words of human beings. Though this is so, He
can be attained through the scriptures and by contemplation on, and singing the praises of, Hari.
However, spiritual practices, knowledge and devotion are of no avail without the cultivation of intense
dispassion. Dispassion, knowledge of the Self and devotion -- these three together constitute the
means to liberation. Dispassion is total absence of desire for all objects of enjoyment. The notions of
'I' and 'mine' are the obstacles to the rise of dispassion. The notion of 'I' relates to the body and the
notion of 'mine' relates to objects such as wife, son, and possessions. If one ponders deeply over the
nature of the body and its relationship with objects, these two notions can be gradually eliminated.
The jiva (individual soul) takes a body in accordance with his past karma, and is born as a result of
the union of the father and the mother. The jiva is baked by the flames of the digestive fire in the
womb of the mother, surrounded by mucus, urine and faecal matter. After birth he undergoes
sufferings of various kinds in childhood due to illness and other causes. The jiva takes birth in eighty
four lakhs of different species such as insects, birds, animals, human beings and so on. The human
body is the highest in the scale of evolution. Even among human beings, birth in a noble family of
learned persons, which is conducive to the study and practice of the teachings of the Vedas, is the
highest and most to be desired. If, even after attaining such a valuable birth, discrimination between
the eternal Self and the perishable non-Self is not acquired, the life is merely wasted. There cannot
be a greater loss than this. The next birth may be as an animal, or bird, etc., in which there is
absolutely no possibility of spiritual progress. These creatures cannot even give expression to the
suffering undergone by them.
The physical body is a collection of blood, bones, marrow, fat, flesh and the like. It is covered outside
by the skin. But for this covering, it would be snatched and eaten by crows. The very sight of the
phlegm emitted by the nostrils and the mouth, and the faecal matter from the anus is revolting. If a
man sees a bone lying on the road, he would walk away from it in disgust, but he does not realise that
his own body is full of similar bones. The body is full of foul-smelling matter from the hair on the head
to the tip of the nails. People anoint this body with sandal paste and various cosmetics in order to
conceal its defects. Fools praise the body, attributing merits to it. If a wound on the body is not
cleaned for three days, worms arise there and a bad smell emanates. The body which till then slept
on a beautiful couch is bound with ropes and pieces of wood and thrown into the fire when life
departs from it. People worship with joy a king seated on his throne, but when he dies they do not like
even to look at his body. Forgetting the Supreme Lord because of whom the impure body is sentient
and active, man looks upon his body as himself. Where is the Self which is of the nature of Pure
Existence and Consciousness, and where is the body made of flesh, blood and bones! Would any
wise man think highly of the impure body?
The object in censuring the physical body in this manner is to generate dispassion in the mind of the
spiritual seeker.
Chapter-2 - Censure of the objects of sense
The deluded man goes after sense pleasures which only weaken his body. Justas a house made of
mud, which has collapsed because of heavy rain cannot be strengthened with mud, the man cannot
regain his strength by indulging more in sense-pleasures. A man is infatuated with his wife even if she
is not beautiful and this causes him mental agitation; but if she happens to be beautiful, his
unhappiness is even greater because others may look upon her with longing. If the wife is very
foolish, or disobedient to her husband, she becomes worse than an enemy.
The Veda says that there is no 'world' for a man without a son. What is the 'world' referred to by this
statement? It is certainly not liberation. It cannot also be this world or heaven, because there are
other means to attain them. The performance of sacrifices such as 'putrakameshti' are useless
because they do not lead to real and permanent happiness. Before a son is born, a man is anxious to
get one. When a son is born, the father is full of anxiety about his life. He is also worried whether the
son will be intelligent and of good character, or otherwise. If the son hurts the father, mother or other
relatives, he causes further misery to the parents. Even if the son has all virtues, there will be great
unhappiness if he is diseased or dies prematurely. If it is said that a son enables his father to attain to
a higher world after death, that also does not stand to reason, because each person's future depends
on his own actions and merits and not on somebody else. Every person goes through innumerable
births, in which he has different fathers, mothers, sons and relatives. Such associations are therefore
purely transient, like wayfarers meeting at some place and then dispersing. The sons and other
dependants are happy only if they are fed and looked after well, otherwise they become angry. Every
one puts in great effort to acquire as much wealth as possible. But if excessive wealth is acquired,
there is danger from thieves. Taxes levied by the Government may take away a substantial portion of
the wealth. Quarrels also start within the family about the sharing of the wealth. Thus the objects
acquired with great effort for the sake of getting happiness lead ultimately only to unhappiness and
mental agitation.
(The object of this denunciation of objects of sense is to generate dispassion in the spiritual aspirant.
The idea is that one should not get too attached to family, wealth, and possessions).
Chapter-3 - Censure of the mind
The mind, when possessed by the demoness of desire, becomes a devil. It wanders all over, is
sometimes happy, sometimes sad, sometimes angry, and so on. It is sometimes virtuous and
sometimes wicked. It is pulled in different directions by pride, greed, desire, anger, jealousy and other
emotions. One can attain dispassion by giving up desires. The mind will then become calm.
Chapter-4 - Discarding objects of sense
The boat in the form of the human body is dragged here and there by the force of past karma in the
ocean of worldly existence which is full of water in the form of sense-objects. This boat has nine
openings (the two eyes, the two ears, the two nostrils, the mouth and the organs of excretion and
generation). Water in the form of sense-objects enters through these openings and tends to sink the
boat. If these openings are kept closed, the jiva, who is the boatman, can reach the other shore with
ease. Without controlling the senses, none can cross the ocean of worldly existence.
Some instances where free rein to the senses contributes to spiritual downfall are now given. A man
looks with longing at the young wife of another man. This results only in his accumulating sin. A man
listens to scandalous tales about another man, who is, however, not in the least affected by it. The
only result is that the man listening to such tales incurs sin. When a person makes false allegations
about others, those persons are not affected in the least, but the person who makes such allegations
becomes a great sinner.
The pleasure enjoyed for a few moments because of the contact of the senses with an object turns
into life-long misery when that object is lost. Therefore the wise man should give up hankering after
such fleeting pleasures and seek what is eternal. A man given to sensual pleasures is ultimately
carried away by death, just like the fish attracted by apiece of flesh in bait. A frog with half its body in
the mouth of a snake goes on devouring flies. Similarly, man who is in the clutches of death runs after
sensual pleasures even in old age.
Chapter-5 - Restraint of the mind
If the mind is not allowed to go out towards external objects, but is fixed on the Self, it will become
identified with the Self. When the mind is thinking of sense objects it becomes tainted and tamoguna
predominates. When the mind withdraws itself from sense objects and attains dispassion towards
them, sattvaguna will begin to manifest. (Prakriti, which is the material cause of the whole world is
said to be composed of three gunas or modes, namely, sattva, rajas and tamas. The mind is also
constituted of the same three gunas. The proportion of these gunas varies from person to person. In
the same person the proportion varies from time to time, depending on the activities of the mind, and
one guna or other predominates. When sattvaguna predominates, the mind is calm, receptive to
knowledge and pure. When rajoguna predominates, the person is actuated by greed and is inclined to
engage in action for the fulfillment of his desires, heedless of the consequences. When tamoguna
predominates, the person becomes lazy and goes into a torpor). The mind of the ordinary person
constantly seeks pleasure through the sense organs. If the desired object is not attained the person
thinks that he has lost something very valuable and is very unhappy.
Everyone has to experience the consequences of his actions in this life or in past lives. This is the
inexorable law. The only way to prevent the mind from running out in search of sense pleasures is by
the cultivation of dispassion.
The happiness experienced in deep sleep is not born of any sense object because at that time there
is no contact of the mind with external objects through the sense organs.
Just as a tiger confined to a place surrounded by high walls makes repeated efforts to jump over the
walls and, becoming exhausted, lies down panting, the mind, failing in its efforts to go out on account
of the sense organs being restrained, becomes calm. Then it gives up all effort.
The mind gradually gives up all agitation if the breath is controlled through pranayama, if the
company of sages is resorted to, if the vasanas are given up, and by the cultivation of devotion to the
feet of Hari. The mind and the breath are like two sides of the same coin and so when one is
controlled the other also becomes calm.
Chapter-6 - Detachment
A person who has come as a guest for a short period to a house will not be unduly elated or
depressed by any good or bad happenings in that house. Similarly, a person should stay in his house
like a guest, unaffected by whatever happens in the house. One who is free from the notions of ‗I' and
‗mine' and who has turned his mind away from sense objects is never affected by anything even if he
is staying in his house. For a man who sleeps in a forest at the cool foot of a tree where the ground is
covered by sand and thick grass, the trees rich in leaves and fruits, the cool fragrant breeze, the birds
which sing sweetly and the rivers become friends. The man who has attained total dispassion, whose
mind is tranquil, who is free from desire, and who enjoys whatever comes to him unsolicited, has
attained fulfillment herein this life itself.
If an object is lost due to carelessness, great sorrow is experienced. But if the same object is
presented to a deserving and respected person, there is great joy for the giver. Similarly, if sense
pleasures cease to be available or if they cannot be enjoyed because of old age or other reasons,
that becomes the cause of sorrow for a long time. But if they are willingly renounced, there is
happiness and ultimately, liberation.
The mind forgets its true abode, the Self, and runs about here and there in the terrible forest of sense
objects in search of pleasure. It is tormented by the forest fire in the form of the three kinds of
afflictions, namely, those caused by physical and mental ailments (known as adhyatmika), those
caused by other creatures (adhibhautika), and those resulting from natural calamities such as floods,
earthquakes, etc., (adhidaivika). It is captivated by desires for enjoyment and runs after objects of
trifling value. Ultimately it is destroyed by the tiger in the form of sense objects. The mind is compared
to a restless deer which roams about in the forest in search of grass and falls prey to a tiger. The
never ending desires that keep on rising in the mind bring about the ruin of the human being and
stand as obstacles to spiritual progress. Detachment is the virtue that should be cultivated most
earnestly by every spiritual aspirant.
Chapter-7 - The Self
Although the knowledge about the Self (Brahman) is contained in the Upanishads, the spiritual
aspirant should get it only from a Guru. The knowledge of the Self obtained from a mere study of the
Upanishads is indirect, like the knowledge from the mere statement that ‗jaggery is sweet', which
cannot give one any idea of what jaggery looks like or what is the nature of its sweetness. The
knowledge received from a Guru is like the knowledge obtained by looking at the jaggery from a
distance, which gives an idea of what jaggery looks like, but not about how it tastes. The knowledge
obtained by the aspirant by intuitive perception or realization of the Self is like the delight one gets on
actually tasting jaggery. Thus, while the scriptures and the Guru can only point out the way, actual
realization of the Self depends on one's own effort.
What is it that enables us to experience taste, smell, form, sound, and touch and everything else? It
cannot be the physical body or the sense organs, because these exist even in the dead body, but the
dead body does not experience any pain when burnt. It cannot be the vital airs (prana), because,
even though the prana is active during sleep, a person remains ignorant of thieves entering the house
and stealing things. If it is said that it is the mind that enables us to experience all these, then why is it
that the mind does not experience all these simultaneously? It is because the mind is itself dependent
on the sense organs. This being so, what is it that enables us to have all these experiences?
Let a brightly burning lamp be placed on the floor in a room that is totally dark. Let the lamp be
covered by a pot with five holes on the sides. Let various objects be placed all around the pot. The
light from the pot, coming through the holes illumines these objects and makes them visible. The
visibility of the objects is not caused by the holes in the pot or the lamp made of earth or any other
material, or the oil or the burning wick. It is only the light of the lamp that illumines the objects.
Similarly, it is the Self or pure Consciousness within the body that enables us to experience the
various objects of sense such as taste, smell, etc.
Chapter-8 - Maya
Verse 95 of Prabodhasudhakara says that the Supreme Self who is nothing but Pure Consciousness
saw himself as ‗I'. Thus he got the appellation ‗I'. That was the origin of difference and multiplicity.
The above verse is based on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (Br. Up), 1.4.1, which says-"In the beginning
(i.e. before creation), there was nothing but the Self in the form of a person. He pondered and saw
nothing other than himself. He said, "I am he". Therefore he came to be called ‗I' (Aham). Therefore,
even today, when a person is addressed, he first says, "It is I", and then only gives his name".
Verse 96 says that the Self existed as (or became divided into) two parts, as husband and wife.
Therefore the space (by the side of the male) has always to be filled by a female.
This verse is based on Br. Up. 1.4.3,which says (as commented upon by Sri Sankaracharya) -- "The
Self projected a body as big as a man and woman together in embrace. He then divided this body
into two and they became husband and wife. Therefore the husband and wife are like the two halves
of a split pea. Thus, tilla man gets married the space by his side is vacant. This space has to be filled
by a wife". This statement in the Upanishad shows that equal importance is given to the husband and
the wife. Moreover, it is implied here that a man becomes complete only when he gets married. This
should dispel the totally wrong notion held by some that the Hindu religion frowns upon married life
and holds up renunciation as the model for all. The scriptures say that one should normally go
through the four ashramas one by one and enter the sannyasa ashrama only at the last stage of life.
Of course, a person who has developed total detachment can go straight from brahmacharya to
sannyasa, without going through the grahastha and vanaprastha ashramas, but that is the exception
and not the general rule.
The Supreme Self created all creatures by its Maya, just as we create various objects in dream. So
the universe is only like a dream. Maya, which is the power of the Supreme Self is neither different
from nor identical with the Self. It is beginningless and is dependent on the Self which is the only
reality. It is made up of the three Gunas, namely, Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. It brings forth the
universe made up of the movable and the immovable. It is only because of maya that everyone
identifies himself with his body-mind complex and consequently experiences joys and sorrows
resulting from external factors. When a person has crossed over this maya he realises that he is
Brahman and remains as Brahman which is supreme bliss.
The mind is the connecting link between the Self which is pure consciousness and the physical body.
The physical body perishes, but the mind continues, taking one physical body after another in
numerous births. Death is the separation of the mind, also known as the subtle body, from a particular
physical body. Birth is the entry of the subtle body into another physical body. The subtle body
perishes only on the realization of Brahman, when avidya or ignorance is destroyed.
Just as the space enclosed in a pot or room is called pot-space or room-space, the Self (or Pure
Consciousness) covered by Nescience is known as Jiva or individual soul.
A doubt arises here. How can ignorance cover Brahman which is pure consciousness? Can darkness
cover the sun? The answer is: Clouds which are produced by the heat of the sun hide the sun from
our view, but the fact that it is daytime is still known. Similarly ignorance hides Brahman from us, but
the power of consciousness is not hidden and it is seen in all living beings.
Chapter-9 - Definition of subtle body, etc.
Within the gross body there is the subtle body. Within the latter is the causal body. Within that is the
super-causal body. (In other works of Sri Sankara only one causal body is mentioned, but here two
are mentioned. The difference between the two is explained subsequently). The gross body (or
physical body) has already been explained in chapter1. The subtle body is the aggregate of the five
subtle elements, the five vital airs, the five organs of sense and the internal organ (mind). It is what is
referred to in the sruti by the statement, "The purusha is of the size of the thumb" (Kathopanishad).
The above definition of the subtle body differs from that found in other works of Sri Sankara. In other
works the subtle body is described as the aggregate of (1) the five praanas, (2) the fives subtle
organs of perception, (3) the five organs of action, (4) the mind, and (5) the intellect.
The causal body is made up of the mental impressions (vaasanaas) left by past actions.
The super-causal body is avidya, which is the cause of the manifestation of the causal body.
Though there are some differences between the definitions of the subtle body and causal body in the
present work and those found in other works, the differences are not very material.
The reflection of pure consciousness in the intellect which is the essence of the subtle body is known
as the jiva. This jiva causes the manifestation of the sense of ‗I-ness' in the physical body.
The reflection of the sun in the ocean moves because of the movement of the waves. Similarly the
reflection of pure consciousness moves in accordance with the changes in the mind. But just as the
sun is not affected by the movement of its reflection, pure consciousness is not at all affected by the
movements of its reflection in the mind.
The light of the sun, when reflected from objects such as a bell-metal vessel, illumines the other
objects in the same room. Similarly, the reflection of pure consciousness in the subtle body illumines
the objects outside through the sense-organs i.e. the senses experience objects outside because of
the consciousness reflected in the subtle body.
Raja Yoga: Royal Road to Realisation
What is Yoga?
Every religion is founded on the spiritual realisations of a prophet, or of sages. These founders set
certain ideals for their followers, with the hope that they will attain the highest aim of their life by
practising those ideals. However, with the passage of time these ideals get diluted due to wrong
understanding of the ideal by the followers, or due to their overpowering desires for power and pelf.
When the dilution crosses a limit, the adherents either lose faith, or lose sight of the very purpose of
religion. That is when emotionalism, irrationality, and fanaticism enter the religion. To stop this rot, it is
essential that people have a science of spirituality, against which their own practices can be judged
and set right.
Yoga is that science of spirituality. It is the purifying fire in which the garbage of a religion can be
burnt down. Being the exalted art and the practical science of spirituality, it commands a special
respect among all other paths to realisation. That is why it is also known as the royal road to
realisation, Raja Yoga.
Yoga assumes nothing, accepts nothing that is wild, and tolerates no hocus pocus in its practice. It is
not meant for the weak in the body, nor can it be practised by the weak in mind, resolve, or spirit.
Even a little practise of it gives one concrete results, and opens higher doors to wisdom. And, what to
say of practices, even a mere study of this science is capable of removing doubts and confusion from
one's mind.
Derived from the root Yuj, the word 'Yoga' means union. But it is also used in a special sense by the
practitioners of different paths of spiritual realisation. To a karma yogi, it signifies the union between
an individual and the whole; to a Raja yogi (mystic), it means the union between his lower and the
higher Self; to a bhakta, it implies the union between himself and God; and to a jnani, it stands for the
non-duality of existence.
Raja Yoga is a fully developed philosophy, and is also a practical manual of spiritual practices, in
which the focus is on maximising the use of psycho-physical faculties of a person for the realisation of
the highest truth. Yogis believe that by controlling one's body, and by focussing the mind, a
practitioner can attain anything in life, including mukti. The most important of these manuals is
Patmnjali's Yoga Sutras.
It is believed that Patanjali compiled the Yoga Sutras around 2nd/ 3rd century BCE. But, like all other
Hindu sacred texts, the controversy rages as to its exact date. The practice of yoga was current in
India much before Patanjali. References to this are present in the Upanishads, and elaborate
discussions on it have been made in the Mahabharata. Patanjali only systematised the philosophy
and wrote it down in sutra form. Needless to say, the work is a masterpiece of organising an
extremely complex subject into a simple, graded and comprehensible discipline.
Since Raja Yoga deals with the mind, it is also known as Hindu psychology. But unlike the present
day psychology, the discussion in Yoga is more thorough, meaningful and with a higher purpose. The
analysis and remedy of spiritual issues presented here are non-sectarian in nature. This makes Yoga
universally relevant and useful.
One branch of Yoga is called Hatha Yoga, in which emphasis is laid upon postures, purification of the
body and nerves, and breath control. This kind of practise leads to a healthy body and long life, but
does not lead to liberation. Due to this reason, many refuse to accept it as a valid branch of
philosophy.
The Philosophy
The philosophy of yoga is based on the Samkhya philosophy, in which the most important concepts
are those of the Purusha (soul), Prakriti (nature), and tattva (evolutes of Prakriti). Purusha is pure
consciousness, whereas Prakriti is matter and energy, and is characterised by activity. This makes
the character of Purusha and Prakriti the opposite. However, the process of creation continues only
because these two come close together. Why and how this union takes place, is a mystery, which
can best be speculated, and hence it is treated as irrelevant in yoga. This union between the matter
and the spirit is accepted simply as a fact, and focus is laid upon getting out of this union, instead of
finding out the reason for it. This approach makes Raja Yoga a practical philosophy.
Prakriti is composed of three gunas (lit. qualities, Sattva, Rajas, Tamas) which in turn give birth to
elements of the universe and also produces the organs of perception, including the mind. In total
there are twenty-four tattvas that belong to the realm of Prakriti: Mind, the ten organs, the five
elements, the five tanmatras (from which are born the senses and elements), Cosmic Ego, Cosmic
Mind, and the Prakriti Herself. All these manifestations of nature are caused by the evolution of
nature, and hence no external agent is required to materialise it.
Prakriti has no intelligence of its own. As long as the Purusha is present in it, it appears as intelligent,
which in reality is borrowed intelligence, the way a planet's light is actually the reflected light of the
sun. Purusha is pure intelligence, but when it comes in contact with Prakriti, It starts experiencing the
universe through the buddhi (intellect), which actually belongs to Prakriti. During perception of any
kind by a living being, the senses carry the sensations to its mind, but it is the soul where all different
perceptions converge, get unified, and he becomes aware of it. By nature the soul alone is free.
People wrongly attribute freedom to the mind, and thus give rise to the false idea of the mind being
intelligent.
The Yogi analyses both what is free and what is bound, and realises that the Purusha is free, and is
the essence of that knowledge which, coming through the Buddhi, becomes intelligence. He also
realises that the mind is bound, and that the goal of spiritual practices is to get out of the clutches of
the Prakriti, which implies getting out of the mind's area of influence.
When in contact with Prakriti, Purusha forgets His divine nature, starts behaving like a bound entity,
and looks at the nature with awe. When He starts experiencing the glamour of Prakriti and outgrowing
it, He slowly starts moving towards that state of finality where the entire Prakriti appears small and
insignificant to Him. It is then that the universe, as if, falls off from Purusha because of its
nothingness. On the other hand, Prakriti has no purpose of its own, except to free the Purusha from
Her clutches. This she does by taking Purusha through the experience of objects created by Her.
With this in the backdrop, Yoga philosophy prescribes that a yogi should train himself to outgrow the
experiences offered by the nature to attain self knowledge, which is mukti.
Unlike Vedanta, in which there is one indivisible Atman, Yoga believes in infinite number of souls.
According to Yoga philosophy, this is the reason why the liberation of one person does not liberate
others.
Yoga philosophy makes only passing references to life after death. Concepts like heaven, hell, god,
sin, etc. do not get much importance here. It is a practical philosophy, belonging to here and now,
with the precision and clarity of a demonstrable experiment in a laboratory.
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: The Book
Patanjali's Yoga Sutras belong to the sutra form of literature, which is a distinct type of composition
based on short aphoristic statements. This form of literature was designed to be very short, as the
texts were intended to be memorised by students in some of the formal methods of scriptural study. It
is due to the Sutra form of literature that a vast mass of philosophical works was preserved in India.
Each sutra being highly condensed, another literary form arose in which commentaries on the sutras
were added to clarify and explain them. The Yoga Sutras also have some famous commentaries,
including one by Vyasa, and another by Bhoja, which makes the study of the subject complete.
Patanjali's Raja Yoga not only presents yoga as a thorough and consistent philosophical system, it
also clarifies many important concepts, like karma, which are common to all traditions of Indian
thought. Every later religious text of India, including Vedanta, was strongly influenced by the Yoga
philosophy.
The book has 191 sutras, divided into 4 sections (Pada) as follows:
1. Samadhi Pada (51 sutras): It discusses the various superconscious states that an aspirant attains
through meditation.
2. Sadhan Pada (55 sutras): It details the method of spiritual practices, known as Astanga Yoga.
3. Vibhuti Pada (55 sutras): The section deals with the various powers that one acquires during the
practise of yoga. However, Patanjali cautions that aspirants must stay away from these, otherwise
they won't be able to proceed towards the goal of mukti.
4. Kaivalya Pada (34 sutras): The section explains the state of liberation, and the ways to attain it
through meditation.
The importance of mind in Yoga
We are what our thoughts are – Yoga philosophy uses this fundamental fact as its premise on which
it builds its philosophy. So, we need to understand what these thoughts are, and how they work.
According to Swami Vivekananda, "...the eyes are only a secondary instrument, not the organ of
vision. The organ of vision is in a nerve centre of the brain. The two eyes will not be sufficient.
Sometimes a man is asleep with his eyes open. The light is there and the picture is there, but a third
thing is necessary--the mind must be joined to the organ. The eye is the external instrument; we need
also the brain centre and the agency of the mind. .. The mind takes the impression farther in, and
presents it to the determinative faculty--Buddhi--which reacts. Along with this reaction flashes the idea
of egoism. Then this mixture of action and reaction is presented to the Purusha, the real Soul, who
perceives an object in this mixture.
"The organs (Indriyas), together with the mind (Manas), the determinative faculty (Buddhi), and
egoism (Ahamkara), form the group called the Antahkarana (the internal instrument). They are but
various processes in the mind-stuff, called Chitta. The waves of thought in the Chitta are called Vrittis
(literally "whirlpool"). What is thought? Thought is a force, as is gravitation or repulsion. From the
infinite storehouse of force in nature, the instrument called Chitta takes hold of some, absorbs it and
sends it out as thought. ...
"So we see that the mind is not intelligent; yet it appears to be intelligent. Why? Because the
intelligent soul is behind it. You are the only sentient being; mind is only the instrument through which
you catch the external world. Take this book; as a book it does not exist outside, what exists outside
is unknown and unknowable. The unknowable furnishes the suggestion that gives a blow to the mind,
and the mind gives out the reaction in the form of a book, in the same manner as when a stone is
thrown into the water, the water is thrown against it in the form of waves. The real universe is the
occasion of the reaction of the mind. A book form, or an elephant form, or a man form, is not outside;
all that we know is our mental reaction from the outer suggestion. "Matter is the permanent possibility
of sensations," said John Stuart Mill. It is only the suggestion that is outside.
"Take an oyster for example. You know how pearls are made. A parasite gets inside the shell and
causes irritation, and the oyster throws a sort of enamelling round it, and this makes the pearl. The
universe of experience is our own enamel, so to say, and the real universe is the parasite serving as
nucleus. The ordinary man will never understand it, because when he tries to do so, he throws out an
enamel, and sees only his own enamel. Now we understand what is meant by these Vrittis. The real
man is behind the mind; the mind is the instrument in his hands; it is his intelligence that is percolating
through the mind. It is only when you stand behind the mind that it becomes intelligent. When man
gives it up, it falls to pieces and is nothing. Thus you understand what is meant by Chitta. It is the
mind-stuff, and Vrittis are the waves and ripples rising in it when external causes impinge on it. These
Vrittis are our universe." (Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Vol 1. P. 200-2)
Yoga is about restraining the mind from acquiring various forms, which it keeps doing all the time. It is
through this restraining, with the help of meditative techniques, that one slowly learns to disassociate
himself from everything around him. In the state of samadhi (the highest state of meditation), one
becomes completely free from every kind of association and gets liberated from the cycle of birth and
death. The resulting impression from samadhi obstructs every other impression of the mind
accumulated over the ages. By the restraint of even this last impression (which obstructed all other
mental impressions) comes the "seedless" Samadhi which destroys the possibility of any future birth.
It is in this state that the spiritual aspirant gets established in his true state of existence (svarup). This
is mukti; this is the goal of yoga.
As in Vedanta, Yoga philosophy also accepts that consciousness belongs to Purusha (soul) only.
Everything else is the evolute of Prakriti, and hence not self luminous. Since mind also belongs to
Prakriti, it is not self-luminous, and so it does not have inherent intelligence. This is the core of Yoga
psychology. The mind gets its reflected intelligence from Purusha, and gets coloured by the impurities
born of its contact with the sense objects. The goal of Yoga is to cleanse the mind so that the pure
light of intelligence from Purursha dawns upon it and leads it to realisation. That is when the soul
becomes free from the snares of Prakriti.
Normally, the mind stays in one of these states -- kshipta, scattering; vikshipta, darkening; vimudha,
gathering; niruddha, one-pointed, and ekagra, concentrated. The first state is of activity and manifests
in the form of pleasure or of pain. The second one corresponds to dullness which tends to injure
others. These two states are predominant in the demons. The third kind of mental state is natural to
the demigods and the angels. The gathering form (niruddha) is when the mind struggles to centre
itself on one object. This state is commonly found in gods. The last state, the one-pointed (ekagra)
form, is when the mind tries to concentrate, and finally the concentrated form results in Samadhi. The
samadhi is the state when mind cannot acquire one of its above mentioned five states. The mind is
finite and hence can not reach or grasp the knowledge of the Infinite attained in the state of samadhi.
Mind and its forms: The Vrittis
Every functional mind stays in a particular state, characterised by thoughts. The modification that a
mind undergoes due to any reason, is called vritti. According to Patanjali, Yoga is the conscious
stopping of every vritti of the mind (Su. I. 2).
Whatever the type of mind (kshipta, vikshipta, vimudha, niruddha, ekagra), it belongs to one of the
five mental states:
a. Pramana: Right knowledge acquired through direct perception, reasoning, inference, and through
sacred texts and words of teachers.
b. Viparyaya: Indiscrimination, which gets born due to a mistaken identity, as when one sees a
mirage.
c. Vikalpa: Verbal delusion is about the words which have no corresponding reality. For example, A
person reacts when he is called a donkey, although the word has no corresponding reality with the
truth.
d. Nidra: The state of sleep and dream.
e. Smriti: Memory. It can come from direct perception, false knowledge, verbal delusion, or sleep.
The goal for a yogi is to get out of all these mental states and stop the vrittis associated with them.
This requires great practice and perseverance for a long time. The Yoga Sutras discuss the ways,
means and the result of the conscious control of the mind.
Ashtanga Yoga: The Eight Steps
The eight "limbs" or steps prescribed in the Sadhan Pada of the Yoga Sutras are: Yama, Niyama,
Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi. Of these, the first five are called
external aids to Yoga (bahiranga sadhana), and the last three are called internal aids to Yoga
(antaranga sadhana).
Yama refers to the five abstentions: Ahimsa: non-violence, Satya: truth in word & thought, Asteya:
non-covetousness or non-stealing, Brahmacharya: celibacy, Aparigraha: Non-acceptance of gifts.
Patanjali adds that even for any non-spiritual person, these are great ethical values, and should be
practised by all.
Niyama refers to the five observances: Shaucha: cleanliness of body and mind, Santosha:
satisfaction with what one has, Tapas: austerities, Svadhyaya: Scriptural study and introspection, and
Ishvarapranidhana: surrender to (or worship of) God.
Asana: It is training oneself into the correct posture for meditation. One should be able to sit
comfortably and firmly for long hours in one posture, and hence that posture which is the easiest for
one should alone be chosen.
Pranayama: It is the technique of regulating the breath to conserve the psychic energy, called prana,
and helps in concentrating the mind. Pranayama is divided into Rechaka (exhaling), Puraka
(inhaling), and Kumbhaka (restraining). One complete cycle of these three is called Pranayama. In
one Pranayama one may repeat three Gayatris, or an equivalent number of any sacred mantra.
However, breathing is only one of the many ways through which one can attain concentration.
Pratyahara: It is the withdrawal of senses and finally the mind from the external objects. According to
yoga, an organ is only the external manifestation of the mind to do a particular work.
Dharana: It is the concentration of the mind upon a physical object, such as a flame of a lamp, or the
image of a deity by fixing the mind on the lotus of the heart, or on the centre of the head. The practise
of this gives rise to a particular kind of mental waves which are not swallowed up by other kinds of
thoughts (vrittis), but by degrees become prominent, while all the others recede and finally disappear.
Dhyana: When the multiplicity of the waves born during dharana gives place to unity, and only one
wave is left in the mind, it is called Dhyana. However, in this state the act of meditation and the object
of meditation remain distinct and separate.
Samadhi: When all forms are given up by the mind during meditation, and the focus is only on the
meaning of the object of meditation, thus becoming one with it, it is called Samadhi. In this state, no
distinction remains between the act of meditation, and the object of meditation. The mind now goes
beyond the limits of reason, and comes face to face with facts which perception, instinct, reason, or
testimonies can never reveal.
Types of Samadhi
If the mind can be fixed on a particular point for twelve seconds it is called a Dharana. Twelve such
Dharanas make a Dhyana, and twelve such Dhyanas is a Samadhi. The three together make a
samyama.
Samadhi is of two kinds: Samprajnāta Samādhi, and Asamprajnāta Samādhi.
A. Samprajnāta Samadhi: Conscious samadhi. In this type of samadhi, the mind remains
concentrated on the object of meditation, and hence the consciousness of the object of meditation
persists. In the Samprajnata Samadhi, all the powers of controlling the nature come. However,
despite attaining all the powers through this kind of samadhi, a yogi can again fall back to the state of
bondage, since this is not the ultimate state.
The resulting vritti from this kind of samadhi suppresses every other vritti of the mind. It then becomes
easy to suppress this vritti too, to attain the ultimate knowledge.
This samadhi is again of four kinds:

1. Savitarka: The mind is concentrated upon a gross object of meditation, such as a flame. In the very
same meditation, when one struggles to take the elements out of time and space, and think of them
as they are, it is called Nirvitarka, without question.
2. Savichāra: The mind is concentrated upon the subtle aspect of the component of that object, called
the tanmatras. When in the same meditation one eliminates time and space, and thinks of the fine
elements as they are, it is called Nirvichara, without discrimination.
3. Sānandā: The concentration here is upon a still subtler object of meditation, like the senses, or the
thinking organ, chitta. When the thinking organ is thought of as bereft of the qualities of activity and
dullness, it is then called Sananda, the blissful Samadhi.
4. Sāsmitā: The mind is concentrated upon the ego-substance with which the self is generally
identified. When the mind itself is the object of meditation, which now becomes very ripe and
concentrated, and all ideas of the gross and fine materials are given up, then it is called Sasmita
Samadhi. Persons who attain this state are known as Videha, without a gross body. Those yogis, who
belong to this state, and get merged in nature without attaining mukti are called Prakritilayas. Those
who do not stop even there, attain mukti.
B. Asamprajnāta Samadhi: This is the Perfect Superconscious state that leads to mukti. In this state
the mind and the object of meditation become one, and all mental modifications are checked
(niruddha). In the earlier kind of samadhi, the latent impressions (in seed form) may continue, but
when Asamprajnata is reached, the Samadhi becomes seedless. There are no more seeds in the
mind out of which can be manufactured this plant of life, this ceaseless cycle of birth and death. In
this state all old tendencies of restlessness, dullness, and also goodness get destroyed. The good
and evil tendencies suppress each other, leaving the Soul in its own glory.
The Process of Knowledge
Every knowledge requires Shabda (sound/any external signal), Artha (meaning), and Jnana
(knowledge). The signal coming from the external word is known as shabda. The brain receives the
signal and processes it for the use of mind; the process is known as artha. When the mind grasps the
meaning of the shabda, it throws out its individualised reaction towards the object from which came
the signal. This is jnana. These three are distinct processes, but get mixed up in such a fashion as to
stay indistinct to a common man. One perceives only their combined effect, known as external object.
But, a yogi who has attained a level of meditation can distinguish the three, and when he applies this
power of discrimination to various areas of knowledge, he can attain various powers.
Kriya Yoga: The First steps of Growth
For any practitioner of Yoga, benefit comes in two forms :

1. Attainment of Samadhi, and
2. Reduction and control of pain (both physical and mental).
The cause of pain lies in five pain bearing factors: ignorance, egoism, attachment, aversion, and
clinging to life. Ignorance (of one's true nature) is the cause of the other four. Egoism is caused when
the senses meet the sense objects; attachment is towards pleasurable objects, aversion is towards
unpleasant things, and clinging to life is something common to all living beings. Thus starting from
self-preservation to the primordial ignorance, a person has enough grounds that can give birth to any
type of pain.
Yoga teaches how to destroy the root of these pain bearing causes. These are:
a) Tapas -- practice of austerities
b) svadhyaya -- study and repetition of the mantra
c) Surrendering fruits of work to God (Isvara Pranidhāna). These are also the three Niyama,
explained earlier.
Karma, Virtue, Sin, and Rebirth
Yoga propounds the concept of karmāshaya (receptacle of works, sum total of samaskaras).
Samskaras are the mental tendencies which are left behind after a work is complete. For example,
when a person acts out of anger, the samskaras related to anger are left behind in the mind. These
samskaras, in turn, produce new actions, just as a seed produces a tree. The karmashaya has its
root in the pain-bearing obstructions, as mentioned above. These karma work out in this visible life, or
in the unseen future life. The seed, in the form of samskara being there, the fruition comes in the form
of species, life, and experience of pleasure and pain.
They bear fruit as pleasure or pain, caused by virtue or vice in this life, and get worked out through
different bodies, higher or lower, in the next life. Thus a person engaged in cruel acts may be born as
a vicious animal in the next birth to work out his samskaras of cruelty which could not be worked out
in this life. The wise man sees through pleasure and pain, and knows that they come to all, and that
one follows and melts into the other. So, they try to get out of both pleasure and pain by avoiding
misery which is not yet come. With the past karma already worked out, and the present working out, it
is only future ones that can be controlled. This is the only way to hasten the process of growth.
Good and bad deeds are not the direct causes in the transformations of the nature of a person, but
they act only as breakers of obstacles to his evolution, just as a farmer breaks the obstacles to the
course of water in his fields. Once the barrier is broken, the water runs down by its own nature (Su.
IV. 3). So, when a wicked person decides to be good and saintly, he only has to break the barriers to
let the good actions flow in, which are always in wait to have a free flow. This breaking can be done
only by good deeds. The same rule applies to any kind of tendency. In the ultimate state of liberation,
the purity and knowledge flows in the mind of their own, since they are the true nature of soul. This
means that liberation is not a product of meritorious acts, but is the natural state of the soul.
Desires and karma can work out only in the right environment with the help of right body. This means
that the unfulfilled desires and unfinished karma would remain stored up, waiting for the proper
environment, and the proper body. This results in rebirth, and also makes the cycle of birth and death
continue. To get out of this, one has to destroy the seeds of karma that are stored up which can be
done with the help of meditation and the practise of values.
God in Yoga
In the Yoga philosophy, God (Ishwara) is a special soul (Purusha), untouched by misery, actions,
their results, and desires. Interestingly, Samkhya philosophy, on which Yoga is based, does not
accept the existence of God in any form.
The Isvara (god) of the Yogis is not same as God, the Creator of the universe, as is commonly
understood in religion. According to Yoga, the creation is the work of Prakriti, and hence Isvara has
nothing to do with Creation. According to them, Isvara is the Soul with unlimited knowledge, and is
also the Teacher of teachers. The worldly teachers are all limited, but He is the Teacher of infinite
knowledge. His manifesting word is Aum, and one can attain samadhi by repeating the sacred Aum,
and by thinking on its meaning. One may also get the same results by meditating on God.
Problems and how to counter them
Disease, mental laziness, doubt, lack of enthusiasm, lethargy, clinging to sense-enjoyments, false
perception, non-attaining concentration, and falling away from the state when obtained, are the chief
obstructions in the path of yoga. Also, when the practice of yoga has been misdirected, the result is
grief, mental distress, tremor of the body, irregular breathing, accompany non-retention of
concentration. However, they are not dangerous, and one can take steps to cure them. Incidentally,
these also trouble a common man. Yoga looks at the very root of these problems and offers ways to
counter them.
According to yoga, there are five sources of pain, which are at the root of every conceivable problem
that a common man, and also a yogi face. These are – avidya (ignorance about one's true divine
nature), asmita (identification with objects around himself), raga (attachment), dvesha (aversion), and
abhinivesha (strong sense of clinging to life).
To counter the pains born of these five, one should practice maitri (friendship with all those who are
happy), karuna (compassion to all those in misery), mudita (joyfulness towards all that is good), and
upeksha (indifference towards the bad). Whenever the yogi feels disturbed, he should direct these
counter feelings towards the objects from where the disturbance is coming. These practices pacify
the mind, and make it fit for higher achievements.
Steps of Growth
The growth of a yogi comes in seven stages:

1. The restlessness of the mind to know a thousand things of the world stops. The conviction comes
to mind that what was to be known, has been known.
2. The mind goes beyond feeling pain at anything of the universe. Nothing can hurt him any more.
3. One becomes a sarvajna (attians full knowledge).
4. There is a complete drop of the sense of duty towards anything in the world.
5. The mind becomes completely free of any kind of agitation. Like a stone fallen on the ground that
can never go up the mountain peak again, the mind becomes permanently restful.
6. A complete control over mind comes, which means that it can be resolved back to its ultimate
cause, Prakriti.
7. One finally gets established in one's Self.
Powers that a Yogi gains
Yoga declares that all power of the universe flows from the mind, be it individual, or universal
(mahat). A Yoga practitioner can gain any number of powers simply by practising the related
disciplines. It may be noted that these powers have actually been seen manifested in great yogis.
According to Patnajali, the Siddhis (powers) are attained by birth, chemical means, power of words,
mortification, or concentration. He also adds that among all, the mind which has attained to Samadhi,
alone is the highest. A person attaining powers through medicines, words of blessings, or
mortifications, still has desires, but that man who has attained Samadhi through concentration is free
from all desires, and hence superior to all.
Some of the powers that a yogi can attain are:
* All enmities and violence cease in presence of the yogi who is established in Ahimsa (non violence).
* A yogi established in truthfulness, can get for himself or others, anything that he desires;
established in non-stealing, one gets all the wealth; when established in continence, one gets
unsurpassed energy; established in non-acceptance of gifts, a yogi gets the memory of his previous
lives; from contentment comes happiness; by repetition of a mantra comes the realisation of that
particular deity.
* All knowledge comes to a yogi who succeeds in attaining samyama (the three--Dharana, Dhyana,
and Samadhi--together). He can even understand the language of animals and birds by distinguishing
between Shabda (sound), Artha (meaning), and Jnana (knowledge).
* By applying samyama on the bodily signs of others, a yogi can know the nature of that person's
mind.
* A yogi can become unseen if he wishes so, by making samyama on his body.
* By focussing on the strength of an elephant (or any other such animal), a yogi gains that kind of
strength. This also explains why one should be careful about the company one keeps.
* Focussing on the sun, the moon, and the pole star one gains the knowledge of the world, the stars,
and the celestial motions respectively.
* By focussing on the higher states of mind (sattva), one gets supernatural hearing, touching, seeing,
tasting and smelling; By focussing on the throat, one controls hunger; by focussing on the heart, one
gets the knowledge of the minds.
* It is easy for a yogi to walk on water, thorns etc. He can move at the speed of the mind, become
small, become heavier than a mountain, look exceptionally beautiful, and can get surrounded by light.
Patanjali, however, cautions that these are powers in the worldly state, but are great obstacles to the
attainment of the highest samadhi, which brings liberation.
Mukti
When the soul realises that it depends on nothing in the universe, and desires nothing, then It attains
Kaivalya (lit. uniqueness, freedom) and perfection. This comes when the intellect (sattva), which
usually is a mixture of purity and impurity, has been made as pure as the Purusha itself. It is then that
the Sattva reflects only on real purity, and an aspirant realises that he had neither birth nor death, nor
need for heaven or earth. He realises that he neither came nor went, it was nature which was moving,
and that movement was reflected upon the soul.
Swami Vivekananda explains liberation:

"Nature's task is done, this unselfish task which our sweet nurse, nature, had imposed upon herself.
She gently took the self-forgetting soul by the hand, as it were, and showed him all the experiences in
the universe, all manifestations, bringing him higher and higher through various bodies, till his lost
glory came back, and he remembered his own nature. Then the kind mother went back the same way
she came, for others who also have lost their way in the trackless desert of life. And thus is she
working, without beginning and without end. And thus through pleasure and pain, through good and
evil, the infinite river of souls is flowing into the ocean of perfection, of self-realisation." (Complete
Works, Vol. I. 304.)
Reference:
Swami Vivekananda, Raja Yoga.
Bhoja Vritti
Sama Veda - An Introduction
Download Link of Sama Veda - An Introduction [Separate PDF File]
Sankara and Modern Physics
By N. Subramanian
CONTENTS
1. Foreword
2. Author's Preface
3. Nature of the Phenomenal World
4. Nature of Knowledge
5. Relationship between Subject and Object
6. Causality and Determinism
7. The Nature of the Absolute
8. Bibliography
Sri Sri Jagadguru Shankaracharya Mahasamsthanam,
Sharada Peetam, Sringeri - 577 139 (KARNATAKA)
Shri N. Subramanian has submitted his work on "Sankara and Modern Physics" for blessings. To go
through such an original study and comparative treatment of Advaita philosophy and well-developed
thesis of modem physics is in itself stimulating. Shri Subramanian has done commendable hard work
in endeavouring to give a comparative valuation of Sankara Bhagawatpadal's expositions and the
assertion of modern physicists. The extensive quotations that the author has made from
Bhagawatpadal's writings and those of well-known modern physicists reveal the wide and intensive
and earnest study made by the author. What Shri Subramanian has done in this work is something
original and His Holiness, Sri Sankaracharya Dakshinamnaya Sri Sarada peetam, feels happy in
giving His blessings to this book and to Shri Subramanian and His Holiness expresses the fervent
hope that the book will have a large circulation in all circles of philosophers and physicists in this
Country as well as many Countries abrond where such comparative studies will attract keen attention.
His Holiness is further happy to note the generosity of Shri Subramanian in that he has said the
proceeds of this book will go to the Sankara Hall and Sankara Institute of Philosophy and Culture,
Calcutta, a unit of Sri Sarada Peetam, Sringeri which is doing valuable work from Calcutta for the
propagation and understanding of Sankara Bhagawatpadal's life and writings.
With Narayana Smaranams,
Giridhara Sastry
Private Secretary to His Holiness the Jagadguru
Sri Sankaracharya Dakshinamnaya
Sri Sarada Peetam
Sringeri
Camp: Puri
26-6-1977
FOREWORD
The book is a pioneering attempt at a scientific evaluation of Sankara's philosophy. The tenets of
Advaita philosophy are subjected to the rigorous tests of the philosophy of science. Without being
unduly biased in favour of Eastern philosophy or Western scientific culture, the author has attempted
the comparative study in the spirit of the ancient seekers of truth and the modern research scientist.
With copious citations from Sankara's writings and the writings of modern physicists, the author has
attempted a comparative evaluation of the basic points of agreement between the two schools of
thought, separated in space and time and has discovered a unity between the two. It is a book which
reveals the deep interest of the author and his keen sense of the fundamental unity behind the
divisions of time, space and consciousness and his earnest desire to understand the forces currently
influencing the people's life.
The author has analysed fundamental questions of philosophy, ethics and higher understanding of
basic concepts of life and drawn out solutions that will impress enlightened minds.
In a short span of about 100 pages the author has discussed problems of great significance. The
arrangement of matter is logical, starting from what we see going on to what we think we see and
what makes us see and finally to the identification of the seer and the seen and the entire universe
into one. The book is in the best traditions of our culture and shows evidence of the vitality and
inquisitiveness which characterised our thinking in the past and which show a way to developments in
the future. We commend the book to all students of science, to all students and savants of philosophy
and culture and to all those who seek truth and understanding.
The intense effort put in by the author with commendable devotion needs appreciation on all hands
and we are happy that we are able to bring out this publication of enduring value under the auspices
of Sankara Hall and Sankara Institute of Philosophy and Culture. If, as the author has expressed in
his introduction, the book creates a desire in the mind of the reader to make a deeper study of the
subject, the author's hard work and the publisher's objective in regard to the publication will be more
than amply rewarded.
We also gratefully acknowledge the author's gesture in donating the sale proceeds of the book to
Sankara Hall and Sankara Institute of Philosophy and Culture.
P. Subrahmaniam
President
Committee of Management Sankara Hall and Sankara Institute of Philosophy and Culture
Sringeri Sri Sarada Peetam Sankara Hall
93 Southern Avenue
Calcutta - 29
26th June, 1977
PREFACE
"When we view ourselves in space and time our consciousnesses are obviously the separate
individuals of a particle picture, but when we pass beyond space and time they may perhaps form
ingredients of a single continuous stream of life. As it is with light and electricity, so it may be with life.
The phenomena may be individuals carrying on separate existences in space and time while in the
deeper reality beyond space and time we may all be members of one body". These sentences from
the book "Physics and Philosophy", by Sir James Jeans form the point source for this book. In the
same book Sir James Jeans raises the following questions also. "Are we for instance automata or are
we free agents capable of influencing the course of events by our volition? Is the world immaterial or
material in its ultimate nature, or is it both? If so, is matter or mind the more fundamental? Is mind a
creation of matter, or matter a creation of mind? Is the world we perceive in space and time the world
of ultimate reality, or is it only a curtain veiling the deeper reality beyond?
2. These questions have agitated the minds of the Indian philosophers for the past several centuries.
There have been discussions and counter discussions on these questions. Thanks to the
acquaintance in early life with many learned pundits, I have been myself asking these questions may
be in different form. Learned scholars have been discussing these questions and giving answers or
partial answers from the Hindu Scriptures and Philosophical treatises. I have been fortunate to attend
many of these discourses, but these took place so long ago and too early in my life when I could not
pursue these questions for a more detailed and concentrated study. But the background was there in
my mind which was occupied by these questions.
3. When later on in life I turned to the books on modern physics and the philosophical implications of
the developments, I could recapture and recollect the points discussed in the Hindu Philosophical
treatises. There is a lot of similarity between, the thoughts and declaration of idealist physicists like
Sir James Jeans, Arthur Eddington and the idealist philosophers of the East like Sri Sankara,
Vidyaranya and others. Some of these sentences from the books of the idealist physicists almost
recall the identical sentences found in the Upanishads and the Advaita treatises of Sri Sankara. For
Eg., "all matters as originally understood is an illusion, nothing exists in reality except mind". Again
the assertion, "that methods of physics cannot reveal absolute truth or even fragments of absolute
truth, concedes the main point that knowledge obtained by them is absolutely subjective". These two
are essentially the tenets of Sri Sankara's philosophy of the idealistic universe. "Again the recognition
that philosophical knowledge is structural knowledge abolishes all dualism of consciousness and
matter. Dualism is based on the belief that we find in the external world something of a nature
incommensurable with what we find in consciousness. But all that physical science reveals to us in
the external world is group structure and group structure is also found in consciousness". This almost
tallies with the view of Sri Sankara that the essential nature of the world is the same as appearing to
consciousness both in dream and reality. It is only the difference in the nature of consciousness that
makes the difference in the degree of reality.
4. "There is no reality different in kind from that we associate with a mere mental concept. The mental
concepts are the pure thoughts of a thinker. We have reduced the whole of nature to a mental
concept". These sentences uphold the concept of Sri Sankara that the phenomenal world is only an
idea in the super mind and is real only to that extent. In the sentence, "matter as originally
understood, the matter of solid objects and hard particles, has no existence in reality and only
appears to exist through our observing non material things in a confused way through the bias of our
human spectacles" is an echo of the Maya Vada of Sri Sankara.
5. The above will show that the idealists among the modem physicists hold almost similar beliefs as
the ancients held. In fact the developments in modem times in modern physics and the philosophical
implications of the theories bear a close resemblance to the speculations and declarations found in
the Upanishads. What the present day physicists have found by observation, experimentation and
inference, the ancients were able to intuitively infer from mere thought processes. In fact idealists
have declared that all fundamental laws of physics which operate in the world can be deduced from
purely epistemological considerations.
6. Though there are many fields of developments in modem physics, the principles which have
considerable philosophical implications are in the field of micro physics and macro physics. The
classical laws of physics propounded by Newton, Kelvin and Kepler, still continue to govern the
ordinary levels of day to day experience. The following principles of modem physics among others
have very deep philosophical implications:
1. Hiesenberg's uncertainity principle
This principle states that the position and velocity of an electron cannot be observed
simultaneously and accurately at any particular point of time.
2. Pauli's exclusion principle:
This principle states that no two electrons in the outer orbit of an atom can occupy the same
level of energy or the same orbit at any particular point of time.
3. Mach's universal principle:
This principle states that the position and velocity of a particle in the universe is dependent
on the position and velocity of the other particles in the universe.
4. Bohr's principle of complementarity:
This principle states that a rigorous causal sequence for individual processes cannot be
realised simultaneously, the one or the other must be sacrificed. In fact later on Mr. Bohr
extended this principle to other similar concepts which are complementary in nature.
5. The principle of the constancy of the velocity of light: This is one of the aspects of Einstein's
theory of relativity. It states that velocity of light is the same to all observers in the universe
irrespective of his position or motion in the universe.
6. Planck's quantum theory itself, which states that energy or action takes place or is
transmitted in small finite quantities and not by a continuous process.
7. There are other principles and concepts in the developments in modem physics which have deep
philosophical implications. But making a list of these principles will serve no purpose. When the
fundamental questions are discussed, the relevant principles or ideas in modem physics will be
touched upon.
8. The structure of the atom has now been explored and the most common and elementary view is
that the atom consists of a hard core with a positive charge of electricity with some loose electrons
orbiting it and carrying a negative charge of electricity. There are two views about the status of these
free electrons. Observation and study have led to the inference that the behaviour of this free electron
is far too much complicated. There is a 'spin about its own axis which cannot be accounted for. The
spectral effects of this electron cannot also be accounted for. Sometimes the electron jumps from one
orbit to another without any apparent reason. The orbit of its revolution around the nucleus cannot
also be accurately traced. The presence of the negative charge in the electron combined with the
positive charge residing in the nucleus, operates against the stability of the atom. Therefore, many
adjustments and modifications have been made to the fundamentals of this theory in attempts to
account for the stability of the atom. In some such attempts, particles of antimatter have been
advocated. The last word has not yet been said on the structure of the atom. Physicists themselves
are divided into two groups according to their view of the electron as a material particle and they
explain some of the phenomena on the basis that the electron is a material particle. The other
physicists like Schrödinger view the electron as having a wave pattern and they explain some of the
other phenomena observed. Thus loosely it may be stated that the electron behaves as a particle
sometimes and as a packet of waves at other times. In a way of saying, it is sometimes stated that
the electron is a particle on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays. It is a group of waves on Tuesdays,
Thursdays and Saturdays. The electron is not known on Sundays because it is a day when the Lord
takes rest. These are some of the problems and ideas found in the field of microphysics.
9. Similar questions in the area of macrophysics are the concepts of expanding universe, the origins
of creation and other such topics. The theory of motion of galaxies, the speed of recession of the
stars and the theories of stability of the universe raise many questions about creation, sustenance
and destruction of the phenomenal universe. The nature of the concept of time and of biological
processes such as ageing, birth and death are also to be considered. In this context the theories of
Hoyle, Eddington are significant. The theory of expanding universe, the steady state theory, the bang
theory of creation will all be considered in the relevant places in the text.
10. These developments and ideas in physics have implications on the following five questions of
philosophy:
1. The nature of the world and the relation of the phenomenal world to the observer.
2. The nature of knowledge and the source of knowledge.
3. The role of causality and determinism in the universe,
4. The relationship between the subject and the object.
5. The nature of the absolute.
These will be discussed in the subsequent chapters of this book.
11. Though there is a lot of similarity between the views of our ancient philosophers and the
philosophical implications of the principles mentioned above, it may be pointed out that it is the
Advaita philosophy expounded by Sri Sankara that comes close to the recent, developments of
physics. In modem physics the principles can be stated in precise terms and more or less understood
by those who have had training in appreciating the terms and concepts involved. But the principles of
Sankara's philosophy cannot be stated in such compact language. They have to be gathered by a
study of the large volume of his writings and treatises. 1 must confess 1 have not made a detailed
study of all his writings. But I have tried to gather the relevant portions from his writings which will
serve our purpose of a comparative study. This is done with the hope that before long there will be
reconciliation between the scientific philosophy of the West and the speculative philosophy of the
East.
12. Having outlined the scope of the latter chapters of this book, I must now attempt to answer the
question, why this book? Some of the science scholars who have a good training in science and who
also have some acquaintance with philosophy have frequently stated that both in science and
philosophy there is a concept that an iron law holds over the world. In the Eastern philosophy it is
known as the law of "karma", or in other words the principle of Fate. In Western science it is known as
the principle of determinism. The first principle states that man is a result of past actions. What he
enjoys today is a result of his past karma and what he does today is further performance of karma
which will lead to further action. In other words, what he does now is a result of past action and will
also determine his future. Therefore, he is in a prison (whether of his own making or of God's will,
which, we do not know) and he has no means of escape. If that is so, why philosophy and why
science? Why ethics and restraint? Why not freedom to act as the mind and instincts tell you to do
and either enjoy the consequences now or in the future as and when they come. Correspondingly, the
scientific principle of determinism also states that all of man's action is controlled by his environment
or the operation of forces beyond his control. He is at the mercy of either internal or external forces.
He has no choice in the matter of actions. Everyone does according to his past upbringing or
background and will enjoy what his actions decide for him. Freedom of action is a myth and therefore
do as your instincts tell you and take the consequences when they come.
13. This line of argument also serves as a defence to the libertine and to the indolent. It supports the
evil and the sadist. It also robs life of all purpose and meaning. There is no direction in life. There is
no encouragement to the good, to the gentle and to the pious. It sets at naught all the exhortations of
the Ten Commandments and the imperatives of the Upanishads like Satyam Vada, Dharmam Chara,
Ahimsa Paramo Dharma etc. This line of argument among the youth has given rise to movements like
escapism, rejection of social constraints and others. There is no moral, social, or ethical basis for the
conventions of society. Each one as he pleases instead of as he wills becomes the rule and the
motivating force. Restraint and control lose all meaning and thus humanity is slowly being led to
chaos.
14. The leading scientists both in the field of pure science and applied science do not discuss these
problems in their treatises except for some of the idealist physicists whom I have mentioned above.
This is probably because they are not trained to discuss these fundamental questions of life and find
the answers for the same. Perhaps they feel they are incompetent to discuss such questions. They
think that these questions do not belong to the culture of science. The philosophers who can and do
discuss these questions do not command the same authority as the scientists, because the
philosophers are dismissed as armchair speculators who are not actively involved in the world and
whose views cannot form a basis for day to day conduct in this strife-torn world. There are very few
scientists who have studied philosophy and there are fewer philosophers who have studied science.
There will be less who have studied modem physics and Eastern philosophy. Though I cannot claim
to have made any detailed study of modem physics or of Eastern philosophy, I have some
acquaintance with both these subjects and have made as far as practicable the study of these two
streams of thought.
15. But the doctrine of free will and freedom of action does not answer some other questions like the
inequality in the status of men and the squalor obtaining in real life. We also see frequently that
goodness and honesty, decency and morality are not rewarded. We see only the dishonest and the
impure thriving in life. There is a fundamental dilemma. It is not easy to give a solution or convincing
argument in favour of either theory. But the truly scientific spirit requires that we must understand and
appreciate the evidence available in favour of either theory. It is not proper to expect a ready and
acceptable solution. The limitations of science and philosophy should be understood.
16. Though these ideas have been in mind for some years, they could not find expression until
recently when there was a talk under the auspices of the C. P. Ramaswamy lyer Foundation in
January, 1974. Some of the persons who attended the talk made a request that the ideas may be
expanded and may be published in the form of a book. This gives the background and the genesis for
this endeavour.
17. If the thoughts expressed and discussed here lead to a further attempt at a deeper study of the
points raised, both by the scientists of the West and the philosophers of the East, I would consider my
efforts amply rewarded. It is in this spirit of service to the aspirants and earnestness of the student of
philosophy, that I place this book at the hands of the readers.
NATURE OF THE PHENOMENAL WORLD
According to Sri Sankara the phenomenal universe has no substance. The impression of the universe
which we get is through the five senses of perception and it is recognised by consciousness with the
help of the mind. He says that the subjective impressions which we get are the only realities. Objects
in themselves are not known to us and cannot be comprehended by the human being. This version of
Sri Sankara's explanation of the phenomenal universe is sometimes misinterpreted. It is stated that
according to Sri Sankara the whole world is an illusion and a myth. Since this clashed with our day
today experience, it is stated, that Sri Sankara is too obtuse, and his theory is not based on reality or
on experience. This interpretation of Sri Sankara's Mayavada is based on a misconception of his
philosophy. Perhaps, the professional interpreters of Sri Sankara's philosophy have erred in stressing
on this aspect of the phenomenal universe.
When we compare Sri Sankara's views about the unreality of the objective universe with the
advanced theories of modern physics, we find striking resemblances. The comparison may therefore
start with the nature of the phenomenal universe according to Sri Sankara and according to the latest
developments in modem physics.
According to Sri Sankara the true nature of things is to be known personally through the eye of clear
illumination and not through a sage. What the moon exactly is, is to be known with one's own eyes,
can others make him know it? (V.C. 54).
The universe does not exist apart from the sense perception and the perception of its separateness is
false like the quality of blueness in the sky. Has a superimposed attribute any meaning apart from its
substratum? It is the substratum which appears like that through delusion. (V.C. 235).
What Sri Sankara says here is that the sky which is perceived as blue is not really blue in its nature.
The blueness of the sky appears to the observer. He, therefore, argues that the blueness of the sky
has no meaning or existence apart from the substratum viz. the atmosphere.
Another favourite analogy of Sri Sankara is that of clay or of ether. All modifications of clay such as a
jar, which are always accepted by the mind as real are nothing but clay.
Akasha divested of the hundreds of limited adjuncts such as a jar, a pitcher, a receptacle for grains,
or a needle is one and not diverse (V.C. 251 and 385).
None of the objects that are made of clay such as pots, and jugs is eternal, for they perish and cease
to be. But the clay remains at all times. (S.V.S. I7)
Perceptions arise as a result of consciousness only. But there being different kinds of perceptions
(like sound, colour etc.) these must have some external existence apart from consciousness. Since
these changes themselves are felt by consciousness it, itself, must be changeable. Since
consciousness itself perceives and recognises the differences it must be changeless: otherwise, the
differences themselves will not be be cognised by a changing entity. Just as a rope snake, the water
in a mirage and such other things are found to be non-existent except only as the knowledge by
which they are known, so the duality experienced during the waking and dream has reasonably no
existence except as the knowledge by which it is known.
Here Sri Sankara means to convey that according to some of the observers, phenomena have no real
existence but as long as phenomena are observed as appearing to be real we apply all the tests of
reality. He applies this principle to everyday experience also. Thus, Sri Sankara propounds his
doctrine of superimposition. There is a basic substance which constitutes phenomenal universe. But
on this basic substance, which is common and which is universal each percipient puts on a gloss and
imagines the Mea of the phenomenal universe. But a thing in itself can be known to the mind only
through the doors of perception. The theories as to the understanding of the universe also vary. The
perception of the individual also varies from time to time and varies with the different levels of
consciousness, perceptions and appreciation. Basically, the nature of these perceptions is the same.
There is no reason to attribute different degrees of realities to the different levels of observations and
perceptions. The waking state is as good or as realistic as dream state and the super conscious
state.
Let us now examine the theories of cognisance or how things manifest to the observer.
Here Sri Sankara says that observation or perception is itself a Yagna or a sacrifice (V. C. 168). He
says that the mental sheath is the sacrificial fire which fed with the fuel of numerous desires by the
five sense organs which serve as priests and set ablaze by, sense objects, brings about this
phenomenal universe.
It is the veiling power or the power of Tamas which makes things appear other than what they are.
But for delusion, there can be no connection of the self which is unattached, beyond activity and
formless with the objective world.
As in the case of blueness etc. with reference to sky, it is the mind that produces all the sense
objects.
As the place, time, objects known etc. called up in dream are all unreal so also the world experienced
here in the waking state, for it is all an effect of one's own ignorance.
What is erroneously supposed to exist in something is, when the truth about it has been known,
nothing but that substratum and not at all different from it. The diversified dream universe (appears
and) passes away in the dream itself. Does it appear on waking as something different from one's
own self? On waking the external and internal universes, are now perceived to vanish.
When the mind functions are merged in the absolute, none of this, the phenomenal world is seen.
This apparent universe has its root in the mind and never persists after the mind is annihilated.
That which is superimposed by the grossly ignorant can never taint the substratum. The great rush of
waters observed in a mirage never wets the desert tracts.
Objects of knowledge exist in the intellect as long as it is there but they do not exist in the opposite
case. The knower is always the knower. Duality therefore has no existence. Rest and motion are in
the intellect.
Difference is caused by adjuncts is posited by false knowledge and is not absolutely real.
As dream and illusions are observed to be unreal, even so all this universe of duality in its entirety is
seen to be unreal.
Sri Sankara then discusses the three levels of consciousness viz. Dream state, Waking state and
super conscious state. According to him, perceptions in these three states are basically same. Only
the level of consciousness and level of appreciation varies.
The dream state is a state distinct from the waking state where it shines by itself. In dreams Buddhi
by itself takes on the role of the agent and the like, owing to various latent impressions of the waking
state.
In dreams when there is no actual contact with the external world, the mind alone creates the whole
universe. Similarly in the Waking state also all this phenomenal universe is the projection of the mind.
Like Iron manifesting as sparks through contact with fire, the Buddhi manifests itself as Knower and
known through the inherence of Brahman. As these two (knower and known) the effects of the Buddhi
are observed to be unreal in the case of delusion, dream and fancy; similarly the modifications of the
different Prakrithi from egoism down to the body and sense objects are unreal.
In the dream state one feels with body and experiences peculiar pleasures and pains. But none of
these can make the dream real. In the same way, the delusion of time and space of the universe and
Ishwara which are the products of Maya should be deemed to be unreal. In as much as waking and
dreaming are correlative, if one of them is unreal what is the guarantee that the other is also not
unreal. (S. 764).
Both waking and dreaming are subject to the illusion that intellect imposes on us. In this respect,
there is no difference between them. In both these levels of consciousness, there is the triple
distinction among the knower, the known and the means of knowledge. The waking moment is also
as unreal as dream.
Both these levels of consciousness are the products of our ignorance. In both these states of
awareness, the triple distinction among the seer, the seen and process of seeing should be regarded
as being unreal.
In deep sleep both the waking and dreaming cease to exist. Both these levels of consciousness
should be regarded as unreal.
Unperceived in deep sleep but perceived (in waking and dream) by those only who are ignorant, the
whole of this universe is an outcome of ignorance and therefore is unreal.
Man's experience is distinguishable into three states. Waking (Jagrat), dream (Swapna) and deep
sleep (Sushupthi). In dream, he creates an inner world of images and imagines that he is a denizen
thereof. In sleep, the sense of plurality is lost and there is awareness without awareness of anything.
Waking is only a segment of experience. As dream and illusions are observed to be unreal even so
all this universe of duality in its entirety is seen to be unreal.
Sri Sankara says that there is a basic reality and the phenomenal world is an abstraction from this
basic reality according to each observer's predilections, make up and capacity of abstraction. In V.C.
135, he says "The supreme self different from the Prakrithi and its modifications, of the essence of
pure knowledge and Absolute directly manifests this entire gross and subtle universe in the waking
and other states as the substratum of the persistent sense of egoism and manifests it as the witness
of Buddhi, the determinate faculty.
Upon the evidence of visual perception, people say 'This is a jar'. But when we examine it, we find
there is no jar. For all that there is, is a form of clay.
Again and again Sri Sankara refers to this analogy of the basic substance viz. clay taking its forms
according to the capacity of the maker and use to which the person wants to put it.
Owing to its connection, with the superimpositions, the supreme self even though naturally perfect
and eternally unchanging assumes the qualities of the superimpositions and appears to act just as
they do like the changeless fire assuming the modifications of the iron which it turns red hot.
Neither this gross, nor this subtle universe is the Atman. Being imagined they are unreal like the
snake seen in the rope and like dreams. Perfectly eliminating the objective world in this way by
means of reasoning, one should next realise the oneness that underlies Eswara and the Jiva.
The disc of the sun is caught between the forefinger and thumb. But the dimensions of the sun are
million times this. What is perceived by the senses cannot be said to be final.
The universe undoubtedly exists in its own real nature. At no time is it Sunya or the void. Just as a
banyan tree is at first a seed and then a sprout, so also this whole universe unfolds itself as the effect
of manifestation from that which was the cause of it. In the stage of deep sleep, there are no objects
of knowledge and there is no mind to comprehend them.
If consciousness is changeless then why are there the states of dream and waking? The mere fact
that consciousness is able to differentiate between the two states shows that the substratum is
unchangeable. The difference arises only at intervals and not persistent. In deep sleep there is no
consciousness of knowledge. There is no argument, there are no objects of knowledge but
knowledge itself exists and does not cease to exist.
Sri Sankara then examines the nature of substratum or the basic matter of the phenomenal universe.
All the sensual happiness is in reality nothing more than the reflex happiness of the mind. The
insentient objects by themselves cannot confer happiness. 'Every attribute is of value in so far as it
distinguishes any one object from another. 'Whatever is an object of knowledge whether it is
conscience or the intellect or the gross world around us, whether it is understood mediately or
immediately has its basis in ignorance and has no existence, apart from it. That which is supremely
real is non-duality. Through Maya it appears as diverse even as the plurality of moons on account of
defective eyesight or the rope appearing differently as snake, water streak etc. In reality the self is
partless. Duality which is of the nature of difference is said to exist because it is perceived and is
practically useful. Therefore, perception, practicability are not the criteria for the reality of duality.
In modem physics the consensus of opinion is that the impressions of the phenomenal world which
we get is through our sense perceptions. Though we try to make measurements and codify the
working of nature, the laws of physics tell us only about the relationship between the sense
impressions which we get about the outside world. Things in themselves are not available to us for
direct perception. We will now examine the views of the leading modem physicists.
Sir James Jeans has made a special study of the philosophical implications of the developments in
modem physics. He says that our impressions can never step out of the prison house to investigate
the real nature of things which inhabit this mysterious world beyond our sense organs. We are
acquainted with such things only through messages we receive from them through the windows of
our senses and these tell us nothing as to the essential nature of their origin. We can never
understand the true nature of reality. Speaking about the quantum mechanics, he says that the
quantum mechanics contains a statement of facts in abstract mathematical form whereas the wave
mechanics consists of pictorial representation of these facts in which the pictorial details may or may
not correspond truly to the realities of nature. In Heisenberg's model the electron dropped altogether.
It had to because it exists only as a matter of inference and not of direct observation. For the same
reason the new theory contains no mention of atoms, nuclei or protons or of electricity in any shape
or form. The existences of these are matters of inference. The p and q of the uncertainty relations
ceased to be mere quantities of any kind, each becoming a whole group of quantities.
Radiation cannot be pictured as particles when it is travelling through empty space. Similarly, electron
cannot be pictured as, waves when it is travelling through empty space. The electron inside the atoms
remains unobserved and unobservable and there is no solid justification for supposing that it
resembles the electrons we see or so nearly see outside. The electron is a moving particle. We see
that no experiment can fix both its speed of motion and its position in space with complete certainty.
High up in the vault of the head inside the brain, the world comes to light. Sensations, perceptions,
memories weave their images. In that tiny tenement all experience comes to focus. Is this moving
picture a projection of a real world existing outside or is the picture itself the whole stuff of the world?
The new physics disenchants us as to the firmness and fixedness of substance. The quantum
mechanics does not deal with things whose laws we seek to discover, instead from observations we
constitute things. Atomic physics deals with the nature and structure not of atoms but of the events
which we perceive when observing the atom.
The particle picture is obviously more suitable when radiation is falling on matter and the wave picture
when it travels through space. The wave picture and the particle picture do not show two different
things but two aspects of the same thing. The space of protons is ordinary physical space while the
space traversed by the waves of the undulatory theory is a conceptual space. Indeed it must be since
the waves, as we have seen are mere mental constructs and possess no physical existence. John A.
Young writes "In some sense we literally create the world we speak about. Our physical science is not
simply a set of reports about the outside world. It is also a report about us and our relations to that
world whatever the latter may be like".
Physicists themselves have come to recognise this and have found themselves forced to adopt
principles as they say of relativity and indeterminacy. The point to grasp is that we cannot speak
simply as if there is a world around us of which our senses give information. In trying to speak about
what the world is like, we must remember all the time what we see and what we say depends on what
we have learnt, we ourselves come into the process. The word 'atom' or 'electron' is not used as the
name of a piece. It is used as part of the description of the observation of physicists. It has no
meaning except as used by people who know the experiments by which it is revealed.
Heisenberg in speaking about the philosophical problems in nuclear physics says, that if the quantum
theory is correct the elemental particles are not real in the same sense as the things in our daily life
e.g. trees, stones, etc. They appear as abstractions derived from observed materials which in a literal
sense are real. The modem physics in the final analysis has already denied the concept of the truly
real. The elementary particles of modem physics are defined by the requirements of mathematical
symmetry. They are not eternal and unchanging and they can hardly be therefore strictly termed real.
And the mathematical Pattern is in the final analysis an intellectual concept.
D'ABRO, another writer who has codified the latest developments in modern physics says that it is
nonsense to accept the theory of relativity on the one hand and to deny the fourth dimension to the
world continuum on the other. Only when we wish to discuss the underlying reality which may
manifest itself in one way or other according to the conditions of observation must the impersonal four
dimensional conceptions be adopted. We may say that the corpuscular aspect of the electron is
brought into existence by our observation of the electron's position. We must suppose that the
electron comes into existence as a corpuscle only after an observation has been made. If
notwithstanding this fact we erroneously attempt to assign a position to the electron before the
observation, we shall be attempting to give meaning to a meaningless concept. The particle aspect
and the wave aspect must be viewed as complementary and as exhibiting two different aspects of the
same underlying reality according to Bohr.
The waves of Schrödinger‘s theory are regarded as mere mathematical symbols so that the wave
picture cannot claim any physical reality. Ultra violet radiations are in all truth observable only
indirectly by the effects they produce and in order to connect the effects actually observed with the
invisible ultra violet radiation. The fact that the co-ordinates of the potential energy etc. are now
represented by Matrices shows that these magnitudes have lost their original meaning and that a
tremendous step has been taken towards increasing abstraction. Practically, all physical magnitudes
lose their familiar association, so that we seem to be penetrating into a new world whose
abstruseness baffles the imagination. The source of our knowledge of the physical world resides in
the sensations of light, heat, sound, touch and the like which we experience directly. In the new
quantum theory the observed magnitudes are connected by an elaborate mathematical
superstructure of the most abstract type. It can be visualised only when we represent it in a space
which has an infinite number of imaginary dimensions.
In the theory of relativity, Einstein says" Geometry sets out from certain conceptions such as 'plane',
'point, 'straight line' with which we are able to associate definite ideas. The concept 'true' does not
tally with the assertions of pure
Geometry as it is not concerned with objects of experience. A stone dropped from a moving train
appears to fall in a straight line to the passenger in the train. The path appears to be a parabola to the
stationary observer. Considered logically the concepts of space, time and event are free creations of
human intelligence. The attempt to become conscious of the empirical sources of these fundamental
concepts should show to what extent we are actually bound to the concepts. In this way, we become
aware of our freedom of which, in case of necessity it is always a difficult matter to make sensible
use. There is no such thing as empty space i.e. space without a field. Space time does not claim
existence on its own but only as a structural quantity of the field.
De-Broglie says "the wave aspect should also be exhibited by matter. But these waves are not
material waves which transfer energy because their velocity is greater than that of light". Continuity
and discreteness seem to be the antithesis of each other and appear incompatible. But De-Broglie, by
interpreting the discreet stable orbit of Bohr's theory by means of a condition of stability imposed on
continuous waves showed that the two opposites could be reconciled. Why indeed should waves of
light be regarded as symbolic and photons as real? In any case when we pass to the higher atoms
with their several electrons the introduction of the hyper space cannot be avoided. Hyper space is
obviously a mathematical fiction.
In Heisenberg‘s theory the position, the orbit and the motion of electrons in the atom are assumed to
be unobservable and so no use is made of such magnitudes in the theory. On the other hand the
frequencies, intensities and polarizations of the radiations emitted by the atoms as also energy levels
are claimed to be observable.
Dirac‘s theory of the electron is an abstract mathematical theory which combines wave mechanics
and the theory of relativity. Dirac‘s relativistic wave equations of an electron in an electro magnetic
field is compatible with two kinds of solutions those in which the kinetic energy of electron is positive
and those in which the kinetic energy is negative. Experiments demonstrated that the atom is stable
and that it consists of a nucleus and electrons and that it can emit rays if its state of equilibrium is
disturbed. These rays have strictly definite wave length. Bohr's scheme gave no indication about what
happens to the electron during the jump or so to say in its flight between the two stationary states. But
at some instant it struck him that the electron just never happens to be 'between' stationary states, it
simply does not possess such a property. And what was there? There was something that he did not
as yet know how to call, but was sure that it should depend only on to where and from where the
electron jumps. The point is that we cannot perceive an atomic object directly by means of our five
senses. Instead we employ accurate and complicated instruments that have been invented.
The atom does not possess such separated properties. An atomic object is some thing entirely
different and not simply the sum of the properties of waves and particles. This 'atomic' something is
imperceptible to our five senses but it is real nevertheless. The electron has no definite position within
the atom. When we deal with a separate atom we can never be certain where its electron is; where it
will be in the next instant and what will happen to the atom as a result. No single word of our speech
is capable of accommodating all the diversities and complexities of this concept. We have
constructed an image of the atom for ourselves.
Relativity involves an analysis of how measurements depend upon the observer as well as upon what
is observed. From relativity emerges a new mechanics in which there are intimate relationships
between space and time, mass and energy. Together with special relativity, the wave particle duality
is central to an understanding of modem physics. The true nature of 'light' is no longer something that
can be visualised in terms of every day experience.
The consequences of uncertainty principle are:
Electron cannot be present within the nucleus. The certainties proclaimed by Newtonian mechanics
are illusory. Instead of two sets of physical principles, one for microscopic universe and one for the
macroscopic universe, there is only a single set and quantum mechanics represents our best efforts
in formulating it. For the sake of convenience, the physicist speaks of just one concept of current.
Strictly speaking, Bridgeman believes we should recognise different concepts, each defined by a
different operational procedure of measurement. If the customary procedure among Physicists is
followed the various concepts of current will be replaced by one concept The concept "electron" is so
far removed from simple direct observations that it is best to keep it theoretical, open to modifications
by new observations.
SUMMARY:
According to Sankara, there is an objective universe outside of ourselves. But we have no means of
observing or of inferring such an existence. We can accept it as a fact on the basis of revelation or on
the strength of Sruti or Smriti. The universe which an embodied individual perceives or infers does not
represent the reality of the external universe. Our inference and understanding are based on our state
of knowledge, of consciousness and of the capacity of perception and understanding and finally on
our sense of discrimination between the vital and the insignificant.
In modem physics also the consensus is that the physical laws do not give a description of the
universe. Physical laws are devised to explain our understanding of what we see as phenomena.
They have sense and meaning only to those who understand the experiments that are to be done to
appreciate the concepts and the process involved. Physical laws do not govern the events which we
observe but are only our mental constructs employed to explain and convey our understanding of the
external universe. Thus it follows that the state of our knowledge of the external universe depends on
our capacity to construct mentally the concepts involved. Thus each one is free and at the same time
constrained to conform to his understanding of the external universe and no one version can claim to
be more real or more objective than another.
NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE
While discussing the nature of knowledge available to an observer of the universe, we find striking
resemblances between the conclusions to be drawn from the latest developments in physics and the
original Advaita theory of the philosophy of Sankara. In many places, Sri Sankara has described the
nature of knowledge available to a man and how futile his enquiry into the source of knowledge which
resides in the external universe. He says that mere observations will not be enough without the
straight forward perceptions. Very often he asked the question whether the knowledge obtained by an
observer is within himself or is external to him. While discussing this, we may consider also the
Gestalt theory of psychology. It is while discussing the theory of knowledge that Sri Sankara
propounded the theory of super-imposition. It is wrong to say that Sri Sankara denies objects in
themselves or the existence of an objective universe. What he says in effect is that it is the sense of
perception that makes the difference between one observer and another. In this context we may also
refer to the theory of relativity which also proclaims this difference according to the position in space
and time of different observers.
Sri Sankara's observations with reference to the real knowledge and ignorance relate to the
realisation of fundamental truth which we may call Brahman. He says that knowledge of Brahman is
intuitive and based on instant perceptions.
In (V. 55). He says that who but one's own self can get rid of the bondage caused by the fetters of
ignorance desire, action and like even in a 100 crores of cycles.
Neither by Yoga nor by Sankhya, nor by work, nor by learning but by the realisation of one's own
identity with Brahman is liberation possible. (V. 56).
Without causing the objective universe to vanish and without knowing the truth of self, how is one to
achieve liberation by the mere utterance of the word 'Brahman'. It would result merely in an effort of
speech. (V. 63).
Avidya or Maya called also the undifferentiated is the power of the Lord. It is to be inferred by one of
clear intellect only from the effect that it produces. It is Maya or Avidya which brings forth the whole
universe. (V. 108)
Sri Sankara says that the objective knowledge which one presumes, one gets, is the creation of one's
own mind. It therefore depends on the state of one's mind, the training which one gets, one's level of
perceptions attained by the mind and the intellect.
One, is overpowered by ignorance mistaking a thing for what it is not. It is the mistaking of transitory
things as real that constitutes bondage and imperfect knowledge (V. 138).
All the defects of knowledge is the evil of superimposition. (V. 179).
What is erroneously supposed to exist in something is, when the truth about it has been known,
nothing but the substratum and not at all different from it. The diversified dream universe (appears
and) passes way in the dream itself. It does not appear on waking as something different from one's
own self (V. 253).
Sri Sankara also raises the question as to how one can deny the existence of the universe of which
we infer from our perceptions. He raises the relevant question, "Is not sense perception one of the
valid means of the knowledge?" (SVS. 273).
He says that sense perceptions are really valid means of knowledge. But one cannot rely only on the
sense perceptions for getting at the truth or the reality of substance of the universe. He says that
(SVS. 287) upon the evidence of visual perception, people
Say 'this is a jar'. But when we examine it we find that there is no jar, for all that there is is a form of
clay. What he means is that what is given generally by our senses are only the realisation of the
forms of things. It is only the world of Nama and Rupa which is available to the senses but beyond
this universe of Nama and Rupa is fundamental reality which knowledge cannot be obtained by sense
perceptions. Such knowledge is available only by constant training of the mind and by developing the
intuitive perceptive power.
Sri Sankara also develops the theory of different levels of consciousness. The three levels of
consciousness are the Dream, or the illusory world, the waking world and the super-conscious world.
While he places the first two at par, it is the third level which gives the insight to the real nature of
things. In (SVS 766) he says that both the levels of consciousness are the products of our ignorance.
In both these states of awareness the triple distinctions among the seer, the seen and the process of
seeing should be regarded as being unreal.
Neither by means of mind (SVS. 771) nor by words is the ultimate known.
One should turn to Sruthi with the help of reason and ascertain the truth of the Atman. (SVS. 816).
One should have all one's doubts cleared by means of continuous thinking until one realises the
nature of that which is to be proved. The object is the gradual removal of this ignorance.
Unperceived in deep sleep but perceived (in waking and dream) by those only who are ignorant, the
whole of this objective universe is the outcome of ignorance and therefore is unreal.
While discussing the observations made in Physics and the nature of inference drawn from these
observations we also come to the conclusion that the inference which we draw are only attributes of
our minds and the training which the physicists receive. The observations and laws of physics do not
say anything about the things in themselves. The laws of physics are only laws which our thought
processes employ to visualise and explain the observations made by our senses. And this has been
achieved by the training given to and understanding between the physicists.
Sir James Jeans says that nothing but mechanical explanation can be satisfying to our minds and
such an explanation would be valueless if we attained it. We see that we can never understand the
true nature of reality. Our studies can never put us into contact with reality and its true meaning and
nature must forever be hidden from us. We find that there is something in reality which does not
permit of representation in space and time. Space and time cannot contain the whole of reality but
only the messengers from reality to our senses. Questioning our own mind is of no use. Just as
questioning nature can tell us truths about nature so also questioning our own minds will tell us only
the truths about our own minds. The tools of science are observation and experiment; the tools of
philosophy are discussion and contemplation. The Philosopher tends to think in terms of what the
mathematician calls finite differences, whereas the Scientists think in terms of infinitesimals. Past and
present no longer have any objective meanings since the four dimensional continuum can no longer
be sharply divided into past, present and future. The world lines are merely constructs we draw for
ourselves. The space time frame work of the classical mechanics is inadequate for the complete
representation of natural phenomena. The so called electric and magnetic forces are not physical
realities, they are not even objective, but are subjective mental constructs which we have made for
ourselves in our efforts to interpret the waves of the undulatory theory. Energy may be transferred
from place to place but the waves and electric and magnetic forces are not part of the mechanism of
transfer, they are part simply of our efforts to understand this mechanism and picture it to ourselves.
Before man appeared on the scene there were neither waves nor electric nor magnetic forces.
The medieval philosopher Hume writes. 'Our knowledge of the outside world consists entirely of
sensations.' We now understand that there are in physics as in other spheres of thought un-askable
which is to say meaningless questions. e.g. What is the location of electron when it jumps from one
orbit to another? Is the orbit of its destination already determined at the instant of jump? What
happens to the radiation if the process is interrupted before the emission of one quantum is
completed? Many intuitively obvious notions have turned out to be untenable such as that of a
material corpuscle having an individual identity. Nature is much queerer than we can suppose. It does
not mean however that nature is capricious or that causality is dead. There can be no talk of a final
verdict.
According to Galileo, in medieval system there was always an un-surmountable boundary separating
the two realms of truth. There was an immanent and transcendent truth, a human and a divine truth, a
truth of reason and a truth of revelation. As soon as we have reached the real truth according to
Galileo, the truth of mathematics this artificial fence breaks down. Mathematics is indivisible. Galileo
insists that if there is any truth, this truth must be one and indivisible.-Cassirier.
Another writer of modem physics John. J. Young, says that our naive way of talking about a world
distinct from man and divisible into pieces of matter enduring in time is not adequate. All that the
uncertainty relations convey is that direct measurements cannot furnish a simultaneous knowledge of
position and momentum. The wave picture merely symbolises the scheme of probabilities which
issues from our more or less vague knowledge of actual conditions. In particular, our Hydrogen Atom
must be associated with a single De-Broglie wave in a configuration space of six dimensions. This
complication itself proves the symbolic nature of the waves. The method for obtaining the wave
equation is extremely symbolic and appears to have no physical interpretation. It is strange to find
that the abstract mathematical scheme founded on such slender clues (Matrix Algebra) should be
capable of giving definite answers to physical problems. Here is an instance which shows that the
abstract mathematical concept can lead to interpretation of observable phenomena. This
mathematical concept can never be attained by any untrained and unperceptive mind.
Owing to the uncertainty principle, the limit of accurate knowledge has already been reached in the
quantum theory. Beyond lies a fog of uncertainty due to the peculiarities of nature herself. All that we
can know are probabilities. There was a permanent wall in the way of total knowledge, a. wall built by
the inherent nature of the universe itself. Here again we find striking echo of Sri Sankara's statement
that by merely intellectual arguments and reasoning we can never understand the reality of the world
or the nature of Brahman.
The existence of uncertainty need not be a source of humiliation for science. To know the limits of the
knowledge is itself an item of knowledge of the first importance. Any truly profound phenomenon of
nature cannot be defined uniquely by means of the words of our language and requires at least two
mutually exclusive or incompatible complementary concepts to define it. This is the principle of
complementary of Neils Bohr. The quantum mechanics is a mathematical scheme which enables the
physically measurable characteristics of atomic phenomena to be calculated. The power of science is
in its capacity to discover, understand and make use of the laws of nature and not in violating them.
Quantum mechanics is a system of formulas, concepts and images that enable the observed
properties of atomic objects to be pictured, explained and predicted.
We must suppose that the electron comes into existence as a corpuscle only after an observation has
been made i.e. observation is a creation. Each observer is a creator and is a unique one at that.
Again, the world is subjective. The world is a reality only if we want it and mind wills it. The
uncertainty relations apply to waves as well as particles. The former is a mental concept and the latter
a physical concept. Both are equally affected by the uncertainty relations. This shows that the
uncertainty relations are a constituent of knowledge itself at the ordinarily level of experience. They
affect only knowledge which is subject to occur in pairs viz. position and time, energy and time, action
and time. This also shows that only if we have two different concepts like the pairs mentioned above,
we come across the uncertainty relations. Once we get over these pairs of opposites and go to the
truth directly and intuitively, there are no limits to our knowledge like these uncertainty relations. This
is the truth which has been repeatedly emphasised by Sri Sankara and other philosophers, of
Advaita.
Speaking about the duality point of view, of Bohr, we may say that every physical entity be it a light
quantum, an electron or any other atomic particle presents two sides of a medal. On one side it can
be treated as a particle on the other side as a wave. The reality, he feels can be reached only when
we talk about pairs of opposites like pain and joy, hot and cold. As soon as we go over to the symbols
of physics, temperature and the like, the reality thins out. This is Riezler's judgement of the nature of
the physical laws. The construction of a physical theory is not limited by man's power to visualise, in
fact modem physicists had moved steadily away from what can be directly observed and imagined.
The total system of physics is no longer required to be such that all parts of its structure can be
clearly visualised. If there is an electro magnetic oscillation of a specified frequency, then there is a
visible greenish blue colour of certain hue. Here something observable is connected with a
non-observable micro process. There is no answer to the question "exactly what is radiation"? Does it
reside in the unobservable electro magnetic oscillation? Does it reside in the visual perception of
colour or does it reside in the brain of the observer? There is no way a theoretical concept can be
defined in terms of observables.
From the above discussion, it appears that Sri Sankara's theory of knowledge compares well with the
theories of perception of modem physics. Both the systems agree that all knowledge resides in the
observer. If there is no intellect or capacity to draw inference from observations then phenomena
have no meaning. It is therefore correct to say that the reality of the external universe has meaning
only in the presence of Chitta or the intellect. In the absence of Chitta the inanimate universe has no
meaning or existence. Events in the outside world have meaning only when they are cognised by the
faculties of man. Then which description of the nature of knowledge is correct? Does knowledge
constitute mere perception and the mere recording of what is there outside of us? Or does knowledge
reside in the combination of perception, conception and interpretation of events. Oscillations of
different wave lengths give rise to different sense perceptions. The meaning and interpretation which
an individual cognising entity ascribes to external phenomena vary according to the capacity, training
and level of attainment of the individual Chitta. Does this mean that knowledge ultimately resides in
ones own Chitta and not outside of one? The representational theory of perception says that what is
given to an observer is only a cross section or carving out of external phenomena. The Gestalt theory
of perception says that perception occurs when the mind comprehends as a whole what is given to it
in fragments. Whatever theory of perception appeals to a person depends on the stage of his
development and there is no single theory of perception which is universally applicable. The same
holds good for theories of knowledge also. It is in this sense that it is the observer who creates the
objects and that there is no difference between the subject and object and process and cognition.
This will be discussed in the following chapter.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUBJECT & OBJECT
Sri Sankara was the first philosopher in the East as well as in the West who denied the sep arate
existence of subject and the object. He was the first person who made the bold statement that in the
highest reaches of philosophy the distinction between the subject and object is very thin. Very often
he raised the question whether the subject who sees and the object which is seen has any
inter-relationship or are they completely independent of each other. He also examined the question
whether the self can be an object of knowledge and if so, in that case, what is it that the observer is
and what is that that was observed. Of course he extended this question of the relationship between
the subject and object to the ultimate relationship between the individual self and the world at large.
In V. 183, He says that the mental sheath cannot be the supreme self because it has a beginning and
an end, is subject to modification and is characterised by pain and suffering and is an object whereas
the subject can never be identified with the objects of knowledge.
That which is perceived by something else has for its witness the latter. When there is no agent to
perceive a thing, we cannot speak of it as having been perceived at all.
In V. 239, He says that the sages realise the supreme truth, Brahman in which there is no,
differentiation of knower, knowledge and the known which is infinite, transcendent and the essence of
knowledge Absolute.
Perfect discrimination brought on by direct realisation distinguishes the true nature of the subject from
that of the object and breaks the bond of delusion created by Maya.
Like iron manifesting as sparks through contact with fire, the Buddhi manifests itself as knower and
known through inherence of Brahman. As these two (knower and the known) effects of Buddhi are
observed to me unreal in the case of delusion, dream and fancy, similarly modifications of Prakriti
from egoism down to the body and all sense objects are unreal. In the state of deep sleep there are
no objects of knowledge and there is no mind to comprehend them.
Both waking and the dreaming are subject to the illusion that intellect imposes on us. In this respect
there is no difference between them. In both these levels of consciousness, there is the triple
distinction among the knower, the known and the means of knowledge. The waking moment is also
unreal as the dream.
Both these levels of consciousness are the products of our ignorance.
In both these states of awareness the triple distinction among the seer, seen and the process of
seeing should be regarded as being unreal. When ignorance is destroyed, knowledge destroys the
effects of ignorance.
Brahman is an object of knowledge when it is endowed with the attributes of existence, knowledge
and bliss. But reality is not an object of knowledge and transcends knowledge.
The knower is external knowledge only. The knower and knowledge are not different as they are in
argumentative philosophy.
The objects of knowledge exist in the intellect as long as it is there, but they do not exist in the
opposite case. In BSB, He says that there is no difference consisting of the object of knowledge the
knowing subject and the knowledge process which is a projection of nescience.
Duality which is of the nature of difference is said to exist because it is perceived and is practically
useful. Therefore, perception, practically are not the criteria for the reality of duality.
It is amazing that the idealists among the physicists also propound this view that the process of
observation affects both the observer and the observed.
Here is what Sir James Jeans writes :

―The complete objectivity can only be regained by treating observer and the observed as parts
of a single system. It now appears that this does not consist of something we perceived but of
our perceptions. It is not the object of the subject-object relationship but the relationship itself‖.
The waves of electron cannot have any material or real existence, apart from us. They are not consti-
tuents of nature but only of our efforts to understand nature. The waves of undulatory theory of light
and the waves of wave mechanics are now seen to represent our knowledge about electrons. Both
sets of waves are mental constructs of our own; both are abrogated in conceptual spaces.
If the waves of a free electron or photon represent human knowledge, then what happens to the
waves when there is no human knowledge to represent? The simple but surprising answer would
seem to be that when there is no human knowledge there are no waves. We may always remember
that the waves are not a part of nature but of our efforts to understand nature.
The complete closed world consists of three parts, substratum, phenomenal world and the observer.
By our experiments we draw up activities from the substratum into the phenomenal world of space
and time. But there is no clear line of demarcation between subject and object and by performing
observations on the world we alter it. Dirac in his theory introduces operators of an abstract math e-
matical kind, to represent the effect of dragging an activity up to the surface.
The world is given to me only once and not one existing and one perceived. Subject and object are
only one. The barrier between them cannot be said to have broken down as a result of recent
experience in the physical science, for this barrier does not exist Furthermore, the theoretical
possibility of the cognitive act being realised must always be taken into consideration when we wish
to gauge the nature of the disturbance generated by a measurement. It is the disturbance generated
which is controlled by the uncertainty relations of Heisenberg. The truly isolated system is
represented by the entire universe where the observer and his measuring devices are contained
within the system. Here the distinction between subject and object becomes confused and so
observation is impossible.
Heisenberg in his lectures had also discussed this problem. "The chain of cause and effect could be
quantitatively verified only if the whole universe was considered as a single system, but then physics
has vanished and only a mathematical scheme remains. The partition of the world into observing and
observed systems prevents a smart formulation of the law of cause and effect".
In the classical scheme clear cut separation between subject and object was deemed to be justified.
But in modem theory the outside world is deeply affected by the actions of the observer. A clear cut
distinction between the knowing subject and the passive object ceases to be possible. In Atomic
physics the phenomenon and its observations are inseparable from each other. Essentially, an
'observation' is also a 'phenomenon' and far from being one of the simplest. The concepts of
'phenomenon' and its 'observation' exist independently only in our minds and even then only with
restricted accuracy. Observation destroys the primary phenomenon.
In fact Heisenberg was bold enough to say that all statements in physics are relative to the means of
observations used. The Science of quantum mechanics does not deal with things whose laws we
seek to discover and instead from observations we constitute the things. Atomic physics deals with
the nature and structure not of atoms but of the events which we perceive when observing the atom.
Galileo, the medieval physicist insisted that if there is any truth then this truth must be one and
indivisible.
John Young, another writer of modern physics thinks on the same lines. He says "our naive way of
talking about a world distinct from man and divisible into pieces of matter enduring in time is not
adequate. In some sense we literally create the world we speak about. Our physical science is not
simply a set of reports about an outside world. It is also a report about us and our relationship to that
world whatever the latter may be like. Physicists themselves have come to recognise this and have
found themselves forced to adopt principles as they say of relativity and indeterminacy. The point to
grasp is that we cannot speak simply as if there is a world around us of which our senses give
information. In trying, to speak about what the world is like, we must remember all the time that what
we see and what we say depends upon what we have learnt, we ourselves come into the process.
The word "atom' or "electron" is not used as the name of a piece; it is used as part of the description
of the observations of physicists.
Another writer viz. Harold Schilling says, "The world in which natural science operates is that part of
the world that science community has carved out for this particular attention and study that it has
extracted or abstracted from the totality of reality and existence and for the exploration of which it has
developed special techniques. This world has become far remote from the public domain of everyday
life from the world of experience and thought of the common man. According to Prof. Williams, "All
knowledge without exception is derived from a critical interpretation of what has come in human
experience".
CAUSALITY AND DETERMINISM
The Central problem in philosophy both eastern and western is the problem of causality and
determinism. In the medieval ages both eastern and western philosophy accepted the principle of
determinism. This principle also ruled the scientific world. Those were the days of classical
mechanics of Newton and it was a period of discovery and inventions. Man found himself limitless
and he was flushed with discovering, the explanations for all the workings of nature. Man thought that
he had discovered the principles underlying the phenomena of nature. While that was the trend in
western philosophy, and culture, in the eastern philosophy also the principle of determinism held
sway until the advent of Sri Sankara in the 8th century. In fact, the earlier scriptures were all in favour
of determinism though there were occasional dissents from this principle.
The question of causality and determinism is fundamental to philosophy and ethics and in fact rules
the conduct of man in all spheres. The doctrines of Karma and transmigration of souls also appeared
to favour this principle. In fact, this principle is the central philosophy of Gita. Modernists who have
studied Gita superficially raise these questions. Man is a creature of nature. He is bound by his
upbringing and the social set up in which he finds himself. All his actions are predetermined because
he is merely an instrument to work out the commands of Providence or God by whatever name one
calls it. If a man does good according to Providence or God, he also does evil according to the same
commands. Therefore, he has no responsibility. Action is neutral towards the question of evil and
good. In fact if man is a mere instrument then evil is as much part of man as the good. He cannot
become responsible if he does evil action. It is as much part of working out God's will as doing good.
If this is so, what is the role of ethics? Why should a man do good actions? What happens to man if
he does good or evil? What determines what is the motivation to do a good or to choose between
good and evil? What is the role of retribution? These are all the central questions of philosophy which
have been asked down the ages and even in the present day. Philosophy as such has no answers,
for such questions. Each one has to discover the answers for these questions for himself. In any
case, the modem developments in physics have dealt the death blow to the principle of scientific
determinism. The strangle hold of the law of determinism or the second law of Thermo Dynamics
which held sway two or three centuries ago has been driven away from the scheme of physics. The
new theory of expanding universe or oscillating universe has also questioned the principle underlying
the theory of evolution, propounded by Darwin. Modem physicists no longer believe in the iron law of
nature. Quantum mechanics has questioned the principle of uniformity in natural phenomena.
Sri Sankara also examined the theory of creation, the principle of causality and determinism. In his
times, the principles of Karma and transmigration of soul were so much accepted principles of Hindu
Religion and philosophy, that he could not dare attack these principles. Therefore, his writings on
these questions are not extensive but here and there he has raised these fundamental questions.
He says, "As you who are possessed of consciousness you exist for yourself and are not made to act
by any one else. For an independent conscious being is not made to act by another as it is not
reasonable that one possessed of consciousness exists for the sake of another possessing
consciousness, both being of the same nature like lights of two lamps.
There is no real causation; the world is but an illusory appearance; even as the snake is in the rope".
Sri Sankara tackled the question of causality and determinism with his theory of superimposition.
According to him nature itself and the observed phenomena are the projection of minds. Once this
principle is accepted the question of causality is meaningless. In fact, he says, Vivartha Vada, the
theory of phenomenal appearance is against the Parinama Vada, the theory of evolution. The
experience of men is because of the conditioning principle of Maya. Since Maya is indeterminable
(Anirvachaniya) the question of observation and inference of causality has no meaning. In Mandukya
Karika Bhasya he says, those who theorise about creation think that creation is the expression of
God.
Those who are intent on the supreme truth, however, do not support the creation.
In another place, he says that the theory of creation is futile. No world either evolving or dissolving
exists. If this is so, what about the portions of Vedas regarding the creation etc.
Sri Sankara says, "The creation texts are not true but only for teaching the oneness of self, one and
only source, identity of all objects etc".
In another place, he raises the central problem of Ethics. He refers to some people saying 'I cannot
but make it, I am not independent. I am made to act by someone else'.
In another place he says, "If it be so, why do the Srutis speak of diverse ends to be obtained their
means, and so forth, as also the evolution and dissolution of the world".
Sri Sankara's answers to these questions are given in V. 47. He says it is through ignorance that the
one who is Supreme self finds oneself in the bondage of non-self. The fire of knowledge bums the
effects of ignorance.
In short, he says that these questions of creation, causality and determinism, questions of ethics etc.
are only for the lower levels of advancement in theology. Once a person advances in knowledge, all
these questions lose importance, and are no longer fundamental to the problems of philosophy. This
is also the finding of modern physics on this vexed question.
It is on discussing this question of causality and determinism that all the writers of modem physics
have spent lot of time and thought. Idealist, physicists like James Jeans, Arthur Eddington have
tackled this question in their earlier writings. Heisenberg and Schrödinger were asked these specific
questions. Einstein was also specifically asked these questions.
According to the law of Rutherford and Soddy atoms of radio active substances broke up
spontaneously and not because of any particular conditions or special happenings. We find that the
atomicity of radiation destroys the principle of uniformity of nature and the phenomena of nature are
no longer governed by a causal law or at least if they are governed the causes lie beyond the series
of phenomena as known to us. If we wish to picture the happenings of nature as still governed by
causal laws, we must suppose that there is a substratum lying beyond the phenomena and so also
beyond our access, in which the happenings in the phenomenal world are somehow determined. The
law of causality acquires a meaning for us only if we have infinitesimals at our disposal with which to
observe the system without disturbing it. But this requirement goes against Mach's universal principle.
This principle states that the position and velocity of any one particle in this universe, depends on the
position and velocity of all other particles in the universe. Also at least one quantum of photon of light
is immediately necessary for observing the phenomena. If both these principles are true then we
cannot observe the position and velocity of an isolated particle in this universe so that we can follow
its movements in space and in time, and so arrive at the causal link. Since these two principles are
fundamental to nature and to limits of human observation, the law of causality has no meaning and
can neither be proved nor disproved by observation or by laws of physics.
Another theory viz. "the half life period theory" of radio active substances also makes it impossible to
locate and identify the particular atom to disintegrate and the mode of disintegration. Einstein
supposed that the standing house of cards could not only be knocked down by the impact of radiation
but that they could sometimes collapse of themselves in the same way and according to the same
laws of atomic nuclei collapse in the radio active disintegration, the rate of collapse being entirely
independent of environment and physical conditions. Every atom in the universe is not only liable to
spontaneous collapse but also does collapse at frequent intervals. Thus the abdication of
determinism appears to be complete, not only from the domain of radio activity but from the whole
realm of physics.
On the man-sized scale and indeed far below, nature is to all appearances strictly deterministic. But
in the realm of atomic and sub-atomic phenomena the principle of determinism disappears.
Exhaustive studies by many investigators have shown that the fundamental laws of nature do not
control the phenomena directly. The laws are our mental constructs said to explain and understand
the workings of nature. The substratum activities A, B and C lead to corresponding phenomenal
activities a, b, c and also to composite activities AB, BC and AC and have no direct counter parts in
the phenomenal world. AB may give rise to a or b but never to both, and there is a definite probability
as to whether a or b will appear. After elaborate mathematical discussion Dirac reaches a formal
theory of a very complex kind. The matrix mechanics of Heisenberg and the wave mechanics of De-
Broglie and Schrödinger are then shown to be included in the theory as special cases. It is an
essential feature of Dirac's theory that events in the phenomenal world are not uniquely associated
with events in the substratum. Thus uniformity of nature is jettisoned and causality disappears from
the world we see. The mathematical equations of both forms of the new quantum theory, the wave
mechanics and the matrix mechanics are completely deterministic in form. (This relates to our
knowledge of events but not of events themselves). Causality disappears from the events themselves
to reappear in our knowledge of events. But since we can never pass behind our knowledge of events
to the events themselves, we can never know whether causality governs the events or not. This is in
striking accord with the views of Sri Sankara. According to Sri Sankara also the question of causality
and determinism is a subject of controversy only as long as our knowledge is limited. Once we rise
above these limitations of knowledge, the question loses its importance.
The central controversy in modem physics is between the particle picture and the wave picture. Both
these pictures apply to the electron and the process of radiation. For explaining some phenomena the
particle picture is used. For explaining some other phenomena the wave picture is useful. This also
explains that the laws of physics are laws which apply to our mental processes to understand and
explain the laws of nature. Nature itself is not governed by these laws. Particle picture is indetermi-
nate. The more trustworthy wave picture gives us determinism. The wave picture does not show the
future following inexorably from the present but the imperfections of our future knowledge inexorably
from the imperfections of our present knowledge.
According to Schrödinger, Heisenberg's indeterminacy principle can be interpreted as a flat denial of

causality in the atomic domain. It does not merely state that the causal links at this level are beyond
man's power of detection, it clearly implies that the links do not exist. The indeterminacy principle has
ostensibly ruled out precisely definable conceptual models. Bohr proposed as a substitute the use of
complementary pairs of imprecisely defined concepts viz. position and momentum, wave and particle
and so on. Schrödinger raises these fundamental questions. What is determinism and what is
indeterminism? What is the meaning of the word 'Cause'? Is it a hypothesis, a principle or a law? Is it
an indispensable crutch of thought? Or is it a mere fashion of speaking? How is causality related to
determinism? His answer is "the causal idea emerges from the fact that imagination and
understanding cannot escape the constraint of association and the force of habit. It is because the
formulas of Leibnitz and Laplace which made predictability the criterion of causality that we still cling
to this meaning of causality. According to Max Planck, although predictability is an infallible criterion
for the presence of a causal nexus, we must not infer that predictability is equivalent to causality.
According to Cassirier, every genuine causal proposition, every natural law contains not so much a
prediction of future events as a promise of future cognition. According to Planck, quantum theory
exploded the notion of continuity, it created a special body of laws for small things inapplicable to
large things; it dethroned determinacy and made randomness king, it made philosophers take to heir
beds and physicists to flee to insanity. Quantum mechanics is a statistical discipline. It presents no
exact description of an individual particle and makes no exact prediction of its behaviour.
According to Heisenberg, what are the implications of the uncertainty principles? Does it contain the
denial of causality? Heisenberg's specific answer was 'Yes'. As a matter of principle we cannot come
to know the present in all its determinative factors. Many physicists share this opinion. We must not
ask of the notion of cause more than it can give and we must not misapply it. Not only is a test of
rigorous causality excluded for practical reasons, but it is also seen to be impossible in theory at least
in this world of ours.
A rigorous space time description and a rigorous causal sequence for individual processes cannot be
realised simultaneously-the one or the other must be sacrificed. This, in essence is the principle of
complementarity of Bohr. This principle does not require that in all cases strict causal connections for
individual process be impossible. The principle merely denies the possibility of our picturing with
accuracy a sequence of causally related events in space time. A test of rigorous causality is
impossible in mechanics.
It appears that Einstein was much perturbed by the abolition of the principle of determinism in modem
day physics. He was not satisfied that the affairs of the world should be carried on with the principle of
indeterminism. That this will lead to chaos was his considered opinion. He thought that the abdication
of determinism in the affairs of the world is only a passing phase. But those who have contributed
most to the development of new quantum mechanics resist Einstein's views and insist that rigorous
causality is a myth.
Bohr's principle of complementarity mentioned above is today generally accepted by the leading
quantum theorists. It is a compromise between classical causality and indeterminism. The uncertainty
relations may be derived from phenomena involving an individual process and so are not due to
vagueness involved in a statistical outlook. There is no causality in atomic physics. Most physicists do
not accept determinism in the strict sense in which the term is used.
The question of causality and determinism has important consequences in man's conduct and in the
field of Ethics. Can a man choose between different possible actions or is his feeling that he has
freedom of choice a delusion? Without causality in the world there could be no point in educating
people, in making any sort of moral or political appeal.
These questions are not direct consequences of the uncertainty principle. The uncertainty in quantum
theory is so very much smaller than the uncertainty in daily life arising from the limitations of
knowledge. Here is a man in a world as described by classical physics. There is a man in a world as
described by modem physics. There is no difference in the two descriptions that would have any
significant effect on the question of free choice and moral behaviour. In the macro world with which
human beings are concerned, the indeterminacy of quantum mechanics plays no role. For this
reason, it is a misconception to suppose that indeterminacy on the subatomic level has any bearing
on -the question of free decision. However, a number of prominent scientists and philosophers of
science think otherwise.
It is wrong to suppose that the principle of indeterminacy relates to the actual process of
measurement. It is also erroneous to think that with more refined instruments the principle will vanish.
The indeterminacy is inherent in the nature of things and is the absolute limit to the knowledge that
can be obtained by a man by ordinary physical processes.
The spectral line emitted by the atom is because of the disturbance in the path of free electrons. The
spectral line or radiation is observed by means of light or other form of energy. Which is the source of
observation of a spectral line, is it in the electron? Or in the means of observation? or in a
combination of both? In other words, this means that either the electron which emits the spectral line
is observed directly or the process of observation brings into the field of vision the spectral line. The
dimensions of electron is of the same order as Planck‘s constant or photon. This means that electron
cannot be observed or measured by an equi-dimensional thing, viz. light. This is because the unit of
measurement must always be smaller than the object to be measured.
It is pertinent to note here that the uncertainty relations apply to waves as well as particles. It has
been mentioned earlier that the waves are mental concepts, whereas the particle is a physical
concept. It is seen that both are equally affected by the uncertainty relations. This shows that the
relations are constituents of knowledge at the ordinary level of experience. They affect only
knowledge which is subject to occurrence in pairs, viz. position and time, energy and time and action
and time. Once we get over these concepts which occur in pairs, the uncertainty relations do not
come into the picture. This is exactly what Sri Sankara proposed in his Advaita theory, viz. that when
one transcends the idea of opposites or pairs then the limitations of knowledge vanish. There is direct
intuitive perception.
There is another way of looking at the principle of causality. The concept of cause and effect arises
because of the passage of time between two events. Naturally with the changes in the concept of
time, the concept of causality also will change. If we are to apply different concepts of time, we arrive
at different theories of cosmology and theories of creation of the world, stability of the universe and
other related subjects. This problem is related to the theories of steady state universe, expanding
universe and oscillating universe. These are different theories prevalent in cosmology.
According to Shri Jagjit Singh,* if instead of kinematical time, 't' the observer adopted Milnes
Dynamical time 'T', the time recorded by say the rotating earth, we would find that the universe is not
expanding nor was it created at some finite past. Time would appear to stretch backwards and
forwards forever in agreement with the common sense world view. But this system of time reckoning
forces a modification of our concept of space which is no longer Euclidian but Hyperbolic.
The concept of time and flow of time is central to the theme of causality and determinism. The
concept of time, in its turn is linked with the concept of light and its measurement. The essence of
Planck's theory is that energy x time is a constant. The bang theory of creation of universe supposes
that to start with it was infinite energy. At that instant time was zero. Therefore, the product viz. infinity
and zero was the constant. This same constant is being maintained by the decrease of energy and
with the passage of time. In other words, this supports the steady state theory of universe which
states that the universe will continue for ever in the steady state. But then this is inconsistent with the
concept of passage of time. At this stage, the law of Entropy comes into operation. This means that
the energy level of the universe will become zero and there will be death of universe. This idea was
prevalent in the early years of this century. This prospect of the death of the universe was not to the
liking of many scientists. Therefore, a group of scientists had advanced the theory of creation of extra
matter or stores of energy. There are difficulties in accepting this theory also. If matter is to be created
afresh then from what is this matter created and what is the process of creation? It therefore appears
that the theory of expanding universe will not suit the state of knowledge existing at present. There is
another difficulty with the theory of creation. If there is creation there must be destruction also. This
action leads to the death of the universe. These conflicts arise because of the fundamental
assumption viz. Energy x Time is a constant. In an attempt to get round the difficulties created by this
concept, a group of scientists led by Milne propounded a new theory of time which will provide for
variations and interpretations of these fundamental conclusions. With the modified concept of time,
the concept of creation and the concept of destruction vanish. This is also the theory of Sri Sankara
who says that the theories of creation and destruction are because of the limited concepts available
to our limited knowledge. Once we transcend this limit of knowledge the concept of creation,
existence and destruction vanish.
The conclusions which one can draw from the above discussions are that the principle of causality
and determinism. the principle of uncertainty of Heisenberg, the principles of complementarity of Bohr
are all applicable only to certain spheres of knowledge available to man. Once we transcend these
limits these concepts will not come into operation and man will be able to achieve the miracle. The
miracle is what may be termed as understanding of nature of the absolute or the nature of ultimate
principle which man can perceive but which he cannot observe. This leads us to the next chapter
where we will discuss the nature of the absolute according to Sri Sankara and the nature of the
absolute according to the modem developments in physics.
THE NATURE OF ABSOLUTE
The main question in Philosophy is about the nature of the absolute. Is there any unifying principle
underlying the phenomena of nature? Is there any unity which binds the living creatures with the
objects found in nature? What is the nature of the universe? Was the universe created; if so, is there
any end to the universe? These are questions which have attracted the attention of philosophers in
the West as well as in the East. In fact, we may say it is the difference in the interpretation of the
relationship between man and God that distinguishes one religion from another and one philosophy
from another. Therefore, no discussion of the philosophical problems will be complete if we do not
discuss the nature of the absolute, or the fundamental principle operating in the universe.
The theory of philosophy propounded by Sri Sankara is known as Advaita theory. According to Him,
there is no difference between man and the external universe. Since he denies anything external, to
man, the other questions mentioned above do not really call for a detailed discussion. According to
him when man reaches certain stages of evolution then all these questions cease to agitate his mind
and they lose their importance. At that stage, he attains supreme bliss and there is perfect union. In
V. 125. He says. "There is some Absolute Entity, the eternal substratum of the consciousness of
egoism.
This Atman is a self cognised entity because It is cognised by Itself. Hence the individual soul is itself
and directly the supreme Brahman and nothing else.
The Universe does not exist apart from the individual's soul and the perception, of its separateness is
false like, the qualities of blueness in the sky. Has a superimposed attribute any meaning apart from
its substratum? It is the substratum which appears like that through delusion.
That which is untouched by the six-fold wave meditated upon by the Yogis heart but not grasped by
the sense, organs, which the Buddhi cannot know.
In S. 761 He says, 'Inasmuch as Brahman is not an object of thought, It is devoid of all attributes and
transcends all verbal definitions. Tranquil in itself, it is without beginning or end. It is infinite in nature
subject to no modifications incomprehensible by means of reasoning transcending thought and
beyond the reach of knowledge.
It can be reached neither by means of mind nor by word.
Seer, seeing and the Seen is a false notion.
In essence, Sri Sankara says that the universe which the person observes is only the universe which
he thinks he sees. The process can be compared to the observation of a snake in piece of rope.
When a person thinks that he sees a snake, does the process of seeing consist in the object which is
the piece of rope or does it reside in the cognitive process of his mind? If the question is to be
decided by perception, then the person does see the snake but the snake has no reality and never
existed. Once knowledge dawns on him, the idea of snake leaves his mind. But the very idea of
snake can occur only if there is something there on which he superimposes an idea of snake. Does
this mean that there is objective existence which corresponds to rope? According to Sri Sankara
there is such an objective thing. In other words, the universe has an objective existence apart from
the observer as long as the observer accepts the difference. Real knowledge consists in getting rid of
this notion of the acceptance of a thing apart from one's self. Earlier we have discussed this question
and we have observed that the process of seeing, seer and the seen have no independent existence.
If a person crosses the boundary of sensual perceptions then the question of an objective thing
existing apart from the consciousness does not arise. This is the fundamental truth which had been
repeatedly stressed by Sri Sankara. He also says that this realisation of truth can never be achieved
by observation or by reason or by intellect.
In S. 841, He says, 'I am not limited either by the body or the sense organs, or the intellect'.
In S. 773 he says. 'Thou art not the physical body, nor the vital forces nor the sense organs, nor mind,
nor the intellect nor the ego. Thou art not any of these either individually or collectively. That Supreme
witnessing consciousness Thou art that'.
In Mandukya Karika Bhashya He says 'It is not as if the snake that is assumed illusorily in the rope
existed there in fact and then was removed through discrimination. And non-duality is the supreme
truth. No world either evolving or dissolving exists'.
Pure conscious self is self existent. No one can disprove its independence of other things inasmuch
as it never ceases to exist.
Sri Sankara says that the consciousness is the only reality in the universe. Consciousness exists
always and every person is aware of this consciousness. Therefore, there is no need to prove the
existence of consciousness. All other consequences follow from the mere existence of
consciousness.
Once consciousness is developed to a high level then the other questions of less importance lose
their significance and consciousness rules without being disturbed by other limiting conditions. This,
according to Sri Sankara, is the highest goal which the conscious human being should always try to
reach.
Almost identical is the core of the implications of the latest developments in modem physics. The
principles which have deep philosophical implications are (i) Heisenberg's uncertainty principle (ii)
Bohr's principle of complementarity (iii) Mach's universal principle iv) the theory of relativity of which
the main feature is the constancy of the velocity of light for all observers in the universe (v) the
principle that radiation is transmitted in discreet quantities called quanta.
Heisenberg has himself interpreted his principle thus. The chain of cause and effect can be
quantitatively verified only if the whole universe were considered as a single system but then physics
has vanished and only a mathematical scheme remains. The partition of the world into observing and
observed system prevents a sharp formulation of a law of cause and effect.
Bohr also comes to the same conclusion that the ordinary level of perceptions will not give us an
insight into the truth of nature. He says, 'indeed we find ourselves here on the very path taken by
Einstein of adapting our modes of perception borrowed from the sensations to the gradually
deepening knowledge of the laws of Nature. The hindrances met with on this path originate above all
in the fact that, so to say, every word in our language refers to our ordinary perception'. The truly
isolated system is represented by the entire universe where the observer and his measuring devises
are contained within the system. Here the distinction between subject and object becomes confused
and so observation is impossible. Bohr has interpreted his principle as implying that an exact
localisation in space time on the one hand and rigorous causal relations on the other illustrate two
different aspects of reality. Reality itself is not depicted correctly by the one or the other of these two
modes if considered singly.
D' Abro another writer says, 'In the sub-atomic world mechanical representations and classical
concepts are no longer of much avail except as props to a bewildered imagination which is unable to
feel at ease in its new surroundings. Waves and particles seem to dissolve one into the other as
though they were the same and yet not the same. The thing to remember is that the uncertainty
principles set limit to the accuracy of knowledge. Beyond lies a fog of uncertainty due to the
peculiarities of nature herself. All that we can know are the probabilities. It is unnecessary at this
stage to venture an opinion on the merits of the new quantum philosophy for in any case our
conclusion remains unchanged. Absolute truth is beyond our reach. We cannot give expression in
words to new concepts that differ widely from those of the common place level. Only by perseverance
and prolonged meditation can an idea of what is implied forces itself upon us.'
The essence of modem physics lies in the capacity to measure and interpret the measurement.
Pressing logically to the end, we come to the conclusion that there is a limit to the process of
measurement beyond which we cannot proceed. The only way whereby we can measure the length
between the two adjacent points is by means of light. But light itself has a definite wave length. If the
two points are at a distance which is less than the wave length of light, then the two points are
observed as coincident. It. therefore, follows that the physical means of measurement must naturally
limit the precision of measurement. Whatever we may do we cannot overcome this limit. This is a
physical limit to the knowledge process.
If we analyse this point further, we come to the conclusion that the old abstractions (like the point)
position and instantaneous velocity) have to give way to new abstractions. Naturally such
abstractions cannot be cast in the image of anything that we can intuitively derive from our everyday
experience of the macroscopic world. This sets a limit to intellectual knowledge of process and
perceptions. Combined with the physical limits mentioned above, these intellectual limits also
reiterate the observation of Sri Sankara that knowledge as such both physical and intellectual cannot
understand and describe the fundamental truth.
Einstein in his theory of relativity says 'considered logically the concepts of space and time and event,
are free creations of the human intelligence. An attempt to become conscious of the empirical source
of these fundamental concepts would show to what extent we are actually bound to these concepts.
In this way, we become aware of our freedom of which in case of necessity it is always a difficult
matter to make sensible use. There is no such thing as empty space i.e. space without field. Space
time does not claim existence on its own but only as a structural quality of the field'.
Isaac Asimov in his book "Understanding Physics", says "in actual fact a complete analysis is
impractical even by present day techniques because of the sheer difficulty of the mathematics
involved. There was a permanent wall in the way of total knowledge, a wall built by the inherent
nature of the universe itself. The existence of uncertainty need not be a source of humiliation for
science. To know the limits of knowledge is itself an item of the first importance".
In his book, "The Rise of new Physics" D'Abro says, "the invariant velocity of light which is the basis
of Lorentz transformation becomes inter-woven, as it were, into the very fabric of the world. Both the
theory of relativity and quantum theory displace our attention from the infinite (whether great or small)
to the finite (great or small). "Discussing the implication of wave theory, he says when we pass to the
higher atoms with their several electrons; the introduction of hyper space cannot be avoided. Hyper-
space is obviously a mathematical fiction.
The power of science is in its capacity to discover, understand and make use of the laws of n ature
and not in violating them. The point is that we cannot perceive an atomic object directly by means of
our five senses. An atomic object is not simply the sum of the properties of waves and particles. This
'atomic' something is imperceptible to our five senses but is real none the less.
Bohr's principle of complementarity says that 'Any truly profound phenomenon of nature cannot be
defined uniquely by means of the words of our language, and requires at least two mutually exclusive
or incompatible complementary concepts to define it. "Such complementary pairs of concepts are,
wave and particle continuity and discreetness, causality and chance, phenomenon and observation.
This principle may be compared to the concepts of duality which according to Sri Sankara is
necessary to describe the phenomena of the world in the ordinary levels. The strength of philosophy
lies in overcoming these dual principles and intuitively observing the oneness behind these
apparently incompatible dualities.
Knowledge of quantum mechanics is a certain emotional process that compels one to go through its
whole history again. The abstract knowledge once acquired, irreversibly influences the whole
subsequent life of a person. It influences his attitude towards physics, towards other sciences and
even his moral criteria. One realises that the questions concerning the completeness of physical
knowledge and the essence of phenomena are not within the scope of physics and cannot be
answered by physical means. A.N. Whitehead expresses the same sentiment when he said, 'I am
impressed by the inadequacy of our conscious thoughts to express our sub-conscious. Only at rare
moments, does that deeper and vaster world come through into conscious thought or expression".
In his book 'Concepts of Modem Physics' Arthur Biesler writes, "Relativity involves an analysis of how
measurements depend upon the observer as well as upon what is observed. From relativity emerges
a new mechanics in which there are intimate relationships between space and time, mass and
energy". Together with special relativity, the wave particle duality is central to an understanding of
modem physics. The 'true nature of light is no longer something that can be visualised in terms of
every day experience. Speaking about the consequences of uncertainty principles, he says that
electrons cannot be present within the nucleus. The certainties proclaimed by Newtonian mechanics
are illusory.
A detailed investigation of the sources of our ideas has shown that there is only one type of model or
picture which can be intelligible to our restricted minds viz. one in mechanical terms. Yet a review of
recent physics has shown that all attempts at mechanical models or pictures have failed and must
fail. For a mechanical model or picture must represent things as happening in space and time while it
has recently become clear that the ultimate processes of nature neither occurs nor admit of
representation in space and time. Thus an understanding of the ultimate processes of nature is for
ever beyond our reach. The true object of scientific study can never be the realities of nature but only
of our own observations of nature.
The new physics places two partial pictures before us, one in terms of particles and one in terms of
waves. Neither of these can tell the whole truth. The pictures we draw of nature show limitations,
these are the price we pay for limiting our pictures of nature to the kinds that can be understood by
our minds. In transcending space and time, the new quantum mechanics finds a new background
which makes for far greater simplicity and so probably comes nearer to ultimate truth. So long as we
are concerned only with our sensations, it is all the same whether we regard the world as a Mental
Construct or as having an existence of its own, independent of mind. The doctrine of materialism
asserted that this space and time and material world comprised the whole of reality. It interpreted
thought as mechanical motion in the brain and emotion as a mechanical motion in the body. The new
physics suggests that besides matter and radiation which can be represented in ordinary space and
time there must be other ingredients which cannot be so represented.
Many philosophers have regarded the world of appearance as a kind of illusion, some sort of creation
or selection of our minds which had in some way less existence in its own right than the underlying
world of reality. Modern physics does not confirm this view. The new quantum theory has shown that
we must probe the deeper substratum of reality before we come to understand the world of
appearance. In addition to the dualism of appearance and reality many pictures of the world have
exhibited a second dualism that of mind and matter or of body and soul.
The physical theory of relativity has shown that the electric and magnetic forces are not real at all,
they are mere mental constructs of our own. The relativity theory of gravitation because of its close
association with pure mathematics seems to carry us yet further along the road from materialism to
mentalism and the same may be said of most of recent development of physical science. The final
picture consists wholly of waves and its ingredients are whole mental constructs. And now that we
find that we can best understand the course of events in terms of knowledge, there is a certain
presumption that reality is wholly mental.
Sri Sankara says that the importance of the questions of science lies in the fact that it stresses the
questions about the nature and meaning of life. These questions cannot be answered by science
alone. The men who have sought to conceive the world as a whole have failed in the opinion of both
science and mysticism.
Heisenberg, while discussing the philosophical problems in Nuclear physics says, "Modern physics in
the final analysis has already discredited the concept of the truly real. Matter exists because energy
assumes the form of elemental particles. The elemental particles of modem physics are defined by
the requirements of mathematical symmetry. They are not eternal and unchanging and they can
hardly, therefore, strictly be termed real. And mathematical pattern in the final analysis is an
intellectual concept.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SANKARA'S PHILOSOPHY:
1. Viveka Chudamani by Swami Madhavananda - Published by Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta.
2. The Quintessence of Vedanta - Published by Sri Ramakrishna Advaita Ashrama, Kalady, Kerala.
3. Sankaracharya by T. M. P. Mahadevan - Published by National Book Trust, New Delhi.
MODERN PHYSICS:
1. Physics & Philosophy - Sir James Jeans
2. The Mysterious Universe - Sir James Jeans
3. Nature of the Physical World - Sir Arthur Eddington
4. One, two, three infinity - George Gamow
5. Thirty years that shook the world
6. Mind & Matter - Schrodinger
7. Science & Religion - Harold Schilling
8. Philosophical Problems in Nuclear Physics - W. Heisenberg
9. Relativity - Einstein
10. The Rise of Modern Physics
Other books and authors I have not mentioned by name.
Thanks are due to:
The Printers who have done such a good job so willingly and wholeheartedly.
The C. P. Ramaswamy lyer Foundation, Madras, who first gave me an opportunity to deal with my
thoughts on the subject.
The stenographer Krishnan who has been responsible for typing the manuscript.
My profound respects and pranams to the Jagadguru His Holiness Sri Sankaracharya of Sringeri for
His blessings to my first humble endeavour.
N. Subramanian M.A. LLB. LRS.

Calcutta
26.6.77
Smritis: The Way to Realisation through Good Conduct
What are Smritis?
Every religion has philosophy, rituals, mythology, and code of conduct as the four pillars on which it
stands. If any of these four pillars gets neglected, then that religion loses its vitality, and soon it
degenerates either into fanaticism, or gets lost into oblivion. The four essential pillars of the Hindu
religion are Vedanta (Upanishads), Tantras, Puranas, and the Smritis respectively.
These four pillars of Hinduism, however, have their source and sustenance in the Vedas only. The
entire spiritual ideals, religion, and culture of the Hindu race are rooted in the Vedas, which are also
known as Sruti. In essence, the Vedas contain the eternal principles, or the universal laws of both the
external and the internal nature, and hence they show the ways to attain dharma, artha, kama,
moksha -- the four purusartha (goals of life). Since the Vedas were inaccessible to the masses, and
also there was a need for an elaboration of the statements made in these works, a new class of
scriptures, called Smriti, was born. Thus works like Mahabharata, Ramayana, Purana, Dharma
shastras (law books, also known as Smritis) are all Smritis.
The Vedas supply the framework of spiritual life, while the details of spiritual life are filled by the
Smritis. So, even though the Smritis are important, they are considered inferior to the Vedas in
matters of authority. If per chance a statement of Smriti appears to contradict the Vedas, then the
words of Smriti gets overruled.
Smritis mean both the supplementary scriptures (i.e. Puranas, Itihasa etc.), and also the law books
like Manu Smriti. Hereafter, this article uses the term Smriti to mean the dhrama shastras (Law
books). These Smritis are the systemically arranged dharmas (code of conduct) scattered over the
different texts of the Vedas. They supplement and explain the Vidhi (what one should do) and
Nisedha (what one must not do) in the Vedas, which when followed properly can lead a person to the
ultimate goal of life, which is liberation. These dharma also regulate Hindu national, social, family and
individual obligations.
Smritis as Dharmashastra
The Vedas have six auxiliary literature (grammar, prosody etc.) like their limbs (anga), and hence are
known as Vedanga. These are considered very important for the study of the Vedas. Kalpa is one of
them.
To help the Vedic priests perform the various details connected with a sacrifice, a kind of manual was
worked out. With time each Veda had its own handbook of rituals written in a short form (sutra), or in
metrical form. They came to be known as Kalpa. Of these Kalpa Sutras, the Srauta Sutras deal with
the performance of the public sacrifices, and the Grihya Sutras deal with the ceremonies applicable to
the domestic life of a man.
The Dharma Sutras are directly connected to the Grihya Sutras, and deal exclusively with dharma,
which is defined as right, duty, law, religion, custom, and usage. The Grihya Sutras prescribe forty
ceremonies, known as samskara, for a person. These samskara govern his journey from birth to
death. In later times, only sixteen of these remained popular, and in recent times, the number has
gone down to ten.
Most of the Dharma Sutras originated in the Vedic schools, but some of them like Gautama Dharma
Shastra, and Manu Smriti are independent works, although rooted in the Vedic tradition.
Laws, Commandments, Smritis
Before setting down a law or a constitution, the law maker has to decide the rationale behind those
laws. For example, the main purpose behind any social or criminal law is to safeguard the interests of
a community, whereas the religious commandments are aimed at making an ordinary person outgrow
his savage nature. If there is no higher purpose behind a law, then that law becomes a wall of
imprisonment, instead of being the wall of protection.
The most famous code of conduct from ancient times is the code of Hammurabi from Mesopotomia,
which was written down in c. 1760 BCE. This work is one of the earliest available set of laws and is
also the best preserved work of its kind. The famous sayings like "an eye for an eye" and "an arm for
an arm" are based on Hammurabi's Code. Most other sets of laws come from a small geographical
area of the Eastern world that had a similar culture and belonged to the same racial group. These
sets of laws have a great similarity amongst them, and they seem to have been inspired by a
common source. The earlier code of Ur-Nammu (21st century BCE), the Hittite code of laws (ca. 1300
BCE), and Mosaic laws (traditionally ca. 1400 BCE), are examples of this.
Laws given by Moses, more popularly known as Ten Commandments, has played a very important
role in the Judeo-Christian world. Similarly the Laws given by Buddha, and Zarathurasthra have
played a vital role in shaping the lives of their followers.
Smritis are neither mere law books, nor are they like the constitution of a country, or of an organised
society. These are not even commandments, but are shastras, scriptures. Shastra means 'that which
governs', and is applied to a book only if it teaches the ways and means to attain mukti, the supreme
goal of life. Books like Manusmriti are considered a shastra because they teach how a person who
performs his svadharma (duties) faithfully can attain self realisation.
The Celebrated Hindu Lawgivers
The Vedas are believed to be the words of God, channelled through the realisations of the sages. So
the sages are not treated as their creators. On the other hand, Smritis are the creation of various
sages. The principles of religion that are in the Vedas are unchangeable, but the religious practices
that are based upon the social position and correlation have to change with the change in the society.
For example, in matters of food, the climatic and other changes make it necessary to change the
rules that govern them. Similar is the case with many such habits and practices. For this reason, the
Smritis have varied from time to time, and place to place. Thus the Smritis of the various yugas like
Satya Yuga and Treta yuga are different from each other. And since they are not absolute, Smritis are
treated as secondary in importance to the Vedas.
From time to time, the great lawgivers amended the existing laws that had become obsolete. They
made alterations, adaptations, readjustments, additions and deletions to suit the needs of the time so
that a person could live his life in accordance with the Vedic ideals, despite the changed conditions.
There are eighteen main Smritis or Dharma Shastras: Manu, Yajnavalkya, Parasara. Vishnu, Daksha,
Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, Devala, Sankha-Likhita,
Usana, Atri and Saunaka. The Gautama Dharma Sutra, belonging to the tradition of Sama Veda is
considered to be the earliest of its kind and must have been composed between 600 and 300 B.C.
Another famous work, Apastamba Dharma Sutra belongs to Taittiriya recension of Yajur Veda.
Manu, Yajnavalkya and Parasara are the more celebrated lawgivers of the Hindus. The Hindu society
is mostly governed by the laws made by these three great sages. Of them, Manu is the greatest, most
authoritative and the oldest lawgiver, and.his work, Manusmriti, is the most famous law book of the
Hindus. Yajnavalkya Smriti is next in importance to it. These two works are accepted throughout the
country with respect and authority.
Philosophy of the Smritis
There is a very precise and clear philosophy of life, individual and social, behind the scheme of the
Smritis. Like any other Hindu philosophy, these works treat the universe as a complete whole and
pulsating with life. According to them, the manifestation of that life is not same everywhere: it sleeps
in inert objects, is awake in plants, moves in animals, and is self-conscious in men. Man is considered
to be the highest expression of life, but he can also evolve culturally (which includes spiritual growth).
This evolution is possible through various means, of which the practise of one's dharma (prescribed
duties) is the best.
The writers of Smritis accept inequality in the universe as an inviolable fact, and believe that the real
equality is possible only at the spiritual level. So, they did not try to found a society on a theoretical
possibility of equality, but struggled to work with individuals and groups that they had in hand. Also,
they did not believe the inequality amongst men (the castes) to be real or even presumable. But to
perform indispensable functions of the society, each person had to be assigned a fixed role according
to certain criteria.These criteria were never fixed with the motive of greed or materialistic outlook.
Instead, the existing social pattern and also the ultimate spiritual goal was always kept as the guiding
principle of every Smriti.
The detailing of rules and laws in the Smritis is based on the validity of Varnashrama, and also on the
inviolability of the law of karma, including rebirth. Without these foundations, the Dharma shastras are
irrelevant. Hindu Smritis are meaningless for a society that does not accept life after death. They are
also useless for people who do not accept the fact of potential equality at the level of spirituality,
despite the prevailing inequality at the socio-economic level. Once these facts are accepted, then
only a person learns to believe that the good or bad that comes in his life, is the result of his own past
actions. To make an improvement from where he belongs, he himself has to make an effort. It is then
that he realises the importance of his own freedom to regulate his conduct by rational volitions and
power to conquer his impulses. This is where Smritis come to help.
Every religion expects its followers to adhere to the norms set by its scriptures. Gita says that while
making a decision one must stick to what the scriptures say, 'Tasmat shastram pramanam te... ' If an
individual depends too much on his own judgement regarding correctness of an action, he may then
get swayed by the impurities of his mind, and he may ultimately land into serious trouble. Keeping this
in view, Smritis codified every possible action of an individual in such a way that he did not have to
think for himself what to do and what not to do. By simply obeying the commands of a Smriti, a
person can outgrow his human limitations. In turn, the society also becomes stable when a majority
practises these codes.
Smritis are not the high preachers of morality, nor do they take up a condescending moral stand by
commanding 'Thou shall not...' These are also not like the absurd and cruel laws interpreted and
dictated by the degenerates of religion. Rather, the writers of Smritis only codified what was being
practised in the society by the majority of people of that period. It was obvious to the sages that to
make the society run smoothly, it was necessary for all the members to follow a common code of
conduct. So, whenever the society changed its habits and behaviour pattern due to changed
circumstances, the sages noted them, and then codified them for everyone to follow. At the same
time, they made sure that these laws did not go against the basic principles of the Vedas.
Smritis are older than the Puranas, and are possibly earlier than even the Epics, but they are not
treated as sacred as them, nor are they as popular. The religious spirit which reached its acme in the
Veda-Samhitas and Upanishads, found its popular expression in the Epics. Even the aspirations of
the Indian minds are well articulated in them, but not so much in the Smritis, because these are in the
form of legal texts on social conduct. However, the credit for the stability of the Hindu society, and the
high moral standards of a Hindu have come entirely due to these Smritis.
Characteristics of Smritis
The chief characteristics of the Smritis can be summed up as:

* They deal with topics under three main heads: acara (rites), vyavahara (dealings), and prayscitta
(penances and expiation).
* Both secular and religious laws are discussed, since these have been traditionally considered
inseparable in India.
* The duties of the Varnashrama Dharma are discussed in detail. Every individual is assigned a place
in the society, and is given an appropriate duty. Compared to this, today's world is a place where
everyone is rootless, and where everyone runs from the pillar to the post in search of stability.
* The duties and responsibilities of the king (Raja dharma), rules for taxation, ownership, money-
lending etc. have been discussed. Even the most powerful king was kept under check, and was not
allowed to become a despot, only because of the influence of these Smritis.
* Duties of women, and also the responsibilities towards them, have been discussed with care.
Manusmriti says that 'the gods reside in the house where a woman is treated with respect.'
* Various samskaras (sacramental rites) like upanayana, marriage etc. are discussed. Smritis assert
that only by purifying oneself through these rites, a person can become fit for the ultimate realisati on
of the Self.
* Punishment for various crimes have been recommended. These lawgivers believed that if a person
was punished for his crime by the king, then he once again became as pure as ever. In case the
guilty escaped the punishment, he had to suffer through various kinds of losses and diseases.
* Rules about food, clothing, cleansing etc. have been discussed.
* Prayascitta, the penances for sins and mistakes other than crimes, have been discussed.
Smritis take a commonsense view of the duties of man. They also object to taking of sannyasa by a
person who has not fully performed his obligatory duties towards the world.
These books discuss six kinds of duties: Varna dharma (General caste duties), Ashrama dharma
(General duties related to the station of life), Varna-Ashrma Dharma (based on the particular station
of a particular caste), Nimitta dharma (penances), Guna Dharma (duties born of a particular position,
eg. a king's), and Samanya ( duties common to all). They lay down the laws that regulate national,
communal, family and individual obligations in general (Samanya) as well as in particular (Visesha).
One very important concept of dharma developed in these works is the acceptance of a lower kind of
dharma in which it is prescribed to act in one way, and a higher kind of dharma where staying away
from that very act under certain conditions is considered more meritorious. For example, telling the
truth is considered to be meritorious, but not telling the truth (when it is unpleasant) is considered to
be more meritorious. Similarly, preaching dharma is meritorious, but not preaching dharma (when it
harms or injures others) is considered to be more meritorious.
Manu Smriti
Manusmriti is the oldest and the most authoritative work amongst smritis. The first references of
Manu and his heritage occurs in the Rig Veda. The Mahabharata also makes many references of the
work by the great lawgiver, but the book is believed to have taken its final shape around second BCE.
Considering many pros and cons, it is possible that the work was completed before Buddhism made
roots in India.
Manu's statements are considered healthy and acceptable, and hence all later works were based on
this work. Many great scholars and sages wrote commentaries on it. According to the Vedas,
whatever Manu said is wholesome like medicine. The book was considered so useful that even the
South-East Asian countries accepted the norms set by it.
Manusmriti has around 2700 shlokas, arranged in twelve chapters dealing with acara, vyavah ara, and
prayscitta. It is in the form of dialogue between Manu and his disciple Bhrigu in the presence of many
other sages who wanted to know about dharma.
Manu's work begins with the exposition if the universal concept of Hindu philosophy that God alone
exists. The Creation begins due to mysterious reasons, but is an act of God. The soul, which in
essence is inseparable from God, identifies itself with matter and runs after it through its senses. In
the process, it gains virtues and vices which in turn produce good and bad results. With the beginning
of this vicious cycle of ignorance--desires--action--ignorance, a soul gets entangled more and more in
the trappings of the world. To come out of this cycle, one has to acquire the Knowledge of the
Supreme God. This requires purity of mind, which can be attained only through a thorough cleansing
of the body, mind and social conduct. To preserve one's purity, a person must steer clear of every
kind of contamination. The more a person is pure, the more important he is for the society, and the
more he is advanced towards spiritual realisation. The guidelines of keeping oneself pure comes
through dharma.
According to Manu, Dharma is to be known through the Vedas, Smritis, conduct of saints, and finally
through one's own purified intellect. By following Dharma, one attains perfection. Manu goes into
detail on the duties of a student, householder, hermit, monk and king. He also discusses the
principles of political administration and the vows and observances to be followed as expiation for the
commission of certain sins. From there he goes on to discuss spiritual matters, safety, personal
habits, cleanliness, sanitation, ways of conduct, and subjects of common sense.
The great lawgiver accepts that there is hardly any activity that is not prompted by desire (kama), but
to act solely on such urge is tamasik (demeaning). It is to curb these base tendencies that dharma
was promulgated by the sages. Manu stresses the importance of dharma by saying that one is born
alone, one dies alone, and one enjoys the fruits of one's deeds alone. Father, mother, wife, children
and friends will not come to one's help in the other world; only Dharma will rescue him. He finally
sums up his instructions on dharma by saying that of all dharma, attainment of knowledge of Self is
supreme, since that is the only way to attain immortality.
The work of Manu is more than 2500 years old, and yet it approaches such levels of rationality and
justice that one is left wonderstruck. His approach towards various issues has one fundamental rule:
Quality is more important than quantity. Manu gives tremendous freedom and licenses to the
educated and the cultured, but he also demands huge sacrifices from them. While giving privileges to
the Brahmins, he repeatedly asserts that a Brahmin who is not devoted to the Vedas and austerities,
is not to be treated as a Brahmin, but as a Shudra. Such a fallen Brahmin's privileges etc. are to be at
par with a Shudra only.
Manu accepts the existence of customs peculiar to place, class, and families. He advises the
conquering king to safeguard and maintain the customs of the conquered people, and yet consolidate
his own empire. In contrast, one may look at the various conquering barbarians and the kings,
including Alexander, whose first act after victory was to destroy the local culture. Today's India,
despite all its diversity, is an integrated country only because the Hindu kings of the past followed the
political principles of Manu.
Creation according to Manu
God alone exists. He is eternal, sat (real, because He exists) and also asat (because He is
unknowable and indiscernible by the mind and senses). In the beginning the Lord alone existed. He
was indiscernible, so there was only divine darkness.
Desirous of Creation, the Lord first created the great elements (sattva, rajas, tamas). He now
appeared knowable (by the Yogis), with supreme creative power. This dispelled the divine darkness.
He then created the divine waters and placed his seed in them. The waters are called nārah. Since
God first resided (ayana) there, He is called Narayana.
That seed became a golden egg (Hiranyagarbha), from which Brahma was born. He stayed
meditating in that egg for a whole year (of Brahma), and then he broke it into two by his mere will. Out
of those two halves, Brahma formed heaven and earth, and placed sky, oceans etc. in between.
He then created Mahat (cosmic mind) and Ahamkara (cosmic Ego). The rest of creation followed
according to the Samkhya/Vedanta principle.
Brahma then created the gods, human beings, the great sages Sadhyas, and yajna --the eternal
sacrifice. He then went on to create different kinds of actions and emotions. These followed the same
pattern as it was in the previous cycle of creation.
Whatever qualities and emotions he assigned to different beings at the time of the first creation: good
or bad, ferocity or gentleness, virtue or sin, truth or falsehood, that clung to them even afterwards to
them.
To make the creation go faster, he divided his own body and became half male and half female. From
the female he produced Virat. That Virat did tapasya from which Manu was born. Manu also did
tapasya to create the first ten Prajapati, who are: Marichi, Atri, Angira, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu,
Pracheta, Vasistha, Bhrigu and Narada.
These Prajapatis created seven other Manus. They also created many other class of beings who had
not yet been created.
Commanded by Manu, these great Prajapati also did a lot of tapasya and with the power acquired
through that, they created both the immovable and the movable beings according to their karma over
series of creation and dissolution.
So the goal of life for everyone is to follow the path of dharma, and get out of the cycle of life and
death.
God
Manu accepts the knowledge of Brahman as the supreme goal of life. The concept of personal God,
or Iswara, does not find any place in his outlook towards life, and concepts like God's will, surrender
to God, predestination etc. are completely alien to his philosophy. Summing up the process of
spiritual realisation he says:
"By the regular practice of the Vedas, constant internal and external purity, practice of austerity, and
by not being inimical towards any being, one gets the memory of past lives. This makes one strive for
the knowledge of Brahman. The knowledge of Brahman results in infinite joy for the person." (Manu
Smriti 4.148-9)
Women
Manu firmly believes that women have the power to sway the minds of menfolk, irrespective of any
existing relationship. So, women needed to be treated with care and caution. License to women to
move around wantonly was a dangerous thing for her, her family, and the society.
However, Manu is emphatic about the rights and privileges of women, and treats them with great
respect. He also introduces the concept of stree dhan (the property of a wife) which cannot be
touched by the husband. Special instructions are repeatedly given for the education of daughters, and
the protection of sister, wife and mother.
When Swamiji was in America, a controversy was raging there regarding the rights and privileges of
Hindu widows in India. There was a group called Ramabai circle who found fault with everything that
India had to say or do about its widows. Unwittingly Swamiji was also sucked into it, but he refrained
from making any direct response. Ultimately it was his friend Dr. Lewis G. Janes's, who made a full
reply to Mrs. James McKeen, leader of the Brooklyn Ramabai Circle. His reply appeared in the
Brooklyn Daily Eagle, part of which read:
"Not only that the wife inherits absolutely her husband's property and the use of his real estate during
her lifetime, but that her own independent property, if she has offspring, goes to her children instead
of to her husband. In case she has no offspring, another section makes her husband her heir; or,
when the marriage is irregular, her mother and father inherit her estate instead of her husband.
"Still another section makes it the duty of the king to protect the inherited and other property "of wives
and widows faithful to their lords" against all aggressors. "A righteous king must punish like thieves
those relatives who appropriate the property of such females during their lifetime" (Manu, viii. 27, 28,
29). And against male relatives who would live on the separate property of females, this malediction
is also hurled: "But those male relatives who, in their folly, live on the separate property of women,
e.g., appropriate the beasts of burden, carriages and clothes of women, commit sin and will sink into
hell" (Manu iii. 52). Thus, not only legal, but religious sanctions of the strongest kind protect the
separate estates of Hindu women, be they single, wives or widows."
Shudras
Before one goes into the issues of Shudra as discussed by Manu, it must be remembered that the
book was completed half a millennium before Jesus walked on this earth, and around quarter of a
millennium before Julius Caesar considered it fit to call Britain and nearby countries barbarians.
In the time of Manu and earlier, Shudras were mostly the new entrants to Hinduism, who were yet to
imbibe the high standards of Brahminical culture. They had not yet given up their basic tendencies of
enjoyment and uncleanliness -- two important virtues of an upper caste. These two vices resulted in
other personality faults like cruelty, selfishness etc. All this meant that they had not yet become fit to
climb the social hierarchy. Hence, they were given all kinds of licenses when it came to enjoying
sense pleasure (including meat eating, wine drinking, onion and garlic eating etc.), but were
prohibited from reading and listening to the Vedas. Here it may be mentioned that to the sages, the
knowledge of the Vedas was something like a copyrighted thing, and so, that knowledge could be
imparted only to the right person, on payment of proper fees (dakshina). In other matters, they were
treated more or less quite fairly.
Manu mentions that a shudra can attain the highest heaven exactly like a Brahmin simply by
practising the good conduct of the Brahmins, and performing five great sacrifices (explained later).
The sage also mentions how a child of a shudra woman can become a Brahmin over successive
generations.
The Idea of Justice
Manu prescribes different treatment for different kind of persons. For example "The seniority of
Brahmins is from (sacred) knowledge, that of Kshatriyas from valour, that of Vaisyas from wealth,
abut that of Shudras from age." (MS II.155).
"For a crime of theft, a Shudra should be penalised 8 times, the penalty should be 16 times if he is a
Vaishya, 32 times if he is a Kshatriya and 64 times if he is a Brahmin. The punishment can be even
100 times or 128 times if he is a Brahmin. (MS VIII.337-338 )"
"When the punishment for an ordinary citizen is 1 pana, the punishment for those in ruling class
should be 1000 pana." (MS VIII.336).
On the other hand, Manu advises not to give the punishment of death to a Brahmin. Instead the
convict's head should be shaved in public, which is equivalent to death punishment for him. (MS VIII.
379). After all, greater responsibility comes with greater understanding, and with it comes greater
accountability. And, what is accountability without cost?
When most judicial systems of the world like British, French, American and Indian believe in "equality
of all before justice", "uniform civil code" and all such great ideals, Was Manu then right in defining
law in this partisan way?
Actually Manu particularises morality, instead of generalising it. It is unfortunate that we have come to
associate punishment with suffering rather than penance and purification. When punishment is
accepted with grace by the punished, it becomes penance for him. In turn, it takes him to the next
level of spiritual evolution. This is the principle behind punishment and justice in Manu.
This may seem surprising, or even shocking to all those who have grown up with the popular feeds of
the generalised approach to law and justice. 'All are same before the law' has become a truism even
to a child, although it has no significance anywhere. When one looks closely at the two approaches of
generalisation and particularisation of values, one is bound to feel surprised at the honesty and the
insight of Manu, and the sheer dishonesty and hypocrisy of those who take a generalised approach.
Actually, morality, ethics and justice are always practised on the principle of tribe concern, which can
also be termed as "in group" ethics, or "tribe ethics". Here tribe means the group to which one
intrinsically belongs.
A monk, or a person living alone, away from any tribe, can indeed practise values without ever
making any compromise. Mundaka Upanishad instructs spiritual aspirants to stick constantly to truth,
tapas, right knowledge, and brahmacharya. But this is difficult for a person who belongs to a "tribe".
This is where Manu's genius comes into play.
At the time of Manu (c. 200 BCE), a large number of outsiders were entering the mainstream
Hinduism. Then there were the jatis, which were the sub-sub castes of Hinduism. The whole country
had literally lakhs of "tribe", each having its own code of conduct and moral principles. A fisherman
would not cheat another fisherman, but would not mind cheating, say, a blacksmith.
Manu put a stop to all that, and, instead, crystallised them into four "tribes", known as the four Varna.
The Varna system was already there, and so was the moral principles and the legal system. Manu
simply took the entire thing together, juggled them and came up with his Smriti, that did away with the
ghetto "tribe" mentality, and broadened the mental horizon of all by forcing people to follow one of the
four sets of principles.
Not only that these four sets of morality and justice got rid of the lakhs of "tribe" practices, they also
had most laws and principles in common with each other. That is how the idea of "India" was
concretised by him.
This code of conduct is essentially a manual of unselfishness. Manu knew that not everyone can be
equally unselfish, nor should one expect the same from all. So, there can neither be a uniform civil
code, nor can there be same criminal laws for all. Not only that. Even the same person may not act
on the same principles of morality on which he had been acting till yesterday.
Manu's greatness lies in his compassionate understanding of a man's weakness. From there stems
his ideas of justice.
Yajnavalkya & Parasara Smriti
Next in importance to Manusmriti is Yajnavalkya Smriti. It has 1009 shlokas arranged systematically
in three sections. The famous commentary Mitakshara by Vijnaneshwara is considered to be a
standard work on this Smriti. Yajnavalkya Smriti is shorter and more liberal, particularly towards
women, than Manusmriti. This maturity is also because it was written much later, probably in 5th A.D.
Compared to Yajnavalkya Smriti, Manusmriti is not a systematic treatise. For example, Manusmriti
does not have a clear-cut division between religion and law, but being a later work, Yajnavalkya
Smriti makes this distinction clear. Similarly, Manusmriti is more like a jumbled work in which the
discussion jumps from issue to issue: it may have one shloka on religion, the next shloka on law, the
third one on morality, and likewise. On the other hand, Yajnavalkya Smriti is very systematic. The
demarcation between legal issues and religious issues by the sage Yajnavalkya is considered by
many legal experts to be a great advance over Manusmriti.
Parasara Smriti is noted for its advanced and modernistic views. It deals only with acara and
Prayascitta. It also discusses the Apad-dharma (the code during emergency) of the four castes.
Madhavacharya wrote a commentary on this work.
Survey of Samskaras -- The Hindu sacraments
The samskaras cover the entire gamut of a Hindu's life: from the moment he is conceived in the
mother‘s womb, till his death. While commenting on the emphasis laid on samskaras by the Hindus,
Max Muller wrote that this discloses "the deep-rooted tendency in the heart of man to bring the chief
events of human life into contact with a higher power, and to give to our joys and sufferings a deeper
significance and a religious sanctification."
The Hindu sages realised that an artful life requires constant care, culture and refinement, without
which one would degenerate and become a savage. The transformation of the wild into the cultured is
possible only through taming and training which has been prescribed beautifully by the samskaras
(sacraments) over thousands of years. All the samskaras and allied ceremonies are based on the
philosophy that life is a progressive cycle through a series of incidents centring around the desire to
live, to enjoy, to think, and to retire. It is with this idea that the rituals and sacrifices evolved which
were meant to sanctify one's life physically, emotionally, psychically and spiritually.
There are several objectives of samskaras:

* To receive the blessings of the gods, and to stay protected from the evil powers that beset human
life at various stages.
* By making the gods happy through samskara, a practitioner hopes to obtain material gains. During
some ceremonies prayers are offered to gods for health, wealth, children, intellect etc.
* Performance of some sacraments is used to enhance one's social status and also to get additional
privileges. For example, a boy who goes through the sacred thread ceremony, acquires the right to
study the Vedas, and also becomes important in the eyes of his peers.
* The samskaras also help in attaining cultural gains. Similarly, some impurity is inherently attached
to the pre-natal stage of birth which gets removed through the proper rites.
* Sage Angiras says, "Just as a picture is painted with various colours, so the character of the
individual is formed by the proper performance of the samskaras." Gautama says that samskaras,
along with certain other noble qualities, take one to Brahman.
* Samskaras are designed to channel the energies of a man towards the creation of a life for him
which would be soothing, enjoyable, spiritual, practical, and dignified. It is only thus that both the
individual and the society can live in peace and harmony.
History and Sources of Samskaras
The earliest suggestion of samskaras are found in the Rig Veda. Some hymns used during marriage,
conception and funeral are from this sacred book. In the Yajur Veda there are references to the
tonsure ceremony, which was common to Shrauta or Yāga ceremonies. The Atharva Veda is a rich
source of mantras relating to several of the samskaras like marriage, funeral, initiation for Vedic
studies etc.
Gopatha Brahmana contains references to Upanayana (sacred thread ceremony). The word
Brahmacharya is found in Sathapatha Brahman. Taittiriya Aranyaka contains Mantras for cremation,
and Chandogya Upanishad relates how a brahmacharin (novice) is admitted to the gurukula
(seminary).
Mention of Gayatri Mantra is made in Brihadaranyaka and other Upanishads. Taittiriya Upanishad
contains the famous convocation address by the teacher to his students at the time of their
graduation. This Upanishad also has mantras for begetting a learned son, and mantras to be used
during funeral ceremonies.
Sodasa Samskara: The Sixteen Sacraments
There are sixteen samskaras that range from conception to funeral ceremonies.
1. Garbhādhāna: The propitious day and time are fixed astrologically for garbhadhana (conception),
and the ritual follows a set pattern. The mantras uttered in this samskara are essentially prayers
offered to God to help the bride conceive a good son.
2. Punsavanam: This ceremony is performed in the second, third and the fourth month of pregnancy.
The meaning and object of this ceremony is to quicken a male child in the woman.
3. Simantonnayana: This is performed during the period between the fifth and the eighth months of
pregnancy. Its implications are that the pregnancy be fruitful, the child be endowed with sharp and
penetrating intellect, and the child be beautiful like the full-moon.
4. Jātakarma: This ceremony is performed before the umbilical cord of the child is severed. During
the ceremony, the father looks at the face of the newly born infant, which at once redeems his debt to
his ancestors. A name is also given to the child, in secret, lest his enemies should practice black
magic on the child with that name.
5. Nāmakarana: The naming ceremony is performed normally on the tenth or twelfth day after birth.
This is a simple ceremony in which the child is given a name. According to Asvalayana ( a great
lawgiver), the names of boys should have an even number of syllables. A two-syllable name will bring
material prosperity and fame, and a four syllable name will bring religious fame.
The practice of naming children after favourite deities began from the Puranic times. The rise of the
Bhakti movement made this practice popular. By naming one's child after gods, one gets the
opportunity of uttering God‘s name whenever the child's name is called out.
6. Niskramana: The infant is taken out of the house into the climate of fresh air and sunshine for the
first time.
7. Annaprāshana: This is the ceremony for the first feeding of cooked rice to the newborn. The object
of this ceremony is to pray to gods with Vedic Mantras to bless the child with good digestive powers,
good thoughts and talents. It is performed when the child is six months old, which is the right weaning
time for a child.
8. Chudākarma: This ceremony of the first tonsure is to be performed in the third year of the male
child. It also initiates the maintenance of a ‗Sikha‘ (tuft of hair on the head) as a religious necessity
after that age.
9. Karnavedha: The piercing of the child‘s ear should be done in the third or the fifth year from the
date of birth.
10. Upanayana and Vedārambha: The thread ceremony is performed for the male child in the eighth
year for Brahmins, eleventh year for Kshatriya, and twelfth year for Vaishya. This ceremony gives the
child a second birth (Dwija), as it were, where the Guru (teacher) becomes his father and Gayatri (the
great Vedic mantra) becomes his mother. The investiture with the sacred thread entitles the child to
study the Vedas and participate in Vedic functions. In essence, the child commences his journey on
the road to spiritual life only after this ceremony.
Instructions in the Vedas, known as Vedarambha, begin after this ceremony. The father of the would-
be student imparts general information regarding the life of a Brahmacharin (celibate student) and
preaches the code of conduct, which are a pointer to the rigours of discipline that a brahmachari was
subjected to.
11. Samavartana: Upon completion of studies, the teacher used to hold a graduating ceremony in
which instructions were given on how to lead the rest of life. "Speak the truth. Practise Dharma. Do
not neglect the study of the Vedas. Having brought to the teacher the gift desired by him, (enter the
householder‘s life and see that) the line of progeny is not cut off. Do not swerve from the truth. Do not
swerve from Dharma. Do not neglect (personal) welfare. Do not neglect prosperity (refers to righteous
actions by which wealth is earned). Do not neglect the study and teaching of Vedas."
12. Vivāha: Marriage
13. Grihasthāshrama: Entering the life of a householder
14. Vānaprastha: A person was expected to give up his worldly responsibilities and privileges, and go
to the forest to lead a simple and solitary life.
15. Sannyāsa: This is the last stage of a person's life, in which he renounces everything and devotes
himself exclusively to the contemplation of Brahman.
16. Antyeshti: The last rites of the dead body are called the Antyeshti Samskara. There is no other
Samskara thereafter for this body. This Samskara is also called by the names of Naramedha,
Purushmedha etc.
Duties of a householder
The periods of life as a student and householder are full with special injunctions on the performance
of ceremonies of different kinds. The prayer called Sandhyavandana, to be performed thrice daily, is
obligatory on both the student and the householder. Daily worship of one's chosen deity is an
additional duty of the householder.
A very important part of the daily functions of the householder consists of a set of fivefold duties
called Pancha-Mahayajnas (five great sacrifices). The first of these is Brahma-Yajna or the sacrifice
dedicated to the Vedas and their seers (Rishis) in the form of regular study (Svādhyaya) of the
scriptures and the teaching of it to deserving students (Adhyāpana). The second is Deva-Yajna or the
sacrifice offered to the celestial in the form of oblations poured into the sacred fire. The third is Pitri-
Yajna or libations, etc. offered to the ancestors. The fourth is Manushya-Yajna or the feeding of
guests (atithi). The fifth is Bhuta-Yajna or the feeding of animals, especially cows and birds. These
five functions are imperatives on every householder and are regarded as great sacrifices
(MahāYajnas).
The ceremonies in the names of the dead have also great details, commencing with the rite of
cremation and ending in the rites connected with the exaltation of the departed soul to the state of
divine attainment.
Conclusion
While explaining the role of the Smritis, Swami Vivekananda said, "The ideal at one end is the
Brahmin and the ideal at the other end is the Chandala, and the whole work is to raise the Chandala
up to the Brahmin. Slowly and slowly you find more and more privileges granted to them {by the
Smritis}. ... Then gradually we find in other Smritis, especially in those that have full power now, that if
the Shudras imitate the manner and customs of the Brahmins they do well, they ought to be
encouraged. Thus it is going on. (CW, vol 3 -295)"
Going through the succession of the Smritis, one can see that the lawgivers were conscious of the
struggle for the upward mobility of the downtrodden through education and achievement. Whenever
this mobility became irrepressible, the lawgivers made it legally and morally acceptable to all. It was
thus that the yesterday's untouchable became a fit candidate for the knowledge of Brahman, the
highest goal of human life.
In recent times Manu Smriti is blamed for creating caste based differences and also for being unfair
towards lower castes and women. But most of these critics hardly read him, and those who read him,
forget that Manu was just the chronicler and codifier of what existed in the society much earlier than
Jesus Christ walked on this earth. Also, considering the fundamental thrust on purity, quality and
stability by the Smriti writers, Manu was quite considerate towards all. Quoting Manu out of context,
and out of time frame has been an unfair practice by his critics. Rather, Manu should be credited for
creating an environment of spiritual growth for all, despite the steel frame of the social order.
Hindus have always been a socially conscious race since prehistoric times. That is how they have
survived the tempests of time, attacks of the marauding tribes, temptations of materialism, and a
sheer desire for revolution out of boredom. The little defect that the society has today is because
proper adjustments were not made during the last thousand years or so. That is why Swami
Vivekananda wanted a new Smriti to be written for the present age.
Tantra: Popularising Mother Worship
Hindu race has come to perceive God both as Impersonal and Personal.
More importantly, they believe that in His Personal aspect God can manifest His Power in any form.
The manifestation of God‘s Power, including the Creation of universe, is never an act, as the term is
commonly used, rather it is effected by His mere will, since God‘s will and its actualisation are same.
God being pure consciousness, He is the repository of all strength, and hence He does not have to
act through mind, senses, organs, and objects to materialise His will the way we have to do.
What might then happen if the Lord ever thinks of Himself as feminine? God being beyond the cause-
effect phenomena, only a naive can define God as being mere this or that. God being Infinite and
pure Consciousness, He can have a particular form, and also many other forms simultaneously,
along with being formless. That is the true meaning of being Infinite. If He thinks of Himself as Boar or
Fish, who can stop Him from manifesting in those forms, since His thinking and act are same.
There being no second -- superior or inferior -- to Him, He may very well think of Himself (rather Itself)
as feminine too. After all, gender is a dividing characteristic of dualistic existence which can never
apply to God. Tantra and Shakti worship are rooted in this concept of seeing the Divine as feminine.
Philosophy of Mother Worship
The idea of Mother worship comes from the Vedas, and was later elaborated in the Puranas. But the
real growth of Mother Worship in India came from the Tantra traditions that influenced even the
Puranas. In the present day Hinduism, Mother Worship mostly comes from the Puranic traditions, but
their roots, and the mantras used in them have clear foot prints of Tantra.
Independent of the Puranic traditions, Tantras produced great sages who popularised it in certain
sections of the society, but due to many reasons, Tantra practices could not be accepted, appreciated
and absorbed in the mainstream Hinduism.
One chief reason for it was that unlike the Vedic systems, Tantras are highly esoteric, meaning that
their practices are secret, and also that their texts have layered meaning, and hence these cannot be
understood unless a teacher trained in Tantra traditions explains them.
This kind of closed system is always dangerous for the practitioners and the onlookers alike. Be it a
secretive person, a secret society, or a secret branch of knowledge – these can never be relied upon
fully. The same happened with the Tantras – its esoteric nature made spiritually cultured wary of it,
and so it throve mostly in the darkness of secrecy without the benefits of corrective adjustments that
comes to an open system. However, the contribution of Tantras to Mother worship cannot be
undermined.
Here it is important to remember that religions, religious systems and their outlooks are never a
thought out system the way most philosophies are. Religions are the externals around the spiritual
truths concerning God – the way He is, and the way He is perceived by the great sages in the depths
of their meditation. A thought out religion like Akbar‘s Din e-Ilahi, or humanism are put to the bins of
history faster than it took them to be gestated, and the truths represented by them are as replaceable
as a man‘s clothes. But it is not so with religions that have withstood the test of time. The applications
of the truths represented by them may be skewed, and the rationale to explain them may be flawed,
but the spiritual truths that they represent cannot be questioned.
The principle behind Shakti/Mother worship is that God Creates the universe through His power
which is non-different from Him, the way fire and its burning power are one and the same. This power
of God is known as Shakti, which is non-different from God, and hence worshipping It is same as
worshipping God.
Philosophically speaking, when God is in non-creative mode, He alone exists. At that time His Shakti
stays merged in Him. But when He wills to manifest His Power, It appears as Creation. How and why
God wills so, is a divine mystery that no religion can ever answer satisfactorily, since the dividing line
of Mind-Time-Space separates the Absolute from the Relative.
This dividing line is called variously by different schools of philosophy. The Vedantins call it Maya,
devotees call it Divine Play, while Shakti worshippers call it Shakti. The bran ching out of different
philosophies in Hinduism is mostly due to their difference in perception of this dividing line between
the Absolute and the Relative.
Creation by God is effected through Shakti. The difference between any two beings lies in the
manifestation of Shakti in them, and even incarnations of God belong to the realm of Shakti, since
their divine play is carried out in this world – the area of Shakti. Mahanirvan Tantra, an important work
on Tantra describes Shakti as, ―Thou art the supreme Power of Brahman, and from Thee has sprung
the whole Universe. You are its Mother. Whatever there is in this world, with or without motion, owes
its origin to Thee, and is dependent on Thee. Thou art the Origin of all the manifestations; Thou art
the birthplace of even Us (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva). Thou knowest the whole world, yet none know
Thee.‖ (Mahananirvan Tantra 4.10-12)
This gives a fair idea about what Shakti worship is about. Of these Shakti worshippers, most prefer to
address It as Mother due to the love and sweetness associated with one‘s mother that can be felt at
the cosmic level too.
What are Tantras?
The word 'tantra' in Sanskrit is from a root that may mean 'to spread', 'origination', and 'knowledge'.
Thus 'Tantra' means 'the scripture by which knowledge is spread'. Some scholars also think that the
word may have come by the combination of the words 'tattva' (the science of the cosmic principles of
Samkhya) and 'mantra' (the science of the mystic sound), which implies that Tantra is the application
of these two sciences to attain spiritual enlightenment.
According to the tradition, Tantra is believed to have been taught by the great Lord Shiva to his divine
consort, the Shakti. The Lord begins by expounding the Vedanta, goes through the principles of
Samkhya, and ends with Shiva Tantra.
The Tantras, in general, admit the validity of the rituals of the Vedas, the discrimination and
renunciation of the Upanishads, the purifying disciplines of Raja-Yoga, and the passionate love for
the Deity described in the Puranas. They exhort the sadhakas to exercise will and self-effort, practise
self-surrender, and supplicate for divine grace. Tantras promise their followers not only enjoyment of
worldly happiness but also liberation (bhoga and apavarga). The system acknowledges that the
power of the Kundalini can be aroused by the sincere pursuit of any spiritual discipline, and that this
arousal can bring infinite achievement in any individual.
In its specific meaning, Tantra is a system that makes use of ritual, energy work, the use of the gross
to access the spiritual, and the identification of the micro with the macro. The Tantric practitioner
seeks to use the divine power that flows through the universe (including his own body) to attain
purposeful goals, both spiritual and material. It is a kind of experimental science in which realisation
promised by it is an experimentally verifiable fact.
The great advantage of Tantra over other religious system was that it promised both enjoyment of life
(bhoga), as well as spiritual upliftment (yoga) by doing the same kind of sadhana. An aspirant who
wishes to get worldly success and enjoyment had only to make the necessary sankalpa (resolve),
whereas the aspirant for mukti also could achieve his desired goal by just making the proper resolve.
This helped the common man embrace Tantra more and more. After all, a man wants to save both
the worlds simultaneously.
The origin and growth of Tantras
Tantras grew independent of the Vedic traditions, and may even be earlier to it in its origin. Many
estimate that the system must have started crystallising by the 5th century B.C. The real rise of
Tantra came with the rise of Shaivism and the Pancharatra, while its necessary framework was
supplied by the Samkhya philosophy. Both these religious systems and philosophy are quite old,
which means that the seeds of Tantra were sown quite early in the evolution of the Hindu system of
thought.
By the tenth century, Brahamanical, Buddhist and Jaina sects of Tantra got mixed up. This gave rise
to a particular mystic form which was very near to Saktism in essence. This also gave birth to new
forms of esoteric religions.
In its wider sense, Tantra is not a single coherent system like the Vedas, or any other Hindu
philosophy. It is an accumulation of practices and ideas of the Hindus since prehistoric times till the
present age. Its birth is rooted in the Vedas; its development proceeds through the Upanishads,
Itihasa, Puranas and Smritis. It also drew from different practices current in India like Shaivism, and
its philosophy came mostly from Samkhya (to be discussed in the section on Philosophy).
Later, some schools of Buddhism amalgamated their philosophy with Tantra to develop Vajrayana
school of Buddhism. This school became popular in Tibet and later it entered India in its new avatar.
The present day Tantra is thus a mix of Hindu and Buddhism traditions of Tantra rituals.
The later Tantric texts like Mahanirvan Tantra wanted to connect their doctrines with the Vedas but
the orthodox Vedic tradition did not allow the proximity, even though both systems have much in
common. But the Vedic traditions being all powerful in Hindu religion, Tantras had to remain satisfied
with being on the sidelines even though it contributed significantly in its rites, rituals and modes of
worship.
In spite of the slight faced by the Vedic tradition, Tantra grew partly due to the failure of the Vedic
system in the changed times, and partly because it offered quick fix solutions to the need and greed
of common man.
The requirements for Vedic rituals had become impractical -- the ingredients used in Vedic sacrifices
were too difficult to obtain, the life-style prescribed for a practitioner became nearly impossible to
follow, and the promised results of heavens after death seemed too distant. On the other hand, the
Upanishadic meditations were too difficult for a common man to follow, and the Puranas appeared as
tales of fantasy. But the devout needed something concrete, something simpler, and something
glamorous for them to acquire worldly good, and to destroy their ill wishers. The answer was Tantra.
The vitality and elasticity thus acquired made Tantra enter every house and temple of India. As if this
was not enough, it made powerful inroads in every country where an Indian, or an Indian thought
went. What passes off today as practices of Hinduism in India and the West, is essentially Tantra,
packaged to suit the need of a particular community or an individual.
Tantra and the Vedas
Going strictly by the definitions, Tantra is neither shruti, nor smriti. The followers of Tantra treat it as
an integral part of the Vedas (Agama), though there are not many takers for this. Historically
speaking, the Tantric tradition may be considered as either parallel to, or intertwined with the Vedic
tradition. The later Tantric writers wanted to base their doctrines on the Vedas but the orthodox
followers of the Vedic tradition referred to Tantra in a spirit of denunciation, stressing its anti-Vedic
character.
The Tantras essentially teach what the Vedas also teach. The difference lies in the method and
certain subtle points of philosophy. In the various works of Tantras, one repeatedly comes across
passages where the supremacy of the Vedas is accepted, with the caveat that the present age is for
the Tantras.
There are some great similarities between the two systems, of which only some are being mentioned:
* Both systems preach common goals of life.
* The Vedas concerned with the victory of man over the forces of nature. In the Tantric sadhana also
the chief concern is the ascendancy of man over nature, both external and internal.
* Both these systems are highly ritualistic.
* The offering of Soma rasa was replaced by wine in the Tantras
* Both systems have various gods who are too willing to receive offerings and oblations.
* The animal sacrifice of the Vedas became an essential ritual in the Tantra.
Tantra and the Smritis
The Tantras look down upon the Smriti literature as inferior to itself. However, they draw heavily from
the Smritis, with necessary additions and alterations.
Some interesting developments in Tantras as compared to the Smritis are:

* Tantras accept the Varna-Ashrama dharma, but add a fifth caste, called samanya. On the other
hand it reduces the four ashramas to only two -- Grihastha and Sannyasa.
* With Brahmacharya and Vanaprastha removed from the system, the sixteen samskaras, prescribed
in the Smritis are reduced to ten.
* The purificatory rites are reduced drastically.
* The status of the Shudras go up considerably.
* The practice of Sati got expressly prohibited.
* Penances (prayascitta) for various mistakes became much simple.
* Punishment for offences committed by a common man was made lighter.
The texts and the type of Tantras
The major sources of Tantras are the Agama, Yaamala, and the Buddhistic tradition. In the old books,
there are mention of teachers like Dadhichi, Lakulisa, Kacha and others which show that this tradition
is quite old and respected.
Geographically, there are four classes of Tantra: Kerala, Kashmira, Gauda, and Vilas, but their
influence is not really confined to one region. With time they spread all over the country and got
intertwined with each other.
Agamas
The Tantras are normally called both agama and nigama. In the agamas, Lord Shiva instructs
Parvati, whereas in the nigamas, Parvati instructs Lord Shiva in the art of the Tantras. However,
agama is the common term used for both of these.
The Agamas are theological treatises and practical manuals of the Tantras. The Agamas include the
Tantras, Mantras and Yantras and also discuss Jnana, Yoga, Kriya or Ritual, and Charya or Worship.
They also discuss metaphysics, cosmology, liberation, devotion, meditation, philosophy of Mantras,
mystic diagrams, charms and spells, temple-building, image-making, domestic observances, social
rules, public festivals etc.
The Agamas are divided into three sections: The Vaishnava, The Saiva and The Sakta.
The Vaishnava Tantras are of four kinds: The Vaikhanasa, Pancharatra, Pratishthasara, Vijnana-
lalita. In this group there are 75 Tantras, 205 Upatantras, 20 kalpas, 1 Yamala etc.
The Saiva Tantras recognise 32 Tantras of which the chief is Kamika. In addition they have 325
Upatantras, 10 Samhitas, 2 Yamalas etc. These Agamas are also the basis of Kashmir Saivism which
is called the Pratyabhijna system. The latter works of Pratyabhijna system show a distinct leaning to
Advaitism (non-dualistic philosophy). The Southern Saivism, i.e., Saiva Siddhanta, and the Kashmir
Saivism, regard these Agamas as their authority, besides the Vedas. Each Agama has Upa-Agamas
(subsidiary Agamas). Of these, only fragmentary texts of twenty are available. Lord Siva is the central
God in the Saiva Agamas.
The Sakta Agamas glorify Sakti as the World-Mother. They dwell on the Sakti (energy) aspect of God
and prescribe numerous courses of ritualistic worship of the Divine Mother in various forms. There
are seventy-seven Agamas. These are very much like the Puranas in some respects. The texts are
usually in the form of dialogues between Siva and Parvati. In some of these, Siva answers the
questions put by Parvati, while in others, Parvati answers and Siva questions.
The other Tantras are:
Saura Tantra with 30 Tantras, 96 Upatantras, 2 Yamalas etc.
Ganpatya Tantras have 50 Tantras, 25 Upatantras, , 8 pancharatras etc.
Bauddha Tantras which have a very large number of literature.
Mahanirvana, Kularnava, Kulasara, Prapanchasara, Tantraraja, Rudra-Yamala, Brahma-Yamala,
Vishnu-Yamala and Todala Tantra are some of the important works. Among the existing books on the
Agamas, the most famous are the Isvara-Samhita, Ahirbudhnya-Samhita, Sanatkumara-Samhita,
Narada-Pancharatra, Spanda-Pradipika and the Mahanirvana-Tantra.
Yaamala
Another class of literature are known as Yaamala. These are eight in number and have the tradition
of Bhairava, instead of the Lord Shiva. The most famous work of this group is Brahma Yamala.
Yamalas indicate a great development in the Tantric sadhana. These give a well-developed mode of
worship, harmonise a lot of local deities and cults, make provision for sadhana by people of other
castes also, and introduce a great variety of gods and goddesses. The major shift in these works, as
compared to the Agama literature is the worship of Shakti instead of Lord Shiva.
These works preserve the orthodox tradition of the earlier period and also present themselves as
heterodox.
Buddhist Tantras
These are the later group of literature which developed around 7th century A.D. Buddhist mysticism
had assumed three different forms -- Vajrayana, Sahajayana and Kalacakrayana. The philosophical
basis for these works was supplied by the Yogachara and the Madhyamika systems of philosophy.
Vajrayana emphasises the importance of mantra, mudra, and mandala; Sahajayana discards all
formalism; and Kalachakrayana attaches importance to muhurta, tithi, nakshtra etc., thus bringing the
elements of astrology and astronomy in sadhana.
The Tantric Traditions
There are also Kaula tradition, started by Matsyendranath, in which the Sahaja tradition of the
Buddhists finds a lot of importance.
The Natha tradition originated from the teachings of Siddhacharya, and was continued by the great
teachers like Gorakshanatha.
The Vaishnava Sahjiya was established in Bengal before Chaitanyadeva. In this sect Radha is the
Shakti, and Krishna is the Supreme Reality.
Avadhuta tradition has its roots in Natha sect, whereas Bauls of Bengal are inspired by the Vaishnava
Sahajiya.
The Various Paths
The Tantra tradition gives a list of its various paths as: Vedachara, Vaishnavachara, Shaivachara,
Dakshinachara, Vamachara, Siddhnatachara, and Kaulachara. These are classified as tamasik,
rajasik, and Sattvic. The first three are for pashubhava people (explained below); Vamachara and
Siddhantachara are for veerabhava practitioners; Dakshinachara is for pashubhava sadhaka who are
struggling to reach veerabhava, and Kaulachara is for divyabhava aspirantas.
According to the Tantras, the first three cannot be practised because of the strict injunctions in them,
and of the difficulties imposed by the Varnashrama dharma. For example, it is said that a brahmin
engaged in a sacrifice must not look at the face of a shudra. But this is quite impossible in the
prevailing social conditions. This leaves us with the remaining four. Of these, Vamachara and
dakshinachara are more popular as Tantras.
The ignorance of the general public and the abuse by the irresponsible practitioners of Vamachara or
‗left-hand‘ path, has made the whole science of Tantra suspect. The ritual of this path is based upon
the principle of the ‗return current‘, which seeks to reverse the process that creates the bonds of the
animal man. The five ingredients used by followers of this path are the 'pancha makara' - mansa,
matsya, madya, mudra, maithuna -- meat, fish, wine, fried cereals and union. These, however, have
different connotations for different classes of aspirants. The underlying principle of Vamachara is to
emphasize the fact that a man makes progress in spiritual life not by falsely shunning that which
makes him fall, but by seizing upon it and sublimating it so as to make it a means of liberation.
It is only for a certain type of aspirant, called veera (heroic), that the actual drinking of wine and
practice of union are prescribed. The teacher of such a practioner carefully points out that the joy and
stimulation arising from these are to be utilised for the uplift of the mind from the physical plane.
Tantra never countenances excess or irregularity for the purpose of the gratification of carnal desire.
To break chastity, it says, is to lose or shorten life. Woman, associated with the Tantric practices in
order to help man in his path of renunciation, is an object of veneration to all schools of Tantra. She is
regarded as the embodiment of Sakti, or the power that projects and pervades the universe. To insult
a woman is a grievous sin.
Same is true of meat-eating and wine drinking. The Tantras specifically prohibit people from indulging
in these things excepting when offered to the Lord.
Mahanirvan Tantra explains the five "M' as being representative of the five great elements of Nature.
According to this book, wine represents fire element, fish represents water element, meat represents
air element, fried grains represent earth element, and union is the representative of the ether (akasa)
element. By offering these to the Mother of the universe, one actually worships her through her
creative elements.
Animal, Heroic and Divine
Tantra divides sadhakas, or spiritual aspirants, into three groups according to their mental disposition:
pashu, veera, and divya -- animal, heroic, and divine. The man with animal disposition (pashu) moves
along the outgoing current and earns merit and demerit from his worldly activities. He has not yet
raised himself above the common round of convention, nor has he cut the three knots of ‗hate, fear
and shame.‘ Swayed by his passions, he is a slave of emotions: lust, greed, pride, anger, delusion,
and envy. Such a sadhaka is not allowed even to touch the five ingredients of the left-hand ritual.
The competent aspirant for the hazardous ritual with the five ingredients is called a hero (veera). He
has the inner strength to ‗play with fire‘ and to burn his worldly bonds with it. Established in complete
self-control, he does not forget himself even in the most trying and tempting circumstances. He is a
man of fearless disposition, inspiring terror in those who cherish animal propensities. Pure in motive,
gentle in speech, strong in body, resourceful, courageous, intelligent, adventurous, and humble, he
cherishes only what is good.
The sadhaka of divine (divya) disposition is one who has risen above all the bonds of desire and has
nothing to sublimate. Mahanirvana Tantra describes such an aspirant as sparing in speech, beloved
of all, introspective, steady, sagacious, and solicitous about others‘ welfare. He is always in ecstasy,
enjoying ‗inner woman and wine.‘ For the five ingredients used by a hero he substitutes
consciousness (chit), bliss (ananda), and exaltation (bhava).
A Word on animal sacrifice
To many, the animal sacrifice, associated with the worship of Mother Kali and other such deities, is
repulsive. While talking to Romain Rolland, Rabindranath Tagore also expressed his revulsion
towards the worship of Kali for this reason. Even Swami Vivekananda says, "How I used to hate Kali!
And all Her ways! That was the ground of my six years' fight--that I would not accept Her. But I had to
accept Her at last! ... Sex-love and creation! These are at the root of most religions. And these in
India are called Vaishnavism, and in the West Christianity. How few have dared to worship Death or
Kali! Let us worship Death! Let us embrace the Terrible, because it is terrible, not asking that it be
toned down. Let us take misery for misery's own sake!"
However, the sacrifices in Tantra are not mere killings the way a butcher or an abattoir kills animals
for meat. In this system, it is presumed that a common man cannot rise above his desires, which
includes meat eating. If a person has to do so, it is better that he takes meat as prasada. It is for this
reason that animals are sacrificed. But before that pashu Gayatri is recited in the ears of the sacrificial
goat, with the idea that the relevant mantra will release the animal from his species, and he will be
born in some higher species to move towards the gaol of evolution, which is self realisation.
In Tantra, no female animal is ever sacrificed.
The Essential Philosophy
Reality, according to Tantra, is Satchidananda -- Existence, Knowledge, Bliss. Satchidananda

becomes restricted through Maya, and its transcendental nature is then expressed in terms of forms
and categories, as explained in Samkhya and other systems of Hindu philosophy.
According to the Vedanta philosophy, Maya functions only on the relative plane at the time of
creation, preservation and destruction. Neither is the creation ultimately real, nor are the created
beings real. True knowledge reveals only an undifferentiated consciousness. According to Tantra,
however, Satchidananda is called Siva-Shakti, the hyphenated word suggesting that Siva or the
Absolute, and Sakti, or its creative power, are eternally conjoined like a word and its meaning; and
that the one cannot be thought of without the other. According to Tantra, a conception of pure
consciousness which denies Shakti is only half of the truth. Satchidananda is essentially endowed
with the power of self-evolution and self-involution. Therefore perfect spiritual knowledge is the
knowledge of the whole: Of consciousness as being and consciousness as power to become.
In Tantra, it is only in the relative world that Siva and Sakti are thought of as separate entities. It also
affirms that both the world process (Sristi) and the jiva are real and not merely illusory
superimpositions upon Brahman. In declaring that the jiva finally becomes one with the Reality,
Tantra differs from Visista Advaita.
According to Tantra, the non-dual reality becomes evolved, which is real and not merely apparent as
in Vedanta. This evolution gives certain kind of powers and also restricts every form of existence
(starting from a stone to human beings). This accounts for a being's actions and reactions. These
determinants are the ‗fetters‘ (pasa) which weave the whole fabric of the jiva‘s phenomenal life. It is
by them that one gets bound and behaves like an animal, (pasu).
The goal of Tantra is to teach the method by which these bondages (pasa) can be cut asunder to
make every Jiva one with Shiva.
Mahanirvan Tantra emphasises the importance of kulachara (Tantra) for liberation in the present age.
The kula (lit. total) are: Jiva, Prakriti, space, time, and the five great elements(akasha, air, fire, water,
earth). The realisation that these nine are one with Brahman is Kulachara. This knowledge produces
Dharma, artha, kama and moksha.
Tantra as a mode of sadhana
The Tantric sadhana is the method of transference of one's baser nature to the spiritual. In the
Vedantic sadhana one has to negate all limiting adjuncts on the self accepting them as unreal until
one realises Brahman. In order to reach the affirmation of oneness, one has to renounce the world of
names and forms. On the other hand, Tantra prescribes the discipline of sublimation which consists
of three phases: purification, elevation and the realisation. These require practices that can be
classified as:
Ordinary Rituals
The ordinary ritual or puja may include any of the following elements:
a. Mantra and yantra: These play an important part in Tantra for invoking specific deities such as
Shiva or Mother Kali.
b. Identification with deities: Tantra embraces every Hindu god and goddess. Thus each god in
Tantra represents an aspect of the ultimate Para Shiva, or Brahman. These deities may be
worshipped externally with flowers, incense, and other offerings; but, more importantly, are engaged
as attributes of Ishta Devata. The practitioners either visualise the deities present within themselves,
or try to feel their presence outside.
The Secret Rituals
The secret ritual (panchatattva, chakrapuja, and panchamakara) may include any or all of the
elements of the ordinary ritual along with the elements of one of these three. These practices are
conducted only in the presence of the initiated devotees.
Some important concepts used in Tantra sadhana are:

Purification: The evolution and involution go hand in hand. The power that created the world, and the
bondages that are associated with it can be turned back to take the individual away from the world to
liberation. The Tantra believes in the saying, ‗One must rise by that by which one falls‘; ‗the very
poison that kills becomes the elixir of life when used by the wise.‘ The only question is how to
transform the cardinal impulses for material enjoyment (bhoga) into spiritual experiences (Yoga)? If
this can somehow be done, then jiva will undoubtedly become one with Shiva, the individual will
definitely become pure.
Tantras admit the presence of a perennial conflict between the flesh and the spirit. The observance of
moral and social conventions, however desirable on the plane of worldly existence, does not make a
man different from an animal. But, when one realises that the whole process of creation, preservation,
and destruction is but the manifestation of the lila, or sportive pleasure, of Siva-Sakti, one does not
see anything carnal or gross in the universe. The special technique of the Tantric discipline is to
transform the disintegrating force into the integrating one.
Every action, whether yielding pleasure or pain, fasten the chain upon the jiva with additional links.
The hope of liberty lies in uncoiling the coil of nature that has closed upon it. This is called the
‗awakening‘ of the Kundalini by which one moves from the plane of impure principles to that of pure
principles.
Kundalini
The spiritual awakening of a sadhaka is described in Tantra by means of the Kundalini power.
Properly understood, Kundalini is not something peculiar to Tantra, but the basis of the spiritual
experiences described by all religious faiths. Every genuine spiritual experience, such as the seeing
of light or a vision, or communion with the Deity, is only a manifestation of the ascent of the Kundalini.
In our common language, Kundalini can be equated with the infinite potential energy in every being,
which releases only a very small amount of working energy for one's daily life. The coiled-up
Kundalini is the central pivot upon which the whole complex apparatus of the body and mind moves
and turns. Once the Kundalini is aroused, the whole of potential gets converted into the dynamic, like
the release of energy during an atomic explosion.
The aim of waking the Kundalini is not the acquisition of greater power for the purpose of performing
miraculous feats or the enjoyment of material pleasures; it is the realisation of Satchidananda.
Chakras
The passage of the awakened Kundalini lies through the Sushumna, which is the normally closed
central nerve in the nervous system. A kind of hollow canal, the Sushumna passes through the spinal
column connecting the base centre (muladhara) at the bottom of the spine with the centre at the
cerebrum.
Tantra speaks of six centres (Chakras) through which Sushumna passes which look like different-
coloured lotuses with varying numbers of petals. In the ordinary worldly person these centres
(Chakras) are closed, and the lotuses droop down like buds. As the Kundalini rises through the
Sushumna Canal and touches the centres, these buds turn upward as fully opened flowers and the
aspirant obtains spiritual experiences.
Mantras
Mantras play an important part in the Tantric discipline. The word 'mantra' means, literally, ‗that
which, when reflected upon, gives liberation.‘ The Mantra is the sound equivalent of the Deity, that is
to say, chit or Consciousness, whereas the external image is the material form of the Mantra. The
sound-vibration is the first manifestation of chit and nearest to it. It is really intermediate between pure
consciousness and the physical object, being neither absolutely immaterial like the former nor dense
like the latter.
Tantra regards vibration as a manifestation of the cosmic energy, or Sakti, and teaches that as such it
can lead to the realisation of chit, which otherwise eludes the grasp of even an intelligent person.
Thus Mantras are not mere words, but are forms of concentrated thought of exceeding potency. The
advanced aspirant finds that a Mantra and the deity with which it is associated are identical. The deity
being the illumination embodied in the Mantra.
The mantras are also classified as masculine, feminine and neuter. Masculine mantras end in hum
and phat; feminine mantras end in swaha, and neuter mantras end in namah.
Beeja
Beeja (lit. seed) plays a very important role in the Tantras. Just like Aum of the Vedas, these beeja
are mystic sounds produced by the combination of various sounds. There are innumerable beeja, but
the more popular ones are Aim (worship of Saraswati), Hrim (worship of maya), Shrim (worship of
Lakshmi). Some of these beeja are masculine (eg. klim, denoting the god of desire), while most of
them are feminine. The masculine beeja are called deva, whereas the feminine ones are called vidya.
Yantras (Mystical Diagrams)
Mystical diagrams called ‗Yantras‘ are present in every religion, including Christianity, Islam and
Buddhism, although known by different names. In Tantra, they are an essential component. A Yantra
is a diagrammatic equivalent of the deity, just as Mantra is its sound-equivalent. It is a full
representation of the basic power which evolves and maintains an object of worship. When the
Yantra is given real potency, the Deity is present there. In the Tantric ritual the Yantra is the object of
worship, the image being its tangible representation. There is a fundamental relationship between the
Mantra and the Yantra.
Tantra insists that mantras are efficacious, that the diagrams used in the worship are potent, that the
deities, or devatas, are conscious entities, that supernatural powers are attained, and that the earnest
aspirant experiences the rise of the Kundalini through the different spinal centres (Chakras) and
finally realises his identity with Satchidananda.
Tantric Ritual
Let us briefly consider a Tantric ritual as observed in the worship. The aim of Tantra is bhoga-
apavarga -- enjoyment, and also liberation. It therefore lays down an endless variety of rituals suited
to different times, places, and individual competence.
Usually a Tantric ritual consists in the assigning of the different parts of the body to different deities,
the purifying of the elements of the body, breath-control, meditation, imparting of life to the image,
and mental and physical worship. These are all calculated to transform the worshipper, the
worshipped, the accessories, and the act of worship into consciousness. Harmony on the physical
and mental planes are necessary for success in worship, which is created in the gross physical
elements by means of prescribed postures, pranayama, japa, and meditation.
In addition, Ablution (snana) purifies the physical body, tarpana gives inner satisfaction, bhutasuddhi
frees one of taints, and dhyana enables the worshipper to feel his oneness with the Deity. The last
part of the ritual consists of a sacrifice (homa) in which the devotee completely surrenders himself to
the Deity, merges in him, and loses his identity in him. At this stage there is no more distinction
between the worshipper and the worshipped, the finite and the infinite, the individual and the
Absolute.
Realisation
When a sadhaka attains the purity of mind through the ritualistic worship as prescribed in the Tantras,
he becomes fit for the realisation of Brahman. It is then that an aspirant finds that the meditator,
meditation and the object of meditation are all one.
Tantra as a complete Shastra
Unlike many other spiritual treatise, Tantras are a complete scripture. They discuss philosophy; the
form and the function of Varnashrama dharma; duties, responsibilities and penances for the
individual; code of conduct to lead the daily life etc. A true follower of Tantra did not need to go to any
other dharmashastra for enlightenment.
Works like Mahanirvan Tantra condemned satee, encouraged female education, simplified
purificatory rites, and encouraged a life of simplicity and purity. The Tantras reduced the samskaras
(ceremonial rites) to ten, instead of the earlier sixteen of the Smritis, and reduced the number of
ashrama to two, instead of the earlier four.
Conclusion
Tantra successfully worked out the coordination between karma, jnana, bhakti and yoga to be used
by its practitioners for his or her ultimate union with the Supreme Reality.
Being a product of the spiritual cross-currents of Hinduism, it sucked everything connected with
religion that was to be found anywhere in India. In turn, it spewed out everything that was beneficial
for the mankind. Despite the blemishes and abuses that it received, it continues to give solace to
every practising Hindu in its ritualistic, philosophical, and mystic aspects. The concept of transference
developed by it is unique in the history of world religions. It is this transference, or sublimation which
made millions of materialistic minds to attain a semblance of upliftment.
May be, that is why it continues to exist in one form or the other.
Upanishads – An Introduction
By P. R. Ramachander
General Introduction
"Upanishad means the inner or mystic teaching. The term Upanishad is derived from upa (near), ni
(down) and s(h)ad (to sit), i.e., sitting down near. Groups of pupils sit near the teacher to learn from
him the secret doctrine. In the quietude of the forest hermitages the Upanishad thinkers pondered on
the problems of deepest concerns and communicated their knowledge to fit pupils near them.
Sankara derives the word Upanishad as a substitute from the root sad, 'to loosen', 'to reach' or 'to
destroy' with Upa and ni as prefixes and kvip as termination. If this determination is accepted,
Upanishad means brahma-knowledge by which ignorance is loosened or destroyed. Upanishads are
found in the concluding sections of Vedas and are classified as Vedanta or the end of the Vedas.
There are five Vedas with Yajur Veda having two versions. Each of these five books has several
Saaakas (Branches). Each Saaka has a Karma Khanda dealing with the actions to be performed and
is made up of Mantras and Brahmanaas. The later deals with Upasana or meditation and has
Aranyakas inside them for the benefit of those who have resorted to the quiet habitat of the forest to
pursue their spiritual Quest.
The Upanishads are found mostly in the Aranyaka section of the Vedas. The five Vedas have 1180
Saaakas and thus there should be 1180 Upanishads. But what we have now with us is a collection of
108 Upanishads. The list of these 108 Upanishads is given in the Mukthikopanishad.
Out of the 108 Upanishads only 10 have been commented upon by several Acharyas like Adi
Sankara. These are Isavasya, Kena, Katha, Aitareya, Brihadaranyaka, Prasna, Mandukya, Taittriya,
Chandogya and Mundaka. These have also been popularized by many savants like Swami
Vivekananda and Swami Chinmayananda. They all deal with highest category of philosophy and
metaphysics. So there is a general impression that all Upanishads are texts of Hindu Philosophy. This
is not true. There are Upanishads which even tell you how to wear the sacred ash, how to worship a
particular God and so on. But majority of them deal with methods of Yoga and Renunciation
(Sanyasa).
Vedas and Upanishads:

"The breakdown among the 108 Upanishads according to the 5 Vedas are as follows:
1. Rig Veda: 10
2. Sama Veda: 16
3. Atharva Veda: 31
4. Krishna Yajur Veda: 32
5. Sukla Yajur Veda: 19
Rig Veda Upanishads [10]:

1. Aitareya 2. Kaushitaki 3. Nadabindu 4. Atmabodha 5. Nirvana 6. Mudgala 7. Akshamala 8. Tripura
9. Saubhagyalakshmi and 10. Bahvracha.
Sama Veda Upanishads [16]:

1. Kena 2. Chhandogya 3. Arunika 4. Maitrayani 5. Maitreyi 6. Vajrasuchi 7. Yogachudamani 8.
Vasudeva 9. Mahat 10. Sanyasa 11. Avyakta 12. Kundika 13. Savitri 14. Rudrakshajabal 15.
Jabaladarsana and 16. Jabali.
Shukla Yajur Veda Upanishads [19]:
1. Isavasya 2. Brahadaranyaka 3. Jabala 4. Hamsa 5. ParamaHamsa 6. Subala 7. Mantrika 8.
Niralamba 9. Trisikhibrahmana 10. Mandalabrahmana 11. Advayataraka 12. Paingala 13. Bhikshuka
14. Turiyatita 15. Adhyatma 16. Yajnavalkya 17. Satyayani 18. Tarasara and 19. Muktika.
Krishna Yajur Veda Upanishads [32]:

1. Katha 2. Taittiriya 3. Brahma 4. Kaivalya 5. Svetasvatara 6. Garbha 7. Narayana 8. Amritabindhu
9. Amritanada 10. Kalagnirudra 11. Kshurika 12. Sarvasara 13. Sukharahasya 14. Tejobindhu 15.
Dhyanabindhu 16. Brahmavidya 17. Yogatattva 18. Dakshinamurti 19. Skanda 20. Sariraka 21.
Yogasikha 22. Ekakshara 23. Akshi 24. Avadhuta 25. Katharudra 26. Rudrahrudhaya 27.
Yogakundalini 28. Panchabrahma 29. Pranaagnihotra 30. Varaha 31. Kalisantaranaand 32.
Sarasvatirahasya.
Atharva Veda Upanishads [31]:

1. Prasna 2. Mundaka 3. Maandukya 4. Atharvasira 5. Atharvasikha 6. Brahajjabala 7. Nrsimhatapini
8. Narada Parivrajaka 9. Sita 10. Sarabha 11. Tribadvibhutimahanarayana 12. Ramarahasya 13.
Ramatapini 14. Sandilya 15. Paramahamsaparivrajaka 16. Annapurna 17. Surya 18. Atma 19.
Pasupatabrahma 20. Parabrahma 21. Tripuratapini 22. Devi 23. Bhavana 24. Bhasmajabala 25.
Ganapati 26. Mahavakhya 27. Gopalatapini 28. Krishna 29. Hayagriva 30. Dattatreya and 31.
Garuda."
Major Upanishads
The ten major Upanishads which contain great philosophical discussions and knowledge are:
1. Ishavasya Upanishad
It is one of the great but brief Upanishad. It gives the summary of Indian philosophy very succinctly. It
reviews the whole life and comes out with explanations.
2. Kena Upanishad
Kenopanishad derives its name from the first word Kena, meaning ‗by whom‘. It belongs to the
Talavakara Bahmana of Sama Veda and is therefore also referred to as Talavakara Upanishad. In
short it says that "The One Power that illumines everything and everyone is indivisible. It is the Ear
behind the ears, Mind behind the mind, Speech behind speech, Vital Life behind life. The ears cannot
hear it; it is what makes the ears hear. The eyes cannot see it; it is what makes the eyes see. You
cannot speak about it; it is what makes you speak. The mind cannot imagine it; it is what makes the
mind think. It is different from what all we know; yet it is not known either. Those who feel they know
Him, know Him not. Those who know that anything amenable to the senses is not Brahman, they
know it best when it is known as the innermost witness of all cognitions, whether sensation,
perception or thought, then it is known. One who knows thus reaches immortality".
3. Kathopanishad
"The Kathopanishad is divided into six Vallis. Valli literally means a creeper. A Valli, like a creeper, is
attached to the Sakhas or Branches of the Veda. This Upanishad is also divided into two Adhyayas
(chapters) of three Vallis each. "This is one of the most beautiful Upanishads in which the eternal
truths are given in the form of a narrative. The narrative is taken from Taittiriya Brahmana (3-11-8)
with some variation. The same story is told in the Taittiriya Brahmana, only with this difference that in
the Brahmana freedom from death and birth is obtained by a peculiar performance of a sacrifice,
while in the Upanishad it is obtained by knowledge only."
4. Aitareya Upanishad
The Aitareya Upanishad is one of the oldest of the Upanishads. It belongs to the Aitareya Aranyaka of
the Rig-Veda. It is divided into three chapters and contains 33 verses. The Upanishad deals with the
process of creation.
5. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
"Brihadaranyaka Upanishad means the 'great forest-book'. This Upanishad is one of the oldest of all
the Upanishads. It consists of three sections or kandas: the Madhu kanda, the Yajnavalkya or the
Muni kanda and the Khila kanda. Here the Brahman is portrayed as universal and undifferentiated
consciousness. The doctrine of the indescribability of the absolute and the doctrine of 'Neti, Neti' are
explained. This Upanishad concludes by stating the three virtues that one should practice i.e. self-
restraint, giving, and compassion."
6. Prasna Upanishad
"In Sanskrit, Prashna mean question. This book consists of six questions and their answers, hence
the name. It is in the form of question-answers. Except first and last questions, all other questions are
actually a group of smaller sub-questions. As narrated in the beginning of this Upanishad, Six pupils
interested in knowing divinity or Brahman come to sage Pippalada and ask questions of great spiritual
importance. Pippalada asks them to take up penance of one year. Upon completion of penance, they
again come to sage and ask questions, then the sage answers their questions."
7. Mandukya Upanishad
"For the very reason that it explains the esoteric meaning of the fundamental syllable Aum of Hindu
spiritual tradition, the Upanishad has been extolled greatly. The Muktikopanishad which talks about all
other Upanishads, says that if a person cannot afford to study all the hundred and more Upanishads,
it will be enough to read just the Mandukya Upanishad. According to Dr. S. Radhakrishnan in this
Upanishad we find the fundamental approach to the attainment of reality by the road of introversion
and ascent from the sensible and changing, through the mind which dreams, through the soul which
thinks, to the divine within but above the soul."
8. Taittireeya Upanishad
"The Taittiriya Upanishad belongs to the Taittiriya school of the Yajur Veda. It is divided into three
sections called Vallis. The first is the Siksa Valli. Siksa is the first of the six Vedangas (limbs or
auxiliaries of the Veda); it is the science of phonetics and pronunciation. The second is the
Brahmananda Valli and the third is the Bhrugu Valli. These two deal with the knowledge of the
Supreme Self, paramatma-jnana."
9. Chandogya Upanishad
"Along with Brihadaranyaka Upanishad the Chandogyopanishad is an ancient source of principal
fundamentals for Vedanta philosophy. Considering number of references made to this Upanishad in
Brahma sutras, it indicates special importance of this Upanishad in Vedanta philosophy. Important
spiritual practices like Dahara vidya, Shandilya vidya, etc. are its specialty."
10. Mundakopanishad
"This Upanishad begins with an Invocation, praying that eye may see auspicious things, the ear may
hear auspicious sounds, and that life may be spent in the contemplation of the Lord. The teaching of
this Upanishad is referred to as Brahmavidya, either because it describes first the message of
Hiranyagarbha, the casual Brahma, or because the message relates the glory of Brahman. This
Upanishad speaks of Brahmavidya as the mystery which only those with shaven heads and those
who go through a rite of having Fire on the shaven head can understand. So, it is called Mundaka, or
shaven Head. Apart from this, this Upanishad is honoured as the crest of all, since it expounds the
very essence of Brahma Jnana. It is assigned to the Fourth Veda, the Atharvana."
(The write up about the ten major Upanishads has been taken from various web sites. My
indebtedness to those great souls is acknowledged.)
The other 98 Upanishads are again classified according to their content as follows.
They are General (of common interest), Saiva (dealing with Lord Shiva), Saktha (dealing with the
divine mother Shakthi), Vaishnava (dealing with Lord Vishnu), Sanyasa (dealing with renunciation)
and Yoga (dealing with Yogic practices) Upanishads. Though classification is made, still there is
some overlapping in the subjects dealt with. Short notes on each of these Upanishads category wise
are given below:
General Upanishads (27)
Svetasvatara Upanishad
This Upanishad is taught by a sage called Svetasvatara. More emphasis is given in teaching of
Sankhya yoga and the philosophy of illusion (Maya).
Garbha Upanishad
This Upanishad is by sage Pippalada and deals with the growth of foetus in the womb. It also gives
the number of different parts of the body like bones, nerves, flesh etc.
Maitrayani Upanishad
This Upanishad tells us about the penance of a king called Brahadratha. The king asks the sage
Sakanya about the feeling of desire in this meaningless world. Sage Sakanya relates him, what has
been told to him by sage Maithreya. He teaches him the great science of Brahma Vidya. And tells him
finally that mind and illusion are responsible for this contradiction.
Kaushitaki Upanishad
This Upanishad is taught by sage Chithra to sage Udhalaka and his son Shwethakethu. It deals about
the science of soul. The temporary nature of rituals and good deeds and permanent nature of doing
everything without desire is emphasized. It also tells the need for a father to give up all his personality
and knowledge to his son and enter Sanyasa.
Subala Upanishad
This is the teaching of Sage Angiras to sage Raikwa. It tries to answer the question of the time and
method of creation of the world. It also tries to find out the properties of the soul of beings. And has
several aspects of philosophy.
Mantrika Upanishad
Deals about the properties of Brahman. Tells that whatever is produced vanishes and then is
reproduced. Concludes that the one who knows it well is the Brahman.
Sarva Sara Upanishad

Defines and explains several words like Katha, Bandha, Annamaya etc., which occur constantly in
Upanishadic philosophy.
Niralamba Upanishad
It is an independent text of Hindu philosophy. It tries to investigate what is Brahman and concludes
that the Sanyasi by following proper methods has a better chance of attaining salvation.
Suka Rahasya Upanishad

This Upanishad is supposed to be taught to sage Suka so that he would understand the philosophy of
salvation. The explanations of words and ideas are extensive.
Vajrasuchika Upanishad
This Upanishad investigates and tries to answer the question, "Who is a Brahmin? It says that caste
does not come by birth.
Atma Prabodha Upanishad

Tells us about meditation on Pranava and the great Vaishnava mantra "Om Narayanaya Nama".
Defines and tells about the identities of an evolved soul.
Skanda Upanishad
Takes a conciliatory stand between Shaiva and Vaishnava. Tells that both are same.
Mudgala Upanishad
This Upanishad aims at explaining the mantras of the great Purusha Suktham.
Paingala Upanishad
This is taught by sage Yagnavalkya to sage Paingala. It gives an explanation of the term ‗Kaivalya‘. It
also attempts to explain the Maha Vakyas of Vedas like ‗Aham Brahmasmi‘ as well the duties of
Jnanis.
Mahat Upanishad
Tells about the initial creation of the universe starting From Lord Narayana till Lord Brahma. After this
there is discussion between sage Suka and the king Janaka regarding the creation of the Samsara.
This is followed by discussion of several aspects of philosophy between Sage Nidhaka and his Guru
Sage Ripu. It tells that Sastras are burden for a Jnani, Jnana is a burden to those who are attached
and so on.
Sariraka Upanishad
Tells us about the different aspects of the human body, including states of knowledge.
Aksha Malika Upanishad

This Upanishad is taught by Guha to Lord Brahma. It tells us in detail about how to choose the mala
(rosary) for use in meditation.
Ekakshara Upanishad
This is an Upanishad which deals with the letter ‘Om‘. This is more of a prayer towards ‗Om‘.
Surya Upanishad
Tells us about Surya Angirasa mantra and Gayatri which is a prayer to the Sun. Tells also about the
ashtakshara to worship Lord Surya.
Akshi Upanishad
Contains the prayer of sage Sankruthi to Lord Surya which contains the Chakshushmathi mantra.
This is followed by teaching of Brahma Vidya by Surya.
Adhyatma Upanishad
This is initially taught by Sadashiva to sage Apantharathamas. Tells that there is nothing but Athma
and the feeling of existence of others is only illusion.
Savitri Upanishad
Tells us who is Savithri and the difference between Savitha and Savithri. Also gives the Savithri
mantra.
Atma Upanishad
Deals with various aspects of Athma and how a Brahma Jnani does not see any other thing except
Athma.
Kata Rudra Upanishad.

This is teaching of Brahma Vidya by Lord Brahma himself to the Devas. The treatment is
philosophical.
Pancha Brahma Upanishad

Details the five stages by which Para Brahman was evolved.
Pranaagnihotra Upanishad
This Upanishad deals with the sarera Yagna or the sacrifice to the body. Tells what all mantras are to
be chanted before taking food. The usual mantras that a Brahmin chants while taking food are
contained in this Upanishad.
Muktika Upanishad
This Upanishad is the Teaching of Lord Rama to Hanuman. It tells about Vedas, Vedangas and also
Kaivalya and also summarizes the Hindu Vedanta. The list of 108 Upanishads is given in this
Upanishad.
Saiva Upanishads (13)
Kaivalya Upanishad
In this Brahma teaches the knowledge of Brahman to sage Aswalayana. Though Adhi Sankara wrote
commentaries only for ten Upanishads, he considered this also as an important Upanishad. It deals
with the state where the person is himself. The path shown is through meditation and devotion.
Keeping the person as the plank and considering OM as the stick which rotates on the plank and
gives out the light of fire.
Atharvasira Upanishad
It emphasizes about the greatness of the holy letter "om". It also tells that the form of lord Rudhra is
the form of Pranava.
Atharvasikha Upanishad
This is taught by Sage Adharva to great sages like Pippaladha, Angiras and Sanathkumara. It
emphasizes on the need and benefits on the meditation of the Pranava.
Brahat Jabala Upanishad

This Upanishad is told by Kalagni Rudra to sage Busundi. It deals in detail about the method of
preparation of holy ash (Vibhuthi) and method of wearing it.
Kaalagni Rudra Upanishad
It tells in detail about the method of wearing holy ash (Vibhuthi) along with mantras for wearing the
same. This is taught by Kalagni Rudra to the great sage Sanathkumara.
Dakshinamurthi Upanishad
Dakshinamurthy is the teacher form of Shiva. He teaches without talking. This Upanishad gives the
Dakshinamurthi mantra and the method of practicing it
Sarabha Upanishad
Sarabha is the animal, man and bird form of Lord Shiva. It is believed that he took this form to control
the anger of Vishnu when he took the form of Narasimha. This Upanishad tells about Lord Sarabha.
Pasupathabramopanishad.
Tells us lord Shiva‘s aspect of Pasupathi (the lord of all living things). Tells how that the entire
universe is really one and there is no differentiation.
Rudra Hrudaya Upanishad

Shuka asks his father which God exists in all devas and in which God all devas exist. The answer is
this Upanishad. He tells that it is Rudra.
Bhasma Jabala Upanishad

Tells about how Vibhuthi has to be prepared and also the daily duties of a Brahmana. This is the
teaching Lord Shiva to Jabala Busunda.
Rudraksha Jabala Upanishad

This is the teaching of Kalagni Rudra to sage Busunda. And deals exclusively about Rudraksha.
Ganapati Upanishad
Starts with a prayer to Lord Ganapathy and gives the Ganapathy mantra. Tells how worship of
Ganapathy is to be done.
Jabali Upanishad
Sage Jabali tells sage Pippalada about lord Pasupathi. The need and method of wearing Vibhuti
(Holy ash) is given in detail.
Saktha Upanishads (9)
Sita Upanishad
Brahma tells the Devas about who is Sita. He tells them that she is the Adhara Shakthi (the basis
which is the foundation) in the feminine form. Tells also about her different forms.
Tripura Tapini Upanishad

Tells about the Sathakshari mantra for meditating on Tripura, the Goddess Parvathy. Several great
manthras like Gayatry, and Panchadasakshari are a part of this. Tells about Srividya Upasana.
Annapurna Upanishad
Sage Rupu tells sage Nidhaka about Devi Annapurna. He also teaches him the Annapurna mantra.
This is followed by teaching of philosophical aspects like maya, Yoga and Mukthi.
Devi Upanishad
The Devi tells the devas who she is in this Upanishad. Tells about Panchadasakshari and Navakshari
mantras to worship her.
Tripura Upanishad
Tells about Sri Chakra and the worship of the devi through the right and left methods.
Bhavana Upanishad
Tells one important aspect of Sri Vidya Upasana.
Saubhagya Lakshmi Upanishad

Bhagawan Narayana tells about the Shakthi from whom every God originated and teaches the devas,
the worship of sowbhagya Lakshmi.
Sarasvati Rahasya Upanishad

This Upanishad is taught by Sage Asvalayana to other sages. He teaches them the ten Saraswathi
mantras and methods of worshipping her.
Bahuvracha Upanishad
Talks in detail about the existence of Shakthi from whom all gods and knowledge originated. Gives
hints of worship of Sri Vidhya.
Vaishnava Upanishads (14)
Narayana Upanishad
Describes the principle of Tripath Narayana. It also introduces the Narayana ashtakshara mantra and
describes the benefits of chanting it.
Nrsimha Tapini Upanishad

It has two parts. In the poorva part, it tells in detail about the greatness of Lord Naraimha. It also has
the great king of Mantras called Narasimha mantra and tells in detail how to meditate on it. In the
Uthara part it tells also about the greatness of Pranava and the Narsimha Raja Mantra. It gives
detailed method of meditating on Lord Narasimha.
Tripadvibhuti Maha Narayana Upanishad

Brahma did Thapas for 1000 years to know from Lord Vishnu about Brahman. This is what Lord
Vishnu told him. Also clears his doubts such as Brahman having a form and not having a form etc.
Also gives the shapes of several yantras.
Rama Rahasya Upanishad

Tells that Lord Rama is Brahma Taraka and expounds various mantras for worshipping him. Also
gives yantras for worshipping Lord Rama.
Rama Tapini Upanishad

There are two parts, the poorva Thapini and the second Uthara Thapini. Tells about the greatness of
the word "Rama". Tells about the Rama Yantra, which is similar to the Sri Chakra. Tells also the belief
that ‗Lord Shiva tells the Tharaka mantra in the ears of all people dying in Varanasi‘ and the method
of worship of Rama.
Vasudeva Upanishad
Tells about what is UrdhwaPundra (the sign worn by Vaishnavites) and the rules for wearing it.
Avyakta Upanishad
Deals about the creation of clearly defined things from that unclear past. Tells how Parajapati came
from Avayaktha and went on to create the world. Gives a mantra to worship Lord Vishnu.
Tarasara Upanishad
Tells about holiness of Kurukshethra, Tharaka mantra and pranava. Tells method of worship of Lord
Narayana.
Gopala Tapini Upanishad

Sages approach Lord Brahma to know the procedure to worship Krishna. What he tells them is
contained in this Upanishad. The upasana mantra of Govinda is given.
Krishna Upanishad
The sages when they meet Rama wanted to embrace him. He made them to be born as Gopis and
he took the avatara of Krishna, so that they can embrace him. This book tells as to who were born as
what in Krishnavatara.
Hayagreeva Upanishad
Brahma tells Narada that whoever meditates and worships Lord Hayagreeva gets to know the
Brahma vidya. The mantra for worship of Lord Hayagreeva is given.
Datatreya Upanishad
Tells the method of meditation and worship of Dathathreya. The Dathathreya mantra is given.
Garuda Upanishad
The method of meditation and worship of Garuda, the vehicle of Lord Vishnu is given.
Kali Santarana Upanishad

Tells about how the evils of kali age is to be crossed. The sixteen letter prayer on Rama would help
one in doing this.
Sanyasa Upanishads (16)
Brahma Upanishad
Tells us about how the great sage of wisdom comes out of all mundane things and lives a life where
there is no need for rituals and no differences exist. The mantra for changing Yagnopavita occurs in
this Upanishad.
Jabala Upanishad
This Upanishad was compiled by Sage Jabala. This gives more emphasis on mediation and the
chanting of Rudra. The greatness of concentrating between the centres of eyes is stressed here.
Arunya Upanishad
This Upanishad deals about the teaching of Prajapathi to sage Aaruni. It gives in detail the rules of life
to be followed by a Brahmachari and a Sanyasi.
Paramahamsa Upanishad
It deals about the discussion between Sage Narada and God on who is a paramahamsa (sanyasi at
an advanced stage) and methods to identify him.
Maitreyi Upanishad
It is the teaching of Lord Parameshwara to sage Maithreya. To a large extent, what is given in
Maithrayani Upanishad is repeated. In addition God tells to him in detail about his formless form.
Nirvana Upanishad
Details about the Sanyasa marga involving Nirvana (nudity). Tells about how the people follow it.
Narada Parivrajaka Upanishad

This is the teaching of Narada to the Souunaka Sages. It tells about the methods to attain salvation,
the rules to be followed by a Sanyasi, and the time when a person should enter Sanyasa. It also talks
about Karma Sanyasa.
Bhikshuka Upanishad
It defines the different types of Sanyasi like Kuttesaka, Bahoodhaka, Hamsa and Parama Hamsa .
Turiyatita Upanishad
It is taught by Lord Narayana to Lord Brahma and tells us about the rules of the life of an Avadhootha.
Sanyasa Upanishad
Tells who can take Sanyasa and what is the procedure.
Paramahamsa Parivrajaka Upanishad

This is taught by Lord Narayana to Lord Brahma. It deals mainly about the procedure of taking
sanyasa.
Kundika Upanishad
Tells what al things a Sanyasi should possess. And how he should behave.
Parabrahma Upanishad
Tells what is Yagnopavitha as well as Shika, for the sanyasis as well as people of the world. Gives
clearly the total length of the Upavitha. For the sanyasi it is the pranava which acts as Yagnopavitha
and Shika.
Avadhuta Upanishad
Dattatreya teaches sage Sankrithi as to who is Avadhootha and how he should behave.
Yajnavalkya Upanishad
The Upanishad tells when to assume sanyasa and also the properties of a sanyasi.
Saatyayani Upanishad
Mind becomes the reason for attachment and salvation. Tells that a real Brahmin should search for
Brahman. Also tells that one taking sanyasa gives redemption for three generation of manes.
Yoga Upanishads (19)
Shwethaswadhara Upanishad
This Upanishad is taught by a sage called Swethaswadhara. More emphasis is given in teaching
Sankhya yoga and the philosophy of illusion (Maya).
Hamsopanishad
This talks about meditation on Hamsa mantra and is being taught by sage Gauthama to sage
Sanathkumara. The method of meditating on the Hamsa mantra is fully described.
Amrutha Bindu Upanishad

It gives the knowledge of athma in the tasty form of nectar and gives it as briefly as a dot. It tells us
about what is Brahman and other concepts of hard core Hindu Philosophy.
Amrutha Nadopanishad
This describes the way and detailed method to chant the holy letter "OM‘, which is called here as the
nectar like letter.
Kshurikoupanishad.
Kshrika means knife. It is so called because it cuts ignorance using the knife of wisdom. This is a
Upanishad which in detail tells about Yoga and its practice.
Thejo Bindupanishad
This Upanishad is the teaching of Lord Paramashiva to his son Subrahmanya. Talks in detail about
Yogic practices, defines Chinmathra Swaroopa, Athmanubhava, Jeevan Muktha etc.
Nada Bindu Upanishad

Tells in detail about the meditation on Omkara (pranava). The method of meditation and some
problems which may occur are pointed out.
Dhyana Bindu Upanishad

The meditation on Pranava and Ajabha Gayathri is dealt in detail along with the method involved .
Brahma Vidhya Upanishad

Teaches methods of attaining Brahma through meditation. Emphasizes role of Guru. Tells that Sruthi
is more important than pramana.
Yoga Thathwopanishad
This is the teaching of Lord Vishnu to Lord Brahma. It details out the yogic practice. It also tells about
the stages in yoga, defines them and tells how to recognize them.
Trisiki Brahmanopanishad
This is the teaching of Lord Soorya to a Brahmin called Trishiki Brahmana. He clears his doubts
about the definition of the body, soul, Karana and yogic practice.
Yoga Choodamani Upanishad

Tells about Yogic practice involving Ajaba Gayatri. Tells about the seats of yoga, tells how to wake up
the Kundalani and reach her up to Brahma Randra.
Mandala Brahmanopanishad
This is the teaching of Sun God to his disciple Yagna Valkya. This deals with the principle of the soul
through yogic practice. Definitions of various terms used in Yoga is also given. Tells in detail about
Yogic practice and tells us about what is Sambhavi Mudhra.
Sandilyopanishad
This is taught by sage Atharvana to sage Sandilya. It deals with Ashtangayoga and Brahma Vidhya.
Yogashikopanishad
This is the teaching of Lord Maheswara to Lord Brahma. It deals with subjects like Mukthi, Shakthi,
Nadha, Chaithanya and Yoga.
Yoga Kudalini Upanishad

Tells about Kundalani and yogic practice.
Jabaladarsanopanishad
This is the teaching of Lord Dattatreya to his disciple sage Sankriti. And tells how the yoga should be
done in detail.
Mahavakyopanishad
Confirms that the knowledge "That this Sun is Brahma" would be realized by chanting of Ajaba
Gayathri. Tells what is the merger of mind with Brahman.
Varahopanishad
Tells about the Brahma Vidya of the body of Varaha. Lord Vishnu as Varaha tells how he should be
meditated upon and worshipped. Also deals in detail about the stages of yoga.
Note:
1. The classification is modified but based on the writings of Sri Sadagopan in his communication to
the Prapathi group.
2. All sentences within quotes are quotations from various web sites dealing with Upanishads.
An Overview of the Upanishads
What are the Upanishads?
The Upanishads are the science of freedom through the knowledge of one‘s true self.
The Vedas show the way to a blessed life by consecrating one‘s actions, and they also reveal the
science of freedom (mukti) from the world through spiritual efforts. In practice, however, the Vedas
were identified with yajna that was believed to produce earthly and heavenly good. This was not to
the liking of many whose spiritual urges were not to sate by the heavens and rebirths, which were
after all an extension of present existence only. They wanted a more direct approach to spiritual
wisdom, bereft of the paraphernalia associated with rituals. That need was fulfilled by the
Upanishads.
The Vedas also had the problem of excess. One had to spend the better part of one‘s life (around 32
years) mastering them! So the Upanishads replaced them as a direct approach to the Divine. With
time the Upanishads too grew in large numbers, but as a system of knowledge these never became
an overgrown system, since one does not have to read all the Upanishads to make use of them. If
one knows any one Upanishad properly, he knows the essence of all the other Upanishads. This
gives the Upanishads tremendous vitality, along with the age-old stability—something unusual in the
history of human knowledge.
The last sections of each of the four Vedas are known as Upanishad. Since these come at the end of
the Vedas, they are known as Vedanta. The term can also be interpreted to mean ‗the essence of the
Vedas‘. The Vedantins treat the Upanishads in this sense only. According to them, the rituals and
other subject matter of the Vedas are the preparatory grounds for the final climb to the spiritual truths
as presented in the Upanishads.
It is difficult to say how many Upanishads there are. The number is put anywhere between 108 and
1008. Acharya Shankara (c. 8th century), the great unifier of Hindu system of thought, has
commented upon eleven principal Upanishads, and has referred to a few more in his commentaries.
These Upanishads are respected more than others.
The Upanishads are not easy to understand without a commentary and a proper teacher. The truths
presented in the Upanishads (these are not philosophical speculations) are so subtle and profound
that only those with extremely sharp and penetrating minds can grasp them fully.
Brahman
The sages realised the Divine as pure consciousness which was the reality beneath all existence.
They called it Brahman (the Great) which had no qualifying traits, no attribute, no form, etc. This
came to be known as nirguna Brahman, the impersonal God, who is ever present and everywhere
present God for whom no adjective can be employed. The subject of discussion in every Upanishad
is this. He (or, it) is infinite, ever free, without a form, and beyond the grasp of the human mind. He
cannot be called a knowing being, because knowledge belongs to the human mind; he cannot be
called a reasoning being, because reasoning is a sign of weakness; he cannot be called a creating
being, because none creates except in bondage. The Upanishads describe Brahman as beyond
subject-object duality. It is beyond good and bad, and virtue and vice. Brahman is sat (existence), chit
(consciousness), and ananda (bliss), since it exists, it is consciousness, and is full of bliss
To know this truth, one has to become one with it, ‗The knower of Brahman becomes Brahman‘. The
triad of knower-knowledge known disappears in that state, and what remains, remains. Only those
who have experienced that state know its true nature. But even they cannot describe it for reasons
described above. When this reality is perceived through the mind, it appears as having qualities and
attributes, and hence it is known as saguna Brahman (God with qualities). This is also known as God,
who is merciful, powerful, and with innumerable noble qualities. He is the omnipresent creator,
preserver, and destroyer of everything.
The Upanishads talk of both these aspects, but their speciality lies in discussing the impersonal
aspect of Brahman.
Knowledge of Reality
According to the sages, the world is important, and hence the knowledge to lead a meaningful life is
important, but the key to all knowledge is the knowledge of Brahman. Whatever is in the universe, is
Brahman, and hence by knowing it one knows everything, the way one knows the essence of all gold
ornaments by knowing about gold. The most accepted method of acquiring the knowledge of
Brahman was to go to an accomplished teacher and get groomed into it.
One meaning of the word ‗Upanishads‘ is, to sit near the teacher and master the science of self-
knowledge.
Alternatively, the word also means ‗the knowledge that results in destroying the identifications of a
person with the world‘.
The Upanishads were always learnt directly from a teacher, and if not used as a technique of
freedom, these were as meaningless as a heap of words. Following this principle, nearly every
Upanishad is in the form of a discourse by a teacher who was a renowned sage of the period. Even
when a specific teacher is not mentioned, the presence of teacher is palpable in that Upanishad.
Thus the authenticity of knowledge imparted by an Upanishad was maintained strictly at a
personalised level. It is interesting to know that in spite of a large number of teachers mentioned in
the Upanishads, their teachings are invariably the same.
To acquire that knowledge (not mere information) of Brahman, one had to perform intense austerities,
known as tapasya. The word comes from the root tap which means ‗heat‘, and also knowledge. When
one goes through the blazing heat of tapasya in the form of selfless service, devotion, meditation,
scriptural studies, or any other austerities, all the dross of his mind burns up. The mind then becomes
calm and fit to receive instructions.
Atman
The Upanishads teach that atman is the true self of every individual, and that it is non-different from
Brahman—the individual and the universal are same.
The general approach of the Upanishads is to lead a person from his gross ideas of self to the
realisation of himself as the universal self. In one of the Upanishads, the teacher shows how his body,
made by food, is his self. From there he leads the student to show vital forces working within his body
as the self; then the mind as the self; intelligence as self; the ‗I‘ness appearing as the thin veil
separating him from the universal self as his self; and finally atman as the true self, which is eternally
conscious, beyond good and bad, virtue and vice, birth and death, etc.
This spiritual knowledge is not speculative the way philosophy is, but it is intuitive. The technical word
for it is non-indirect knowledge, which means that it is different from instinct, sensual, or inferential
knowledge. Unlike every other kind of knowledge, spiritual knowledge is not acquired through the
mind, but it is the consciousness itself that becomes conscious of its nature.
The example used in Vedanta is that of a clear crystal in front of which a coloured flower is placed.
The flower apparently influences the transparent nature of the crystal. But when the flower is
removed, the crystal becomes what it was all along—clear. The true self of everyone is exactly like
this crystal—free of any tinge.
Aum
Aum is the symbolic representation of both personal and impersonal aspects of God. When one looks
at the created world, one realises that every object has three aspects: physical manifestation, verbal
representation, and the idea behind the both. Thus every object in this world, seen and unseen, has a
name that requires sound produced by the vocal system which begins with the guttural ‗a‘, through
velar ‗u‘, and ending at the lips with ‗m‘. By combining these three sounds one gets ‗Aum‘, which is
the symbolic matrix of all sound, and hence the basis for all names. Since name and objects are non-
different, and God being the matrix of all objects, ‗Aum‘ is respected as the verbal representation of
God. The silence that follows after one pronounces Aum, denotes the impersonal aspect of God,
implying that it cannot have any attribute. Hindus may squabble over many other things of their
religion, but they all agree on the universality of Aum.
Three Schools
When a spiritual aspirant makes effort to gain knowledge, he first has to get rid of his desires for this
life, and also afterlife. As one gains more and more spiritual knowledge through the calmness of his
mind, one sees himself as atman, the conscious principle within him. This stage is known as dvaita
(duality). If the aspirant continues with his spiritual practices, he comes to realise that the atman that
is within him, is the essence of others too. This is known as visishta-advaita (conditional non-
dualism). Finally, the aspirant may come to realise that atman (what he took for his individual
consciousness) alone exists, and that, it is non-different from Brahman, the ever existent reality,
which is by its very nature pure, infinite, eternal, etc. This last state of self-knowledge is known as
advaita. Advaita is sometimes referred to as monism, but it is grossly incorrect. Monism implies
presence of one, single entity, but Advaita is non-dual, implying that there are no two separate
realities like consciousness and inertness, or mind and matter. Advaita implies that there is no way of
knowing if it is one, or beyond the idea of one–two, since the mind itself ceases to exist in that state.
The best way to describe the state of Advaita is ‗What is, is‘; one cannot say anything else about it in
defining terms.
The idea of Advaita, although quite incomprehensible by the common minds, is the highest realisation
by the Hindu mind, and is its greatest contribution to the world of religions. This state has been
compared to mixing pure water with pure water, and as realising oneself as the calm, majestic self
instead of the volatile. There are other metaphors too.
When a person realises his identity with the supreme Brahman, popularly known as aham Brahma
asmi (I am Brahaman), one becomes free from the cycle of birth and death. Hinduism thus talks of
achieving blessedness here and now, in this very life. One who realises the truth that he is atman, is
known as jivanmukta, free while living. This is the highest spiritual state that has ever been described
in any religion, and is unique to Hinduism. This knowledge is undoubtedly the crown jewel of all
spiritual knowledge. And, like any precious knowledge acquired by the human race, it has to
preserved at any cost.
Jivanmukti
If Hindu religion has a true distinctive feature, it is this knowledge of jivanmukti. Relevance in Present
Times The Upanishads are the undiluted philosophy of Hinduism. Every other aspect of Hinduism
follows the general principles of Vedanta—man is divine. In fact, every soul, every conscious form,
and every particle is divine. The difference between any two life forms, or between inert matter and
life form lies in the manifestation of that divinity. A conscious effort at it makes the manifestation more
palpable. As a thought system, and also as a way of life, the Upanishads are clearly the power, glory,
and the ultimate achievement of the Hindu race. No other contribution by India to the world can ever
match the majesty, sublimity, and vitality embodied in these sacred texts.
Elucidation of Terms and Concepts in Vedanta
[Based on the Commentaries of Sri Sankaracharya and other authoritative texts]
By S. N. Sastri
Contents
1. Adhyaasa (Superimposition)
2. Advaita - Jnaana and Upaasanaa
3. Aatma - Indwelling Self
4. Avidyaa (Nescience)
5. Avidyaanivr.Tti
6. Ahamkaara
7. Brahman
8. Cause and Effect
9. Creation
10. Creation of the Subtle Elements
11. Creation of the Organs of Sense
12. Creation of the Organs of Action
13. Creation of the Antahkaranam or Internal Organ
14. Creation of Praana (Vital Air)
15. Quintuplication of the Subtle Elements
16. Three Bodies of the Jiiva (Individual Soul)
17. Five Sheaths
18. Three States
19. Jiiva (Individual Soul)
20. Iis'vara
21. Maayaa
22. Jnaanam and Dhyaanam - Difference
23. Karma
24. Mukti (Liberation)
25. Path of the Manes and Path of the Gods
26. Transmigration
27. Om - Symbol and Name of Brahman
28. Mahaavaakyas
29. Means to Self - Realization
30. Four Preliminary Requisites
31. Scope of Reasoning (Tarka)
32. Two Kinds of Vision
33. Process of Visual Perception
34. Upanishad - Meaning
35. Mind, Vital Force and Speech
36. Upaasanam (Meditation)
37. Deva and Asura - Meaning
38. Parinaama and Vivarta
Statements expounding particular terms and concepts in Vedanta are found scattered at different
places in the Upanishads and the commentaries thereon. For example, if we take the concept of
mukti (liberation), the answers to questions such as, what is mukti and what are the means to it, are
found in various places. It was felt that if statements relating to each topic were collected and put
together, that would be of considerable help in getting a total view about that topic. This is the task
undertaken in this work. This is not by any means an exhaustive collection of all the statements
relating to any particular topic. The attempt has been to gather together as much as is necessary to
get a clear idea about each topic. Another purpose that this topic - wise grouping would serve is to
make it possible to trace the exact place where a particular point has been elucidated. (The code
used for transliteration of Sanskrit words is ITRANS 4.0 with some slight modifications).
1. Adhyaasa (Superimposition)
Brahmasuutra - - - (B.S.) - adhyaasabhaashya of S'rii S'ankara - smr.tiruupaH paratra puurvadr.shTa

avabhaasah - - - adhyaasa (superimposition) is the illusory appearance, in another place, of an object
seen earlier elsewhere. It is similar in nature to recollection. (On seeing a rope in dim light and not
recognizing it as a rope, a person mistakes it for a snake which he has seen elsewhere. The snake is
not absolutely unreal, because it is actually experienced, and produces the same effect, such as fear
and so on, as a real snake would. At the same time, it is not real, because it is no longer seen when
the rope has been recognized. It is therefore described as anirvachaniiya, or what cannot be
classified as either real or unreal).
In the above definition, the words 'similar in nature to recollection' are intended to exclude recognition.
'Recollection' is of an object previously experienced, but which is not now present before the person
recollecting. 'Recognition' is when the same object previously experienced is again present before the
person.
B.G.13.26 S.B. - - - In this verse it is said that everything in this world is brought into existence by the
association of the 'field' and the 'knower of the field', or, the self and the non - self. S'rii S'ankara
points out in his commentary on this verse that the association of these two is only by
superimposition, since there cannot be any real association between the self, which is absolutely real
and the non - self which has only empirical reality. The non - self, (namely, the body, mind and
organs,) is superimposed on the self and, consciousness, which is the nature of the self, is attributed
to the body, mind and organs.
S'rii S'ankara further points out in his adhyaasa - bhaashya on the Brahma suutras that, when there is
superimposition of one thing on another, the latter is not affected in the least by the good or bad
qualities of the former. (e.g., nacre does not become more valuable because it is mistaken for silver,
nor does a rope get the qualities of the snake which it is mistaken for). The implication of this
statement is that the self does not undergo any of the changes, nor does it experience any of the joys
and sorrows, of the body, mind and organs. It is, however, only because of this mutual
superimposition of the self and the non - self that all action, both secular and religious, becomes
possible. The self, by itself, is neither a doer of actions, nor an enjoyer of the results. It becomes a
doer and an enjoyer only because of this superimposition, as a result of which, as S'rii S'ankara says,
the real and the unreal, namely, the self and the non - self, are blended into one, as it were. All action,
including the various rites laid down in the Vedas, thus come within the sphere of avidyaa or
nescience, which is the cause of superimposition.
Superimposition is of two kinds. When a rope is mistaken for a snake, the snake alone is seen. The
existence of the rope is not known at all. Here the snake is said to be superimposed on the rope. This
is known as svaruupa - adhyaasa. The second kind of superimposition is when a crystal appears to
be red in the proximity of a red flower. Here both the crystal and the flower are seen as existing, and
the redness of the flower is attributed to the crystal also. This is known as samsarga - adhyaasa. Both
these kinds of superimposition are present in the mutual superimposition of the self and the non - self.
Because of the superimposition of the non - self on the self, the existence of the self is not recognized
at all, and the non - self, (that is, the body, mind and organs), is alone recognized as existing. This is
svaruupa - adhyaasa. In the superimposition of the self on the non - self, only the consciousness of
the self is attributed to the body, mind and organs. This is samsarga - adhyaasa. The result of this
mutual superimposition is that everyone identifies himself with the body. This is the root cause of all
suffering. Giving up this wrong identification with the body - mind complex and realizing that one is
the self which is beyond all suffering and all the pairs of opposites such as heat and cold, success
and failure and so on, is vidyaa or knowledge. It is this knowledge that is contained in the
Upanishads.
svaruupa - adhyaasa is also known as 'nirupaadhika adhyaasa', or superimposition without a limiting

adjunct or upaadhi. The superimposition of an illusory snake on a rope is of this type. upaadhi has
been defined by Bhaskararaya in his commentary on the name 'nirupaadhiH' (No.154) in the
Lalitaasahasranaama as - - upa samiipe aadadhaati sviiyam dharmam -- that which gives its quality
to an object near it. A red flower which makes a transparent crystal near it look red is an upaadhi. The
superimposition of the red colour on the crystal is a superimposition with upaadhi and it is known as
'sopaadhika adhyaasa',which is the same as samsarga adhyaasa.
In the superimposition of the snake on the rope, the substratum is considered to be the rope. But the
rope itself is not real, and is a superimposition on Brahman or Consciousness. Therefore it is said in
Vedaanta that the substratum is 'rajju - upahita chaitanyam',or, Consciousness apparently limited by
the rope.
The illusory snake is said to be 'praatibhaasika'; the rope, like everything in this world, is
'vyaavahaarika',or empirical reality. Brahman alone is 'paaramaarthika', or absolute reality.
B.S. - Adhyaasa - bhaashya - - - adhyaaso naama atasmin tadbuddhiriti - - - - - -
adhyaasa, or superimposition, is the cognition, as a particular thing, of what is not that, like the
cognition of what is not silver as silver. Other examples given here by S'rii S'ankara are - - - when
one's wife or son is happy or unhappy, one considers oneself also as happy or unhappy; one
attributes the qualities of the physical body, such as fatness, leanness and so on, to oneself, as one
says - "I am fat, I am lean, etc"; one says - "I am blind, deaf, etc", attributing the qualities of the sense
- organs to oneself. This superimposition is beginningless, it is of the nature of illusory cognition and
is the cause of the notion of agency and enjoyership. The truth is that one is the aatmaa which is free
from all these qualities. The wrong identification with the body, mind, organs, etc., can be removed
only by the realization of one's real nature. The aim of Vedaanta is to enable one to attain this
realization.
2. Advaita - Jnaana and Upaasanaa (Non - dual Realization and Meditations)
Similarity and difference between the two.
Ch.up. Introduction - S.B. -- yathaa advaitajnaanam manovr.ttimaatram - - - - - - - - - saamaanyam.
The similarity between non - dual realization and meditations is that both are mere modifications of
the mind.
svaabhaavikasya aatmani adhyaaropitasya - - - - - - - - - - - - - - iti vis'eshaH.
The difference between the two is this -- non - dual realization removes totally the cognition of all
such differences as agent, instrument, action and results, which are superimposed naturally on the
action - less Self, just as the appearance of a snake is superimposed on a rope. This superimposition
is removed by the knowledge of the substratum. But meditation consists in establishing a continuous
flow of similar modifications of the mind with regard to some object as prescribed by the scriptures,
and uninterrupted by any other thought.
3. Aatma - Indwelling Self
- - is self - luminous, unattached, etc.
Br.up.4.3.14.S.B. - - - svayamjyotiH aatmaa asti iti svapnanidars'anena pradars'itam.By the illustration

of dream it has been proved that there is the self - luminous aatmaa and that it transcends the forms
of death (i.e. the body and organs).
Br. Up. 4.3.17.S.B. - - - yathaa asau svapne asa.ngatvaat - - - - - - - - - - - buddhaantena.
Just as, being unattached in the dream state, the aatmaa is not affected, on its return to the waking
state, by whatever appeared to have happened in the dream state, so also, it is not affected by
anything done in the waking state. (In other words, the aatmaa is not at all affected by anything
experienced either in the dream state or in the waking state).
Aatmaa in the three states
Br.up.4.3.19. S.B. - - - yasmaat jaagarite sasa.ngaH samr.tyuH - - - - - - - -
It has been shown that in the waking state the self appears through ignorance as connected with
attachment, death (meaning here action) and the body and organs. In the dream state it appears to
be connected with desire, but free from the forms of death (meaning the body, mind and organs --
See Br.up.4.3.7.S.B. - svatah kaaryakaraNaani eva asya ruupaaNi). In the state of deep sleep it is
perfectly serene and unattached. This non - attachment is the special feature in this state.
Considering all these passages together, it becomes clear that the self is by nature eternal, free, self -
luminous and pure.
The jiivaatmaa is not a part (ams'a) of Brahman
Br.up.2.1.20.S.B."kshudraa visphuli.ngaaH"Br.up.2.1.20
"mamaivaams'aH" - B.G.15.7. - paramaatmaikatva - pratyaya - - - -
The passages such as 'tiny sparks', 'a part of Myself', are intended to convey the idea of identity. We
are aware that sparks of fire are identical with fire. Thus a part may be considered as identical with
the whole. Therefore words such as 'part of the Supreme Self', as applied to the individual self, are
meant only to convey the idea of the identity of the two. (The supreme Self has no parts. It is one
homogeneous entity).
The individual self appears as a separate entity because of the limiting adjuncts (upaadhi)
Br.up.2.4.12. S.B. - - - yathaa adbhyaH suuryachandraadipratibimbaH - - - - -
Just as reflections of the sun, moon, etc, arise in water, or a transparent crystal appears red because
of the proximity of a red cloth, so also, because of the limiting adjuncts (upaadhi) in the form of the
body and organs, Brahman appears as a separate individual entity. On the realization of one's true
nature as being identical with Brahman, the notion that one is a separate individual entity comes to an
end. As the reflections of the sun, moon, etc, and the redness of the crystal, disappear when their
causes, namely the limiting adjuncts in the form of the water and the red cloth are removed, and the
sun, moon and the transparent crystal alone remain as they are, so also, the endless, infinite and
limpid Pure Consciousness, or Brahman, alone remains.
Consciousness pervades the whole body, mind, etc. -- an illustration - - Br.up.4.3.7 S.B -- yathaa vaa
marakataadiH maNiH - - - - - - sarvaantaratamatvaat.
Just as an emerald or any other gem, dropped into a vessel of milk, imparts its lustre to the milk, so
does this luminous self, being subtler than even the mind and the intellect, impart consciousness to
the whole body, mind and organs. (When an emerald is dropped into milk, the latter gets a green hue.
Similarly, the self, being pure consciousness, makes the insentient mind, body and organs sentient.)
Why people identify themselves with the body, mind, etc.
Br.up.4.3.7 S.B - - - buddhistaavat svachchhatvaat - - - - - - - yathaa vivekam jaayate.
The intellect, being transparent and next to the self, easily catches the reflection of the consciousness
of the self. Therefore it is that even wise men identify themselves with the intellect first; next comes
the mind which catches the reflection of the self through the intellect; then the organs through contact
with the mind; and lastly, the body, through the organs. Thus the self successively illumines with its
own consciousness the entire aggregate of body and organs. This is the reason why all people
identify themselves with the body, mind and organs, to a greater or lesser degree, according to the
extent of their discriminating capacity.
4. Avidyaa (Nescience)
Br.up.4.3.20 S.B. - - - ata idam avidyaayaaH satatvam uktam - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - tataH

phalam.
Therefore, the nature of nescience is that it represents what is infinite as finite, projects things other
than the Self, which are non - existent and makes the Self appear as limited. From this sense of
limitation arises the desire for things that appear to be different from oneself (due to ignorance of the
truth that everything is but Brahman). This desire prompts one to action for its fulfillment. Action
produces results, and this leads to further birth. Thus the cycle -- kaama, karma, janma -- desire,
action, rebirth, goes on indefinitely, as long as ignorance continues.
tasmaat na aatmadharmaH avidyaa - - - - Ignorance is not a natural characteristic of the Self,

because that which is natural to a thing can never be eliminated, like the heat and light of the sun.
B.S.Adhyaasabhaashya - - - avidyaavadvishayaaNi eva - - - - - - s'aastraaNi ca.
All the means of valid knowledge, such as perception, and even the scriptures, have validity only as
long as a person is ignorant of the Self. (All these function only on the basis of the superimposition
(adhyaasa) of the body, mind and organs on the Self. This superimposition comes to an end when
avidyaa is eradicated. After that even the scriptural injunctions cease to be applicable).
This primal ignorance is described as beginningless. But this word is not used here in the same
sense as that in which it is used in respect of Brahman. avidyaa is beginningless only in the sense
that it has no cause. avidyaa is the cause of the entire universe according to Advaita.
It is not possible to classify this avidyaa either as real or as unreal. What is unreal (asat), like a sky -
flower, or the horn of a rabbit, is never experienced. Since avidyaa is experienced, it is not unreal.
According to Advaita, that alone is real, which never changes or ceases to exist. avidyaa, being
removable by knowledge, is not real. It cannot be both real and unreal because the two are
contradictory. So avidyaa is described as 'anirvachaniiya', different from both real and unreal. This
does not mean that it is absolutely unreal. avidyaa has empirical (vyaavahaarika) reality. The
universe, which is an effect of avidyaa, also has the same level of reality. avidyaa, as well as the
universe, are said to be indeterminable (anirvachaniiya) and illusory (mithyaa).
Locus and content of avidyaa
All are agreed that the content (or object) of nescience is Brahman. But there is difference of opinion
with regard to its locus.
MaNDana Mis'ra says in Brahmasiddhi that the jiiva is the locus of nescience.
Vaachaspati Mis'ra holds the same view - see his commentary on Brahma suutra - 1.4.3.
Aanandagiri - - - - Brahman is the locus -- commentary on Brahma suutra - 1.4.3.
Sures'varaachaarya - - - Brahman is the locus - - - Naishkarmyasiddhi Ch.3.1.
Sarvajnaatmamuni - - - Brahman is the locus - - - Samkshepa s'aariirakam -- 1.319
Prakaas'aatman - - - - Brahman is the locus - - - - - - VivaraNa -
avidyaa is positive
avidyaa is not mere negation, as it is antagonistic to Knowledge. In Vedaantasaara of Sadaananda,

ignorance is defined thus: - Ignorance is something positive, though intangible, which cannot be
described as either being or non - being, which is made of three guNas (sattva, rajas and tamas), and
is antagonistic to Knowledge. Ch.2.34
In B.G.5.15, the Lord says that Knowledge is covered by Ignorance. What covers can only be positive
and cannot be negative. In Samkshepas'aariirakam 1.320 and in VivaraNa it is established that
avidyaa is positive.
The same conclusion has been arrived at in Sures'vara's Vaartika on taitt. Up. Bhaashya - 2.179.
See also Samkshepas'aariirakam Chap.3.111.
It must, however, be noted that it is only from the empirical point of view that it is said that avidyaa,
while being other than the real as well as the unreal, is positive and not mere absence of knowledge.
From the absolute point of view, avidyaa does not exist at all. See also under the heading 'Maayaa',
where verses from Panchadas'i have been quoted.
avidyaa has two powers
avidyaa or Nescience covers Brahman with its veiling power (aavaraNa s'akti) and projects the
universe with its power known as vikshepa s'akti -- see Viveka chuuDaamaNi, verses 113 and 115.
In Vedaantasaara it is said: - Just as a small patch of cloud, by obstructing the vision of the observer,
conceals, as it were, the solar disc extending over a very large area, similarly, ignorance, though
limited by nature, yet obstructing the intellect of the observer, conceals, as it were, the Self, which is
unlimited and not subject to transmigration. Such a power is the power of concealment. (Para 52).
The Self, covered by this concealing power of ignorance, becomes subject to transmigration
characterized by the notion of being a doer and an enjoyer. Just as ignorance regarding a rope, by its
inherent power, gives rise to the illusion of a snake, etc., so also, ignorance, by its own power,
creates in the Self covered by it, such phenomena as aakaas'a, etc. Such a power is called the power
of projection. (Paras 53 and 54).
avidyaa and maayaa -- whether the same or different
S'rii S'ankara treats avidyaa and maayaa as identical - See B.S.Bhaashya - 1.4.3.Sures'vara also
does the same.
Samkshepas'aariirakam - 3.108 - 109 expresses the same view.
In Panchadas'i, VidyaaraNya says that prakr.ti constituted of pure sattva is maayaa and when
constituted of sattva mixed with rajas and tamas is avidyaa. Brahman reflected in maayaa is iis'vara,
who is omniscient and is the controller of maayaa. Brahman reflected in avidyaa is jiiva.
In Patanjali's Yoga suutras avidyaa is described as one of the five 'kles'a - s', or causes of man's
suffering. (Suutra 2.3); the other four are egoism (asmitaa), attachment (raaga), aversion (dvesha)
and the desire to cling on to life (abhinives'a). avidyaa is said to be the cause of the other four (2.4).
avidyaa is defined as looking upon what is non - eternal as eternal, what is impure as pure, what is
painful as pleasant and the non - Self as the Self (2.5).
avidyaavr.tti
In deep sleep there is avidyaa as well as avidyaavr.tti. avidyaa, which is the adjunct (upaadhi) of the
Self in deep sleep, is the causal condition of the mind. While the mind is dormant in deep sleep
(sushupti), it is through avidyaavr.tti that ignorance and happiness are experienced. On waking up,
the mind again comes out of its causal condition and there arises the memory of what was
experienced in sleep.
svaruupa - jnaana, which is the very nature of Brahman, is not opposed to primal ignorance. It is this
svaruupa - jnaana which reveals the ignorance. The primal ignorance which is the cause of bondage
is destroyed by the mental mode (akhaNDaakaaravr.tti) generated by the mahaavaakyas. This final
vr.tti - jnaana also disappears immediately thereafter, in the same way as the medicine itself
disappears after removing the disease.
5. Avidyaanivr.Tti
There are three views on what is meant by 'avidyaanivr.tti' or the cessation of ignorance.
1. It is identical with Brahman - Aatman.
2. It is different from Brahman - Aatman and yet it is not anirvachaniiya, but is of a fifth kind.
3. It is identical with the direct experience of Brahman - Aatman.
See Samkshepas'aariirakam - 4.13 onwards.
Madhusuudana Sarasvati rejects the second view stated above -- see Vedaantakalpalatika -
The first view derives support from S'rii S'ankara's Haristuti -- tam samsaaradhvaantavinaas'am harim
iDe.
MaNDana favours the third view above in Brahmasiddhi.
Madhusuudana Sarasvati supports the first and third views in his Advaitasiddhi -- tasmaat
ajnaanahaanih aatmasvaruupam tadaakaaraa vr.tti vaa iti siddham - - - -
6. Ahamkaara
VivekachuuDaamaNi - verse No.106 - - - ahamkaaraH sa vijneyaH -- In his commentary on this

verse, H.H. Svaami Chandrasekhara Bhaarati says - ahamkaara, the ego - sense, is the
antaHkaraNam (the internal organ or mind) with the reflection of the consciousness of the Self in it. It
then identifies itself with the body and senses. This antaHkaraNam considers itself as doer and
enjoyer. It acquires the states of waking, dream and deep sleep by conjunction with rajoguNa,
sattvaguNa and tamoguNa respectively.
Sri sures'vara points out in his Naishkarmyasiddhi ,Ch.2, verses 46 to 51 that (1)the internal organ is
the connecting link between the Self and the non - Self (verse 46), (2) it makes the Self which is one
appear as many (v.47), (3) it is because of it that the Self, though free from action and attributes,
appears to have all of them (v.49), and (4) it makes the non - relational Self relational, as it were
(v.51). The internal organ assumes the form of the external object which is presented to it and when
this modification of the internal organ (antaHkaraNa - vr.tti) is illumined by the Self which is reflected
therein, the internal organ assumes the role of the knower or the seer, though by itself it cannot be
the knower since it is insentient. In the absence of the internal organ, as in sushupti, the Self has no
relation with anything and does not experience anything, subjective or objective.
B.G.3.27 - S.B - Ahamkara is looking upon the aggregate of body and organs as 'I'.
7. Brahman
taitt. Up. 2.1 S.B. - - - br.hattamatvaat Brahma - - - Being the greatest, it is known as Brahman.
The sentence - Brahman is truth, knowledge and infinite - is meant to be the definition of Brahman.
A thing is said to be satya - true - when it does not change the nature that is ascertained to be its
own; and a thing that deviates from the form in which it has been once ascertained is said to be
unreal. (This is the literal translation of the statement in the Bhaashya. The gist of this is that, the
meaning of the word 'true' in Vedaanta is - - - that which never undergoes any change at any time.
Brahman alone is true in this sense). Every modification is therefore unreal. The s'ruti says - all
modification is mere name, created by words alone; what is called clay is alone real. (Ch.up. 6.1.4).
Various forms such as pot, etc, made out of clay are all unreal. Their reality is only as clay. Thus, by
the word 'truth' the s'ruti distinguishes Brahman from all changing forms.
By the word 'knowledge' the s'ruti makes it clear that Brahman is not insentient like clay.
By the three words - truth, knowledge and infinite - it is made clear that Brahman is different from
everything in the universe which is always subject to change, is insentient and limited by time, space
and other objects.
Here knowledge means 'consciousness' and not a particular knowledge, which has a beginning and
an end and is therefore finite. This consciousness is not distinct from Brahman, but is its essential
nature, like the light of the sun or the heat of fire. This consciousness is eternal and is present even
during deep sleep. A specific act of knowing takes place only when the mind functions in association
with the relevant sense - organ, but this must be distinguished from consciousness, which is ever
present. It is this consciousness which is known as Brahman. Brahman, which is Pure
Consciousness, becomes a 'knower' only when the intellect is superimposed on it.
Upades'a saahas'rii - (Metrical portion) - Ch.18. Verse 65 -- The Self is looked upon as a knower only
because of the superimposition on it of the knowership of the intellect. Similarly, the intellect is
considered as a knower only because of the superimposition of consciousness on it.
Since the words truth, knowledge, and infinite are only intended to convey that Brahman is different
from all that is subject to change, all that is insentient and all that is limited, and since such an object
is not known to anyone, it may be argued that Brahman is non - existent, like the objects mentioned in
the following statement: -
"Having bathed in the waters of the mirage and adorned his head with sky - flowers (i.e. flowers which
grow in the sky), here goes the son of a barren woman, carrying a bow made out of the horn of a
hare". The answer to this is that, since the words are intended as a definition of Brahman and a
definition is given only for something that exists and not for something non - existent, the argument is
not tenable. Here Aanandagiri says -- The word truth connotes unfailing existence, the word
consciousness connotes self - luminous knowledge of all objects and the word infinite connotes all -
pervasiveness. Thus each of these words conveys a positive idea, while excluding the opposite and
does not mean a mere negation.
The words satyam, jnaanam, etc, apply to Brahman only in their secondary sense (lakshyaartha) and
not in their primary sense (vaachyaartha) -- see Samkshepas'aariirakam Ch.1. verses 178 to 184.
Brahman is in reality attributeless
In Brahma suutra 3.2.11 to 3.2.21, it is established that, though the scriptures describe Brahman as
both qualified (Ch.up.3.14.2) and as unqualified (Br.up.3.8.8), Brahman is really attributeless. The
description of Brahman as qualified is only for the purpose of Upaasanaa (meditation).
Brahma suutra 3.2.22. S.B. - - - In Br.up.2.3.1 it is said that Brahman has two forms -- gross and
subtle, mortal and immortal, limited and unlimited, defined and undefined. Then it is said in
Br.up.2.3.6 - "Now therefore the description (of Brahman) -- neti, neti -- not so, not so". These two
negatives deny the two aspects, gross and subtle etc. By this the reality of all creation is denied.
Two kinds of definition of Brahman
There are two kinds of definition of Brahman -- (1) svaruupalakshaNam -- definition with reference to
the essential nature, e.g. satyam jnaanam anantam brahma -- taitt,up. 2.1. (2) taTasthalakshaNam --
This is based on an accidental feature, which helps to distinguish the object defined. An example is
the identification of a house by pointing out a crow sitting on it. While the crow may fly away, it
nevertheless helps a person to know which is the house meant. In the case of Brahman, such a
definition is -- yato vaa imaani bhuutaani jaayante - - - - - - That from which all these beings are born,
that by which they live and that towards which they move and into which they merge. (taitt.up,3.1.1).
How the Self pervades all bodies -- examples
Br.up.1.4.7 S.B. - - - yathaa cha kshuraH kshuradhaane - - - -
As a razor lies in one part of its case, as fire lies in wood, pervading it, so does the Self dwell in the
body, pervading it in a general and particular way. There it is perceived as doing the functions of
living, seeing, etc.
The meaning of "neti, neti' - - -
Br,up. 2.3.6.S.B. - - - aades'o nirdes'o BrahmaNaH. KaH punarasau - - - - - - - - neti neti iti nirdes'aH.
How is it sought to describe Brahman , the Truth of truth? By the elimination of all differences due to
limiting adjuncts, the words "Neti, neti" refer to something that has no distinguishing mark, such as
name, form, action, heterogeneity, species or qualities. Words refer to things through one or more of
these marks. But Brahman has none of these distinguishing marks. Therefore it cannot be described
as, "It is such and such ", as we can describe a cow by saying, "There moves a white cow with
horns". Brahman can be described only by the superimposition of name, form and action. When,
however, we wish to describe its true nature, free from all differences due to limiting adjuncts, the only
way is to describe it as - not this, not this.
Brahman transcends all qualities
Br.up.3.5.1.S.B. - - - avivekibhiH talamalavadiva gaganam - - - - -
As the sky, fancied by the ignorant as being concave and blue, is really without these qualities, being
untouched by them, so also Brahman - Aatman, although thought of by the ignorant as being subject
to hunger, thirst, etc, really transcends all these qualities. The S'ruti says -- "It is not affected by
human misery, being beyond it" - KaTha up. 2.2.11
Brahman, the individual self and iis'vara
Br.up.3.8.12.S.B. - - - kastarhi bhedaH eteshaam?
What is the difference among them? It is only due to the difference in the limiting adjuncts.
Intrinsically, there is neither difference nor identity among them, for all the three are in essence Pure
Consciousness, homogeneous like a lump of salt. When the unconditioned Self has, as the limiting
adjuncts, the body and organs which are characterized by ignorance, desire and action, it is called
the transmigrating individual self. When the limiting adjunct is the power of eternal and unlimited
knowledge, which is Maayaa, the same Self is known as iis'vara, who is the antaryaamii or Inner
Controller. The same Self, free from all limiting adjuncts, is Brahman. When the limiting adjuncts are
the bodies of hiraNyagarbha, the gods, men, animals and others, the same Self assumes those
particular names and forms.
Br.up.4.4.5.S.B. - - - sa vaa ayam ya evam samsarati - - - - - - as'anaayaadyatiitaH.
The transmigrating self is indeed Brahman, which is beyond hunger, etc.
Br.up.4.4.25.S.B. - - - ya evam yathoktam aatmaanam - - - - - - - - -
He who knows the self-described above as the Brahman which is beyond fear becomes Brahman.
This is the purport of the whole Upanishad put in a nutshell. It is to bring out this purport that the ideas
of creation, maintenance and dissolution of the universe, as well as the ideas of action, its factors and
results were superimposed on the Self. Then, by the negation of the superimposed attributes the true
nature of Brahman as free from all attributes has been brought out. This is the method of adhyaaropa
and apavaada, superimposition and negation, which is adopted by Vedaanta.
Br. Up.5.1.1.S.B. - - - yadyapi Brahmaatmaadis'abdaaH - - - - - - -
Although the words 'Brahman', 'aatman' etc, are names of Brahman, we see from the s'ruti that Om is
its most intimate appellation. Therefore, Om is the best means for the realization of Brahman. Om is
both a symbol for Brahman and its name.
Brahman is both the material and the efficient cause of the universe.
Panchadas'i - 1.44 - - - Brahman becomes the material cause of the universe when it is associated
with that aspect of maayaa in which there is predominance of tamas. It becomes the efficient cause
when associated with that aspect of maayaa in which there is predominance of sattva.
Brahman is free from all the three types of differences
Panchadas'i - 2.20 and 21. - - - Differences are of three kinds. The difference of a tree from its leaves,
flowers, fruits, etc, is the difference within an object. This is known as svagata bheda. The difference
of one tree from another tree is the difference between objects of the same species. This is known as
sajaatiiya bheda. The difference of a tree from a rock is the difference between objects of different
species. This is known as vijaatiiya bheda. None of these differences exists with regard to Brahman,
because there is nothing else of the same species or of a different species and there is no internal
difference because Brahman is homogeneous. This is what is affirmed in the Chhaandogya
upanishad (6.2.1) by the words "ekam eva advitiiyam" - one, only, without a second. The word "one'
negates sajaatiiya bheda, the word 'only' negates svagata bheda and the words 'without a second'
negate vijaatiiya bheda.
Brahman is free from all limitations
Panchadas'i - 3.35, 36, 37 - - - Being all - pervasive, Brahman is not limited by space. Being eternal, it
is not limited by time. Since all objects in the universe are merely superimposed on Brahman,
Brahman is not limited by any object, just as a rope is not limited by the illusory snake superimposed
on it .
8. Cause and Effect
Taitt. Up. 2.1.S.B. - - - na hi kaaraNavyatirekeNa kaaryam naama vastutaH asti - - - -
There is no such thing as effect in reality apart from the cause. The effect has no real existence apart
from the cause.
Ch.up.6.1.4 - - - All modifications exist in name only, being created only by words.
Anubhuutiprakaas'a of VidyaaraNya -- 1.20 -- Just as a pot made out of clay is really nothing but clay,
so also this universe which has originated from the Supreme Self (Brahman) has no reality apart from
the Supreme Self.
9. Creation
The real object of the description of creation
The Upanishads describe the creation, sustenance and dissolution of the universe. This should not,
however, be taken to mean that creation, etc, are real. According to Advaita, creation is not real, but
is only a superimposition on Brahman, which alone is real in the absolute sense. The universe, which
is a transformation of maayaa, is anirvachaniiya. It cannot be described either as real or as unreal. It
has empirical reality only. The description of creation, etc, in the Upanishads is only to bring out the
truth that Brahman, the cause, alone is real. The effect, universe, has no independent existence apart
from the cause, Brahman. The following passages from S'rii S'ankara's Bhaashya bring out the real
purpose of the statements about creation, etc, in the Upanishads.
Br.up.2.1.20.S.B. - - - tasmaat upakramopasamhaaraabhyaam - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - vaakyaani

iti.
From the introduction and conclusion it is clear that the passages speaking about the origin,
sustenance and dissolution of the universe are intended only to strengthen the idea that the individual
self is the same as the Supreme Self.
Br.up.2.1.20.S.B. - - - tasmaat ekaruupaikatvapratyayadaarDhyaaya - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
paramaatmanaH
Therefore, the mention in all the Vedaanta texts of the origin, sustenance and dissolution of the
universe is only to strengthen our idea of Brahman being a homogeneous entity, and not to tell us
that the origin, etc, is real. Nor is it reasonable to suppose that a part of the indivisible, transcendental
Supreme Self becomes the relative, individual self, because the Supreme Self is intrinsically without
parts.
The theory of vivarta
Advaita Vedaanta explains the creation of the world by the theory of vivarta. This theory is different
from the theory of aarambha vaada of Nyaaya - Vais'eshika and the pariNaama vaada of Saankhya.
According to aarambha vaada the effect was not pre - existent in the cause and is something new
which has come into existence. This theory is also called asatkaarya vada, because according to this
the kaarya, effect, did not previously exist. According to the pariNaama vaada, the effect was existent
in the cause and is only a transformation of the cause. It is therefore also known as satkaarya vaada,
because the kaarya, effect, was existent in the cause. According to Advaita, the effect is not an actual
transformation of the cause. Brahman is immutable and there can be no transformation of it. It only
serves as the substratum (adhishThaana) for the appearance of the universe, just as the rope serves
as the substratum for the appearance of the illusory snake.
This nature of the universe as a mere appearance on Brahman is brought out beautifully by
Sures'vara in the following verses: -
Naishkarmyasiddhi.1.1 - - - I offer my salutation to Hari, the destroyer of darkness and the witness of
the intellect, from whom the universe consisting of ether, air, fire, water and earth has arisen like a
snake from a garland.
Taitt. Up. Bhaashya Vaartika.2.378 - - - He, the Supreme Lord, the controller of maayaa, having
created the universe with His maayaa, entered that very universe in the same way as a garland can
be said to enter the illusory snake projected on it. (By this, the statements in the taitt.up.2.6.1 and the
Br.up.1.4.7 that the Lord, having created the universe, entered into it, are also explained).
This appearance of the universe is due to avidyaa, or nescience, which conceals Brahman by its
veiling power (aavaraNa s'akti) and projects the universe by its power of projection (vikshepa s'akti).
The universe is therefore said to be only a vivarta, or apparent transformation, of Brahman. Like the
illusory snake with rope as the substratum, the universe is illusory, or mithyaa, with Brahman as the
substratum. But there is a vital difference between the illusoriness of the rope - snake and that of the
universe. While the snake is purely illusory, or praatibhaasika, the universe has empirical, or
vyaavahaarika, reality. That means that the universe is real for all those who are still in ignorance of
Brahman. It loses its reality only when Brahman is realized as the only reality and as identical with
one's own self, or, in other words, when identification with the body - mind complex completely
disappears. Bondage is nothing but identification with the body - mind complex. This identification
being due only to the ignorance of the truth that one is really the aatmaa, which is the same as
Brahman, it can be removed only by the knowledge of one's real nature as Brahman.
Madhusuudana Sarasvati therefore says in Siddhaantabindu that the following statements in the
s'ruti, which say that bondage ceases when Brahman is known, establish by implication the illusory
nature of the universe: -
MuND.up.2.2.8 - - - When that Self, which is the cause as well as the effect, is realized, the knot of
the heart is cut asunder, all doubts are resolved and the effects of past karma are destroyed.
S'vetaas'vatara up.3.8 - - - By knowing that Self one goes beyond death.
Ch.up.7.1.3 - - - The knower of the Self goes beyond sorrow.
It is further pointed out in Siddhaantabindu that the following statements bring out explicitly the
illusoriness of the universe: -
Br.up.3.4.2 - - - Everything other than the Self is subject to destruction.
Br.up.4.4.19 - - - There is no difference whatsoever in it (Brahman).
Br.up.2.3.6 - - - Now therefore the description (of Brahman) -- Not this, not this.
Bearing in mind the real import of the statements about creation, we may now go into the description
of creation as found in the Upanishads and other Vedaanta texts.
10. Creation of the Subtle Elements
Taitt.up.2.1.1.S.B. - - - tasmaad etasmaad brahmaNaH aatma - svaruupaat - - - - -
From that Brahman, which is identical with the indwelling self, aakaas'a, space, was created.
aakaas'a means, that which is possessed of the attribute of sound and provides space for all things
that have form. From that aakaas'a was born vaayu, air, which has two attributes, namely, its own
quality, touch, and sound, the quality of its cause, aakaas'a. From air was produced agniH, fire, with
three qualities, namely, its own quality, colour and the qualities of air and space. From fire was born
aapah, water, with its own quality, taste, and the qualities of fire, air and space. From water was
produced the element, pr.thivii, with its own quality, smell and the qualities of water, fire, air and
space. These are the five subtle elements.
In Ch.up.6.2.3, the creation of only three elements is mentioned, namely fire, water and earth. S'rii
S'ankara says here that it is logical to assume that, after creating space and air, Brahman created
fire. The intended meaning is that all these have originated from sat, Existence, or Brahman and are
therefore sat alone. The statement that all these elements arose from Brahman is clarified in
Panchadas'i 1.18 by saying that these elements arose at the command of iis'vara from that aspect of
prakr.ti in which tamas predominates.
11. Creation of the Organs of Sense
Vedaanta paribhaashaa.Ch.7 - - - These subtle elements have arisen from prakr.ti, which is made up
of the three guNas, namely, sattva, rajas and tamas, (which can be described as serenity, activity and
inertia respectively). These elements are also therefore constituted of the same three guNas. From
the sattva part of space, air, fire, water and earth are produced, respectively, the indriyas, known as
ear, sense of touch, eye, the sense of taste and the sense of smell. It must be noted that these are
not the organs, such as eye, etc, in the physical body. These latter are called golaka. The indriyas are
the subtle counterparts of the external organs and form part of the subtle body, which will be
described later. The presiding deities of these five indriyas are, respectively, the devataas of the
Quarters, Air, the sun, VaruNa (the god of the waters) and the two As'vini devas. (See also
Panchadas'i.1.19).
It may be noted that each sense - organ is produced from the particular subtle element whose
distinctive quality it has the power to reveal. For example, the organ of hearing reveals sound, which
is the particular quality of aakaas'a, from the sattva part of which it is produced. The organ of smell is
produced from the sattva part of pr.thivii, whose distinctive quality, smell, it reveals. S'rii S'ankara
says in his commentary on Br.up.2.4.11 -- The s'ruti considers the organs to be of the same category
as the objects, not of a different category. The organs are but modes of the objects they perceive.
12. Creation of the Organs of Action
Vedaanta paribhaashaa.Ch.7 and Panchadas'i.1.21 - - - From the rajas part of these five elements
are produced, respectively, the organs of action called the tongue, the hand, the feet, the anus and
the organ of generation. These, again, are not the physical organs bearing those names, but their
subtle counterparts in the subtle body. The presiding deities of these organs are, in order, the
devataa of Fire, Indra, VishNu, Yama and Prajaapati.
13. Creation of the Antahkaranam or Internal Organ
Vedaanta paribhaashaa Ch.7 and Panchadas'i.1.20.From the sattva part of all the five subtle
elements together is produced the antaHkaraNam which is known by four different names according
to the function. The four names are - manas, buddhi, chittam and ahamkaara. (Sometimes only two
names, manas and buddhi, are mentioned, as in Panchadas'i.1.20, the other two being included in
them). These four functions are explained in VivekachuuDaamaNi, verses 95 and 96. The function of
cogitation is known as the manas or mind. When a determination is made, it is known as buddhi or
intellect. The function of storing experiences in memory is called chittam . Egoism is ahamkaara. The
word 'mind' is also used to denote the antaHkaraNam as a whole when these distinctions are not
intended. We shall use the word 'mind' in this sense hereafter.
There is difference of opinion among Advaitins on the question whether the mind is an indriya, organ,
or not. Vaachaspati Mis'ra, the author of Bhaamatii, considers the mind as an indriya. Prakaas'aatma
muni, the author of VivaraNa, takes the view that the mind is not an indriya. The author of Vedaanta
paribhaashaa also takes the same view. This point assumes importance when the question as to how
realization takes place through the mahaavaakyas is considered. This will be dealt with later at the
appropriate place.
In Panchadas'i.2.18, the number of indriyas is mentioned as eleven, indicating that the mind is also
considered as an indriya there.
The mind is finite, being of medium magnitude (madhyama parimaaNa). It can therefore be
connected with one or more of the organs at the same time. It has the capacity to expand and
contract and take the form of any object.
The mind, being made of extremely subtle and transparent substance, receives the reflection of the
consciousness of the Self. Because of this, it appears to be sentient, though it is really inert. All
knowledge arises only through an appropriate modification of the mind, corresponding to the object of
knowledge. (See further elaboration under 'Process of visual perception').
The mental states of pain, pleasure, fear, hope, and the like are illuminated directly by the witness -
self without any intermediary. So they are said to be manifested by the witness - self alone (kevala -
saakshi - bhaasya). The mental states become known as soon as they arise.
Panchadas'i.2.12 - - - Mind, the ruler of the ten indriyas, is not independent, but depends on the
organs of sense and action for its function in relation to external objects.
At the same time, no sense organ can function without the co - operation of the mind. In his
Bhaashya on Br.up.1.5.3, S'rii S'ankara says - There is a mind apart from the external organs such as
the ear. For, it is a well - known fact, that even when an object is in front, a person does not see it, if
his mind is elsewhere. Similarly, a person does not hear what is said, if he is absent - minded.
Therefore it is clear that in the absence of the mind, the sense organs do not perceive their respective
objects. Hence it is through the mind that everyone sees, hears, etc.
Br.up.1.5.3 describes the mind thus: - Desire, resolve, doubt, faith, absence of faith, steadiness,
unsteadiness, shame, intelligence and fear -- all these are but the mind.
Another fact proving the existence of the mind is also stated here by S'rii S'ankara -- 'Because if one
is touched by anybody even from behind, one is able to know distinctly whether it is a touch of a hand
or of a knee. If there is no mind to distinguish them, how can the skin alone do this? That which helps
us to distinguish between different perceptions is the mind'.
Panchadas'i.2.13. It is the mind which examines the merits and defects of the objects perceived
through the senses. The conclusion which the mind comes to will depend on the proportion of the
three guNas in it at the time.
Panchadas'i.2.15. When sattva guNa is predominant in the mind, merit (puNya) is acquired; when
rajas is predominant, demerit (paapa) is acquired.
Panchadas'i.2.16. When tamas is predominant in the mind, neither merit nor demerit is produced, but
life is merely wasted.
Mind is the cause of bondage, as well as of liberation
Amr.tabindu upanishad, mantra 2, says that the mind is, verily, the cause of bondage as well as of
liberation; engrossed in objects of sense, it leads to bondage; free from attachment to objects, the
same mind leads to liberation.
In samaadhi the manas (mind) becomes 'no - manas'; it attains to the state called amaniibhaava --
GauDapaada's MaaNDuukya Kaarikaa, AdvaitaprakaraNa, verse 31. In verse 32, the term
amaniibhava is explained -- "When by the conviction of Aatman's reality, manas ceases to imagine,
then it becomes 'no - manas', unperceiving for want of objects of perception".
14. Creation of Praana (Vital Air)
From a combination of the rajas aspect of the five subtle elements, is produced praaNa, or vital air.
This has five divisions, according to the function performed. These are described in the Bhaashya on
Pras'na Upanishad.3.5, thus: - - - He (praaNa) places apaana, a division of himself, in the two lower
apertures, as engaged in the work of ejecting the excreta . praaNa himself, who occupies the position
of the sovereign, resides in the eyes and the ears and issues out through the mouth and nostrils. In
the navel is samaana, which is so called because it assimilates all that is eaten or drunk, distributes
them equally in all parts of the body and effects digestion. udaana, another division of praaNa, moves
throughout the body and functions upwards. It leads the soul out of the body at the time of death and
takes it to other worlds according to one's puNya and paapa. vyaana regulates praaNa and apaana
and is the cause of actions requiring strength. (See also Br.up.1.5.3.S.B).
Br.up.3.9.26.S.B. - - - The force called praaNa would go out (through the mouth and nostrils) if it were
not held back by apaana. The force called apaana would also depart (through the lower orifice) if it
were not held back by vyaana. All these three forces would go out in all directions, if they were not
fixed to udaana. All these four forces rest on samaana.
Taitt.up.2.2.S.B. - - - praaNa is that aspect which goes out through the mouth and nostrils.
B.G.4.29.S.B - - - Exhalation through the mouth and the nostrils is the movement of praaNa; as
opposed to that, inhalation is the movement of apaana.
Vedaantasaara -- Paras 84 and 85 - - - According to Saankhya, there are five more vital forces known
as naaga, kuurma, kr.kala, devadatta and dhananjaya. Their functions are, respectively, causing
vomiting, winking, creating hunger, producing yawning and nourishing the body.
15. Quintuplication of the Subtle Elements
Panchadas'i.1.26,27 - - - The omnipotent Lord combined the five subtle elements by the process
known as 'panchiikaraNam' (Quintuplication)and produced gross elements to provide the jiivas
(individual souls) with physical bodies and objects of enjoyment. The process of combination of the
subtle elements is -- Each subtle element is divided into two equal parts. The second half of each
such element is divided into four equal parts (i.e. to get one - eighth of each element). Then the first
half of each element is combined with one - eighth of each of the other four elements to make a gross
element. The result is that in a gross element of earth one half is earth itself and the other half is
made up of the elements of water, fire, air and space in equal shares. Similarly with the other four
gross elements.
In the Chhaandogya upanishad, the creation of only fire, water and earth is spoken of (Chapter 6). It
is further said that these three are combined (6.3.3). In Vedaantasaara, para 101 it is said that the
authoritativeness of the compounding of the five elements is indirectly supported by the description of
the combination of three elements in Ch.up.6.3.3. This combination of the three elements is also
referred to in Brahma suutra 2.4.22.
16. Three Bodies of the Jiiva (Individual Soul)
prakr.ti, which is made up of the three guNas, is of two kinds. When the element of sattva is pure, that
is to say, not mixed with the other two, it is called Maayaa. When sattva is mixed with rajas and
tamas, prakr.ti is known as avidyaa. Brahman reflected in maayaa is iis'vara, who is omniscient and
the controller of maayaa. Brahman reflected in avidyaa is jiiva, or the individual soul. jiivas are many.
(Panchadas'i.1.16,17).
The jiiva has three bodies, known as the causal body or kaaraNa s'ariira, the subtle body or
suukshma s'ariira or li.nga s'ariira and the gross body or sthuula s'ariira.
Causal body
The avidyaa or nescience, is what is known as the causal body or kaaraNa s'ariira. It is the cause of
the transmigratory existence of the jiiva and so it is called KaaraNa or cause. Though it has no form, it
is called s'ariira or body, because it is liable to destruction on the dawn of Self - knowledge. The word
s'ariira means,'that which is perishable' (s'iiryate iti s'ariiram). In deep sleep the mind and the senses
are dormant and nescience alone is present. The jiiva identifies himself with nescience in deep sleep.
The jiiva is then known as praajna.
Subtle body
Panchadas'i.1.23 and 1.24. - - - The five organs of sense, the five organs of action, the five praaNas,
mind and intellect, these seventeen together form the subtle body. In some of the Upanishads
ahamkaara and chittam are also counted separately, and the number of constituents is stated as
nineteen, e,g. MaaNDuukya Upanishad. When the jiiva identifies himself with this body, as in the
dream state, he is known as taijasa.
Gross body
Vedaantasaara. Paras 104 to 109. The gross or physical body is produced out of the five gross
elements. Gross bodies are of four kinds -- jaraayuja,or those born of the womb, aNDaja, or those
born out of eggs, svedaja, or those born from moisture and udbhijja, or those which spring from the
soil. The first kind are men and animals. The second kind consists of birds and reptiles. To the third
kind belong creatures like lice. Plants and trees belong to the last kind.
When the jiiva identifies himself with the gross body, as in the waking state, he is known as vis'va.
17. Five Sheaths
The three bodies mentioned above are grouped in another manner to form five sheaths or Kos'as.
These are -- annamayakos'a, praaNamayakos'a, manomayakos'a, vijnaanamayakos'a and
aanandamayakos'a. These are described in taitt.up. Ch.2.
annamayakos'a or the Food - sheath - - - This is the same as the gross body. See Viveka
chuuDaamaNi, verses 156 to 158 for a description.
praaNamayakos'a - - - The five praaNas, together with the five organs of action, form this. See Viveka
chuuDaamaNi, verses 167 and 168.
manomayakos'a - - - This is made up of the mind and the five sense - organs. See Viveka
chuuDaamaNi, verses 169 onwards.
vijnaanamayakos'a - - - The buddhi (intellect) and the five sense - organs constitute this. See Viveka
chuuDaamaNi, verses 186 onwards.
The praaNamayakos'a, manomayakos'a and vijnaanamayakos'a together make up the subtle body.
aanandamayakos'a - - - See Viveka chuuDaamaNi, verses 209 and 210. This sheath is the
modification of avidyaa and appears as a reflection of the aatmaa which is Pure Bliss. It is fully
manifested in dreamless sleep. In the waking and dream states it is experienced a little due to th e
presence of desired objects. In Brahma suutra 1.1.12 to 19 the contention of some schools that this
sheath is Brahman is refuted with detailed reasons and it is established that this sheath is also non -
self. This sheath is the same as the kaaraNa s'ariira.
18. Three States
The jiiva has three states -- waking, dream and deep sleep.
Waking state
Viveka chuuDaamaNi - Verse 91. In the waking state the jiiva identifies himself with the gross body
and experiences gross objects through the external organs. The jiiva is known as vis'va in this state.
Brahman associated with the totality of gross bodies (the macrocosm) is called vais'vaanara or
viraaT. MaaNDuukya upanishad, mantra 3 says about this state -- The first quarter ( of the Self) is
vais'vaanara whose sphere is the waking state, whose consciousness relates to things external, who
is possessed of seven limbs and nineteen mouths, and who experiences gross (external) objects.
Dream state
Viveka chuuDaamaNi (V.C.) Verse 100 -- This is the special state of the subtle body. In this state the
buddhi shines by taking the role of the agent, with the vaasanaas (impressions) derived from the
waking state. In this state the sense - organs are dormant. Under the influence of ignorance, desire
and past action, the mind, possessed of the impressions of the waking state, creates objects. Br.
Up.4.3.10.S.B. says - There are no chariots, nor animals to be yoked to them, nor roads there, but the
jiiva creates them in this state. In this state the jiiva is known as taijasa. The corresponding
macrocosm is called hiraNyagarbha. MaaNDuukya up. mantra 4 says - - taijasa is the second
quarter, whose sphere is the dream state, whose consciousness is internal, who is possessed of
seven limbs and nineteen mouths, and who experiences subtle objects.
Deep sleep state
V.C. Verse 122 - - - sushupti, deep, dreamless sleep, is the special state of the causal body. This
state is characterized by the dissolution of the activities of all the sense - organs and the mind. The
mind remains only in seed - form. This state is described in MaaND. up,mantra 5, as the state in
which there are no desires and no dreams. In Vedaanta the waking state is also considered to be
similar to dream, because the Reality is not known and what is unreal is projected in both these
states. In deep sleep, though the Reality, Brahman, is not known, there is no appearance of what is
unreal, as in the waking and dream states. In this state the jiiva is called praajna. The corresponding
macrocosm is iis'vara.
In MaaND. up. Mantra 2, it is said that the Self has four quarters. The waking, dream and deep sleep
are the first three quarters. The fourth, turiiya, is aatmaa unconditioned by the three states.
MaaNDuukya kaarikaa, 1.14 says -- The first two are endued with dream and sleep, but the third is
endued with dreamless sleep. There is neither dream nor sleep in turiiya. Here sleep means
ignorance of the Reality and dream means projection of the unreal. The fourth, turiiya, is the state of
samaadhi.
The self desires to go into the state of deep sleep
Br. Up. 4.3.19.S.B. - - - tadyathaa asmin aakaas'e - - - svamaatmaanam pravis'ati.
As a hawk or a falcon, flying in the sky, becomes exhausted, and stretching its wings, goes towards
its nest, where it can have perfect rest, so does this infinite being run for this state, where, falling
asleep it craves for nothing and sees no dream. The waking state is also considered by the s'ruti to
be only dream. As the bird goes to its nest to recover from fatigue, so also does the jiiva, who is
fatigued by the experiences of the waking and dream states, go to his abode, which is his own self,
free from all attributes and devoid of all exertion caused by action. In this state he becomes one with
the supreme Self, as the following quotation from Ch.up, shows.
Ch.up. 6.8.1.S.B. - - - tatra hi aadars'aapanayane - - - - - - - - mana aakhyaam hitvaa.
Just as the reflection of a person in a mirror appears to merge back in the person himself when the
mirror is removed, so also, in deep sleep, when the mind and organs become dormant, the supreme
Being who had entered the mind as a reflection attains his true nature, giving up his appearance as
an individual soul, which is called the mind.
Ch. up. 6.8.1.S.B. yadaa svapiti iti uchyate - - - - - - - - - gamyate iti abhipraayaH.
When a person is in deep sleep, he becomes identified with Existence (Brahman). Having discarded
his nature as an individual soul he attains his own self, his own nature, which is the ultimate Reality.
Ch.up.6.9.2. S.B. yathaayam dr.shTaantaH - - - - - - - -
All these creatures, after merging in Existence day after day during deep sleep do not know that they
had so merged.
Ch.up.6.9.3. S.B. yasmaat cha evam aatmanaH - - - - - - - vaasanaa saa na nas'yati ityarthah.
Since they merge in Existence without knowing that it is their own nature, they wake up again as the
same beings as before. Their vaasanaas do not get destroyed. (The implication is that the vaasanaas
continue and they are born again and again in accordance with them, as long as they do not realize
that they are in reality Brahman).
Br.up.4.3.15.S.B. tatra charitvaa iti - - - - -
'Roaming' in that state of dream and becoming fatigued, and thereafter going to the state of deep
sleep, he comes back to the dream state and then to the waking state.
Br.up.4.3.17.S.B. na, kaarakaavabhaasatvena - - - - - - na lipyate kriyaaphalena.
No. The self does not do anything even in the waking state. Its being looked upon as an agent is
merely attributable to its revealing the actions (performed by the body). Agency is attributed to the self
because of the limiting adjuncts such as the body and is not natural to it. See V.C. verse 131 --
Because of whose mere presence, the body, sense - organs, mind and intellect perform their
functions as if prompted (by it).
Br.up.4.3.18.S.B - - - evam ayam purushaH aatmaa - - - - - - - vilakshaNaH. - - Thus it has been
brought out in the preceding paragraphs that the self is itself the light and is different from the body
and organs as well as their causes, desire and action and is not attached to them. We know that it is
not attached, because it moves from the waking to the dream state and then to the state of deep
sleep and again back to the dream and then the waking state, proving that it is distinct from all these
three states. To explain this further, an illustration is given here. Just as a big fish in a river moves
freely from one bank to the other, never affected by the currents of the river, so does this infinite
being move to both the states of dream and waking. The point of this illustration is that the body and
organs, which are described as forms of death, together with their causes, desire and action, are the
attributes of the non - self and that the self is distinct from them.
Br.up.4.3.6.S.B - - - sushuptaat cha utthaanam - - - We awake from deep sleep with the
remembrance that we slept happily and knew nothing.
Br.up.4.3.21.S.B - - - sa yadi aatmaa avinashTah - - - - - - - duHkhii veti veda. - - - - - A doubt may

arise -- If the self remains unaffected and in its own form during deep sleep, why does it not know
itself then or know all other things, as it does in the waking and dream states? The reason is unity.
This is explained by the s'ruti with an illustration. As a man, when fully embraced by his beloved wife,
both desiring each other's company, does not know anything at all, either external, such as 'This is
something other than myself', or internal, such as 'I am happy or unhappy', but he knows everything
external and internal when he is not embraced by her and is separated, so also, this infinite being, the
individual self, who is separated from the supreme Self (in the waking and dream states) because of
having entered the body and organs, like the reflection of the moon in water, becomes unified with the
supreme Self in deep sleep and does not know anything external or internal, such as 'I am happy or
unhappy'.
Br.up.4.3.22.S.B. - - - atra cha etat prakr.tam - - - - - - - - "In this state a father is no father, a mother is
no mother, worlds are no worlds, the gods are no gods, the Vedas are no Vedas. In this state a thief
is no thief, the killer of a noble braahmaNa is no killer, and so on".
The form of the self that is directly perceived in the state of deep sleep is free from ignorance, desire
and action. The s'ruti says that in this state a father is no father. His fatherhood towards a son is on
account of the action of begetting. Since he is dissociated from all action in the state of deep sleep he
is not a father then. Similarly, the son ceases to be a son in the state of deep sleep. All other
relationships also cease to apply in this state.
Br.up.4.3.23.S.B. - - - striipumsayoriva ekatvaat - - - - drashTr.bhaavinii hi saa. - - - It was said that

the self does not experience anything during deep sleep because of unity and this was illustrated by
the example of a couple. It was also said that the self is pure consciousness. Now the doubt arises --
if consciousness is the very nature of the self, just as heat is of fire, how can it give up that nature
even in sleep and fail to see anything? The answer is - the reason for its not seeing anything in sleep
is that there is then no second thing separate from it which it can see. What caused the particular
vision in the waking and dream states, namely, the mind, the eyes and forms, were all presented by
nescience as something different from the self. They are all unified in the state of deep sleep. The
organs and objects are not there as separate entities in sleep. There is therefore no particular
experience, for such experience is produced by the organs and objects and not by the self, and only
appear as produced by the self. But the vision of the self can never be lost.
Br.up.4.3.32.S.B. - - - yatra punaH saa avidyaa - - - - - - s'rutivachanametat.
When, however, that ignorance which projects things other than the self is at rest, in the state of deep
sleep, what can one see, smell, or know and through what? Then, being fully embraced by the self -
luminous supreme Self, the jiiva becomes infinite, perfectly serene, with all his desires attained. Then
there is no second entity different from the self to be seen. In deep sleep the self, freed of its limiting
adjuncts, remains in its own supreme light, free from all relationships.
Br.up.4.3.32.S.B. - - - etasyaiva aanandasya anyaani - - - - - - vibhaavyamaanaam. - - - On a particle

of this very bliss, projected by ignorance, and perceived only during the contact of the organs with
objects, all other beings are sustained. Who are they? Those who have been separated from that
bliss by nescience and consider themselves as different from Brahman. Being thus different, they
subsist on a fraction of that bliss which is experienced through the contact of the sense - organs with
their objects. (It follows from this that when one realizes one's identity with Brahman one enjoys this
bliss in its plenitude, nay, one becomes that very bliss itself).
In Panchadas'i, ch.15, the process by which one experiences happiness in the waking state is
explained. Any happiness experienced by any person is really nothing but the bliss of Brahman. As
long as there is some unfulfilled desire, the mind remains agitated. When the desire is fulfilled the
mind becomes temporarily calm and sattvaguNa becomes predominant. In such a mind the bliss of
the self becomes reflected clearly, The happiness experienced is therefore the result of the mind
having become calm, but it is wrongly attributed by people to the fulfillment of the desire. When the
mind is free from all desire, when there is total detachment, the bliss of the self is experienced in its
fullness. So it is said in Panchadas'I,15.18 that the greatest happiness results only from detachment.
MaND.up.5.S.B. - - - manasaH vishayavishayyaakaara - - - - - -
He is full of joy (in the state of deep sleep), his abundance of joy being caused by the absence of the
suffering involved in the effort of the mind in experiencing objects; but he is not Bliss itself, since the
joy is not absolute.
19. Jiiva (Individual Soul)
The Jiiva is defined in Panchadas'i 4.11 thus: - The substratum or the pure consciousness, the subtle
body, and the reflection of pure consciousness in the subtle body together constitute the jiiva.
Panchadas'i 3.41 - - - Brahman when looked upon as associated with the five sheaths (kos'as) is
known as the jiiva, just as a man is called a father or a grandfather in relation to his son or grandson.
Verse 42 says -- As a man is neither a father nor a grandfather when considered apart from his son
or grandson, so Brahman is neither iis'vara nor jiiva when not considered as associated with maayaa
or the five sheaths.
MaaNDuukya Kaarikaa 1.16 - - - When the jiiva who is sleeping under the influence of beginningless
maaya is awakened, he realizes the birthless, sleepless, dreamless, non - dual (Brahman). The
waking and dream states are both considered to be only dream, because, in both states the Reality is
not known and only what is unreal is experienced and is looked upon wrongly as real. In sleep there
is ignorance of the Reality, though there is no projection of what is unreal. Both dream and deep
sleep in this sense are absent in Brahman. So it is said that Brahman is dreamless and sleepless. By
saying that Brahman is birthless it is implied that it does not undergo any of the changes which
everything in this world is subject to. When the jiiva becomes free from nescience or maayaa, he
ceases to be a jiiva and realizes his real nature as Brahman.
Br.up.2.5.15.S.B. - - - puurvamapi brahmaiva sat - - - - sarvaH saH sarvam abhavat.
Even before realization one was always Brahman, but through ignorance one considered oneself
different from Brahman; one has always been all, but through ignorance one considered oneself
otherwise. By getting rid of this ignorance through the knowledge of Brahman, the knower of
Brahman, who has always been Brahman, is said to have 'become' Brahman. Having always been
all, he is said to have 'become' all. The idea is that every individual, even when he considers himself
as a transmigrating entity, is really Brahman alone. He has only to realize this truth. Bondage being
not real, but only the result of ignorance of this truth, it can be removed only by the knowledge of the
truth. If a thorn has actually pierced the skin of a person, the pain caused can be removed only by the
action of removing the thorn. But if one's suffering is due to having mistaken a rope for a snake, that
suffering can be removed only by the knowledge that there is only a rope and not a snake and not by
any action. So also, bondage, which is only due to wrongly considering oneself as the body, mind and
organs, can be eradicated only by the realization that one is the Self which is beyond all suffering.
jiiva and saakshii - - difference
When the self is looked upon as qualified by the internal organ, that is to say, when the self and the
internal organ are considered as inseparable, the self is called jiiva. So the jiiva is described as
antaHkaraNa - vis'ishTa - chaitanyam. The jiiva is therefore looked upon as an agent and enjoyer, by
attributing the qualities of the internal organ to it.
When the internal organ is considered as merely an adjunct (upaadhi) of the self, the self is known as
saakshii or witness. In such a concept, the agency and enjoyment as well as the various changes of
the internal organ do not at all affect the self, which is a mere witness to them. The self is, in this
case, known as saakshii or antaHkaraNa - upahita - chaitanyam or the self with the internal organ as
the upaadhi.
Both these terms apply only in the empirical stage, when there is nescience. The self becomes a seer
only when it is qualified by the internal organ. It becomes a witness only in the presence of the
internal organ. By itself, the self is neither a seer, hearer, etc, nor a witness.
B.S.2.3.17.S.B - - - It is pointed out here that the jiiva has no birth or death. The s'ruti clearly denies
birth to the jiiva - "Unborn, eternal" (kaTha. 1.2.18). "This great birthless self" (Br.up.4.4.25). It is
Brahman, the one without a second, that enters the intellect and appears as the jiiva. The taitt.up.2.6
says -- "Having created it, Brahman entered into it".
B.S.2.3.18.S.B. - - - The Vais'eshikas say that consciousness is not the very nature of the jiiva,
because it is not found to be conscious in deep sleep. This is refuted by this suutra by saying that it is
Brahman itself that, being limited by the body - mind complex, appears as the jiiva. Therefore
consciousness is its very nature and is not destroyed even in sleep.
B.S.2.3.29.S.B. - - - This suutra refutes the view that the jiiva is atomic. Since the jiiva is none other
than the supreme Brahman, it is also infinite.
B.S.2.3.40.S.B. - - - The Nyaaya view that agency of the jiiva is real is refuted here and it is said that
agency is only superimposed on the jiiva. The s'ruti says -- "This aatmaa is unattached"
(Br.up.4.3.15). All scriptural injunctions are with reference to the conditioned aspect of the self which
is due to nescience. In its essential nature the jiiva is actionless, but appears to act only because of
association with the upaadhi in the form of the body - mind complex.
B.S.2.3.43.S.B. - - - Here it is clarified that the statements in the scriptures describing the jiiva as a
spark from a fire mean only that it is identical with Brahman and not a part of Brahman in the literal
sense, since Brahman cannot have any parts.
B.S.2.3.46.S.B. - - - Though the jiiva is described as a part of Brahman or God, God does not
experience pleasure and pain like the jiiva, who, on account of ignorance of his real nature, attributes
to himself the joys and sorrows of the body and mind. If the jiiva realizes that he is different from the
body and mind, he will also have no suffering. God is beyond the control of maayaa or nescience and
does not identify Himself with the bodies. He does not therefore experience any suffering. This point
has been dealt with in the Bhaashya on B.G. 13.2 also, in a very elaborate manner.
B.S.2.3.49.S,B. - - - It may be argued that if the same Brahman dwells in all bodies, everyone may
have to experience the results of the actions of everyone else. This suutra dispels this doubt. A
particular jiiva is connected only with a particular body - mind complex and so the jiivas are different
from one another(as jiivas).
B.S.2.3.50.S.B. - - - The jiiva is only a reflection of Brahman in the internal organ (mind). The
reflections in different minds are different, like the reflections of the sun in different vessels of water.
Therefore, just as the trembling of a particular reflection of the sun cannot cause any disturbance to
the other reflections, so also the experiences or the karma of any particular jiiva cannot affect other
jiivas.
Iis'vara's creation and jiiva's creation
In Panchadas'i - 4.17to 4.40 a distinction is made between God's creation and creation by the
individual souls. Though all objects in the world are created by God, their enjoyment and the reaction
of each individual towards a particular object depend on his karma and the vaasanas in his mind. A
gem, which is a creation of God, may produce different reactions in different persons. One man may
feel happy on having got the gem, while another man is unhappy because he has not been able to
get it. Another person may not be interested at all in the gem and so may not feel either joy or sorrow
on seeing it.(Verses20 and 21). The Jiiva creates these three feelings of happiness, disappointment
and indifference with regard to the gem, but the nature of the gem as created by God remains the
same. Verse 31 says that every object has two aspects, the material and the mental. The material
aspect always remains the same, but the mental aspect varies according to the mental make - up of
the person who sees it. Moreover, though God has created all objects, the extent to which each
individual is able to get them is dependent on his karma. It is therefore said in verse 19 that for the
actual enjoyment of objects it is the modifications or functions of the mind of the jiiva that are
responsible. An example is given in verses 34 and 35 to show that the cause of a man's bondage and
suffering is his own mental world. When a man was told by someone that his son who was in a far -
off place was dead, he began to cry, though the news was not true. But even if the son had actually
died, but he had not received the news, he would have felt no grief. In a dream, even though no
objects are actually present, a person feels joy and sorrow, but in deep sleep, no joy or sorrow is felt,
even if there are objects around (verse 33). Verse 42 says that the world of duality created by God is
rather a help than an obstacle to the realization of non - duality. It is the creation of the jiiva that is the
cause of suffering. By controlling the mind one can ultimately attain realization of the non - dual
Brahman (verse 64).
Different theories about the nature of jiiva and iis'vara
Among Advaitins there are three different theories on this point. These are described in Vichaara
saagara, ch.6, para 449 onwards.
1. aabhaasavaada (Semblance theory) -- This is the vaada or theory adopted in Panchadas'i.
According to this, the jiiva is an aabhaasa or semblance of Brahman in the internal organ which is an
effect of avidyaa. This reflection or semblance is mithyaa or illusory. In B.S.2.3.50.S.B it is said - -
The jiiva is an aabhaasa or semblance of the supreme Self, like the semblance of the sun in water.
The jiiva is not the Self itself, nor is it something different.
In the Bhaashya on Ch.up.6.3.2 S'rii S'ankara says that the jiiva is an aabhaasa or semblance of the
supreme Being.
2. pratibimbavaada (Reflection theory) -- This is the theory adopted by the author of VivaraNa,
Prakaas'aatma Muni. According to this, jiiva is the reflection of iis'vara who is the bimba or the original
in avidyaa. iis'vara, according to this theory, is Brahman or pure consciousness itself. Omniscience,
etc, are not His natural qualities. But in relation to jiiva who has limited knowledge, power, etc, the
qualities of being a bimba, iis'vara, etc, are superimposed. In this theory, the reflection, jiiva, is not
mithyaa, but real. This theory is expressed in Amr.tabindu upanishad,12 --
The one Self appears as different in different beings. It appears as one and as many, like (the
reflection of) the moon in water. See also B.S.3.2.18.S.B.
3. avachchhedavaada (Limitation theory) -- This is the view of the author of Bhaamatii, Vaachaspati
Mis'ra. In this theory the jiiva is a delimitation of consciousness by the internal organ, while iis'vara is
not so limited. This theory is employed by GauDapaada and S'ankara in MaaNDuukya Kaarikaa, 3.3
to 7. It is said in the Bhaashya on 3.3: - The Self is subtle, partless and all - pervasive like space. The
Self is spoken of as existing in the form of jiivas in the same way as space is referred to as existing in
the form of spaces circumscribed by pots. The idea implied is that the emergence of jiivas from the
supreme Self is comparable to the emergence of the spaces in different pots from the same all -
pervading space.
Trees also have consciousness
Ch.up.6.11.2.S.B - - - vr.kshasya rasasravaNa - - - - - That a tree is also a jiiva is indicated by such

signs as exudation and drying up of sap. From the illustration in the S'ruti that non - moving beings
also have consciousness, the view of the Buddhists and the Vais'eshikas that these have no
consciousness is proved to be wrong.
20. Iis'vara
Panchadas'i - 6.157 - - - iis'vara is the aabhaasa or semblance of Brahman in maayaa which is

prakr.ti constituted of pure sattva. He controls maayaa and is the antaryaamii or Inner Controller of all
beings. He is omniscient and is the cause of the universe.
According to the reflection theory iis'vara is the bimba and the jiiva is His reflection or pratibimba in
maayaa. In both the theories God is omniscient. There is no obstruction to his knowledge by
nescience, because of the absence of the veil in the form of gross and subtle bodies (Samkshepa
s'aariirakam 2.176).
Br.up.3.7 - - - antaryaami braahmaNam -- iis'vara as the antaryaamii controls all beings from within.
B.S.1.2.20.S.B - - - In Br.up. 3.7 the Inner Controller is distinguished from the embodied soul. But this
distinction is based on the limiting adjunct in the form of the body and organs, conjured up by
nescience; the distinction is not real. The indwelling Self can be only one, not two. The one Self is
spoken of as two because of the limiting adjuncts, like the space inside a pot being looked upon as
different from the total space. All the statements in the Vedas about the difference between the
knower and the known, doership and enjoyership, as well as all injunctions and prohibitions are
based on this standpoint. The text "Because when there is duality, as it were, then one sees another,
etc " (Br.up.2.4.14) shows that all dealings are only in the state of ignorance, while the text "But when
to the knower of Brahman everything has become the Self, what (other thing) can he see and through
what (sense - organ)" denies all such activity after the rise of Self - knowledge.
Br.up.3.8.12 - - - When Brahman has as the limiting adjunct the power of eternal and infinite
knowledge (maayaa) it is called iis'vara or antaryaamii.
B.S.1.1.20.S.B - - - God may take various forms at His will through His power of maayaa to bless
devotees.
B.S.2.1.34,35.S.B - - - No partiality or cruelty can be attributed to God because of the inequality found
in creation. The difference is due to the merits or demerits of individuals, acquired as a result of
actions in past births. God is comparable to rain. While rain is the common cause of the sprouting of
all seeds sown, the nature of the sprout depends on the seed. Similarly, while God is the common
cause of all creation, the nature of a particular individual's life depends on the seed he has sown in
the form of actions in past births. God cannot therefore be considered responsible for the inequalities
in the world. Creation is without any beginning and so there is no such thing as the first birth of a
particular individual for which it could be said that there would be no cause in the form of past karma.
B.S.2.3.46.S.B - - - God does not undergo suffering as the jiiva does, because He has no
identification with the body. Even the jiiva will become free from all suffering when he gives up
identification with the two bodies and realizes that he is the pure Self, untouched by anything that
happens to the body or mind. It is further pointed out here that while a reflection of the sun in a vessel
of water may shake when the water shakes, the sun itself is not at all affected, so also God is not
affected, though the individual soul may be, by what happens to the limiting adjuncts.
B.S.3.2.38,39.S.B - - - The fruits of all actions are given by God. The fruit cannot emerge out of
apuurva, the unseen potency, which, being insentient, cannot act unless stimulated by some
conscious agent. This suutra refutes the view of the Miimaamsakas that karma itself gives the result
through apuurva and it is not necessary to postulate a God for the purpose.
B.S.2.1.14.S.B - - - sarvajnasya iis'varasya aatmabhuute - - - - - - - - - -
Name and form which constitute the seeds of the entire phenomenal existence and which are the
products of nescience are non - different from the omniscient God and cannot be classified either as
real or as unreal. They are described in the Vedas and the Smr.tis as the power of God, called
maayaa. Like space being apparently limited by a pot, etc, God appears limited by the limiting
adjuncts in the form of name and form, which are created by nescience. And within the domain of
empirical existence God rules over the selves which identify themselves with the individual minds and
which are, in essence, identical with God. Thus God's rulership, omniscience and omnipotence are
based on the limiting adjuncts conjured up by nescience; but in reality such terms as 'ruler', 'ruled',
'omniscience', etc, are not applicable when speaking of the Self, shining in its own pure nature, after
the cessation of the limiting adjuncts as a result of right knowledge. Therefore all the upanishads
declare the cessation of all empirical dealings in the state of the Highest Reality. It is with reference to
this unconditioned Brahman that the Lord says in B.G. 5.14 and 15: - - "Neither agency nor action
does the Lord create for the world, nor does he bring about the union with the fruit of action. It is
nature or maayaa that does all that. The omnipresent Lord does not take note of the merit and
demerit of anyone. Knowledge is covered by ignorance and so all beings become deluded". It is seen
from this that in the state of the Highest Reality all transactions like those between the ruler and the
ruled, etc, cease to exist. But within the state of phenomenal existence, even the s'ruti speaks of
divine rulership, etc, as in Br.up. 4.4.22: - - "He is the Lord of all. He is the ruler of all beings. He is the
protector of all. He is the embankment that serves as the boundary to keep the different worlds apart".
(Thus the difference between the standpoints from which the unconditioned Brahman, on the one
hand, and the conditioned Brahman or God, on the other, are spoken of is brought out here).
21. Maayaa
Panchadas'i.6.130 - - - From the standpoint of the ordinary worldly man, maayaa is real. From the
standpoint of the man of realization, maayaa has no existence at all. For those who try to understand
it through reasoning, maayaa cannot be determined as either real or unreal; it is anirvachaniiya.
S'rii S'ankara says in maayaapanchakam that maayaa has the capacity to make the impossible
happen. It imposes on Brahman, which is eternal and devoid of parts and which is pure
Consciousness, the false distinctions as the world, individual souls and God. It makes even those
who have mastered all the scriptures no different from animals by tempting them with wealth and the
like. It makes Brahman which is infinite bliss, pure Consciousness and non - dual, struggle in the
ocean of samsaara by associating it with the body made up of the five elements. It imposes on
Brahman which is devoid of qualities the distinctions of colour, caste, etc, and attachment to wife,
son, possessions and the like. It creates even in non - dual Brahman distinctions such as Brahmaa,
Vishnu and S'iva and deludes even the learned into thinking that they are different from one another.
S'v.up.4.10 - - - prakr.ti is maayaa and the supreme Lord is the wielder of maayaa.
V.C. verse 110 - - - maayaa is called 'Unmanifest'. It is the power of Parames'vara, the supreme Lord.
It is beginningless Nescience. It is constituted of the three guNas, sattva, rajas and tamas. Its
existence cannot be directly known, but can only be inferred from its effects. It is the cause of this
universe.
V.C.verse 111 - - - it is neither real, nor unreal, nor both. It is neither different from Brahman, nor non
- different, nor both. It is neither possessed of parts, nor without parts, nor both. It is most wonderful
and is of indescribable nature.
V.C.verse 112 - - - This maayaa can be destroyed by the realization of the pure non - dual Brahman
just as the illusory snake is negated by the knowledge of the rope which is its sub - stratum.
B.G.7.14 - - - The Lord says -- " This divine maayaa of Mine is difficult to overcome. Those who take
refuge in Me alone can cross over this maayaa".
B.G.13.1.S.B - - - prakr.tis'cha triguNaatmikaa - - - - -
It is prakr.ti or maayaa made up of the three guNas that has become transformed as all the bodies,
organs and objects for subserving the ends of the individual souls, namely, enjoyment and liberation.
22. Jnaanam and Dhyaanam - Difference
B.S.1.1.4.S.B. - - - nanu jnaanam naama maanasii kriyaa. na, vailakshaNyaat - - - - - - - - veditavyam.
jnaanam (knowledge) is not a mental act, because there is a difference (between knowledge and
meditation). A mental act is seen to exist where there is an injunction about it, which is independent of
the nature of the thing concerned. dhyaanam (meditation), is a mental act, because it depends on the
will of the person performing it. For example, to think of a man or woman as fire, as enjoined in " O
Gautama, man is surely fire" (Ch.up.5.7.1) , or in "O Gautama, woman is surely fire" (Ch.up.5.8.1) is
certainly a mental act, since it arises from an injunction alone. But the idea of fire with regard to the
well - known fire is not dependent on any injunction or on the will of any man. (In other words, thinking
of one thing as another, like a linga as Lord S'iva and worshipping it as such, is meditation and it is a
mental act, because it depends on the will of the worshipper. But looking at an ordinary stone and
seeing it as a stone is knowledge and is not a mental act, because it does not depend on the will of
the person). While meditation depends on the will of a person, knowledge depends only on the object
concerned and on valid means of knowledge, such as perception. Meditation is therefore described
as purusha - tantra (dependent on the person), while knowledge is called vastu - tantra (dependent
on the object to be known).
23. Karma
The word 'karma' is used in two different senses in Vedaanta - - - (1) the results of actions performed,
in the form of merit and demerit (puNya and paapa), which produce their effects later on, usually in
another birth, and (2) the action itself, whether secular or religious. We shall deal with the first
category here. The second will be dealt with subsequently.
Karma, in the sense of results of actions performed, is divided into three categories . (1) sanchita
karma -- the accumulated results of actions performed in past births, (2) praarabdha karma - - those
results of past actions which have given rise to the present body and (3) aagaami karma -- the results
of actions performed in the present birth. On the dawn of Self - knowledge the first category is
completely destroyed along with the third category acquired upto the time of attainment of knowledge.
After the dawn of Self - knowledge any action performed does not produce any result in the form of
merit or demerit. The second category is not destroyed on the attainment of Self - knowledge, but has
to be exhausted only by being actually experienced. On the exhaustion of this category of karma the
body of the enlightened person falls and the jiivanmukta becomes a videhamukta.
Br.up.1.4.7.S.B - - - s'ariiraarambhakasya karmaNaH niyataphalatvaat - - - - - - - - -

anyaarthaasambhavaat.
The past actions that gave rise to the present body must necessarily produce their results and so the
body, mind and organs will continue to function even after the attainment of Self - knowledge, just as
an arrow that has already been discharged must continue to move forward until its force is exhausted.
The operation of Self - knowledge, which is weaker than the praarabdha karma, is liable to be
affected by the latter. There is therefore need to keep up the train of remembrance of the knowledge
of the Self by means of renunciation of action and detachment.
Br.up.1.4.10.S.B - - - yena karmaNaa s'ariiram aarabdham - - - - itarat.
The residue of praarabdha karma is the cause of the body continuing even after the attainment of
knowledge. Knowledge cannot prevent the results of this category of Karma from producing their
effect, since the two are not contradictory to each other.
Ch.up.6.14.2.S.B - - - yaani pravr.ttaphalaani - - -
Those actions which have started yielding results and by which the body of the man of knowledge
was brought into existence get exhausted only by their results being actually experienced, just as an
arrow that has gathered momentum after having been discharged stops only when the momentum is
exhausted.
Br.up.4.4.22.S.B - - - s'ariiraarambhakayostu upabhogenaiva kshayaH
Actions that caused the present body are exhausted only by the results being experienced.
B.G.4.37.S.B - - - Since the karma because of which the present body came into existence has
already taken effect, it gets exhausted only by being experienced. Self - knowledge destroys only
those actions performed in past lives and in the present life prior to the dawn of knowledge which
have not yet taken effect. Actions performed after the dawn of knowledge do not produce any effect in
the form of merit or demerit.
Karma in the sense of the actual action, both religious and secular.
Br.up.1.3.1.S.B - - - yathaa svargakaamaadidoshavataH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

karmaavasaraH asti
As the rites with material ends (kaamya karma), such as the new and full moon sacrifices, are
enjoined on one who desires to attain heaven,etc, so are the regular and obligatory rites (nitya and
naimittika karma) on one who has the root of all evils, namely ignorance, and the consequent defects
of attachment and aversion, manifesting themselves as the quest for what is pleasant and avoidance
of the unpleasant. Rites such as agnihotra, chaaturmaasya, pas'ubandha and somayaaga are n ot
intrinsically either rites with material ends (kaamya) or obligatory rites (nitya).They come under the
former category only when they are performed with desire for results such as heaven. (The same
rites can also be performed without desire for the result, in which case they become nishkaama
karma and have the effect of purifying the mind and making it fit for Self - knowledge). No rites are
enjoined in the scriptures for one who has realized the true nature of the Self. Self - knowledge arises
only on the obliteration of the very cause of rites. One who has realized that he is Brahman has no
obligation to perform even the obligatory rites. (They are not applicable to him, though he may still
perform them to set an example to others or for the general welfare, as stated by the Lord in the
Bhagavad - gita).
The aspirant for liberation must worship the gods by means of the rites prescribed for him - - - -
Br.up.1.4.10.S.B - - - tasmaat mumukshuH -- Therefore the mumukshu should be devoted to the
worship of the gods. (Here is another instance where S'rii S'ankara stresses the need for devotion
even for an aspirant for liberation. This disproves the contention of some that there is no place for
devotion in Advaita).
Br.up.3.3.1.S.B - - - tasmaat saabhisandhiinaam - - - - - - - - - - phalaani
Therefore the obligatory rites and rites like sarvamedha and as'vamedha performed with desire for
the fruit lead to the attainment of oneness with hiraNyagarbha, etc.
yeshaam punaH nityaani nirabhisandhiini - - - - - - - - - - - -
But in the case of those who perform the obligatory rites without desire for the fruit, merely for the
purification of the mind, the rites help towards the attainment of Self - knowledge.
B.G.18.9.S.B - - - nityaanaam karmaNaam - - - - - - phalam cha iti - - -
We said that the Lord's utterance is proof of the fact that nitya and naimittika karma also yield fruit.
Or, even if these are considered to be devoid of any fruit on the ground that no fruit is mentioned in
the s'ruti, still the ordinary, unenlightened man does certainly think that these produce a result in the
form of purification of the mind or avoidance of evil. The Lord indicates by the words 'giving up the
fruit' that even this thought should be given up.
See also the commentary of Aanandagiri on Br.up.1.3.1.
Br.up.3.5.1.S.B - - - na hi paramaarthaavadhaaraNa - - - - - - - - - -
We do not postulate the existence of things different from Brahman in the state when one is
established in the highest truth. See 'one only without a second' (2.5.19) and 'without interior or
exterior' (3.8.8). Nor do we deny the validity, for the unenlightened, of actions with their factors and
results as long as the relative world of name and form is accepted as existent.
Br.up.4.4.22.S.B - - - vedaanuvachana - yajna - daana - tapaH - s'abdena - - - - - - - -

ekavaakyataavagatiH.
The words 'study of the Vedas, sacrifices, charity and austerity' refer to all obligatory rites (nitya
karma). Thus all the obligatory rites (that is all those other than kaamya karma) serve as means to
liberation through the attainment of Self - knowledge. Hence we see that the ultimate purpose of the
two parts of the Vedas, that dealing with rites and that dealing with Self - knowledge, is the same,
(namely liberation).
Br.up.4.4.22.S.B - - - Commentary of Aanandagiri - - - aatmalokam ichchhataam mumukshuuNaam -

- - - - vaktavyam ityarthaH.
When the Vedas speak of renunciation of action even for the mumukshu, is it necessary to point out
that there is no action to be performed by one who has already realized the Self? (It must be
mentioned here that one becomes fit to called a mumukshu only when one has attained total
detachment. In his Bhaashya on B.G.4.11, S'rii S'ankara says that a person cannot be a mumukshu
and have desire for other fruits also at the same time. Thus only a yogaaruuDha, one who has
attained total detachment, is a mumukshu).
taitt.up.1.1.S.B - - - nityaanaam cha akaraNam - - - - - - - - The mere non - performance of the

obligatory duties cannot give rise to a positive demerit (paapa), because something positive cannot
arise from a mere negation (abhaava). The failure on the part of a person to perform obligatory duties
(laid down in the scriptures) is merely an indication that he has accumulated sins resulting from past
actions. (The performance of the obligatory duties eradicates such accumulated sins, while, by their
non - performance, the sins continue. Thus the view of Advaita Vedaanta in this matter is opposed to
that of the Miimaamsakas who hold that non - performance produces a new sin).
(A future sorrow is called a pratyavaaya, which, being a positive entity, cannot have a non - entity as
its cause. For, according to Br.up.4.4.5, 'Sin arises from sin', sorrow is caused by the performance of
prohibited actions -- Aanandagiri).
taitt.up.1.11.S.B - - - puurvopachitaduritakshaya - - - - - - - karmaaNi
The Vedic rites help in the attainment of Self - knowledge by eradicating the accumulated sins.
taitt.up.1.11.S.B - - - svaatmalaabhe tu puurvopachita - - - - - nityaaniiti.
For the attainment of Self - knowledge, the nitya karma becomes the means only by eradicating the
obstruction in the form of accumulated sins. (karma cannot by itself lead to knowledge or liberation,
because liberation is not something produced).
The fruit of karma is given by God
Br.up.3.8.9.S.B - - - tat cha karmaphalena - - - - - phalena samyojayitaa.
Awarding of the fruits of karma would be impossible if there were no ruler who, knowing the results of
the various actions, unites the performer of action with its result. (The theory of apuurva of the
Miimaamsakas is rejected. See also B.S.3.2.38&39.S.B under the head "iis'vara').
Br.up.4.4.5.S.B - - - tatra kaamakrodhaadipuurvaka - - - - - samsaarasya kaaraNam.
Doing good and bad deeds under the impulse of desire, anger, etc, is the cause of bondage and
passing from one body to another.
atho api anye - - - - - kaamamaya eva iti. Others, however, say: - - It is under the influence of desire
that man performs good and bad deeds. When desire is gone, any action performed does not lead to
the accumulation of merit or demerit. Therefore desire is the root cause of transmigratory existence.
As the MuND. Up. says - - - He who longs for objects of sense, thinking highly of them, is born along
with those desires, in circumstances in which he can realize them. (3.2.2). Therefore the Self is
identified with desire alone.
kaamya karma also produces some purity
Br.up.Bhaashya Vaartika, Sambandhabhaashya - verse 1130 says - - - purification does occur

through kaamya karma also. But that is useful only for the enjoyment of the fruit of the karma (and not
for liberation). Surely, one cannot enjoy the pleasures befitting Indra with the body of a hog (which is
impure).
Br.up.4.5.15.S.B - - - karmaNaam cha avidvatvishayatvam - - - - vividishanti iti.
We have said that rites are for the unenlightened. As long as there is ignorance of the Self, there is
need for the performance of rites which are intended to produce, attain, modify or purify. (These are
the four kinds of results produced by action). Rites are the means to Self - knowledge through the
purification of the mind.
Br.up.6.2.1.S.B - - - kevalena karmaNaa pitr.lokah - - - - - - devalokah.
Mere rites lead to the world of the manes and meditation combined with rites leads to heaven.
Ch.up.S.B. Introduction - - samastam karmaadhigatam - - - - -
Rites performed along with meditation on various deities lead to the attainment of Brahmaloka
through the path of light (devayaana maarga). Rites alone (without meditation) lead to the world of the
moon through the path of smoke, etc (pitr.yaana).
Rites performed with knowledge of the meaning of the mantras are more effective.
Ch.up.1.1.10.S.B - - - tasmaat yadeva vidyayaa vijnaanena - - - - - - bhavati iti abhipraayaH.
Therefore that rite which is performed with knowledge (of the meaning of the mantras), faith and
meditation is more effective than the rites performed by a man who does not know the meaning. By
declaring that a rite performed with knowledge of the meaning is more effective it is implied that a rite
performed by an ignorant man also produces results, though it is less effective.
Ch.up.1.1.10.S.B - - - na cha avidushaH - - - - - - - It is not as if an ignorant man is not competent to

perform rites, because in the story about Ushasta (Ch.up.1.10.1) it is seen that even a man ignorant
of the meaning can be a priest in the performance of rites.
But Bhaskararaya says in his Varivasyaarahasyam,ch.2, verses 54 to 56 - The utterance of sound

without a knowledge of the true import bears no fruit, and is only like an oblation poured into ashes.
Those who merely recite various mantras without knowing their meaning may be compared to a
donkey carrying a load of sandalwood.
The three debts (to the r.shis or sages, the manes and the gods) are only for householders.
B.S.1.1.1.Bhaamatii - - - ata eva na brahmachaariNaH - - - - - - -
Therefore for a brahmachaarii there are no debts (to sages, manes and gods), for the discharge of
which rites would have to be performed. Accordingly, the statement "A BraahmaNa is born with three
debts" should be explained as applicable only to householders. Otherwise the statement of the Veda
"Or, let him renounce from the stage of brahmacharya itself " would be contradicted. Even for the
householder the discharge of these three debts is only for the purpose of purification of the mind.
The same is stated also in the Introduction to Ait. Up. Bhashya.
B.S.1.1.1. Bhaamatii - - - tathaa hi - nityakarmaanushThaanaat - - - - - karmaNaam yuktam.
From the performance of the obligatory rites merit (puNya) is generated; as a result, demerit (paapa)
is attenuated; it is that demerit that made the mind impure through wrongly looking upon what is
transient, impure and miserable as eternal, pure and pleasant. On the cessation of paapa the world is
recognized as impermanent, impure and the cause of misery. Thus the obligatory rites are the remote
means for the attainment of Self - knowledge.
24. Mukti (Liberation)
Liberation is only cessation of nescience
Br.up.4.4.6.S.B - - - tasmaat avidyaanivr.ttimaatre mokshavyavahaaraH - - - - - - - sarpaadinivr.ttiH.
Therefore, as we have already said, the cessation of ignorance alone is what is known as liberation,
like the disappearance of the snake, for instance, from the rope when the wrong notion about its
existence has been eradicated.
Br.up.4.4.7.S.B - - - ataH mokshaH na des'aantaragamanaadi apekshate.
Therefore, liberation does not imply going to another place (world), etc.
Br.up.4.4.20.S.B - - - jnaanam cha tasmin paraatmabhaavanivr.ttiH eva. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

iti ubhayam api aviruddham eva.
The knowledge of Brahman means only the cessation of identification with external things (such as
the body, etc). Identity with Brahman is not something which requires to be attained, since it is always
there. Everyone is in reality always identical with Brahman, but wrongly considers himself to be
something different (due to ignorance). Therefore the scriptures do not enjoin that identity with
Brahman should be attained, but only that the false identification with things other than Brahman
should be given up. When the identification with other things (such as the body) is eradicated, the
identity with one's own Self, which is natural, prevails. This is what is meant by the statement that the
Self is realized. In itself the Self is unknowable, that is to say it cannot be made the object of any
means of knowledge (pramaaNa).
taitt.up. 1.1.S.B - - - aatmaa hi brahma - - - parapraaptiH.
The Self, indeed, is Brahman. The attainment of the highest will be declared for the knower of
Brahman (taitt.up.2.1.1). Therefore the establishment in one's own Self, on the eradication of
ignorance, is itself the attainment of the highest, namely, liberation.
B.S.3.4.52.S.B - - - brahma eva hi muktyavasthaa.
The state of liberation is itself Brahman.
B.S.3.4.52.S.B - - - tat hi asaadhyam nityasiddhasvabhaavam - - - - - - - iti asakr.t avadishma.
We have said more than once that liberation is not an effect to be attained; it is only to be realized
through knowledge, since it is eternally existent. (It is not some thing to be brought into existence by
any action, since it is ever present and has only to be realized as such).
taitt.up.1.11.S.B - - - ato vidyotpattyartham anushTheyaani karmaaNi.
The rites laid down have to be performed for the attainment of Self - knowledge (because they purify
the mind and make it fit for the rise of knowledge).
taitt. up.1.11.S.B - - - yathaa praaptameva kaarakaastitvam upaadaaya - - - - - virodhaH.
The scriptures, on the assumption of the existence of the accessories of action (such as doer, etc),
enjoin rites intended to eradicate the accumulated sins of those who aspire for liberation and also as
a means for the attainment of various results for those who hanker after them. They do not however,
at this stage, concern themselves with the question of the reality of those accessories. The rise of
Self - knowledge is unimaginable for a person who has hindrances in the form of accumulated sins.
On the attenuation of those sins, knowledge will emerge and nescience will be eradicated, resulting in
the realization of the illusory nature of the world. A person who perceives something as different from
himself may develop a craving for it. Impelled by desire, he engages himself in action. From that
follows the succession of further births for enjoying the fruits of those actions. On the other hand, for a
person who sees everything as the Self, no desire can arise. Such a person remains established in
the Self and is liberated from further birth. It follows from this that Self - knowledge and karma (action)
are opposed to each other.
taitt.up. 1.11.S.B - - - ataH kevalaayaaH eva vidyaayaaH param s'reyaH iti siddham.
Thus it is established that liberation is attained through knowledge alone.
taitt. up. 1.11.S.B - - - yato janmaantarakr.tamapi - - - - ishyate.
The karmas such as agnihotra and practices such as celibacy, etc, performed in past lives also help
the dawn of knowledge. It is because of this that some persons are found to possess detachment
even from their birth itself, while others are seen to be attached to the world and not inclined towards
enlightenment. Therefore, for those who have become free from attachment to worldly pursuits as a
result of tendencies acquired in past lives it is desirable to resort to the other stages of life (such as
sannyaasa).
taitt. up, 1.11.S.B - - - sarveshaam cha adhikaaraH vidyaayaam - - - - iti siddham.
Persons belonging to all aas'ramas are entitled to Self - realization. Liberation comes from Self -
knowledge alone (and not through any karma, though karma must be performed in the spirit of karma
- yoga for attaining fitness for knowledge).
B.S.3.4.36 to 39.S.B - - - Even those who do not belong to any aas'rama are entitled to attain Self -
knowledge (e.g. Raikva, Gaargii).
Br.up.1.4.7.S.B - - - na hi vedaanteshu brahmaatmavijnaanaat anyat - - - - - - - - - avagamyate.
In Vedaanta (upanishads) nothing is spoken of as a means to realization except the knowledge of the
identity of the self and Brahman. (This is said while refuting the contention that Yoga is also by itself a
means to liberation. While Patanjali's Yoga helps by developing one - pointedness of the mind, it does
not postulate the identity of the self and Brahman as Advaita does).
People of the present day can also attain Self - knowledge.
Br.up.1.4.10.S.B - - - seyam brahmavidyayaa sarvabhaavaapattih - - - - - tadvijnaanasya asti.
Some may think that the gods were able to realize this identity with all through the knowledge of
Brahman because of their extraordinary powers, but persons of the present age, particularly men, can
never attain it because of their limited capacity. In order to remove this wrong notion, it is said here --
"And even this day, whoever, curbing his interest in external things, strives for Self - knowledge, can
attain it. - - - - - - - - There is no difference as regards Brahman or the knowledge of It, between giants
like Vamadeva and the human weaklings of today".
Br.up.3.3.1.S.B - - - ajnaanavyavadhaananivartakatvaat jnaanasya mokshaH jnaanakaaryam iti

uchyate.
Because Self - knowledge removes the obstruction in the form of ignorance, liberation is
metaphorically said to be the result of knowledge. (Liberation is not really an effect or result at all,
since it is already existent in the sense that there is really no bondage at all).
Br.up.3.3.1.S.B - - - na cha ajnaanavyatirekeNa mokshasya - - - - - - - yat karmaNaa nivartyeta.
We cannot imagine any other obstruction to liberation than ignorance, because liberation is identical
with the self of the aspirant and is therefore eternal (and not something to be brought into existence
by any karma).
Br.up.3.3.1.S.B - - - na aapyo api aatmasvabhaavatvaat ekatvaat cha.
Liberation is not something to be attained because it is identical with the Self and (the Self) is one
(without a second).
Br.up.3.5.1.S.B - - - na hi paramaarthaavadhaaraNaanishThaayaam - - - kaachana virodhas'a.nkaa.
We do not maintain that things different from Brahman exist when the highest truth has been realized,
since the S'ruti says "One only, without a second" and "Without interior or exterior" (2.5.19 and 3.8.8).
Nor do we deny the validity, for the ignorant, of actions with their factors and results as long as the
relative world of name and form is considered as real. Therefore the standpoint depends on
knowledge or ignorance and there is no contradiction between the two.
Br.up.4.3.34.S.B - - - tasmaat samprasaadasthaanam - - -
The state of deep sleep is taken as the example for describing liberation in the upanishads.
Br.up.4.3.20.S.B - - - tasmaat na aatmadharmo avidyaa - - - - - - - - moksha upapadyate.
Therefore nescience is not a natural characteristic of the Self, for what is natural to a thing can never
be removed from it, like the heat and light of the sun. Liberation from ignorance is therefore possible.
Br.up.4.4.6.S.B - - - na hi vastutaH - - - - - - - upapadyate eva.
In reality, there is no distinction like bondage and liberation in the Self, because it is always the same;
but the ignorance covering it is removed by the knowledge arising from the teachings of the
scriptures.
Br.up.4.4.6.S.B - - - sarvadaa samaikarasam - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

vijnaanaphalamapekshya.
We hold that it is the definite conclusion of all the upanishads that we are nothing but the aatmaa, the
Brahman that is always the same, homogeneous, one without a second, unchanging, birthless,
undecaying, immortal, and free from all fear. Therefore the statement "He is merged in Brahman" is a
figurative one, meaning the cessation, as a result of knowledge, of the continuous chain of births and
deaths for one who was considering himself (out of ignorance) to be other than Brahman.
Br.up.4.4.7.S.B - - - ataH mokshaH na des'aantaragamanam - - - - iti uktam.
Therefore liberation does not mean going to another place (or world). The organs of a realized person
do not go anywhere else, but they merge in their cause, just where they are. As has been said in
Br.up. 3.2.12, only their names remain.
Br.up. 4.4.9.S.B - - - tasmaat ayameva mokshamaargaH - - - -
Therefore liberation is the absorption of the body and organs such as the eye in this very life, like the
extinguishing of a lamp, when transmigration comes to an end because of the exhaustion of all
desires.
Panchadas'i - 2.99 - - - Even after realization of the non - dual Reality, worldly dealings may continue
as before, but no reality would be attached to them. The enlightened man will continue to see the
world like every one else; but he will not be affected by anything that happens, knowing that joys and
sorrows are only for the body - mind complex and not for the Self. See also 4.40.
B.S.1.1.4.S.B - - - tatra kinchit pariNaaminityam syat - - - - - kaalatrayam nopaavartete.
Eternality is of two kinds, known as pariNaaminityam and kooTasthanityam. The first is what
continues to be recognized as the same, though undergoing changes, e.g. earth, etc, for those who
hold the universe to be eternal, or the guNas for the Saankhyas. The second category is what never
changes. Brahman is eternal in this sense.
B.S.1.1.4.S.B - - - avidyaakalpitabhedanivr.ttitvaat s'aastrasya.
The purpose of the scriptures is only to remove the notion of difference(duality) caused by nescience.
B.S.1.1.4.S.B - - - nityas'uddhabrahmasvaroopatvaat mokshasya.
Liberation is of the nature of Brahman which is eternally pure.
Liberation is not the result of action (karma).
B.S.1.1.4.S.B - - - ato anyanmoksham prati - - - - - - - - na upapadyate.
Apart from these (four), nobody can show any other mode by which liberation can be said to result
from action. Accordingly, there is not the slightest possibility of any action being the cause of
liberation.
Explanation: - The results of all actions fall under one or other of the following four categories --
production, attainment (or acquisition), transformation and purification. Brahman, being eternal, is not
something to be produced. Being all - pervading and one's own real nature, it is not something to be
attained or acquired. Being ever the same, it is not the transformation of something else, as curd is of
milk. Being ever pure, it is not to be got by purification of something else, as gold is obtained by
purification of ore. Non - realization of Brahman being due only to ignorance, knowledge alone can
lead to its realization.
V.C. verse 2 - Commentary of H.H.Chandrasekhara Bharati Svami --
tena saalokya - saamiipya - saaruupya - saayujyaanaam mukhyamuktitvaabhaavaH suuchitaH

bhavati.
These four -- saalokya, etc, are not of the nature of liberation in the principal sense. Since they relate
only to saguNa Brahman, they are to be considered only as mithyaa or illusory.
Jiivanmukti - - - liberation even while living.
Br.up.4.4.6.S.B - - - tasmaat iha eva brahma eva - - - - - - - - - na s'ariirapaatottarakaalam
Therefore, being always Brahman, he is merged in Brahman, in this very life, not after the fall of the
body.
Jiivanmukti is also spoken of in B.G.S.B -- 2.51, 5.24, 6.27 and 18.25 - - - Liberation consists in
remaining identified with the changeless Self even while living in the present body. Liberation is not
something to be attained after death.
Br.up.4.4.6 -- na tasya praaNaa utkraamanti - - - - brahmaapyeti.
The organs of the realized person do not depart (to take up another body). Being already Brahman,
he merges in Brahman.
Br.up.3.2.11.S.B -- neti hovaacha yaajnavalkyo - - - - - uurmaya iva samudre.
The organs and objects do not depart, but attain identity with, or merge, in him only, their cause, the
man of realization, who is the Supreme Brahman, like waves in the ocean.
The characteristics of the jiivanmukta .
Vedaanta saara -- Chapter 6.
Jiivanmukto nama - - - - A person liberated - in - life is one who, by the realization of the Absolute
Brahman, his own Self, has dispelled the ignorance regarding It and who is free from all bondage and
is established in Brahman, because of the destruction of ignorance and all its effects . See also
muND. Up. 2.2.8. When he is not in samaadhi he experiences sense - objects as well as hunger,
thirst, etc, but does not consider them to be real and is therefore not at all affected by them. He is like
a man witnessing a magical performance, being fully aware that what he sees is not real.
"He who does not see anything in the waking state as in sound sleep; who, though seeing duality,
does not really see it as he sees only the Absolute; who, though engaged in action (for the good of
the world),is in reality inactive (being totally free from the idea of agency); he, and none other, is the
knower of the Self. This is the truth." (S'ankara's upades'asaahasrii,5).
"Such qualities as freedom from hatred are natural to one who has attained Self - knowledge. They
have not to be cultivated with effort (as in the case of an aspirant for liberation)" - - -
naishkarmyasiddhi,4.69.
Videhamukti
A jiivanmukta (one who is liberated in life) continues to live till the praarabdhakarma which gave rise
to the present body is exhausted. Then his body falls and he attains videhamukti or Absolute
oneness, from which there is no return (see S'rii S'ankara's Vaakya vr.tti - verses 52,53).
"His sense - organs do not depart elsewhere (for taking up another body)" -- Br.up.4.4.6.
"They (the sense - organs) are absorbed in him" -- Br.up.3.2.11.
"Already liberated, he is freed (from further birth)" - KaTha up. 2.2.1.
Ch.up.6.14.2.S.B -- For a person who has already become a jiivanmukta the delay (in attaining
videhamukti) is only till the body falls after the enjoyment of the fruits of action due to which it was
born.
KaTha up. 2.3.15.S.B -- By declaring "He attains Brahman here" (2.3.14), it has been shown that
there is no going to any other world for an enlightened man for whom all the knots of ignorance have
been destroyed on the realization of the identity of the self with the all - pervading and absolutely
attributeless Brahman, and who becomes Brahman even while living, as also asserted by another
text: "His organs do not depart. Being but Brahman, he is merged in Brahman" - Br.up.4.4.6.
Kramamukti (Liberation by stages).
It has been said earlier that a person who realizes his identity with Brahman becomes liberated even
while living (jiivanmukta). Such a person becomes a videhamukta when his body falls on the
exhaustion of his praarabdhakarma. There is another kind of liberation known as kramamukti or
liberation by stages. Those who meditate on Om go to Brahmaloka and attain liberation there. Others
who meditate on Brahman without the use of symbols also go to Brahmaloka by the path of the gods
and attain liberation there (B.S.4.3.15.S.B). Those who meditate with the help of symbols do not go to
Brahmaloka. In the meditations based on symbols, the meditations are not fixed on Brahman, the
symbols being the chief object and so the meditator does not attain Brahmaloka (B.S.4.3.16).
Meditation on a linga as S'iva or on a saalagraama as Vishnu are examples of meditation based on
symbols. So also are the meditations such as "Meditate on the mind as Brahman" (Ch.up.3.18.1),
"Meditate on the sun as Brahman" (Ch.up.3.19.1). Such meditators attain other results, but not
liberation.
B.S.4.3.10.S.B - - - kaaryabrahmalokapralayapratyupasthaane sati - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

sambhavatiityupapaaditam.
When the time for the final dissolution of the world of the conditioned Brahman is imminent, those
who are in that world and have acquired full realization there attain liberation along with
hiraNyagarbha. Such a liberation by stages has to be admitted on the strength of the upanishadic
texts.
25. Path of the Manes and Path of the Gods
Ch.up.S.B.Introduction - - - samastam karmaadhigatam - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

chandralokapratipattikaaraNam.
All the rituals performed along with meditation on praaNa and other deities become the means of
reaching Brahmaloka (the world of hiraNyagarbha) through the path of the gods (devayaana) . Rituals
alone (without meditation) are the means of attaining the Lunar region through the path of the manes
(pitr.yaana).
These paths are elaborated below.
Ch.up.5.1.1.S.B - - - saguNabrahmavidyayaa uttaraa gatiH uktaa. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
vaktavyaa iti aarabhyate.
It has been said that meditation on the conditioned Brahman leads to the path of the gods. Now, in
this fifth chapter, after reiterating that same path for the householder who knows the panchaagni
vidyaa (meditation on the five fires), and the celibates who are possessed of faith and perform other
forms of meditation, the path of transmigration (or the path of the manes) characterised by smoke,
etc, for those who perform rites alone (without meditation) is described in order to generate a spirit of
detachment (vairaagya).
The path of the gods (devayaana or the northern path) is described in Ch.up.5.10.1 as well as in
Br.up. 6.2.15. Some other upanishads also describe this path with some variations. Taking all these
descriptions together, the complete enumeration of the stages of the path of the gods is as follows:
First the deity of fire, then the deity of the day, the deity of the bright fortnight, the deity of the six
months when the sun travels northward, the deity of the year, the deity of the world of gods, the deity
of the air, the sun, the moon, the deity of lightning, the world of Varuna, the world of Indra, the world
of Prajapati, and finally Brahmaloka. (B.S.4.3.3). In B.S. 4.3.4 it is made clear that the terms fire,
bright fortnight, year, etc, refer to the deities identified with these. That deities are meant here, and
not marks or places of enjoyment, is indicated by the text of the Chhandogya upanishad, which says -
- "From the moon to the lightning. Then a superhuman being leads them to Brahman" - (Ch. up.
4.15.5, 5.10.1). In B.S. 4.3.7 it is asserted that these meditators go to the Saguna Brahman, for no
journey is possible to Nirguna Brahman which is all - pervading. This path is also known as the path
of light or archiraadimaarga.
The path of the manes (pitr.yaana or the southern path) is described in Ch.up. 5.10.3 and 4.
Householders who perform Vedic rites such as agnihotra and activities for public welfare such as
construction of tanks, wells and rest - houses and practise charity (these are known as ishTa, puurta
and dattam) go through the path of the manes. The stages in this path are the deity of smoke, the
deity of the night, the deity of the dark fortnight, the deity of the six months during which the sun
travels southward, the region of the manes, aakaas'a and the moon. This moon is King Soma.
Reaching there, they become identified with this moon and enjoy there. They are also in turn enjoyed
by the gods. Enjoyment is possible only with a body. Therefore the jiiva who reaches this moon by
this path gets a body produced out of the water particles and smoke rising out of his dead body,
which was his last offering on the earth into fire. The water, together with the smoke, arising out of the
cremated body envelops the jiiva and goes to the region of the moon and produces a body for
enjoyment. The enjoyment of the jiivas here consists in the companionship of the gods, who in turn
enjoy them by being served by them.
Those who go by the path of the manes have to return on the exhaustion of the results of the rites
and other good deeds performed by them, which earned them this path. This is described in Ch.up.
5.10.5 and 6. The aqueous body which the jiiva had in the region of the moon takes a subtle form like
aakaas'a and remains in the sky. Then it successively appears as air, smoke, white cloud and rain -
bearing cloud and then falls down in the form of rain. Then these jiivas come down to this world by
remaining attached to rice, barley, herbs and trees, sesamum plants, beans, etc. There is no certainty
where the rainwater will fall and where the jiivas attached to the grains etc, will go. When the rice, etc
is eaten by a male capable of reproduction, the jiiva attached to it may enter the womb of a female
and be born as a human being, animal, bird, or any other creature. This process and the difficulties in
the way are described in detail in the Bhaashya. The nature of the birth is determined by the residual
karma (See KaTh.up.2.2.7).
These two paths are also mentioned in B.G.8.24 and 25.

26. Transmigration
Death is the departure of the subtle body from the gross body. The gross body gets sentiency only
because of the reflection of Consciousness in the subtle body. When the subtle body departs the
gross body becomes insentient. The subtle body takes up another gross body. This process goes on
until the dawn of Self - knowledge. Then, on the fall of the gross body when the praarabdhakarma is
exhausted, the subtle body also ceases to exist and videhamukti is attained.
Br.up.4.3.35.S.B - - - itaH aarabhya asya samsaaraH varNyate - - - - - ityaaha atra dr.shTaantam.
From here onwards transmigration of the self is being described. An example is given to show how
the self passes from the present body to the next, in the same way as the self goes from the dream to
the waking state.
tat tatra yathaa loke - - - - - - - ityaaha kaaruNyaat s'rutiH.
Just as a cart, heavily loaded with various articles, moves rumbling under the load, so does the self
that is in the body, i.e. the self that has the subtle body as its limiting adjunct, move between this and
the next world, as between the waking and dream states, through birth and death, consisting
respectively in the association with and dissociation from the (gross) body. It should be noted here
that, when the subtle body, which has the vital force as its chief constituent, and which is illumined by
the self - luminous aatman, goes, the self, of which it is the limiting adjunct, also seems to go. This
happens when breathing becomes difficult, when the person is gasping for breath. Although this is an
occurrence that is commonly observed, the upanishad mentions it only to stimulate a spirit of
renunciation in us. Since at the time of death a man is in a helpless state of mind and cannot adopt
the means for attaining the final goal of life, he must practise the means earlier, when he is in a
position to do so. This is what the s'ruti indicates out of compassion.
Br.up.4.3.36.S.B - - - tasmaat rasaat - - - - - - - - - karma s'rutaadivas'aat aadravati.
Just as a fruit is detached from its stalk by the wind or by various other causes, so does this infinite
being, the self identified with the subtle body, i.e. the self with the subtle body as the limiting adjunct,
completely detach itself from all the parts of the gross body, such as the eye,etc. The word
'completely' indicates that the vital force does not remain in the body as in the state of deep sleep.
The self withdraws the subtle body, including the vital force (praaNa) and departs again. The use of
the word 'again' is to indicate that this subtle body has similarly gone from one gross body to another
many times before, just as it has moved frequently between the dream and waking states. It goes to
the particular gross body determined by the past work, knowledge, etc.
Br.up.4.3.37.S.B - - - - - tatra asya idam s'ariiram parityajya - - - - - - - - iti lokaprasiddho dr.shTaantaH

uchyate.
Now a question may arise - - - - When the jiiva goes leaving one gross body, he has no power to take
another by himself. Nor are there others who, like servants, would wait for him with another body
made ready, as a king's retinue waits for him with a house kept ready. How then can the jiiva get
another body? The answer is: He has adopted the whole universe as his means for the realization of
the results of his actions. Therefore the whole universe, impelled by his work, waits for him with the
requisite means for the realization of the results of his actions. The S'atapatha Brahmana says - "A
man is born into the body that has been made for him" (VI.II.ii.27). This process is illustrated by two
examples in 4.3.37 and 4.3.38. These examples are narrated below.
Br.up.4.3.37.S.B - - - - - tat tatra yathaa raajaanam - - - - - - - - - tathaa idam aagachchhati ityevameva
cha kr.tvaa pratiikshante ityarthaH.
Just as, when a king visits some place within his kingdom the leading citizens of that place, as well as
certain others appointed by the king to perform specific duties, wait for him with food and drink and a
palace kept ready for his stay, similarly, for the transmigrating self who is about to take up a new
body, the elements that are necessary for the creation of that body, as well as the presiding deities of
the organs, such as Indra and others, wait with the means of enjoyment of the results of his past
actions, saying "Here comes Brahman, our enjoyer and master".
Br.up.4.3.38.S.B - - - - tameva jigamishum - - - - - maraNakaale sarve praaNaa vaagaadaya

abhisamaayanti. Just as when the king wishes to go back, the leading citizens and others who had
received him approach him in a body, unbidden by the king, and simply knowing that he wishes to go,
so do all the organs approach the departing jiiva at the time of death.
Br.up.4.4.1.S.B - - - It has been said in 4.3.36 - "This infinite being, completely detaching himself from
the parts of the body" -- In order to explain when and how that detachment takes place, the process
of transmigration is described in detail in this section - - - Sa ayam aatmaa sammuuDha ayamiti - - -
When the self becomes weak - - - really it is the body that becomes weak, but its weakness is
figuratively spoken of as that of the self. The state of helplessness at the time of death, which is
caused by the withdrawal of the organs, is attributed by the ordinary man to the self. At this time the
organs, such as that of speech, come to the self. Then this self that is in the body is detached from
the parts of the body. How does this detachment take place and how do the organs come to the self?
This is being explained: Completely withdrawing these particles of light, i.e. the organs, such as the
eye, so called because they reveal colour etc. The word 'completely ' shows the distinction of this
state from sleep, in which they are just drawn in, but not absolutely, as in this case. The self then
comes to the heart, i.e. the ether in the lotus of the heart; in other words, the consciousness is
manifested in the heart. The self cannot, by itself, move or withdraw the activities of the organs. It is
through the limiting adjuncts, such as the intellect, that all changes and activities are attributed to the
self. When does it withdraw the particles of light? The answer is: the presiding deity of the eye, who is
an aspect of the sun, being directed by the individual's past actions, goes on helping the functioning
of the eye, but withdraws this help and becomes merged in the sun when the person is about to die.
Br.up.3.2.13 says that the vocal organ merges in fire, the vital force in air, the eye in the sun, and so
on, at the time of death. These organs again take up their respective places when the individual takes
another body.
Br.up.4.4.2.S.B - - - ekiibhavati karaNajaatam svena lingaatmanaa.
Every organ becomes united with the subtle body of the dying man.
Br.up.4.4.2.S.B -- tadaa upalakshyate devataanivr.ttiH karaNaanaam cha - - - - - - - nishkraamati.

This means that at the time of death the presiding deities cease to help the organs and the organs
become united with the subtle body with its seat in the heart. The top of the heart, i.e. the nerve - end,
which is the exit for the self, brightens. Through that top, brightened by the light of the self, the jiiva,
with the subtle body as its limiting adjunct, departs. (This departure of the subtle body is what is
known as death).
Br.up.4.4.2.S.B -- tatra cha aatmachaitanyajyotiH - - - - - - - - - - - gamanam iha vivakshitam.
In the subtle body the self - effulgent consciousness of the self is always particularly manifest. It is
because of this limiting adjunct that the self appears to have birth, death and all activities. As the self
(with the subtle body as limiting adjunct) departs, by which way does it leave the body? Through the
eye, if the individual has a store of work or knowledge that would take it to the sun, or through the
head, if the individual is entitled to go to the world of hiraNyagarbha, or through any other part of the
body, according to his past work and knowledge. When the individual self is about to depart to the
next world, the vital force follows; and when the vital force departs, all the organs, such as that of
speech, follow.
Br.up.4.4.2.S.B -- karmaNaa tadbhaavyamaanena - - - - - - - vijnaanodbhaasitam eva ityarthaH.
Everyone gets, at the moment of death, a consciousness of his next life and goes to the body
revealed by that particular consciousness.
The phenomenon of child prodigies explained
Br.up.4.4.2.S.B - - - s'akaTavat sambhr.tasambhaara - - - - - -
It has been said that the departing self goes like a loaded cart, making noises. Now, as it leaves for
the next world, what is its food on the way and for consumption after reaching that world, and what
are the materials for making the new body and organs? The answer is: the self, journeying to the next
world, is accompanied by all the knowledge acquired, the result of all actions (karma) and the
impressions of past actions. These impressions are the cause of the initiation of fresh actions and the
bringing to fruition of past actions. When the organs are prompted to work by the impressions of past
actions, they can easily attain skill in certain spheres even without any practice in the present life. It is
observed that some persons are skillful in certain activities, such as painting, from their very birth,
even without any training in the present life (child prodigies). This is due to skill attained in past lives.
Similarly, in the enjoyment of sense objects also, some are found to be skillful by nature and others
are not. Hence it is said that these three -- knowledge, work and past experience -- are the food on
the way to the next world (or next life) and after reaching there (i.e. taking a new body). Therefore one
should cultivate only the good forms of these three so that one may get a desirable body and
desirable enjoyments.
How the jiiva takes a new body
Br.up.4.4.3.S.B - - - evam vidyaadisambhaarasambhr.taH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

puurvaas'rayam vimunchati ityetasmin arthe dr.shTaantaH upaadiiyate.
Now the question is, when the self loaded with knowledge, etc, is about to take up another body,
does it leave the old body and go to another, like a bird going to another tree? Or is it carried by
another body serving as a vehicle to the place where, according to its past work, it is to be born? Or
does it stay here, while its organs become all - pervading and function as such? Or do the organs
remain contracted within the limits of the body as long as the jiiva remains in that particular body, but
when the jiiva departs the organs become all - pervading, like the light of a lamp when its enclosure is
removed and contract again when a new body is taken up? (These are the views, respectively, of the
Jains, the Devataavaadins, the Saankhyas and Vedanta). The answer is: Though the organs are by
nature all - pervading and infinite (in their form as the presiding deities), since the new body is made
in accordance with the person's work, knowledge and past impressions, the functions of the organs
also contract or expand accordingly. Therefore the impressions called past experience, under the
control of the person's knowledge and work, stretch out, like a leach, from the body, retaining their
seat in the heart, as in the dream state, and build another body in accordance with his past work; they
leave their seat, the old body, when a new body is made ready. An illustration on this point is given in
4.4.3.
Br.up.4.4.3.S.B - - - tat tatra dehaantarasanchaare - - - - - - - - - esha dehaantaraarambhavidhiH.
The following example illustrates how the jiiva passes from one gross body to another. Just as a
leach, which wants to go from one leaf to another, stretches the front part of its body and takes hold
of the new leaf and then draws the hind portion of the body away from the old leaf and onto the new
leaf, so also, the jiiva takes hold of the new body and only thereafter leaves the old body. This is
similar to what happens when going from the waking to the dream state. In the dream state the
person identifies himself with his dream body and completely dissociates himself from his waking
state body. The presiding deities of all the organs also take their places in the new body. The nature
of the new body, whether it is that of a human being or of a god, or of an animal or other creature,
depends on the past karma, knowledge and impressions (vaasanas) of the particular individual. The
MuND. Up. says - - "He who longs for objects of desire, thinking highly of them, is born along with
those desires in a situation in which he will be able to realize those desires"(3.2.2). Desire is therefore
the cause of repeated births and deaths. Total elimination of desire is the means to liberation.
Regarding how a new body is formed, the example of a goldsmith taking an old ornament and
converting it into a new one is given in Br.up.4.4.4.
Br.up.3.2.13.S.B - - - karma eva aas'rayam - - - - - - - -
Karma is the cause of repeated births.
KaTha up. 2.2.7 -- The jiiva is born according to his karma and knowledge as a human being, animal,
bird, tree, etc.
Proof of existence of past births
Ch.up.6.11.3.S.B - - - jiivaapetam - - - - - - na jiivo mriyate iti.
When separated from the jiiva (soul), the (gross) body dies, but the soul does not die. From the fact
that as soon as a creature is born, it hankers after breast - feeding and experiences fear, etc, it is
clear that it has memory of similar experiences in past lives. Moreover, since rites like agnihotra have
some purpose to serve, it follows that the soul does not die.
27. Om - Symbol and Name of Brahman
Br.up.5.1.1.S.B - - - yadyapi brahma - aatmaadis'abdaa brahmaNaH - - - - - -

Although the words 'Brahman', 'Atman', etc, are names of Brahman, we understand from the
upanishads that Om is Brahman's most intimate appellation. Therefore it is the best means for the
realization of Brahman. It is so in two ways -- as the symbol of Brahman and also as Its name. Just as
the image of Vishnu or any other god is looked upon as the god himself and worshipped, so also, Om
is to be looked upon as Brahman. Brahman is pleased with one who uses Om as an aid, because the
upanishad says -- "This is the best help and the highest". (KaTha up. 1.2.17). (See also Pras'na
up.5.2 , MuND. Up. 2.2.6).
Br.up.5.1.1.S.B -- katham omkaaraH brahmanaH pratiikatvena - - - - - - - - - saadhanatvena
pratipattavya iti.
Om is declared to be a symbol of Brahman by the statement 'Om is the ether - Brahman (om kham
brahma)'. Now Om is being praised as the Veda, for the entire Vedas are but Om. They all issue out
of it and consist of it. Another reason why Om is the Veda is that through it one knows whatever is to
be known. Therefore, Om being so important, it should be used as the means to Self - realization.
taitt.up.1.8.S.B -- paraaparabrahmadr.shtyaa upaasyamaana - - - - - pratimeva vishNoH.
Though Om is a mere word, it becomes a means for the attainment of the supreme Brahman or of
hiraNyagarbha, depending on the idea with which it is meditated on. Just as an image is a symbol of
Vishnu, Om is a symbol for the conditioned as well as the unconditioned (apara and para) Brahman.
Ch.up.2.23.2.S.B -- prajaapatiH viraaT kas'yapo vaa - - - - - vyaahr.tayaH.
Prajaapati meditated with regard to the worlds, in order to get their essence. Then the three Vedas
flashed in his mind as the essence of the three worlds. He meditated further on the three Vedas and
got as their essence the three vyaahr.tis, bhuuH, bhuvaH, svaH.
Ch.up.2.23.3.S.B - - - taani aksharaaNi - - - - - - omkaaraH sampraasravat tat brahma.
He meditated with regard to the three vyaahr.tis and got as their essence Om. That Om is Brahman.
(Thus Om is the essence of all the worlds).
Ch.up.2.23.3. tadyathaa s'ankunaa - - - - - eva idam sarvam.
Just as all leaves are permeated by the ribs of the leaves, so are all words (speech) permeated by
Om. Verily, Om is all this.
MuND. up. 2.2.4 says -- Om is the bow, the soul is the arrow and Brahman is the target.
The MaaNDuukya upanishad deals elaborately with Om.
References to Om are found in S'rii S'ankara's Bhaashya on Bhagavad - gita ch.7.8, ch.8.13, ch.9.17
and ch.17.23,24.
Patanjali's Yoga suutra I.27 says that Om is the name of iisvara.
28. Mahaavaakyas
Statements in the upanishads declaring the identity of the jiiva and Brahman are known as
Mahaavaakyas. S'rii S'ankara says in Viveka chuuDaamaNi, verse 251 that there are a hundred (i.e.
innumerable) such statements in the s'ruti. Out of these, four statements from the four Vedas are well
known. They are: -
prajnaanam Brahma - Ait.up. 3.13 - - - R.g Veda,
aham brahma asmi - Br.up.1.4.10 -- Yajur Veda,
tat tvam asi - Ch.up. 6.8.7 -- Saama veda,
ayam aatmaa brahma - MaaND.up. 2.
The meaning of tat tvam asi
V.C. - Commentary of S'rii Jagadguru Chandras'ekhara Bhaarati on verses 243 to 251 --
The word tat stands for Brahman as qualified by the functions of creation, sustenance and dissolution
(i.e.iis'vara). The word tvam stands for the aatmaa as qualified by the mental states of waking, dream
and deep sleep (i.e.jiiva). These two are of mutually opposed qualities, like the glow - worm and the
sun, like the servant and the king, like the well and the ocean and like the atom and the earth (verse
244). There can be no identity between these two, which are the literal meanings (vaachyaartha) of
the words tat and tvam. The identity is only between their implied meanings (lakshyaartha). The
opposition between the literal meanings is due to the upadhis, since the literal meaning of tat is
Brahman with the upadhi or limiting adjunct of maayaa and the literal meaning of tvam is aatmaa with
the limiting adjunct of the five sheaths. When these limiting adjuncts, which are not real, are
effectively removed, there is neither iis'vara nor jiiva. The two terms tat and tvam (That and Thou) are
to be understood properly by their implied meanings in order to grasp the import of the absolute
identity between them. This is to be done neither by total rejection of their literal meaning nor by total
non - rejection, but by a combination of both.
Implied meanings are of three kinds -- jahallakshaNaa, ajahal - lakshaNaa and

jahadajahallakshaNaa.
jahallakshaNaa - The literal meaning is to be rejected and some other meaning consistent with it is to
be adopted. An example is -- gangaayaam ghoshaH, the literal meaning of which is -- a hamlet on the
river Ganga. Since there cannot be a hamlet on the river itself, it is the bank of the river that is meant.
Here the literal meaning of the word 'Ganga' has to be given up completely and the implied meaning
'bank' has to be adopted.
ajahallakshaNaa - Without giving up the literal meaning of the word, what is implied by it is also
adopted to get the meaning intended to be conveyed. An example is -- "The red is running", which is
intended to convey that the red horse is running. Here the literal meaning of the word 'red' is retained
and the implied word 'horse' is added to get the correct sense of the sentence.
jahadajahallakshaNaa - Here a part of the literal meaning is retained and the other part discarded.
The sentence "This is that Devadatta" is interpreted by using this lakshaNaa. The meaning intended
to be conveyed by this sentence is that Devadatta who is seen at the present time in this place is the
same as the person who was seen earlier in another place. The literal meaning of the word 'this' is
Devadatta associated with the present time and place. The literal meaning of the word 'that' is
Devadatta associated with the past time and some other place. Since this sentence purports to
convey the identity of the person seen in different places at different times, we get this meaning by
discarding the reference to the place and time conveyed by the words 'this' and 'that' and retaining
the reference to Devadatta. This is also known as bhaagatyaaga - lakshaNaa. The meaning of the
sentence tat tvam asi is obtained by using this method. Just as in the sentence "This is Devadatta"
the identity is stated by rejecting the contradictory qualities, so also in the sentence "That thou art" the
contradictory qualities (namely, the limiting adjuncts) are rejected. Thus it follows that the jiiva and
Brahman are in essence one when the limiting adjuncts, maayaa and the five sheaths, are rejected.
The above view, that jahadajahallakshaNaa is to be applied for getting the meaning of this
Mahaavaakya, is the traditional and the most widely accepted view. But the author of Vedaanta
Paribhaashaa says, after stating this view, that according to him it is not necessary to resort to
implication (lakshaNaa) at all (Chapter IV - Verbal testimony).
In Samkshepas'aariirakam, I.169, the adoption of jahallakshaNaa is mentioned as a possible

alternative, but the author has given an indication in this verse itself that he is not quite in favour of it.
How knowledge arises from the Mahaavaakya -- two theories.
According to one theory, known as the prasankhyaana theory, attributed to MaNDana Mis'ra, the
knowledge which arises from the Mahaavaakya is relational and mediate, like any other knowledge
arising from a sentence. Such a knowledge cannot apprehend Brahman which is non - relational
(asamsr.shta) and immediate (aparoksha). Meditation (prasankhyaana) gives rise to another
knowledge which is non - relational and immediate. It is this knowledge that destroys nescience.
The view of Sures'vara is the opposite of the above. Knowledge of Brahman arises directly from the
Mahaavaakyas. According to him also, meditation is necessary, but it is only for perfecting the
hearing. The difference between the two theories is that, while, according to Sures'vara, the
knowledge which arises from the Mahaavaakya is immediate and non - relational, according to the
other theory this knowledge is only mediate and relational. For an elaborate discussion Sures'vara's
Naishkarmyasiddhi may be referred to.
Following the view of MaNDana, Vaachaspati Mis'ra holds that the mind is the instrument for the
attainment of Self - knowledge. Following the other view stated above, Prakaas'aatman, the author of
VivaraNa says that the Mahaavaakya itself is the instrument, though the knowledge no doubt arises
in the mind.
The Mahaavaakya gives rise to Self - knowledge by making the mind take the form of Brahman. The
question arises - - since Brahman has no form, what is meant by saying that the mind takes the form
of Brahman (akhaNDaakaaravr.tti)? This is explained by Vidyaranya in Jivanmuktiviveka, chapter 3
by taking an example. A pot made of clay is full of the all - pervading space as soon as it is made.
Filling it afterwards with water, rice or any other substance is due to human effort. Though the water,
etc, in the pot can be removed, the space inside can never be removed. It continues to be there even
if the mouth of the pot is hermetically sealed. In the same manner, the mind, in the act of being born,
comes into existence full of the consciousness of the self. It takes on, after its birth, due to the
influence of virtue and vice, the form of pots, cloths, colour, taste, pleasure, pain, and other
transformations, just like melted copper, cast into moulds. Of these, the transformations such as
colour, taste and the like, which are not - self, can be removed from the mind, but the form of the self,
which does not depend on any external cause, cannot be removed at all. Thus, when all other ideas
are removed from the mind, the self is realized without any impediment. It has been said - "One
should cause the mind which, by its very nature, is ever prone to assume either of the two forms of
the Self and the not - Self, to throw into the background the perception of the not - Self, by taking on
the form of the Self alone". And also -- "The mind takes on the form of pleasure, pain and the like,
because of the influence of virtue and vice, whereas the form of the mind, in its native aspect, is not
conditioned by any extraneous cause. To the mind devoid of all transformations is revealed the
supreme Bliss". Thus, when the mind is emptied of all other thoughts Self - knowledge arises.
The meaning of the Mahaavaakya 'aham brahma asmi'
This Mahaavaakya is explained by Sures'vara in Naishkarmyasiddhi, 2.29 thus: - - Just as in the
sentence, "This post is a man", the earlier cognition that there is a post is sublated by the subsequent
cognition that it is a man (and not a post), the cognition "I am Brahman" removes entirely the
cognition as "I". Sures'vara explains the statement aham brahma asmi, ( I am Brahman), through
what is known as baadhaayaam saamaanaadhikaraNyam. In a sentence in Sanskrit, words which,
having the same case - endings, denote one and the same thing are said to be in
samaanaadhikaraNam. The relation between the words is called saamaanaadhikaraNyam. This
relation is of two kinds, mukhya saamaanaadhikaraNyam and baadhaayaam
saamaanaadhikaraNyam. In the former, the objects denoted by the words will have the same
ontological status (or the same order of reality). For example, in the sentence, the pot - space is but
the great (outer) space, the space within the pot and the great space are both empirically real
(vyaavahaarika satya). The difference between them is only due to the upaadhi in the form of the pot.
When the upaadhi is removed, they become one, which they really are, even earlier. But if the words
of a sentence, having the same case - endings, denote objects which have different ontological
status, and if they purport to convey only one idea, they are in baadhaayaam
saamaanaadhikaraNyam. For example, in the statement "This post is a man", the words "post" and
"man" have different ontological status. Since what exists is a man and not a post, "man" is
empirically real (vyaavahaarika) and "post" is only apparently real (praatibhaasika). Thus, just as the
idea that what is seen is a post is removed when the person hears the statement "This post is a
man", the wrong cognition of the form 'I am a man', 'I am happy' etc, is removed when a person
realises that he is Brahman on hearing the statement aham brahma asmi.
The same explanation of this Mahaavaakya is given also in Panchadas'i, 8.43.
The statement sarvam khalu idam brahma (Ch.up.3.14.1) -- All this is only Brahman -- is also
explained through baadhaayaam saamaanaadhikaraNyam in B.S. 1.3.1. S.B - - sarvam brahmeti tu
saamaanaadhikaraNyam prapanchavilaapanaartham - - - - - - - - iti ekarasataas'ravaNaat - - - - - The
use of the words 'all' and 'Brahman' in apposition in the text 'All this is but Brahman' is intended to
eliminate the conception of the universe (as a reality) and not for establishing heterogeneity (in
Brahman). For we hear of homogeneity in ' As a lump of salt is without interior or exterior, entire and
purely saline in taste, even so is the Self without interior or exterior, entire and pure consciousness
alone' (Br.up..4.5.13).
29. Means to Self - Realization
Br. up. 2.4.5. S.B - - - tasmaat aatmaa vai are drashtavyaH dars'anaarhaH - - - - - - - - - - - - - - na
anyathaa s'ravaNamaatreNa.
Therefore, the Self should be realized, i.e. is worthy of realization or, should be made the object of
realization. It should first be heard about from a teacher and from the scriptures, then reflected on
through reasoning and then steadfastly meditated upon. It is only thus that It is realized -- when these
means, namely, hearing, reflection and meditation have been gone through. It is only when these
three are combined that true realization of the oneness of Brahman is attained, not otherwise, by
hearing alone.
The meaning of the terms 'hearing', 'reflection' and 'meditation' -- s'ravaNam, mananam and
nididhyaasanam.
Vedaanta saara,ch.5, para 182 -- Hearing is the determination, by the application of the six
characteristic signs, that the purport of the entire Vedanta is the non - dual Brahman. The six signs
are -- (1)the beginning and the conclusion, (2)repetition, (3)originality, (4)result, (5)eulogy and
(6)demonstration. The Sanskrit terms for these are, respectively, upakramopasamhaara, abhyaasa,
apuurvataa, phala, arthavaada, upapatti. Each of these terms is explained below.
Vedaanta saara,ch.5. para 185 -- The term ' the beginning and the conclusion' means the
presentation of the subject matter of a section at the beginning and at the end of the section. For
example, in the sixth chapter of the Chhaandogya Upanishad, Brahman, which is the subject - matter
of the chapter, is introduced at the beginning with the words, "One only without a second", etc.
(6.2.1). At the end of the chapter Brahman is again spoken of in the words, "In It all that exists has its
Self",etc. (6.8.7).
Para 186 -- Repetition is the repeated presentation of the subject - matter in the section. In the same
chapter, Brahman, the One without a second, is mentioned nine times by the sentence "Thou art
that".
Para 187 -- 'Originality' means that the subject - matter of the section is not known through any other
source of knowledge. For instance, the subject matter of the above section, namely, Brahman, cannot
be known through any source of knowledge other than the s'ruti.
Para 188 -- The 'result' is the utility of the subject - matter. For example, in the same section, we find
the sentences" One who has a teacher realizes Brahman. He has to wait only as long as he is not
freed from the body; then he is united with Brahman". (6.14.2). Here the utility of the knowledge is
attainment of Brahman.
Para 189 -- Eulogy is the praise of the subject - matter. The words in this section, "Did you ask for
that instruction by which one knows what has not been known, etc" (6.1.3) are spoken in praise of
Brahman.
Para 190 -- Demonstration is the reasoning in support of the subject - matter, adduced at different
places in the same section. An example is -- "My dear, as by one lump of clay all that is made of clay
is known, every modification being only a name, and being real only as clay" -- (6.4.1). This shows
that the universe has no reality except as an apparent modification of Brahman, the only Reality.
Para 191 -- Reflection is the constant thinking of Brahman, the One without a second, already heard
about from the teacher, by making use of arguments in a constructive manner.
Para 192 -- Meditation is keeping the mind fixed on the thought of Brahman, uninterrupted by any
other thought.
The result achieved by 'hearing' etc.
'Hearing' removes the doubt whether the upanishadic text which is the pramaaNa purports to teach
about Brahman or about some other entity. This doubt is known as pramaaNa - asambhaavanaa, or
the doubt about the pramaaNa itself.
'Reflection' removes the doubt whether Brahman and the jiiva are identical or not. This doubt is called
prameya - asambhaavanaa.
'Meditation' is intended to keep off wrong notions such as ―The universe is real; the difference
between Brahman and jiiva is real", which are contrary to the teachings of the upanishads, by
developing concentration of the mind. Such wrong notions are known as vipariita - bhaavanaa.
doubts and wrong notions that stand in the way of the origination of Self - knowledge.
30. Four Preliminary Requisites [SaadhanachatushTayam]
In order that hearing, reflection and meditation may be fruitful, the aspirant should have acquired the
four preliminary qualifications mentioned below.
B.S.1.1.1.S.B - - - tasmaat kimapi vaktavyam yadanantaram brahmajijnaasaa upadis'yate. - - - - - - - -

- mumukshutvam cha.
The four requisites are -- (1) discrimination between the eternal and the non - eternal (nitya - anitya -
vastu vivekaH), (2) detachment towards all enjoyments in this world as well as in higher worlds like
heaven (iha - amutra - arthabhoga - viraagaH), (3) possession of the six virtues commencing with
control of the mind (s'amadamaadisaadhanasampat), and (4) yearning for liberation
(mumukshutvam). Each of these is explained in VivekachuuDaamaNi as below.
V.C. Verse 20 - - - The firm conviction that Brahman alone is real and that the universe is illusory
(mithyaa) is discrimination between the eternal and the non - eternal.
V.C. Verse21 - - - Detachment is revulsion towards all objects of enjoyment in this world as well as in
higher worlds, including one's own body.
The six virtues starting with s'ama are - - - s'ama, dama, uparati, titikshaa, s'raddhaa, samaadhaana.
These are explained below.
V.C. Verse 22 - - - Withdrawing the mind from all sense - pleasures by realizing their harmful nature,
and making it rest on one's objective (namely, the Self),is s'ama.
V.C. Verse 23 - - - Restraining the organs of sense and of action (jnaanendriya and karmendriya) is
known as dama.
V.C. Verse 24 - - - When the mind ceases to function through the external organs, that state is
uparati.
V.C. Verse 25 - - - Enduring all adversities without lament or anxiety and without seeking to counter
them is titikshaa.
V.C. Verse 26 - - - Firm conviction about the truth of the scriptures and the teachings of the Guru is
s'raddhaa.
V.C. Verse 27 - - - The mind remaining firmly fixed in the attributeless Brahman is samaadhaana.
The fourth requisite, mumukshutvam is explained in V.C. verse 28 as the yearning to become free
from nescience and its effect, bondage, by the realization of one's true nature. In the Bhaashya on
Gita,4.11 S'rii S'ankara says that it is impossible for a person to be a seeker of liberation and also a
seeker of the fruits of action at the same time. From this it is clear that only a person who has attained
total and intense detachment can be called a mumukshu. The definition of yogaaruudha in Gita 6.4 as
one who is free from attachment to sense - objects and actions and does not even think of them
indicates that both these terms have the same meaning.
Of these, detachment and the yearning for liberation are the most important. Only if these two are
strong, will the others like s'ama, etc, be fruitful -- Verse 30.
31. Scope of Reasoning (Tarka)
Reasoning, by itself, is not sufficient for attaining knowledge of Brahman, but reasoning which does
not run counter to the upanishadic texts is useful as a help.
B.S. 1.1.1. S.B - - - tasmaat brahmajijnaasopanyaasamukhena - - - - - - - - - - - - prastuuyate.
Therefore, beginning with a statement of the desire to know Brahman, there is begun an enquiry for
the ascertainment of the meaning of the Vedaanta texts, with the help of reasoning not inconsistent
with those texts, the object being liberation (through knowledge).
B.S.1.1. 2.S.B - - - vaakyaarthavichaaraNaadhyavasaananirvr.ttaa - - - - - - - - dars'ayati.
The realization of Brahman results from the firm conviction arising out of deliberation on the
upanishadic texts and their meaning, but not from other means of knowledge such as inference, etc.
With regard, however, to the texts that speak of the origin, sustenance and dissolution of the
universe, even reasoning, not opposed to these texts, is not ruled out as a means of reinforcing the
meaning of these texts. In fact, the upanishads themselves accept reasoning as an aid. For instance,
it is said, "The Self is to be heard about, to be rflected on" (Br.up.2.4.5). And also the text, "A man,
well - informed and intelligent, can reach the country of the Gandharas; similarly, a man who has a
teacher attains knowledge" (Ch.up.6.14.2), shows that the texts rely on the aid of the human intellect
also (i.e. they give importance to reasoning).
B.S.2.1.6.S.B - - - yadapi s'ravaNavyatirekeNa mananam vidadhat - - - - - - - - brahmaavyatirekaH

ityevamjaatiiyakaH.
It was also claimed that by enjoining reflection over and above hearing, the Br. up. itself indicates that
logic also is to be accepted. Though this is so, mere empty logic cannot be given a place here merely
because of this; for, logic conforming to the upanishads is alone resorted to here as a subsidiary
means to help realization. The logic that is acceptable is of the following nature. Since the states of
sleep and wakefulness contradict each other, the Self is not identified with either of them; since the
individual soul dissociates itself from the world in the state of deep sleep to become one with the Self
which is Existence, it must be the same as the transcendental Self; since the universe has originated
from Brahman and since the principle is that cause and effect are non - different, the universe must
be non - different from Brahman; and so on. It is reasoning of this kind that has been used in
VivekachuuDaamaNi to conclude that none of the five sheaths can be the self (verse 156 onwards).
B.S.2.1.11.S.B - - - itas'cha na aagamagamye arthe kevalena tarkeNa - - - - - - - - -

parasparavipratipattidars'anaat.
For this reason also one should not, on the strength of mere logic, propound something that has to be
known only from the Vedas. Reasoning that has no foundation in the Veda and springs from the
imagination of persons lacks conclusiveness. Man's conjecture has no limits. Thus it is seen that an
argument put forward by one learned person is proved to be unsustainable by another learned
person. That again is proved to be untenable by yet another person. The result is that no argument
can be accepted as conclusive. It is well known that even great men like Kapila and kanada hold
divergent views. (Therefore, only conclusions firmly based on the scriptures and supplemented by
proper reasoning can stand scrutiny).
KaTha up. 1.2.9.S.B - - - ato ananyaprokta aatmani - - - -
This wisdom about the Self, as presented in the Vedas, that arises when instruction is given by one
who has become identified with It, cannot be attained through mere argumentation, based merely on
one's own intellect.
B.S.1.1.2 S.B - - - na dharmajijnaasaayaamiva s'rutyaadaya - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

brahmajnaanasya.
The scriptures, by themselves alone, are not the means for Self - knowledge. The scriptures have to
be supplemented by reasoning and actual experience, unlike in the case of performance of rites,
where the scriptures alone are the authority. In the case of rites there is no question of direct
experience, since the result is to be attained only at some future time, whereas in the case of
knowledge of Brahman actual experience is the culmination.
32. Two Kinds of Vision
Vision is of two kinds -- phenomenal and eternal. The former is a modification of the mind when it
stretches out through the eyes. It is dependent on the objects perceived. It has a beginning and an
end. But the latter is the very nature of the Self, just as heat and light are the very nature of the sun.
The Self is said to be a seer, hearer, thinker, etc, only when it it is associated with the respective
limiting adjuncts such as the eye, ear, mind, etc.
Br.up.3.4.2.S.B - - - dr.shtiH iti dvividhaa bhavati laukikii paaramaarthikii cha - - - - - - - vidyate iti cha.
Vision is of two kinds, phenomenal and real. Phenomenal vision is an action of the mind when
connected with the eye. It is an act and has therefore a beginning and an end. But the vision that
belongs to the Self is like the heat and light of fire, being the very essence of the witness; it has
neither beginnig nor end. The ordinary or phenomenal vision, however, is coloured by the objects
seen through the eye. It begins when the eye comes into contact with the object and ends when the
contact ends. The eternal vision of the Self is only metaphorically spoken of as the witness. It is a
witness only when it is looked upon as associated with the limiting adjuncts, namely, the mind, body,
etc. By itself it is only pure consciousness and cannot be described even as a witness.
33. Process of Visual Perception
The process of visual perception, according to Advaita Vedanta, is described in chapter 1 of

Vedaanta Paribhaashaa thus. Just as the water in a tank, issuing through a hole, enters, through a
channel, a number of fields and assumes the shapes of those fields, so also the luminous mind,
stretching out through the eye, goes to the space occupied by objects and becomes modified into the
forms of those objects. Such a modification is called a vr.tti of the mind. The same fact is also stated
in Panchadas'i, 4.27, 28 and 29, based on S'rii S'ankara's Upades'asaahasrii, Metrical portion,
chapter 14, verses 3 & 4. The whole process of visual perception consists of the following steps:
(1) The mind stretches out through the eye, reaches the object and takes the form of the object. This
is called a vr.tti or mode of the mind.
(2) The mental mode removes the veil of ignorance that hides the object.
(3) Consciousness underlying the object, being manifest through the mental mode, illumines the
object.
(4) The mental mode associates the object - consciousness with the subject - consciousness.
(5) The subject perceives the object.
Consciousness manifest through the mental mode coincident with the object serves as the knowledge
of the object.
This is known as phala (fruit), being the resultant knowledge.
The mind has three main divisions in this process, namely,
(1) the part within the body,
(2) the part that extends from the body to the object perceived,
(3) the part that coincides with the object.
The first part above is known as pramaataa and the consciousness manifest in it is called pramaata -
chaitanya. This is the perceiver. The consciousness manifest in the second part is called pramaaNa -
chaitanya, or the means of knowledge. The consciousness manifest in the third part is pramiti -
chaitanya or percept.
The object perceived is called prameya. Since the third part of the mind mentioned above coincides
with the object, prameya - chaitanya, or the consciousness underlying the object and pramiti -
chaitanya become identical. The point to be kept in mind here is that all objects in this world are
superimposed on Consciousness, i.e. Brahman. All objects are covered by a veil of ignorance, which
has to be removed for seeing the object. It is only consciousness that reveals the objects, since the
objects themselves are non - luminous.
34. Upanishad - Meaning
KaThopanishad. S.B. Introduction - - - saderdhatoH vis'araNa - - - - vidyaa uchyate.
The word 'Upanishad' is derived by adding the prefixes 'upa' (near) and 'ni' (with certainty) and the
suffix 'kvip' to the root 'sad' meaning ' to destroy, to go to and to loosen'. By the word 'Upanishad' is
meant the knowledge that destroys the seeds of worldly existence such as ignorance in the case of
those seekers of liberation who, after cultivating detachment towards all enjoyments, approach
(upa,sad) this knowledge and then deliberate on it with steadiness and certainty (ni). Though this
knowledge is the primary meaning of the word, it is used also to denote the book that contains this
knowledge, in a secondary sense.
Br.up.1.1.S.B.Introduction -- saa iyam brahmavidyaa - - - - upanishad uchyate.
The knowledge of Brahman is called 'upanishad' because it entirely removes this relative world
together with its cause from those who take to this study; for the root 'sad' prefixed by 'upa' and 'ni'
means that. Books also are called 'upanishad' as they have the same end in view.
There is no contradiction between the upanishads and the ritualistic portion (karma kanda) of the
Vedas.
Br.up.2.1.20.S.B -- tasmaat na brahmaikatvam - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - pramaaNaani

s'rotraadivat. Therefore the Vedaanta texts that teach the oneness of Brahman are not antagonistic to
the ritualistic portion. Nor are the latter deprived of their scope by the former. Neither do the ritualistic
scriptures, which are based on differences such as the factors of an action, take away the authority of
the upanishads as regards the oneness of Brahman. For the means of knowledge are exclusively
powerful in their respective spheres, just as the ear alone has the power to hear sounds and the eye
alone to see forms, etc.
The ritualistic portion of the Vedas ceases to apply only after a person has attained Self - knowledge
and has become liberated from the cycle of birth and death. Till then it remains applicable.
35. Mind, Vital Force and Speech
Ch.up.6.5.1.S.B -- Food, when eaten, becomes divided in three ways. The grossest portion of the
food turns into faeces. The medium constituent becomes flesh. The subtlest part, having reached the
heart, enters into the fine nerves named hitaa, becomes transformed into the mind - stuff and
nourishes the mind. It therefore follows that the mind is made of matter. It is not considered as eternal
and partless as defined by the Vais'eshikas. (It is of the size of the body -- madhyama parimaaNa).
Ch.up.6.5.2.S.B - - - Water (or any liquid) when drunk becmes divided in three ways. The grossest
portion becomes urine. The medium constituent becomes blood. The subtlest part becomes the vital
force (praaNa). Ch.up.6.7.1 says -- "The vital force is made up of water. It will depart from him who
does not drink water".
Ch.up.6.5.3.S.B -- Butter, oil, etc, when consumed, become divided in three ways. The grossest
portion becomes bone. The medium constituent becomes marrow, the greasy substance inside the
bones. The subtlest part becomes the (subtle) organ of speech (vaak). It is a well - known fact that by
the consumption oil, butter and the like, speech becomes clear and powerful.
Ch.up.6.5.4.S.B -- Therefore the mind is made of food, the vital force is made of water and speech is
made of tejas or fire (i.e. butter, oil, etc).
36. Upaasanam (Meditation)
B.S.1.1.12 . - - - evam ekamapi brahma apekshitopaadhisambandham nirastopaadhisambandham

cha - - - - - - - upadis'yate.
Thus the same Brahman is taught in the upanishads as associated with limiting adjuncts to be
meditated on and as devoid of limiting adjuncts to be realized.
B.S.1.2.14.S.B - - - nirguNam api sadbrahma naamaruupagatairguNaiH - - - - - - - - - - tatra tatra
upadis'yate.
Even though Brahman is without attributes, it is taught in the upanishads as possessed of the
attributes of name and form for the purpose of meditation.
B.S.1.1.20.S.B - - - syaat parames'varasya api - - - - - - - saadhaka - anugrahaartham.
The Supreme Lord may take forms at will by His power of Maayaa for blessing spiritual aspirants.
B.S.4.1.1.S.B - - - vdyupaasyoH cha - - - - - - - - prayogaH dr.s'yate.
The verbs 'vid' and 'upaas' are seen to be used interchangeably in the upanishads. See Ch.up.
3.18.1, 3.18.3, 4.1.4, 4.2.2.
taitt.up.1.3.S.B - - - upaasanam cha yathaas'aastram - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

s'aastroktaalambanavishayaa cha.
Meditation consists in a continuous flow of one and the same thought as laid down by the scripture,
uninterrupted by other thoughts and fixed on some perceptible object as prescribed by the scripture.
taitt up. 1.6.S.B. brahmaNaH saakshaat upalabdhyartham - - - - - - s'aalagraama iva vishNoH. - - -

The s'ruti declares that the hr.dayaakaas'a, the bright space in the heart, is the proper place for the
contemplation and immediate perception of Brahman.
Br.up.1.3.9.S.B - - - upaasanam naama - - - laukikaatma - abhimaanavat.
Meditation is mentally approaching the form of the deity as it is presented in the eulogistic portion of
the Vedas relating to the objects of meditation and concentrating on it, keeping out all other thoughts
till one becomes as completely identified with that form as the ordinary man is with his own body.
Br.up.1.3.16.S.B - - - 'tam yathaa yathopaasate - - - - - tadeva bhavati'.
"One becomes exactly as one meditates upon Him". (S'atapatha BraahmaNa - X.5.2.20).
Different kinds of upaasanaas.
B.S.1.1.12.S.B - - - - - tatra avidyaavasthaayaam - - - - sa sa iis'vara ityupaasyatayaa chodyate.

It is only in the state of nescience (ajnaana) that Brahman can be considered as coming within the
range of empirical dealings comprising the object of meditation, the meditator, the act of meditation
etc. Among such meditations, some are for the attainment of higher worlds, some for making rites
more efficacious and some for the attainment of liberation by stages (kramamukti). Those that lead to
higher worlds are those meditations that are based on symbols, such as "One who meditates upon
name as Brahman becomes independent so far as name reaches" (Ch.up.7.1.5), which are referred
to in B.S.4.3.15 &16. These lead to higher worlds upto the world of lightning mentioned in
Ch.up.5.10.2 and not beyond that. An example of an upaasanaa which increases the efficacy of rites
performed is the udgiita upaasanaa described in Ch.up.1.9.2. The meditations which lead to
kramamukti are s'aaNDilya vidyaa in
Ch.up.3.14, dahara upaasanaa in Ch.up. 8.1 and ahamgraha upaasanaas, based on self -
identification in which the individual thinks of himself as Brahman.
These meditations differ in accordance with the qualities (e.g. Brahman as possessed of particular
attributes), or conditioning factors (e.g. Brahman meditated on as being in the heart, etc). These are
elaborated in B.S.3.3.58.S.B. Although the same Brahman is to be meditated on as possessed of
different qualities, the results differ, depending on the quality meditated on, as stated in the S'ruti,
"One becomes what one meditates on".
B.S. 1.1.12 S.B - - Although it is the same Self that remains hidden in all beings - - moving or
stationary - - there are differences in the degree of manifestation of glory and power, caused by the
gradation of the minds by which the Self is conditioned. This is the significance of Bhagavad - gita,
Ch.10.41 -- "Whatever being there is, which is great, prosperous or powerful, know that to be a
product of a part of my splendour". It is enjoined in this verse that wherever there is extraordinary
greatness, etc, it is to be worshipped as God.
Meditation on saguNa brahman leads to realization of nirguNa brahman.
Kaivalya Up. 7 -- "Having meditated on the highest Lord (S'iva) who is powerful, has three eyes and a
blue neck and is the consort of Umaa, the sage reaches Him who is the source of all, the witness of
all and beyond avidyaa.
Vedaanta Kalpataru of Amalaananda Sarasvati -- Gloss relating to Brahmasuutra 1.1.20 - - - When

their minds are brought under control by meditation on Brahman as possessed of qualities, that very
Brahman will directly manifest Itself divested of the superimposition of limiting adjuncts.
37. Deva and Asura - Meaning
Br.up.1.3.1.S.B -- devaas'cha asuras'cha - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - atyanta - yatna - saadhyaa hi sa.
The devas and the asuras are the organs of speech, etc, of Prajaapati himself. They become devas
when they shine under the influence of thoughts and actions as laid down in the scriptures, while
those very organs become asuras when they are under the influence of natural thoughts and actions,
based only on perception and inference and directed merely towards visible, material ends. They are
called asuras because they delight only in their own senses, or because they are other than gods (or
suras). The devas are fewer in number than the asuras, because, as we know, the organs have a
stronger tendency towards thoughts and actions that are natural than towards those that are
prescribed by the scriptures, for the former lead to visible, material ends. The tendency to adhere to
the prescriptions of the scriptures is rare, because it is attainable only by great and sincere effort.
Ch.up.1.2.1.S.B - - - devaaH diivyateH dyotanaarthasya - - - indriyavr.ttayaH eva.
The word 'deva' is derived from the root 'div' in the sense of shining. (This root has many meanings).
It therefore means the functions of the organs when they are illumined by the scriptures. The asuras
are the natural, unillumined (ignorant) activities of the organs, opposed to the devas, because of
being engrossed in the enjoyment of sense - objects. From time immemorial a war, as it were, has
been going on in the minds of all individual beings, between the gods and the demons, with each side
intent on defeating the other.
iis'aavaasya up. 4. S.B -- dyotanaat devaaH - - -
Here the word 'devaaH' means the organs of knowledge such as the eyes.
Br. up. 5.2.3.S.B - - - athavaa na devaa asuraa vaa - - - - - - - - - - - - kruuraaH cha dr.s'yante.
Or, there are no gods or asuras other than men. Those among men who are lacking in self - control,
but are otherwise endowed with many good qualities, are the gods. Those who are particularly greedy
are men, while those who are cruel and given to injuring others are the asuras. So members of the
same species, man, are given the titles of god, man and demon according to the predominance of the
three gunas in them. The instructions given by Prajapati in this section are therefore meant for all
men.
38. Parinaama and Vivarta (Transformation and Transfiguration)
When the cause and effect are of the same order of reality, the effect is a transformation or
parinaama of the cause, as for example, when milk turns into curd. When the cause and effect belong
to different orders of reality, as when a rope appears as a snake, the effect is called a vivarta or
transfiguration of the cause.
Mandukya Karika - III.6. Bhashya - A gold ornament is a transformation (vikara or pariNaama) of gold
and foam, bubbles and ice are of water.
But in the Bhashya on Ch. up. 6.2.2 it is said that pot, etc are merely different configurations
(samsthaanamaatram) of earth, etc. This is compared to a rope appearing as a snake i.e. vivarta. So
it appears that pot is only a vivarta of clay and not a parinama. The same is stated in
Anubhootiprakasa on Aitareya up.
The author of Samkshepas'aariirakam says that the theory of transformation of Brahman as the
universe serves as the prelude to the theory of transfiguration. In II.56 it is said that the author of the
Brahmasuutras puts forth the doctrine of transfiguration (vivarta) as his final conclusion. In II.64 it is
said that the theory of transformation is advanced as a preliminary to the theory of transfiguration.
Glimpses of Vedanta
By S. N. Sastri
Contents
1. Introduction to Advaita Vedanta
2. Mind is the key to happiness
3. Bondage and Liberation are only in the Mind
4. Means To Self-realisation
5. Anatomy of Bhakti
6. Gitacharya and Gopijanavallabha
7. Vishayananda to Brahmananda
1. Introduction to Advaita Vedanta
The term 'Vedanta' stands for the Upanishads as a whole, which form part of the Vedas. It would
therefore be appropriate to give a general account of the Vedas before going on to deal with Vedanta.
In the Indian tradition, philosophy is termed 'darsana', a Sanskrit word meaning 'seeing' or
'experiencing'. This indicates that the aim of philosophy in India is direct experience of the ultimate
Reality and not mere intellectual speculation as in Western philosophy. The Indian philosophical
systems are classified into two broad categories known as 'aastika darsanas' and 'naastika darsanas'.
There are no exact equivalents to these terms in English, though the terms 'orthodox' and
'unorthodox' are sometimes used. It would be wholly misleading to use the terms 'theistic' and
'atheistic' for these categories. The term 'aastika' has been defined as referring to a person who, or a
system which, accepts, (1) the authority of the Vedas, (2) the doctrine of rebirth and (3) the existence
of other 'lokas' or spheres of experience. In the category of aastika darsanas fall those systems which
accept the authority of the Vedas. These are the six systems known as Nyaya, Vaiseshika, Sankhya,
Yoga, Purvamimamsa and Uttaramimamsa (or Vedanta). Even among these six, it is only the last two
that base themselves directly on the Vedas and accept nothing that goes against them. The other
four systems are based more on independent grounds of logic and reasoning, but they too are not
opposed to the Vedas.
In the category of naastika darsanas fall the four schools of Buddhism, Jainism and the Carvaka (or
atheistic) school, which do not accept the authority of the Vedas. These also make up a total of six.
The Vedas
All the six aastika darsanas regard the Vedas as the record of the divine truths revealed to the sages
(Rishis or seers) in their supra-normal consciousness. The sages are not the authors of the Vedas.
They are known as 'seers' of the Vedic mantras. The traditional view is that the Vedas are eternal.
The word 'Veda' means primarily 'knowledge' and secondarily the books in which that knowledge is
recorded. This is not knowledge of the external world, but the knowledge of the supreme Truth which
cannot be attained by any effort of the human mind. It has been categorically declared by our ancient
sages that the Vedas have no validity in matters which fall within the domain of other valid means of
knowledge such as perception and inference. Sri Sankara says in his Bhashya on the Bhagavadgita,
ch.18, verse 66: "The validity of the Vedas holds good only with regard to matters which cannot be
known through such other valid means of knowledge as direct perception, etc., because the validity of
the Vedas lies in revealing what is beyond direct perception. Even a hundred Vedic statements
cannot become valid if they say that fire is cold or non-luminous. If a Vedic text says that fire is cold or
non-luminous, one should assume that the intended meaning of the text is different, for otherwise its
validity cannot be maintained. One should not interpret it in such a way as to contradict some other
valid means of knowledge".
Because of this clear demarcation of the spheres of validity of the Vedas on the one hand and the
other means of knowledge relied on by science on the other, no conflict between science and the
Vedas can arise, similar to those which arose between the Church and the discoveries of scientists
like Copernicus and Galileo in Europe. It is this knowledge contained in the Vedas that is considered
to be eternal. Just as the law of gravity existed and operated even before it was discovered by
Newton, the knowledge contained in the Vedas existed even before it became known to the sages.
The Vedas are considered to be 'apaurusheya', i.e., they are not human compositions. Even God is
not the author of the Vedas. The eternal knowledge contained in the Vedas is only revealed by God
to the sages in each cycle of creation. The Vedas are 'seen' or 'heard' by the sages and recorded by
them or their disciples for the benefit of posterity. The Vedas are therefore termed sruti, or 'what is
heard'. As distinguished from these are the smritis, which are all human compositions, based on the
srutis. The Itihasas and Puranas come under the category of smriti. According to Manu, the greatest
lawgiver of India, the smritis should be considered as an elaboration of the Vedas. However, it is an
inviolable rule that, where there is a difference between the sruti and the smriti on any matter, the
sruti has to be upheld and the smriti should be interpreted in conformity with it. The truths enshrined
in the Vedas have been actually experienced again and again by successive generations of great
souls. The experiences of great saints like Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and Bhagavan Ramana in
recent times bear testimony to the authenticity of all that is stated in the Upanishads.
The Vedas are four in number: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. Each Veda
consists of three parts: the karma-kanda, the upasana-kanda and the jnana-kanda. The karma-kanda
is divided into samhitas and brahmanas. The samhitas are collections of mantras, or hymns in verse,
most of which are praises or prayers addressed to various gods such as Indra, Varuna and Agni.
They are chanted during the performance of sacrifices. The brahmanas are mostly in prose and
contain detailed descriptions of sacrifices and instructions for the performance of sacrificial rites. The
upasana-kanda deals with various meditations. The jnana-kanda consists of the Upanishads and this
is what is denoted by the term 'Vedanta'.
These three kandas are, however, not mutually exclusive compartments. The highest philosophical
truths, similar to those expounded in the Upanishads, are found also in the samhita and brahmana
portions which deal mainly with Vedic rituals. It is further noteworthy that the Isavasyopanishad
appears in the samhita portion of the Sukla Yajurveda, the Brihadaranyakopanishad forms the
concluding portion of the Satapathabrahmana of the Sukla Yajurveda, the Chandogyopanishad
constitutes eight chapters of the Chandogyabrahmana of Samaveda and the Kenopanishad forms the
ninth chapter of the Talavakarabrahmana of Samaveda. All these form part of jnanakanda, in spite of
their being located right inside the samhitas or brahmanas. The term 'Vedanta' should therefore be
understood to mean the ultimate conclusion or the highest philosophy of the Vedas and not the end
portion of the Vedas.
The triple texts

The source books of Vedanta are the triple texts, Prasthanatraya, namely, the Upanishads, the
Bhagavadgita and the Brahmasutras.
The Upanishads
The word ‗Upanishad' is derived by adding the prefixes ‗upa‘ (near) and ni‘ (with certainty) to the
verbal root ‗sad‘ meaning ‗ to destroy, to go to and to loosen‘. By the word ‗Upanishad' is meant the
knowledge that destroys the seeds of worldly existence such as ignorance in the case of those
seekers of liberation who, after cultivating detachment towards all enjoyments, approach (upa, sad)
this knowledge and then deliberate on it with steadiness and certainty (ni). Though this knowledge is
the primary meaning of the word, it is used also to denote the book that contains this knowledge, in a
secondary sense. This knowledge is known as 'Brahmavidya'. The theme of all the Upanishads is
Brahman, which is identical with the individual self. This subject is dealt with in detail later on.
It is not known with any certainty how many Upanishads existed originally, but 108 are now available
to us. There are commentaries, known as 'bhashya' by Sri Sankara on eleven of these, namely, Isa,
Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka and
Nrsimhatapani upanishads. There is also a commentary on Svetasvatara upanishad, but there is
difference of opinion among modern scholars about its authorship, though tradition attributes it to Sri
Sankara.
The Bhagavad Gita

This is the second of the triple texts. It forms part of the great epic Mahabharata and is given the
same authority as the upanishads. As is well known, the Bhagavadgita contains the teachings of Lord
Krishna to Arjuna on the battle field of Kurukshetra. Sri Sankara has described it as the essence of
the Vedas.
The Brahma Sutras

This work is attributed to sage Veda-Vyasa. It consists of short aphorisms, called sutras. There are in
all 555 aphorisms. A total of 192 topics, known as adhikaranas are dealt with in these aphorisms. The
purpose of these aphorisms is to explain the real import of various terms and statements in the
upanishads and to reconcile apparent contradictions. Sri Sankara has explained the meanings of
these aphorisms from the Advaitic point of view in his commentaries, known as ‗Bhashya‘.
The essence of Advaita Vedanta

The philosophy of Advaita Vedanta has attracted intellectuals from all parts of the world because of
the fact that it adheres to the strict rules of logic and does not demand blind faith or unquestioning
acceptance. The student of Vedanta is asked to examine and think for himself before accepting the
teachings of the Guru. But he must start with an open mind, a genuine desire to understand and an
attitude of respect towards the scriptures. We find in the upanishads that the student frankly puts his
doubts and objections to the Guru and the Guru very patiently clarifies his doubts and answers his
objections. The upanishads are not for the intellectually indolent. There is a very important place for
reason in Vedanta. The fundamental principle of Vedanta is that the final testimony of truth is actual
spiritual experience. This makes it a very scientific system and therefore acceptable to intellectuals of
the present day who swear by reason and the scientific method.
Dr. T.M.P.Mahadevan, the great Vedantic scholar, says in his book 'Ramana Maharshi and His
Philosophy of Existence': "We believe that Advaita is not a sectarian doctrine. It is the culmination of
all doctrines, the crown of all views. Though other views may imagine themselves to be opposed to
Advaita, Advaita is opposed to none. As Gaudapada, a pre-Sankara teacher of Advaita, says, Advaita
has no quarrel with any system of philosophy. While the pluralistic world-views may be in conflict with
one another, Advaita is not opposed to any of them. It recognises the measure of truth that there is in
each of them; but only, that truth is not the whole. Hostility arises out of partial vision. When the whole
truth is realised, there can be no hostility. (Mandukya Karika, III. 17 & 18; IV. 5)".
The essence of Advaita has been stated by Sri Sankara in half a verse thus: Brahman is the only
Reality, the universe has only apparent reality, and the individual self is non-different from Brahman.
Brahman is the only Reality. 'Reality' is defined as that which does not undergo any change at any
time. By this test, Brahman, which is absolutely changeless and eternal, is alone real. The world
keeps on changing all the time and so it cannot be considered as real. At the same time, we cannot
dismiss it as unreal, because it is actually experienced by us. The example of a rope being mistaken
for a snake in dim light is used to explain this. The snake so seen produces the same reaction, such
as fear and trembling of the limbs, as a real snake would. It cannot therefore be said to be totally
unreal. At the same time, on examination with the help of a lamp it is found that the snake never
existed and that the rope alone was there all the time. The snake cannot be described as both real
and unreal, because these two contradictory qualities cannot exist in the same substance. It must
therefore be said that the snake is neither real nor unreal. Such an object is described as 'mithya'.
Just as the snake appears because of ignorance of the fact that there is only a rope, this world
appears to exist because of our ignorance of Brahman. Thus the world is also neither real nor unreal;
it is also 'mithya'. Just as the snake is superimposed on the rope, the world is superimposed on
Brahman. Our ignorance of Brahman is what is called avidya or ajnaana or nescience. This ignorance
not only makes us ignorant of Brahman, but it projects the world as a reality. The world has no reality
apart from Brahman, just as the illusory snake has no reality apart from the rope. When the
knowledge of Brahman arises, the world is seen as a mere appearance of Brahman. The illusory
snake arose from the rope, was sustained by the rope and ultimately merged into the rope. Similarly,
the world arises from Brahman, is sustained by Brahman and merges into Brahman on the attainment
of knowledge. Another example is also given to explain this. Ornaments of different sizes and shapes
are made out of one gold bar. Their appearance and the use for which they are meant vary, but the
fact that they are all really nothing but gold, in spite of their different appearances and uses, cannot
be denied. The appearance may change, a bangle may be converted into rings, but the gold always
remains as gold. When we begin to look upon the bangles, rings, etc., as nothing but gold in essence,
the differences between bangle and ring, ring and chain, etc., cease to count though they continue to
retain their different shapes. Similarly, on the dawn of the knowledge of Brahman (which is the same
as the Self), though the different forms continue to be seen by the Jnaani, the realised soul, he sees
them all only as appearances of the one Brahman. Thus the perception of difference between one
person and another, or one thing and another, and the consequences of such perception, such as
looking upon some as favourable and others as the opposite, and the consequent efforts to retain or
get what is favourable and to get rid of or avoid what is not favourable, come to an end. This is the
state of liberation even while living, which is known as Jivanmukti.
Every individual identifies himself with the physical body, the sense organs and the mind. When a
person describes himself as stout or lean or fair-complexioned or dark, he is looking upon himself as
the physical body to which these characteristics belong. When he says 'I see', 'I hear', 'I smell' and so
on, he is identifying himself with the organs of sense which perform these functions. When he says 'I
am happy' or 'I am unhappy', he is identifying himself with his mind. The Upanishads declare that all
these identifications are wrong and that the human being is in reality not the body or the sense-
organs or the mind, but Brahman, which is eternal, changeless and not affected by anything that
happens to the body-mind complex. It is Brahman that appears as the jiva or individual because of
identification with the body-mind complex. This body-mind complex, which makes the infinite, all-
pervading Brahman appear as an individual limited to a particular body-mind complex, is known as
the limiting adjunct or upadhi of Brahman. This wrong identification, which is called bondage, is due to
our ignorance of our real nature. This ignorance is what is called avidya or nescience. When this
ignorance is eradicated, the person remains established in his essence as the Self or Brahman-
Atman. This is liberation. Thus liberation is not the attainment of some new state in some other world
after the end of the present life. It is only the realisation, in this life itself, of what one has always
been, namely Brahman, by the removal of the wrong notion that one is the body-mind complex. The
illusory snake never existed. What existed even when the snake was seen was only the rope.
Similarly, bondage has no real existence at all. Even when we are ignorant of Brahman and think of
ourselves as limited by the body, we are really none other than the infinite Brahman. Liberation is
thus only the removal of the wrong identification with the body, mind and senses. The attainment of
the state of liberation-in-life or Jivanmukti is the ultimate goal of human life according to the
upanishads. Three paths are laid down in the scriptures as the means to the attainment of this
ultimate goal. These are karma yoga, bhakti yoga and jnaana yoga. Here the word 'yoga' signifies 'the
means'. That is to say, karma, bhakti sand jnaana are the means to the attainment of liberation.
These are, however, not independent paths, but are intrinsically bound together. Karma yoga is the
performance of all duties enjoined upon one by the scriptures, as well as the duties that are
incumbent on one because of one's station in life. If these duties are performed without craving for the
fruit of the actions and as an offering to God, they lead to purification of the mind by the eradication of
desires and the evil consequences of desire, namely, greed, anger, jealousy and other negative
emotions. The very fact that all actions must be performed as an offering to God implies that one
must have devotion to God. Thus the path of bhakti or devotion to God and the path of action, or
karma yoga are intrinsically bound together and one cannot be practiced without the other. Thus
karma yoga and bhakti yoga form one composite whole. As stated above, karma yoga is the means
by which the mind becomes purified by the removal of all impurities in the form of desire, anger,
greed, delusion, pride and jealousy. Bhakti yoga brings about concentration of mind. Only a mind
which has become pure and one-pointed is capable of attaining self-knowledge. Jnaana yoga
consists in hearing the exposition of the scriptures by the Guru, reflecting on what has been heard in
order to remove all doubts, and meditation to realise as an actual experience what has been
understood intellectually by hearing and reflection. A person who has, by this process, come to
experience the truth that he is really the Atman and not the body, mind or sense-organs and remains
firmly rooted in that experience is a liberated one or a Jivanmukta.
2. Mind is the key to happiness
We all know from our experience that no two persons are identical in their thoughts, their likes and
dislikes, reaction to situations and so on. What is the reason for this diversity?. If we examine the
composition of a human being we find that he is made up of three components. The first is the outer,
physical body consisting of skin, muscles, bones, blood and the like. Then there is the mind, which
term includes the intellect. The third is consciousness. The physical body is made up of the same
chemicals in all human beings and so it cannot be the cause of the difference in character between
one person and another. The consciousness is the same in all. We thus see that it is the mind that is
the cause of diversity. According to our scriptures the mind performs four functions. These are: (1)
evaluating the pros and cons of any situation, (2) ultimately coming to a decision on what is to be
done, (3) storing the experiences and (4) identifying actions, thoughts, etc as one's own, in the form 'I
am doing this', 'I did this', 'I am happy', 'I am sad', etc. The manner in which these functions take
place can be explained by taking an illustration. I am walking along the road and I see at a distance a
person whose gait seems to resemble that of a certain friend of mine, named Raman. I begin to
debate whether the person I see at a distance is Raman or not. When he comes nearer and I am able
to see his face clearly, I compare it with the memory of the face of Raman stored in my mind. If I find
that the two tally, I decide that he is Raman and I greet him. It will be clear from this example that my
decision and subsequent action are governed by the memory of the face of Raman stored in my
mind. To generalise, all our reactions to various situations are governed by the impressions and
experiences stored in the mind. Every action performed by us and every thought that arises in us
leaves an impression on the mind. We do not of course remember all our actions and thoughts, but all
of them leave impressions. These impressions are what are known in our scriptures as samskaras or
vasanas. It is these that decide how we react to particular situations. If the actions and thoughts are
good, they leave good impressions and these will make the person act in a manner that contributes to
the good of others and ultimately to his own good. Bad actions and thoughts leave bad impressions
and these will make the person act in a manner that causes harm to others and ultimately to himself
also. It is because of this that we are instructed by our scriptures to always do good deeds and think
good thoughts and to refrain from all evil acts and thoughts. When a person acts in a manner
beneficial to others, he feels joy at having made someone else happy. Selfishness, jealousy, anger,
haughtiness and other such negative attitudes and emotions arise from the evil impressions left by
evil thoughts and deeds. A person who is jealous, selfish, angry or haughty cannot be happy and he
himself is the person who suffers most from such evil traits. On the other hand, a person who always
harbours goodwill towards others will himself be always happy. Every individual is born with the
impressions, both good and bad, which he had accumulated by his actions and thoughts in past
births. When he dies, the impressions gathered in his mind go with him and will be present in his mind
in the next birth. When a person dies, it is only his physical body that is cremated. His mind, which is
called the subtle body in the scriptures, goes to other worlds and then comes back again to this earth
in another body. Whether a person is born as a human being or as an animal, bird and so on
depends on the impressions of his actions and thoughts left in his mind at the time of the death of his
previous body. Even those who have been born with bad impressions can, by their effort, erase those
bad impressions and create good impressions by their good actions and thoughts. This is what our
scriptures exhort us to do. The ultimate goal of human life is to go beyond the cycle of repeated births
and deaths. The essential requisite for this is the purification of the mind. A pure mind is one which is
free from cravings for worldly pleasures. The Upanishads say that the mind itself is the cause of
bondage which is the root cause of all sorrow, as well as of liberation which is a state of supreme
bliss. The mind becomes the cause of bondage and consequent sorrow when it is agitated by
desires. The same mind, when freed of desires, is the means to liberation. The secret of happiness
thus lies in ridding the mind of all desires and elevating it by fixing it on the contemplation and worship
of God.
There is an episode in Chapter 34 of Skandha X of Srimad Bhagavatam which illustrates vividly how
haughtiness leads to downfall and suffering. Once the cow-herds of Gokula went, along with Lord
Krishna, to a place called 'Ambikavanam'. Having bathed in the Saraswati river, they worshipped Lord
Siva and His consort Goddess Ambika. They passed the night on the bank of the river, praying and
fasting. Suddenly a python appeared and began to devour Krishna's father Nandagopa. Hearing
Nandagopa's cries the cowherds rushed to his rescue and belaboured the python with firebrands. In
spite of severe beating the python did not release Nandagopa from its hold. Krishna then went and
touched the python with his foot. At once the python changed into a very resplendent Vidyadhara (a
semi-divine being). The Vidyadhara told Krishna "I am a Vidyadhara by name Sudarsana. Being
endowed with extraordinary beauty and wealth, I was very haughty. Once, in my haughtiness, I
ridiculed some great sages of the Angirasa line for their rather ugly looks. The sages cursed that I
would become a python. You have now saved me from the effect of the curse". By being haughty
because of his beauty he became a python which is a very repulsive creature. The lesson we have to
learn from this story is that if a person is haughty because of his beautiful looks, he will be deprived of
his beauty and will be born as a very ugly creature in his next birth. The story of the curse making the
Vidyadhara a python is only another way of bringing out this truth. Extending this logic, it follows that
if a person is haughty because of his wealth and therefore treats the poor with contempt or misuses
his wealth to harm others, he will be born as a beggar in his next birth. If a person is haughty because
of his learning, he will be deprived of learning and will be an illiterate person in his next birth. The
lesson therefore is this. Never be haughty because of your wealth, beauty, learning or other
accomplishments, but cultivate humility. Be kind and considerate to others who are less fortunate
than you and do all that you can to help them.
Thus we find that the only way to get better births in future and to attain liberation ultimately is to
strive hard to discard all evil traits which one is born with and to make the mind free from desires.
These can be achieved only by the grace of God. The cultivation of intense devotion to God is
therefore the prime requisite for the attainment of happiness.
3. Bondage and Liberation are only in the Mind

(An episode from Devi Bhagavatam)
The purpose of the Puranas is to expound the abstruse teachings of Vedanta in a manner easily
intelligible to the common man. This is done through the medium of stories which convey profound
truths under a very attractive garb. It happens sometimes that the same episode is narrated with
substantial differences in different Puranas. This is because the stories themselves are not important;
what are important are the lessons we derive from them. This is being stated here at the very outset
because the story of Suka as it appears in Devi Bhagavatam, which is going to be narrated here, will
be found to be totally at variance with what is found in Srimad Bhagavatam.
The main Puranas are eighteen in number. The authorship of all of them, except one, Vishnupurana,
is attributed to sage Vyasa. Sage Parasara, father of sage Vyasa, is considered to be the author of
Vishnupurana. Of these, the two which are considered to be the most important are Srimad
Bhagavatam and Devi Bhagavatam. The former is devoted to a description of the various
incarnations of Lord Vishnu and the narration of His glories. The latter extols the glory of Bhagavati or
Parasakti. Each of these Puranas contains about 18000 verses divided into twelve Skandhas. In
Srimad Bhagavatam there are 335 chapters and in Devi Bhagavatam there are 318 chapters.
Lord Vishnu (or Narayana) and Bhagavati (or Narayani) are two aspects of the same Supreme
Reality known as Brahman in the Upanishads. The concept of the Supreme Being as the Divine
Mother of the universe has its basis in the Vedas themselves. The Rigveda contains the famous Devi
Sukta, proclaimed, significantly, by a woman seer, Rishi Ambhrini. This hymn may be said to have
laid the foundation for the whole doctrine of the manifestation of Chit-sakti as the universe and Her
immanence in it.
After composing Devi Bhagavatam, sage Vyasa taught it to his son Suka. At this time Vyasa had a
disciple who is referred to merely as 'Suta'. While Vyasa was teaching the Devi Bhagavatam to Suka,
his disciple, Suta, who was present, also learnt it. It was Suta who narrated the Devi Bhagavatam to
Saunaka and other sages in Naimisharanya, a very sacred spot.
The Devi Bhagavatam begins with a verse reminiscent of the Gayatri Mantra:
"Om. May we meditate on that Primordial Vidya in the form of the all-pervading Consciousness, Who
enlivens our intellect".
Vyasa and Suka

The episode narrated below appears in chapters 10 to 19 of Skandha I of Devi Bhagavatam:
Suka, the son of sage Vyasa, was the very incarnation of Vairagya (detachment). Soon after his birth
he became the disciple of Brihaspati, the preceptor of the gods. After completing the study of all the
scriptures within a very short period, he returned to his father's hermitage. In course of time Vyasa
began to think of getting his son married, as only then would he become entitled to perform the
religious duties prescribed in the Vedas for a house-holder. One day sage Vyasa told Suka, "My son,
you have mastered the Vedas and all the other scriptures. You must now enter the stage of the
grihasta by taking a wife. Only a grihasta can properly propitiate the manes and the gods. Your duty
to me will also be fulfilled only if you marry. The scriptures say that one who has no son cannot get
access to heaven. I am therefore very eager that you should marry. You were born as my son as the
result of intense austerities practiced by me. It is therefore your duty to fulfill my wish by getting
married".
Bonds of Samsara stronger than iron chains

Suka replied: "Father, it is no doubt true that a son should act according to the wishes of his father.
But, at the same time, the father has a duty to give such advice to his son as would lead the latter to
the highest good. I am surprised that you, who are so learned, are talking like an ignorant man
bewildered by the power of Maya. You say that you want me to be happy. The happiness produced
by worldly enjoyments is always mixed with sorrow. Is that real happiness? If I get married, I will have
to act according to the wishes of the woman I marry. How can there be happiness when there is
dependence on the will of another? One who has been bound by an iron chain may at some time be
able to free oneself, but one can never free oneself from the bonds of his wife and children. Will one
whose mind is set on the supreme bliss find any attraction in the pleasures of the flesh which are
trivial and always mixed with sorrow? Instead of rescuing me from this ocean of Samsara, why are
you trying to immerse me deeper into it? It is only the ignorant who will find happiness in worldly life,
just as worms are happy in filth. One who, even after having attained a human birth which is so
difficult to get and having, in addition, studied all the scriptures, is still attached to the world, is no
better than a dog or a pig. Only that person is really learned who strives for liberation from Samsara".
To this Vyasa said: "What you say may, on the surface, appear to be quite logical, but the fact is that
you are labouring under some wrong notions. What binds a man is not wife or children or home but
the mind. One who is mentally free is not bound even if he has a family and one who is not mentally
free is in bondage even if he is outwardly in the Sannyasa Ashrama. Whether a person lives in a
house or a hermitage or in the forest, it is the mind that is the cause of bondage as well as of
liberation. A householder who does not swerve from the path of righteousness, performs all the duties
ordained by the scriptures and does not harm any creature is truly a liberated person. All the other
three Ashramas depend on the householder for sustenance. How exalted the Grihastashrama is!
Heaven and liberation are within easy reach of one who conducts his life according to the scriptures,
in whatever Ashrama he may be. One who transgresses the tenets of the scriptures has no hope of
spiritual evolution, even if he is a Sannyasi. The stage of the householder is as difficult as it is
exalted. The way to the fourth stage, Sannyasa, is through that of the householder. There is a great
risk in jumping from Brahmacharya to Sannyasa. The right path is to live the life of a householder in
accordance with the scriptures, then hand over the responsibility of the household to the son, take
Vanaprastha and then Sannyasa. You know that the mind and the senses are very powerful. They
are likely to make a man go astray. A Brahmachari should, therefore, get married at the proper time.
It is very difficult to control the senses when one is young. For your own good, therefore, you should
get married. There is nothing wrong whatsoever in this course".
On hearing these words of his father Suka replied: "Whatever you may say, I will not marry. Marriage
is undoubtedly a bondage. It can never bring real happiness. One who gets married will have to worry
about the means of earning wealth. One whose mind is occupied with the thought of acquiring wealth
can never be happy. If he is not able to earn money and remains poor, his relations will treat him with
contempt. If he earns wealth, there will be other problems. To earn wealth one has to deviate from the
path of righteousness. One who strictly adheres to the path of righteousness can never become rich.
Indra, the king of the gods, has all the wealth of the three worlds at his command. But is he happy?
He is afraid even of the starving ascetic. You know all this as well as I do. And yet you are trying to
push me deeper into this terrible Samsara. The sorrow caused by birth, old age, disease and stay in
the mother's womb can all be borne. But the sorrow caused by desire is worse than all these.
Because of desire, even those who have mastered the Vedas and all the other scriptures wait at the
door of the rich to get something. They bow low before him. They praise him to the skies. All this is
just to fill the belly. Cannot the belly be filled with some fruit or root or leaf which can be got in the
forest? Instead of that, why should one build a prison for oneself with wife and children? I am not in
the least attracted by the Karma Kanda of the Vedas. Please therefore impart to me Jnana or Yoga.
Tell me the means by which I can destroy all my Karma: Sanchita, Prarabdha and Agami. Please do
not talk to me again about the bondage that marriage undoubtedly is".
On hearing these words of his son Vyasa was overwhelmed by grief. Tears came streaming down his
cheeks. His body began to tremble. Seeing all this Suka said to himself: "O God! My father is reacting
as if what I am proposing to do is a heinous crime. He is the author of the Vedanta sutras, the
Puranas and the Mahabharata. He has divided the Vedas into four. He is reputed to be omniscient
and a man of perfect discrimination. But see how Maya has overpowered even him! None can
conquer this Maya. Even the Trinity (Brahma, Vishnu and Siva) act according to the commands of the
Devi, who is Mahamaya".
Then he spoke to Vyasa thus: "You who are so learned are grieving like an ignorant man. How
strange! What is the meaning of the words 'father', 'son' and the like? Who is the father and who is
the son? Think who I, now your son, was in a previous birth. Is it not mere delusion to think "I am so
and so"? Give up your grief, knowing that all this is Maya. What good can accrue to you from me?
Each one has to undergo the consequences of his past actions. It is therefore meaningless to think
that one can benefit or suffer due to the actions of some other person. A human birth on the earth is
extremely difficult to get and even more so is birth in a noble family of learned persons. What a great
pity it will be if one wastes such a birth by being overpowered by Maya!".
Vyasa was astonished to see such intense detachment in his son. He said: "O child, I am very happy
to see your firm detachment. If it is still your desire to take Sannyasa you may do so. Such intense
detachment is very rarely to be found. The scriptures say that persons with such total detachment can
take Sannyasa direct from Brahmacharya. All the same, it will be good for you to study the
Bhagavatam which I have composed. It is equal to the Vedas themselves.
Following Vyasa's advice, Suka studied the Bhagavatam. But even that did not clear his doubts and
give him satisfaction. Vyasa then told him, "If my Bhagavatam has not cleared all your doubts, I
advise you to go to the kingdom of Mithila. A king by name Janaka, who is a liberated soul, is
governing that kingdom. He will clear all your doubts".
How can a ruler of a kingdom be a Jivanmukta?
Suka was surprised to hear this and told his father: "O father, what you say is very strange. A king
who is governing a country is a Jivanmukta! You say that he will clear my doubts which even you
have not been able to clear! Do you want me to go for advice to a householder, and that too a king
who is ruling a country? To say that a Jivanmukta is ruling a country is as absurd as saying that a
barren woman has given birth to a son. How can a king conquer his senses? Can one who is free
from the notions of 'I' and 'mine' rule a country? How can a ruler who enjoys kingly pleasures, who
distinguishes between heat and cold, pleasant and unpleasant, friend and foe, be a Jivanmukta? Can
he look upon saint and sinner, sage and thief, friend and foe with an equal eye? If he can, how can he
function as a ruler? If he cannot, how can he be a Jivanmukta? No one has seen a king who is also a
Jivanmukta. All the same, I shall take your advice and go and see this Janaka".
Suka leaves for Mithila
So saying, he prostrated before his father and, after receiving his blessings, set out for Mithila. Before
he left, Vyasa made him promise that he would return to Vyasa's hermitage from Mithila.
Suka walked through town and country, hills and dales, forests and fields; he passed through places
inhabited by people following diverse customs and religious practices. At the end of three years he
reached Mithila. At the entrance to the kingdom of Janaka the guards stopped him and asked him
who he was and why he had come there. Suka stood motionless, without uttering a word in reply. The
guards told him that they had orders from the king not to let anybody into the country without making
full enquiries and finding out what he wanted.
Suka then told them, "My object in coming here has been achieved by your stopping me. It appears
that even a Sadhu cannot enter the kingdom of Janaka who is said to be a Jivanmukta!. I have come
here after crossing two huge mountains and braving great odds. It was none other than my father
who prompted me to come here. But I do not blame him. It is the result of my own karma. Men are
generally tempted by money, but I have absolutely no desire for money. It is only my Prarabdha
karma that brought me here. It is strange that in this country which is ruled by a Jivanmukta even a
Sadhu is not allowed to enter!". So saying, Suka continued to stand there. The guards then said, "O
revered sir, we have now realised that you are a Mahatma. Please go in and forgive us for having
stopped you".
Suka replied, "You have not done anything wrong. It is the duty of a servant to obey implicitly the
orders of his master. You have been very correct in the performance of your duty and you should be
commended for that. Nor is the king at fault. It is the duty of the king to find out whether a person
entering his kingdom is worthy or not, whether he is an honest man or a thief, and so on. Without
thinking about all this I have come here. It is wrong to enter another's house without being invited.
That is what I have done. The fault is, therefore, entirely mine".
The guards then wanted to know from him the real import of the terms 'happiness', 'unhappiness',
'honour', 'dishonour', 'friend', 'enemy', etc,. Suka explained that when a person finds his wife, son and
others behaving in the manner in which he wants them to behave, he feels happy. If not, he feels
unhappy. In other words, happiness arises when a person finds other persons and things around him
to be favourable to him and unhappiness when they are unfavourable. Everyone is all the time
engaged in actions which are expected to bring happiness. Those who help him in this are
considered to be friends and those who hinder him are considered enemies. A wise man is one who
does not crave for worldly pleasures which attract the ignorant. For a man free from desires
happiness lies in being alone and meditating on the Self. Contentment is his friend. Desire, anger and
the like are his enemies.
Suka then entered the country of Mithila and continued to walk. When he reached the gates of the
king's palace, he was stopped by the guards there. As before, he stood motionless, without uttering a
word. Soon the king's minister went to the gate, having heard of the arrival of Suka. He saluted Suka
and took him inside. There, in one of the inner chambers of the palace, a number of beautiful young
damsels came to attend on him. The minister left, leaving Suka with the damsels. Suka sat down and
went into meditation. All the efforts of the damsels to distract him and make him take interest in them
failed.
Suka and Janaka

King Janaka himself then came there and after respectfully bowing before Suka he took Suka to his
assembly hall. The king then asked Suka the reason for his visit. Suka said, "O king, you have
perhaps by now come to know that I am the son of sage Vyasa. After completing my studies under
Brihaspati, I returned to my father's hermitage. My father then asked me to get married, saying that
the Grihasthashrama is the greatest of all the four Ashramas. I felt strongly that marriage is a
bondage and that it takes one away from liberation. I was not convinced by all the reasons given by
my father in favour of marriage. He then asked me to approach you and get my doubts cleared. I
have come in obedience to his words. O king, kindly tell me what is the means to liberation: austerity,
performance of yajnas, etc., or knowledge".
Janaka said: "I shall tell you what an aspirant for liberation should do. After being invested with the
sacred thread, he should go to a Guru and study the Vedas. After completing his studies and having
given Gurudakshina, he should enter the stage of the householder by getting married. He should then
perform the rites laid down in the Vedas without attachment. He should be truthful, compassionate
and free from all desires and cultivate purity of mind and body. He should also beget progeny. He
need remain with his family only till his first-born son gets married. Thereafter he may enter the
Vanaprastha Ashrama. After conquering the six internal enemies, namely, desire, anger, greed,
delusion, pride and envy, he may take Sannyasa. It should be noted that Sannyasa is only for those
who have attained total detachment. Out of the 48 Samskaras laid down in the scriptures, 40 are for
householders and the remaining 8 are for Sannyasis".
Suka asked: "For a person who has attained Jnana, Vijnana and Vairagya, is it compulsory to go
through all the four Ashramas one after another? Can he not go straightaway to the Sannyasa
Ashrama from Brahmacharya?
Janaka: "O young sage! understand that the senses are very powerful. They cannot be relied upon.
Disaster may befall the immature. If a person who is not yet fit takes Sannyasa and if thereafter
desire for food, wealth, children or other comforts arises in his mind, what is the way out for him?
Since vasanas will not get extinguished by themselves, a wise man should first eradicate them before
taking Sannyasa. The impact of a fall is greater for a person who is at a height. A person at the lowest
level cannot fall; he can only go up. A person who wants to climb up has to be very careful. If a
Sannyasi falls, there is no remedy for him. The senses cannot be subdued by force. To attain
complete control over the senses one should go through the Ashramas, one by one. A man of
wisdom will not be affected by the pairs of opposites such as heat and cold, honour and dishonour, or
gain and loss, even if he is a householder. Look at me. I rule the kingdom, I perform all my duties, I
eat what I want and experience everything. At the same time, am I not liberated? You can also be like
that. Bondage and liberation are both in the mind. If the mind is impure, nothing will be achieved by
bathing in all the sacred rivers. If the mind is controlled, there can be no talk of bondage or liberation.
It is only the mind that makes distinctions such as friend and foe, and the like".
Suka: "You say that the rituals laid down in the Karmakanda of the Vedas should be performed
meticulously. But how can the cruel deed of sacrifice of animals be the means to liberation? Is not the
drinking of soma juice in a sacrifice clearly contrary to Dharma? Are not killing of animals and eating
their flesh unrighteous acts? Moreover, all that can be attained through these Vedic rituals is
enjoyment of the pleasures of heaven for a limited period. They cannot confer liberation. Heaven is
only a chain made of gold, which can bind a man as effectively as an iron chain. My mind is not at all
attracted by such transient pleasures, which ultimately lead only to sorrow".
The secret of Karma

Janaka: "O wise young sage! You have not yet understood these matters correctly. You have been
looking only at the external appearance of things. That way you get only superficial knowledge. You
have to go deeper to understand subtle truths. It is not the outward appearance that decides what is
righteous and what is not. This is the secret of Karma. The same action may amount to injury to a
living creature in one situation, but not so in another.
The Vedas declare that the killing of an animal in a Vedic sacrifice is not violence. If it is done without
attachment and craving for the fruit, it is not violence, but even that would become violence if there is
attachment and desire for the fruit. Any action done without attachment and without the sense of
doer-ship is no action at all and it does not create any bondage.
Suka: "What you say may be true in the case of a person who is free from desire. But how can one
who is under the control of Maya become free from desire? When even those who have mastered the
scriptures are not free from attachment and aversion, what to speak of the ordinary man? Mere study
of the scriptures will not destroy nescience (ignorance of the Self). Can darkness be removed by
merely shouting 'light, light'? You said, "Look at me". I have looked at you carefully. I do not find you
to be in any way different from other worldly men. I see you only as a king possessed of wealth, fame,
power and all objects of enjoyment. Notions of friend and foe, happiness and sorrow, likes and
dislikes -- you have all these as much as anyone else. And you call yourself Videha (meaning
Jivanmukta). This is nothing but vanity. It is like an illiterate fool bearing the name 'Vidyadhara', a
blind man being named 'Divakara' (which means sun) or a beggar having the name 'Lakshmidhara'.
The name 'Videha' given to you is as meaningless as these. It is only a title that you have inherited
from your ancestors who got it somehow, without any reason to justify it. Whatever that may be, as
far as I am concerned, I am not at all interested in home, wife, children or wealth. I wish to remain
free from all such bondage".
Janaka replied: "O sage, you think you can be free from all bondage if you go and dwell in the forest.
Remember that there are animals there also and you can develop likes and dislikes towards them.
The same five elements which are here are present in the forest also. How can you be free from any
connection with them? As long as you have a body, you will need food. The thought about food will
be with you even in the forest. Can you become free from thoughts about your yogadanda (staff),
your deer-skin and your water pot? The thoughts I have about my kingdom are also only of the same
nature. It is not the quantity or quality of what one has that makes for bondage, but it is the sense of
possession. A renunciate attached to his loincloth is not less in bondage than a king attached to his
kingdom. It is the thought that this body is yours that is the fundamental bondage. Being free from all
sense of possession and knowing that I am not bound, I remain happy all the time, whatever I do.
You, on the contrary, are always sad, thinking that you are in bondage. Giving up this wrong notion,
know that you are never in bondage and that you are ever free and be at peace with yourself. If you
understand this truth, you will realise that a man fully engaged in action can still be completely
liberated".
Conclusion
On hearing these words of Janaka, Suka realised that bondage does not arise from action, that none
can remain without performing any action and that it is one's attitude towards action that creates the
distinction between bondage and liberation. He took leave of Janaka and returned to his father's
hermitage. He married Peevaree, the daughter of the manes. He begot four sons and a daughter.
Thereafter he left for Kailasa and did penance there. Finally he cast off his body and attained
Videhamukti.
4. Means To Self-realisation
Many of us have studied the Upanishads and the Bhagavadgita and acquired an intellectual
understanding of their teachings. We know intellectually that we are not the body or the mind or the
intellect, that we are in reality the self or Atma which is beyond these and which gives consciousness
to the body, mind and intellect and enables them to function. We know that the joys and sorrows
arising from our contact with the external world pertain only to the body, mind and intellect and not to
the self which cannot be touched by them. But we also know that this intellectual understanding is not
enough and that unless this matures into actual experience we cannot say that we have attained the
ultimate goal of human life. The goal to be attained is a state in which we remain absolutely
unaffected by joys and sorrows, pleasure and pain, success and failure and all such pairs of
opposites. What is it that prevents our intellectual knowledge from becoming translated into actual
experience? We can find out the answer to this question by taking two examples, one in which an
intellectual understanding gets translated into actual experience and another in which it does not.
A person is given a dish which he has never tasted before and he is told that it is a very sweet dish.
He now has an intellectual understanding about the nature of the dish, namely, that it is very sweet,
but he has not actually experienced the sweetness. He puts a bit of it on his tongue and actually
experiences its sweetness. Here his intellectual understanding has been translated into actual
experience and the two are fully in accord with each other. But suppose this person is, at this time,
suffering from some illness which makes everything taste bitter in his mouth. Even if he is fully
convinced that the dish must be sweet as he has been told by the person who gave it to him, he is not
able to experience that sweetness, but he experiences only a bitter taste. His illness obstructs his
intellectual knowledge from being translated into actual experience.
We can take another example. There are persons in our country in some of the interior States who
have never seen the sea. Take one such person who has read everything about the sea in books. He
knows that the sea is a very vast stretch of water, that waves constantly rise and fall in it, that one
cannot see the other shore, and so on. When he actually goes to some place on the sea coast, he
experiences all that he has learnt from books. But suppose this person is taken blindfolded to the sea.
Then he will not be able to experience what he has learnt from books. The bandage on his eyes
prevents his intellectual knowledge from becoming an actual experience.
In the same way there is some obstruction because of which our intellectual understanding acquired
from the scriptures does not mature into actual experience. The obstruction is the mind which is full of
desires and is therefore all the time going out into the external world through the sense-organs. If this
obstruction is removed, we will be able to experience what we know intellectually. The means by
which this obstruction can be removed and the actual experience of what is taught in the Upanishads,
which is what is known as Self-realisation, can be attained are described in the Bhagavadgita.
The Lord says in the Gita that knowledge is enveloped by ignorance and therefore all living beings
are deluded (Ch.5.15). When it is said that A envelops B, it clearly follows that both A and B are
positive entities and they exist at the same place at the same time. That means that both knowledge
and ignorance exist in us at the same time. This would appear to be opposed to reason if we
understand 'ignorance' as meaning merely 'absence of knowledge'. But in Vedanta ignorance or
Avidya or Ajnaana is not mere absence of knowledge; it is of the nature of a positive entity, described
as 'Bhaavarupa', as opposed to 'Abhaava' which is a mere negation or non-existence. Knowledge
here does not mean 'knowledge of an object'. It means Brahman or Atman, which is of the nature of
Knowledge or Pure Consciousness. This Atman, which is our own essence, does not become
manifest to us because of the Ajnaana which covers it, just as on a very cloudy day the sun, being
hidden by the clouds, is not visible to us. Actually, what is covered by the clouds is not the sun, which
is much bigger than the clouds, but our vision. Similarly, when it is said that ignorance covers the
Atman, what is meant is that ignorance covers our mental vision and prevents us from experiencing
that we are the Atman or Brahman and not the body-mind complex. If this ignorance or Ajnaana is
removed, the Atman will shine forth in all its splendour (Gita, 5.16). What has therefore to be done is
only the removal of ignorance and not the production of knowledge, which is eternally present and
which is our very essence, or our real nature. The mind functions through the sense-organs. The
Kathopanishad says that the sense-organs are all directed outward and so they are incapable of
knowing the Atman which is within. A rare person, having acquired total detachment, withdraws all his
senses from their objects and concentrates the mind on the Atman and thus realises that he is the
Atman and not the body, mind or intellect (Kath.up.II.1.i). This is Self-realisation. By this means the
obstruction caused by the mind id removed. This is known in Vedanta as manonaasa or destruction
of the mind. But what is destroyed is not the mind itself, but its tendency to go out through the sense-
organs and experience objects and feel attachment towards those that are pleasant and aversion
towards those that are unpleasant. This attachment and aversion, which find place in every individual,
are the actual obstructions to Self-realisation. As the Gita says, each sense-organ has either
attachment or aversion towards its objects. Attachment and aversion are the enemies who block a
person's path to liberation. One should therefore take care to see that he does not fall a victim to
them, by rooting them out (3.34).
A very apt illustration in this regard is found in Vedanta texts. When a potter makes a pot, he does not
have to make any special effort to fill it with space. But if one fills the pot with water, there will be no
space inside the pot. In other words, the space becomes covered by water. If the water is poured out,
the pot becomes filled with space again. If you want to fill the pot with any other substance, say, rice,
you have to make an effort, but if you again want the pot to have only space inside, all that you have
to do is to remove whatever other substance is inside it. In the same way, Atma is ever existent in the
mind, like space in the pot, but it is covered by all other thoughts. When the mind is emptied of all
other thoughts, the Atma will shine forth. This is what is called Self-realisation. The following passage
in the 'Jivanmuktiviveka' of Swami Vidyaranya makes this very clear: "A pot of clay, when made,
comes filled with the all-pervading space; thereafter, filling it up with water, rice or any other
substance is due to human effort. Though the water, etc., in the pot can be taken out, the space
inside cannot be removed; it continues to be there even if the mouth of the pot be hermetically
sealed. In the same way, the mind, in the act of being born, comes into existence full of the all-
pervading Self that is pure Consciousness itself (Atma-chaitanya). The mind takes on after its birth,
owing to the influence of merit and demerit, the forms of pleasure, pain and other such
transformations. While these can be removed from the mind, the form of the Self, which does not
depend on any external cause, cannot be removed". It is therefore said:- "One should cause the
mind, which by its very nature is ever prone to assume the form of either the Self or the not-Self, to
throw into the background its perceptions of the not-Self, by taking the form of the Self alone".
5. Anatomy of Bhakti
To the common run of people the practice of Bhakti means nothing more than going to the temple
regularly or worshipping God by means of rituals in an image or other symbol at home. The persons
who do this consider themselves to be Bhaktas and are considered so by others also. While such
regular worship is certainly necessary and should be practised by everyone, the Bhagavata Purana
says that much more is expected of one who wants to be considered a devotee in the true sense of
the term. Sage Kapila, an incarnation of the Lord, explains in the third Skandha of Srimad Bhagavata
who a real devotee is. He says that a man who worships God in an image, but looks upon other
human beings with contempt and exploits them, makes a mockery of worship, unmindful of the fact
that the same God dwells in them also. The Lord will not be pleased even though worshipped in an
image by means of rituals with costly materials, by a person who does not see the same God in all
beings. The worship of God through rituals laid down in the scriptures is no doubt an essential
ingredient of Bhakti, but it is not an end in itself. It is only the means to the realization of the presence
of the same divinity in all beings. A person who exploits others or treats them with contempt and has
no consideration for their feelings and rights cannot qualify as a Bhakta even if he assiduously
performs ritual worship meticulously every day. This is the gist of verses 21 to 25 of chapter 29 of
Skandha III of Bhagavata.
Now let us see what the great sage Narada says about Bhakti. Narada says in Narada Bhakti sutra
that Bhakti is supreme love of God. Here it must be clarified that God is not some Being residing
somewhere in the heavens who stands apart from the world, but God is the Indwelling Self of all living
beings in this world. Thus love of God means love of all creatures, who are all His manifestations.
Narada further says that an essential characteristic of Bhakti is the dedication of all activities to God.
Thus what is described as Karmayoga in the Bhagavadgita is also an essential ingredient of Bhakti
according to Narada. A Bhakta is thus one who does not separate religious and secular activities, but
considers all of them as service of God. The Lord says in the Gita (18.46) that the performance of
one's duties is itself worship of God and is the means to spiritual progress. A person who looks upon
every action, whether religious or secular, as worship of God will act without selfishness and will not
harm others in any way. Narada declares that the highest exemplars of Bhakti are the Gopikas, who
dedicated all their actions to Lord Krishna and whose minds were always engrossed in the thought of
Krishna.
The Bhagavata, in Skandha XI, chapter 2, verses 45 to 47 divides devotees into three categories
according to the progress achieved by them in the path of devotion. The highest category, called
Bhaagavatottama, is: "He who sees himself in all creatures and all creatures in his own self". That is
to say, he realizes that the same Self pervades the whole universe and he therefore looks upon all
creatures in the world as God. He does not see any difference between himself and others. Thus the
foremost devotee is also a Jnaani, one who has ceased to identify himself with his limited personality.
The second category of devotees is: "He who cherishes love for the Lord, is friendly towards other
devotees, compassionate towards the ignorant and does not harbour any enmity even towards those
inimical to him". Such a person has not yet got over the sense of difference between himself and
others, but has progressed to the extent of being free from pride, arrogance and hatred.
The last category of devotees is: "He who worships the Lord with faith in an image, but does not
serve His devotees or other beings". Even such a person is far superior to the pseudo-Bhakta
referred to earlier, because, while the former has faith in God and considers worship as his duty, the
latter looks upon God merely as a means for the fulfilment of his selfish desires. The latter does not
deserve to be called a Bhakta at all. Prahlada says in the Bhagavata that a person who worships God
expecting some worldly benefit in return is not a devotee at all, but only a trader (Bh. VII. 10.4).
In Sivanandalahari Sri Sankara defines Bhakti as that state of mind in which all thoughts are directed
only towards the lotus feet of the Lord, just as the seed of the Ankola tree sticks to the tree itself on
falling down, the iron needle jumps towards the magnet, the devoted wife thinks always of her
husband, the creeper clings to a tree and the river keeps flowing towards the ocean.
At the highest level, Bhakti and Jnana are the same. This becomes clear if we compare the
descriptions given of a Sthitaprajna in chapter 2 and a Bhakta in chapter 12 of the Gita, which are
identical in essence.
The paths of Bhakti and Jnaana are not independent of each other. True Bhakti presupposes
knowledge of the relationship between God and the world. Without this knowledge Bhakti will be
nothing more than blind belief in some superhuman power called God, who blesses those who
worship him and punishes those who do not. Such blind belief will crumble at the advent of the
slightest adversity, because the person will feel that he has been let down by God on whom he had
relied. But if he has some knowledge of the teachings of Vedanta, he will realise that sufferings are
not inflicted on him arbitrarily by God, but are the result of his own past actions and that they are
intended to cleanse his heart of impurities and engender in him an attitude of detachment towards
worldly joys and sorrows. So also, if the path of Jnaana is followed without an element of Bhakti, it will
become dry logic and the person will be devoid of love and compassion for other living beings. The
upanishads themselves say that the Self cannot be realised by mere scholarship. The upanishads
declare that ignorance of our true nature is the root cause of all our sufferings. Because of this
ignorance, which is called Avidya, we identify ourselves with the body, the sense organs and the mind
and attribute to ourselves the joys and sorrows which pertain only to the body and mind. In reality we
are the Self or Atma which has no birth or death, hunger or thirst, sorrow or delusion, old age or
disease. The wrong identification with the body, mind and senses is what is known as bondage. This
bondage is not real, but is the result of Avidya or the ignorance of our real nature. What is caused by
ignorance can be removed only by right knowledge. One point stressed by Advaita is that even when
we look upon ourselves as individuals limited by the body, we are in reality none other than Brahman.
It is not as if everyone is initially in bondage and becomes liberated on the dawn of Self-knowledge.
Liberation is only the removal of the wrong identification with the body and mind and not the
attainment of something which did not exist earlier.
Now a doubt may arise. Since liberation is attained only by Self-knowledge, what is the purpose
served by Bhakti? The upanishads say that the mind is the cause of bondage as well as of liberation.
It is like the key which locks as well as opens a door. When the mind is attached to sense objects it
causes bondage. When it becomes free from such attachment, the very same mind is the means to
liberation. Self-knowledge can arise only in a mind that has become free from all desires for worldly
objects and enjoyments and is one-pointed. It is the nature of the mind to hanker after sense
pleasures. The mind can be withdrawn from them only by attaching it to something else. This is the
role played by Bhakti. As devotion to God takes root in the mind and grows, desires for worldly
objects become gradually weaker and finally disappear. The Lord says in Srimad Bhagavata that,
unlike attachment to worldly objects, attachment to God does not cause bondage, just as a burnt
seed cannot germinate, though its appearance as a seed continues (Bh. X. 22. 26).
It is said in Srimad Bhagavata that devotion to God gives rise to detachment and leads to Self-
knowledge (I.2.7). In the Bhagavadgita the Lord says that a devotee is one whose mind is always
fixed on Him, who has surrendered himself totally to Him, who always recounts His glories and
whoever revels in Him. The Lord confers on such a devotee the yoga of wisdom through which the
devotee can attain to Him. The Lord dwells in his heart and dispels the darkness born of ignorance
(Ch 10. sl. 9 to 11).
Madhusudana Saraswati, the great devotee and Advaitin and a celebrated commentator on the
Bhagavadgita says in the introduction to his commentary that Bhakti pervades both Karmayoga and
Jnaanayoga. He describes Bhakti as threefold: Bhakti combined with Karma, Bhakti by itself, and
Bhakti combined with Jnaana. Karmayoga involves the dedication of the fruit of all activities to God.
This necessarily implies devotion to God. Bhakti is thus an essential ingredient of Karmayoga.
Jnaanayoga leads to the realisation of one's identity with Brahman. Identification is possible only
when there is intense love. A husband and wife identify themselves with each other and with their
children only because of love. Devotion, which is defined by sage Narada as supreme love of God, is
thus an essential ingredient of Jnaanayoga also.
All teachers of Advaita have therefore stressed the importance of practicing both devotion and
Knowledge together. Sri Sankara, the greatest exponent of Advaita and the greatest of Jnaanis,
composed many soul-stirring hymns in praise of various deities in order that the emotional side of the
human being may also be developed. It is therefore clear that there is no contradiction between
Advaita and devotion to a Personal God (Saguna Brahman) as wrongly thought by some. It has been
categorically declared that worship of Saguna Brahman is the best means to the realisation of
Nirguna Brahman.
6. Gitacharya and Gopijanavallabha
It is said in Srimad Bhagavatam that the Lord, in His incarnation as Sri Krishna, graced the earth for
125 years (Bh. XI. 6.25). During this period Krishna took on many different roles, as Gopijanavallabha
or the darling of the Gopis, as the slayer of many Asuras, as the messenger of the Pandavas to the
Kauravas, as Arjuna's charioteer and as the Gitacharya, the exponent of the essence of the
upanishads in the form of the Bhagavadgita. The most enchanting and significant of all these roles
are those of the Gitacharya and the Gopijanavallabha. According to Swami Vivekananda, the
Gopijanavallabha is even greater than the Gitacharya, because it is in that role that His infinite
compassion and love are manifested to the fullest extent.
The word 'gopijana' should not be understood as encompassing only the female inhabitants of
Gokula. Every sincere devotee who surrenders himself or herself totally to the Lord is included in the
term 'gopijana'. Swami Vivekananda says: "Gopileela is the acme of the religion of love, in which
individuality vanishes and there is communion. It is in this leela that Sri Krishna shows what He
teaches in the Bhagavadgita: "Give up everything for Me. Go and take shelter under Brindavanleela
to understand Bhakti". Krishna, as the Gopijanavallabha, demonstrates to us by His own example and
that of the gopis how we can actually translate into practice the teachings of the Gita.
Krishna's relationship with the gopis is very much misunderstood and consequently misinterpreted.
To quote Swami Vivekananda again: "There are not wanting fools, even in the midst of us, who
cannot understand the marvelous significance of that most marvelous of all episodes. These are, let
me repeat, impure fools, even born of our blood, who try to shrink from that as if from something
impure. To them I have only one thing to say, 'First make yourselves pure'; and you must remember
that he who tells the history of the love of the gopis is one who was born pure, the eternally pure
Suka, the son of Vyasa. So long as there is selfishness in the heart, so long is love of God
impossible. Ay, forget first the love for gold and name and fame and for this little temporary world of
ours. Then, only then, you will understand the love of the gopis, too holy to be attempted without
giving up everything, too sacred to be understood until the soul has become perfectly pure. People
with ideas of sex and money, and of fame, bubbling up every minute in the heart, daring to criticise
and understand the love of the gopis! This is the very essence of the Krishna incarnation". (Sages of
India).
The central teaching of the Gita is that we should give up our ego and perform all actions as an
offering to the Lord, without any attachment to the fruit thereof. This is what was practiced by the
gopikas. Sri Narayana Bhattatiri says in Sriman Narayaniyam, a condensed version of Srimad
Bhagavatam: "While performing their household chores, the gopikas used to sing songs about Thee;
all conversation among themselves was only about Thee; even in dream they would talk only about
Thee. Almost all their actions were imitations of Thine. Seeing everything there thus identified with
Thee, Uddhava was absolutely wonder-struck" (Srimannarayaniyam 76.8).
The gopikas had completed effaced their individuality and had identified themselves with Krishna.
The butter which they lovingly offered to Krishna represents their heart. Butter is white and soft.
Whiteness stands for purity. The implication of the offering of butter is that the gopikas surrendered
their hearts, which were absolutely pure and soft, always melting in love for Krishna, to Krishna
Himself. Sri Sankara says in Sivanandalahari that the only offering we can make to the supreme,
omniscient, omnipotent, omnipresent Lord is our hearts:"Thou holdest the golden mountain (Meru) in
Thy hand (as a bow); Kubera, the Lord of wealth, is ever by Thy side; the wish-yielding tree,
Kalpakavriksha, the Kamadhenu and the gem which fulfils all desires, Chintamani, are all in Thy
abode; the moon has its abode on Thy head; all auspiciousness abides at Thy feet. When this is so,
what object of value can I offer unto Thee! Therefore, O Lord, let my mind be Thine (as that is the
only thing I can dedicate to Thee)" (Sivanandalahari, 27).
The great sage Narada extols the devotion of the gopikas in the Narada Bhakti sutras. Narada
defines Bhakti as 'supreme love of God'. Love of God becomes supreme only when (1) it is totally
free from any selfish desire, (2) there is no place whatsoever for any love of a worldly nature in the
mind, and (3) the devotee completely forgets himself or herself and sees only the object of his love,
God, everywhere. All these are found in the love of the gopikas for Krishna. Narada says further in
sutras 19 to 24:
Sutra 19: "The essential characteristics of Bhakti are the dedication of all activities to God and the
feeling of extreme anguish if He is ever forgotten". Dedication of all actions to God, which is known as
Karmayoga in the Gita, is thus an essential ingredient of Bhakti according to Narada. This, again, is
what the gopikas were doing. Apart from representing their heart, butter has another significance too.
It is the final product of all the labours of the gopikas. They milk their cows, turn the milk into curd,
churn the curd and get butter. This butter, which is the essence of milk and which is the final product,
is offered by them to Krishna. The anguish which the gopikas feel when they are separated from
Krishna even for a very short period finds expression in the beautiful 'Gopikagitam' in chapter 31 of
Skandha X of Srimad Bhagavatam.
Sutra 20: Examples of such perfect Bhakti do exist.
Sutra 21: Such indeed was the Bhakti of the gopikas of Vraja.
Sutra 22: It cannot be said that they were ignorant of the fact that Krishna was the supreme Lord
Himself.
It is made very clear in the Gopikagitam in Srimad Bhagavatam that the gopikas knew that Krishna
was the supreme Being Himself: "You (Krishna) are not just the son of Yasoda; you are the Indweller
of all and the witness of all minds" (Bh.X.31.4).
Sutra 23: If they did not have this knowledge, their love would have been nothing more than the base
passion of a mistress for her paramour.
Sutra 24: In such profane love the mistress is not at all interested in the happiness of her paramour.
Such a love is purely selfish. But in the love of the gopikas there was no selfishness at all.
Thus Narada considers the gopikas to be the best exemplars of supreme devotion, or parabhakti.
The gopikas practiced Karmayoga by dedicating all their actions to Krishna. They had intense
devotion to Krishna. They knew that the same supreme Being indwells all creatures and is the
witness of all their actions. Thus we see in the gopikas the synthesis of all the three yogas, which is
the essence of the Bhagavadgita.
It is thus clear that what was taught by Krishna in the Gita was actually demonstrated in their lives by
the gopikas.
7. Vishayananda to Brahmananda
Every human being has desires, but the desires vary from person to person and from time to time for
the same person. Some desire wealth, some fame, some power; one who has no children wants
children, a bachelor wants to get married, and so on. But if these persons are asked why they desire
all these, the answer will invariably be that they expect to get happiness by the fulfillment of their
desires. So it is clear that what every human being wants is happiness, and each one has his own
notion of what will bring him or her that happiness. Thus it is happiness alone that is desired for its
own sake, and everything else is desired only for the sake of happiness. In Vedanta all objects of
desire are denoted by the word 'Vishaya'. This noun is derived from the verbal root 'si' with prefix 'vi'
which means 'to bind'. This very derivation indicates that it is these objects of desire that bind a
human being firmly to transmigratory existence characterised by repeated births and deaths. The
happiness experienced on the attainment of any object of desire is known as 'Vishayananda'.
'Brahmananda' is the bliss which is the very nature of the person who has realised that he is
Brahman. This realisation is the consequence of the removal of the wrong identification with the body,
and mind, which is natural to every living creature. Brahman being Bliss itself, one who has realised
that he is Brahman remains as that very Bliss. Though Bliss is the real nature of every human being,
it is only the realised soul who is aware of it.
All desires spring from identification with the body and mind, because the happiness looked forward
to by the fulfillment of desires is to be enjoyed by the body and the mind. Thus Vishayananda, or the
happiness arising from objects, has, as its basis, identification with the body and mind. On the other
hand, Brahmananda is the consequence of the removal of this identification. These two thus appear
to be diametrically opposed to each other. However, paradoxically, as it may seem, Swami
Vidyaranya says in Panchadasi (XV.1) that Vishayananda is the door to Brahmananda and is an
aspect of it. We shall see how this is so.
Desires and their effect on man

When a person intensely desires something, his mind remains obsessed by that desire. He is full of
anxiety about the fulfillment of that desire and fears about obstacles cropping up. In such a state of
mental agitation he is very miserable. If he fails in his effort he becomes even more unhappy. His
mind becomes filled with anger and hatred against those whom he considers, rightly or wrongly, to
have been responsible for his failure. He becomes dejected and despondent. There cannot be even
the slightest trace of happiness when the mind is in such a state.
When and how happiness arises

If, on the other hand, the object desired is attained, then his mind becomes calm and remains so until
another desire arises to disturb it. When the mind is calm, the bliss which is the real nature of every
human being, becomes clearly reflected in it, just as the moon is clearly reflected in a pond in which
the water is clear and not disturbed by the wind. When the mind is agitated by anxieties, fears and
other such emotions, the reflection of bliss is indistinct like the reflection of the moon in a pond in
which the water is muddy or disturbed by wind. Thus happiness is the result of the calming of the
mind for the time being, but it is wrongly attributed to the attainment of the desired object.
Happiness does not come from objects

Objects have no capacity to produce happiness or unhappiness. The same object may give
happiness to one person and unhappiness to another person. It is also every one's experience that
the same object gives happiness at one time and unhappiness at another time to the same person.
Warm clothing gives comfort in cold weather, but one cannot bear even the touch of it in a hot
summer.
The mind is the cause of happiness and unhappiness
A person is happy when other living beings or inanimate objects are favorable to him, and unhappy
when they are unfavorable. A thing or person is considered favourable when that thing or person
responds in the way desired. If a son obeys his father, the father is happy; if he does not, the father is
unhappy. A person is happy with his car or any other object as long as it functions well; if it does not,
he is unhappy and wants to get rid of it. It is thus clear that happiness and unhappiness are only
states of the mind, but are wrongly thought to be caused by external objects. Happiness is the result
of the mind becoming calm. The mind becomes calm temporarily when a particular desire is fulfilled,
and then happiness is experienced. But soon another desire crops up and agitates the mind, causing
unhappiness. Thus it is clear that lasting happiness cannot be attained by the fulfillment of desires.
Detachment is the key to lasting happiness

True and lasting happiness can result only if the mind is permanently kept calm. This can be achieved
only if desires, which are the cause of mental agitation, are completely eliminated. We are therefore
led to the conclusion that total detachment towards all worldly pleasures (Vairagya) is the only means
for the attainment of true and lasting happiness, which is Brahmananda.
Vairagya is the most essential requisite for a person who wishes to attain Self-knowledge, which
alone will lead to eternal bliss. It is said by Sri Sankara that one who attempts to attain Self-
knowledge without cultivating dispassion is like a person trying to cross a river on the back of a
crocodile, mistaking it for a floating log of wood. He is sure to be eaten up by the crocodile midway.
It is now clear why Swami Vidyaranya says that Vishayananda is the door to, and an aspect of
Brahmananda. Vishayananda is nothing but Brahmananda reflected in a calm mind.
Why the bliss aspect of Brahman is reflected only in a calm mind

Brahman is Existence-Consciousness-Bliss. The existence aspect alone is manifested in inanimate
objects, but not consciousness and bliss. This is because inanimate objects have no subtle body
which alone can reflect consciousness and bliss. The consciousness aspect is manifested in all
animate beings, even when the mind is agitated, for we see that even a person who is unhappy is
conscious. But the bliss aspect is manifested only when the mind is calm. A doubt arises as to why,
when Brahman has both the aspects of consciousness and bliss, only one of them, consciousness, is
reflected in an agitated mind. When you look at the reflection of your face in a mirror, you find that the
face in its entirety is reflected and not only some aspects of it. This doubt is answered by Swami
Vidyaranya by giving two examples. When water is in contact with fire, only the heat aspect of fire is
absorbed by the water and not the light of fire. But when a log of wood comes into contact with fire, it
absorbs both the heat and the light aspects. The same is the case with the reflection of Brahman.
Vedanta Paribhasha of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra
A Summary
By S. N. Sastri
The Vedanta-Paribhasha is an epistemological work on Advaita Vedanta as interpreted by the

Vivarana school of Prakasatma Yati, the commentator on Padmapada's Panchapadika. The author is
believed to have lived in the seventeenth century in South India. In this work he has adopted the
method and phraseology of Navya-Nyaya, introduced by Gangesa Upadhyaya in the fourteenth
century.
(Epistemology is the study of the origin, nature and validity of knowledge).
The work begins with the following prayer:
I bow to that Supreme Self, the embodiment of Existence, Knowledge and Bliss, by the manifestation
of the nescience associated with which thep rojection of the elements and all things made up of the
elements takes place.
The first six chapters are devoted to establishing the means of valid knowledge (pramanas) from the
standpoint of Vedanta, refuting the other systems of philosophy, particularly Nyaya-Vaiseshika.
The pramanas according to the various systems
Charvakas - Only perception (Pratyaksha).
Buddhists and Vaiseshikas - Perception and Inference
(Pratyaksha and Anumana)
Sankhya and Yoga - Perception, Inference and Verbal testimony (Pratyaksha, Anumana and Sabda).
Nyaya - Perception, Inference, Verbal testimony and Comparison (Pratyaksha, Anumana, Sabda and
Upamana).
Prabhakara Mimamsa - Perception, Inference, Verbal testimony, Comparison and Presumption

(Pratyaksha, Anumana, Sabda, Upamana and Arthapatti).
Vedanta and Bhatta Mimamsa - Perception, Inference, Verbal testimony, Comparison, Presumption
and Non-apprehension (Pratyaksha, Anumana,Sabda, Upamana, Arthapatti and Anupalabdhi).
The Naiyayikas include presumption under inference, but this is rejected by Vedanta on the ground
that presumption is based on negative invariable concomitance (vyatireka-vyapti) which Vedanta
does not admit, since Vedanta admits only affirmative inference.
Valid knowledge and its means
Valid knowledge (prama) is defined as that knowledge which has for its object something that is not
already known and is uncontradicted (anadhigata-abaadhita-arthavishayaka-jnaanam). The
qualification 'something that is not already known' is meant to exclude recollection. The word 'un-
contradicted' excludes illusion or error, as when a rope is mistaken for a snake.
The Mimamsakas hold that time is also cognised through the organs of sense. Thus, when an object
is seen, the cognition is connected with the moment when it is seen. As a result, when an object is
seen continuously for several moments, the cognition at each moment is considered to be different
from the cognition of the same object at the previous or next moment. In this view, the cognition at
each moment is a new cognition and so the qualification 'something that is not already known' applies
and the definition is applicable. According to Vedanta, however, a continuous cognition for several
moments is one single cognition. The knowledge of a pot, for example, is Consciousness reflected in
the mental modification (vritti) in the form of the pot and this is just one throughout the time the same
pot continues to be seen. In this view also the definition applies.
Objection: According to Advaita Vedanta, all objects such as pot are unreal, being 'mithya', and so the
knowledge of the pot is contradicted and it cannot be valid knowledge.
Answer: It is only after the realisation of Brahman that the pot is contradicted. In the above definition,
'uncontradicted' means 'not contradicted during the transmigratory state'.
Perception as a means of knowledge
Valid perceptual knowledge is nothing but Pure Consciousness.
Objection: Consciousness is without a beginning; i.e. it is eternal. So why should it need the eye, etc
as an instrument to produce it?
Answer: Although Consciousness is eternal, the vritti that reveals it arises only through the contact of
the organ with the object. It is Consciousness reflected in the vritti that is spoken of as having a
beginning. The vritti is figuratively designated as knowledge (though it is by itself insentient).
The mind is a substance with a beginning and so it has parts. The knowledge which is a mental
modification (vritti) is an attribute of the mind, just as desire, etc are. See Br.up. 1.5.3-- "Desire,
resolve, --- all these are but the mind".
Though desire, etc are attributes of the mind, they are wrongly thought to be attributes of the self, in
the same way as it is said that a hot iron rod 'burns' when it is really the fire that burns. The false
identification of the self with the mind is the reason for considering desire, happiness, etc as attributes
of the self.
According to the author of Vedanta Paribhasha the mind is not an organ. (However, in the Bhashya
on Brahmasutra, 2.4.17, Sri Sankara says:-- In the Smriti the organs are counted as eleven, and
hence the mind also is accepted to be an organ like those of hearing, etc. The Smriti referred to here
is Bhagavad gita, 13.5, second line. In the Bhashya on this it is said, "The five organs, ear etc., which
are called the sense organs and the five organs which accomplish actions, and the mind, the
eleventh". According to Vivarana, the mind is not an indriya, but according to Bhamati it is an indriya).
Objection: If the mind is not considered as an indriya, the perception of happiness, etc, which is
produced by the mind, and not by any of the other sense-organ such as the eye, cannot be
considered to be immediate (sakshat), because only perceptions produced by an indriya can be
accepted as immediate.
Answer: No, because the immediacy of knowledge does not depend on its being produced by an
indriya. If it is contended that only knowledge produced by an indriya is immediate, it would mean that
God's knowledge, which is not produced by any indriya, is not immediate, and God would never have
any perceptual knowledge. On the other hand, if all knowledge produced by an indriya is considered
as immediate, and the mind is considered as an indriya, then inference, which is produced by the
mind, would also have to be accepted as immediate, which is not acceptable to any one.
What is perceptual knowledge?
Perceptual knowledge (pratyaksha jnanam) arises when the Consciousness limited by the mental
mode (pramana chaitanyam) coincides with the Consciousness limited by the object. In perception
the Consciousness becomes three fold-- (1) Consciousness limited by the object (prameya-
chaitanyam), (2) Consciousness limited by the mental mode (vritti) (pramana-chaitanyam) and (3)
Consciousness limited by the mind (pramatr-chaitanyam).
The process of visual perception, according to Advaita Vedanta , is described in chapter 1 of Vedanta
Paribhashathus. Just as the water in a tank, issuing through a hole, enters, through a channel, a
number of fields and assumes the shapes of those fields, so also the luminous mind, stretching out
through the eye, goes to the space occupied by objects and becomes modified into the forms of those
objects. Such a modification is called a vritti of the mind. The same fact is also stated in Panchadasi,
4.27, 28 and 29, based on Sri Sankara's Upadesasahasri, Metrical portion, chapter 14, verses 3 &4.
The whole process of visual perception consists of the following steps:--
(1) The mind stretches out through the eye, reaches the object and takes the form of the object. This
is called a vrtti or mode of the mind.
(2) The mental mode removes the veil of ignorance that hides the object.
(3) Consciousness underlying the object, being manifest through the mental mode, illumines the
object.
(4) The mental mode associates the object-consciousness with the subject-consciousness.
(5) The subject perceives the object.
Consciousness manifest through the mental mode coincident with the object serves as the knowledge
of the object. This is known as phala (fruit), being the resultant knowledge.
The mind has three main divisions in this process, namely,
(1) the part within the body,
(2) the part that extends from the body to the object perceived,
(3) the part that coincides with the object.
The first part above is known as pramaataa and the consciousness manifest in it is called pramaata-
chaitanya. This is the perceiver. The consciousness manifest in the second part is called pramaana-
chaitanya,or the means of knowledge. The consciousness manifest in the third partis pramiti-
chaitanya or percept.
The object perceived is called prameya. Since the third part of the mind mentioned above coincides
with the object, prameya-chaitanya, the consciousness underlying the object and pramiti-chaitanya
become identical. The point to be kept in mind here is that all objects in this world are superimposed
on Consciousness, i.e. Brahman. All objects are covered by a veil of ignorance, which has to be
removed for seeing the object. It is only consciousness that reveals the objects, since the objects
themselves are non-luminous.
The object perceived is but the underlying consciousness manifest or appearing as such. It has no
existence apart from the all-pervading Consciousness. That all-pervading Consciousness (Brahma-
chaitanya) which underlies the object known, that is to say, to be known, becomes manifest as the
object known".
(This matter is dealt with in great detail in Panchadasi, chapter VIII- Kutastha dipa.)
In the case of feelings such as happiness, since the Consciousness limited by happiness, etc.,
coincides with the Consciousness limited by the vritti in the form of happiness, the knowledge in the
form "I am happy' is also a perception (pratyakshajnanam).
Objection: In that case, recollection of past happiness would also have to be considered as
pratyaksha.
Answer: No; the two limiting adjuncts, the vritti in the form of recollection and the vritti in the form of
past happiness, belong to different times and so they cannot coincide. The criterion is that the two
limiting adjuncts must occupy the same space at the same time.
Though punya and papa are also attributes of the mind, they are, by nature, incapable of being
perceived. Capability of being perceived is another criterion.
The knowledge in the form 'the hill has fire' is pratyaksha in respect of the hill and anumana in respect
of fire. Knowledge such as 'this is a fragrant piece of sandal' is aparoksham (immediate) in respect of
the sandal, but paroksham (mediate) in respect of the fragrance. According to Nyaya, such a
knowledge is called jnanalakshana pratyaksha (See Bhasha-Pariccheda- sl. 65).
(Nyaya recognises ordinary (laukika) and extra-ordinary (alaukika) perception. Ordinary or laukika
perception is of two kinds- (1) internal (maanasa), where the mind comes into contact with psychical
states and processes like cognition, affection, conation, desire, pain, pleasure, aversion, etc; and (2)
external perception in which the five external organs of sense come into contact with external objects.
Extra-ordinary oralaukika perception is of three kinds-- samanyalakshana, jnanalakshana and yogaja.

The first is the perception of the universals. Whenever we perceive a particular cow we first perceive
the ‗universal cowness' inhering in it.
Jnanalakshana is the ‗complicated perception through association'. For example, I see a blooming
rose at a distance and say, "I see a fragrant rose". Here the visual perception of the rose revives in
memory, by association, the idea of fragrance, which was perceived in the past through the nose. It is
perception revived in memory through the cognition (jnana) of the object in the past. Other examples
are-‗the piece of sandalwood looks fragrant', ‗ice looks cold', etc. The theory of anyathakhyati is
based on this kind of perception. Anyatha means ‗otherwise' and ‗elsewhere'. The shell and the silver
are both separately real; only their synthesis is unreal. The shell is directly present as ‗this' while the
silver exists elsewhere and is revived in memory through jnanalakshana perception.
Yogaja is the perception of all objects, past, present, etc, through yogic power.)
Ageneric attribute (jati) is a distinct category according to Nyaya and is defined as "that which is
eternal and inherent in many things", for example, jarhood (ghatatva). Vedanta does not accept such
generic attributes. According to Vedanta, jarhood is the sum total of the characteristics of a jar, which
distinguishes it from other things. It is not eternal. These characteristics are just attributes.
According to Nyaya, inherence (samavaya) is eternal relation. It is the relation between the whole and
parts, jati and vyakti, qualities or actions and the substances possessing them, and ultimate
difference (visesha) and the eternal substances-- atoms, ether, time, space, etc. Vedanta denies
inherence and substitutes tadatmya, or difference-cum- identity,
Knowledge that is limited by mental modifications in the form of particular objects is a perception in
respect of such knowledge, when it is not different from the Consciousness limited by objects that are
present and are capable of being apprehended by particular organs.
This is a comprehensive statement about the criterion of perceptuality of knowledge.
The perceptuality of objects
The perceptuality of objects such as a jar (which are superimposed on the Consciousness limited by
them), consists in their not being different from the Consciousness associated with the subject
(pramaata-chaitanyam).
But in the case of inference, etc, since the mind does not go out to the space covered by the fire, etc,
the Consciousness limited by the fire is not one with the Consciousness associated with the subject,
and therefore the existence of the fire, etc, is distinct from that of the subject. So the definition of
perception does not wrongly extend to such cases.
In the case of an inference regarding righteousness and unrighteousness, though the Consciousness
limited by them is not distinct from the Consciousness associated with the subject, they cannot
become pratyaksha because they are not capable of being perceived.
Being cognised by the witness alone (kevalasakshi-vedyatvam) does not mean that they are objects
of the witness without the presence of the mental modifications corresponding to them, but that they
are objects of the witness without the activity of pramanas such as the sense-organs and inference.
Hence Prakasatmayati has, in Vivarana, admitted a mental modification in the form of the ego--
ahamakara-vritti. So also, in the case of an illusory piece of silver, a vritti of nescience in the form of
silver (rajata-akara-avidya-vritti) has been admitted in works such as Samkshepa-sariraka. The
illusory silver is 'sakshi-bhasyam', cognised by the witness-self, since the mental modification is not of
the vyavaharika mind, but is a vritti of avidya. (See page 22 of commentary by Abhyankar on
Siddhantabindu). Thus, an object is said to be cognised by perception when it is capable of being
perceived and is devoid of any existence apart from that of the Consciousness associated with the
subject, which Consciousness has for its limiting adjunct a mental modification in the form of that
object.
Samyoga - conjunction - when a sense-organ is in contact with a substance such as a pot. This is
called samyoga in Nyaya also.
Samyukta-tadatmya- contact of organ with qualities and other attributes of substances, such as the
colour of a pot. Here the organ is connected with the pot and the colour, according to Vedanta, is
identical with the pot. This is called samyukta-samavaya in Nyaya.
Sound is a quality of ether and is therefore identical with it.
Sabdatva is identical with sound, which is identical with ether.
In Nyaya the conjunction of organs with objects which causes perception is of six kinds:--
Samyoga - contact of a pot by the eye.
Samyukta-samavaya - in the perception of colour of the pot.
Samyukta-samaveta-samavaya- the perception of the universal genus such as rupatva, colourness.

In Vedanta this is called samyukta-abhinna-tadatmya.
Samavaya - the hearing of sound by the organ of hearing, which is the ether in the cavity of the ear.
Sound is a quality of ether and quality and the qualified are connected by samavaya.
Samaveta-samavaya - the contact in cognising soundness.
Viseshana-viseshya-bhava-sannikarsha- the conjunction in the perception of negation, as in the

cognition: ghata-abhavavad-bhutalam.
Vedanta denies the relation of viseshya-viseshana-bhava admitted by Nyaya, as in the sentence "The
ground has no jar". For tadatmya Nyaya substitutes samavaya or inherence.
In Nyaya also, sound is a quality of ether. Since qualities in here in substances, they cannot be
perceived apart from the latter, except in the case of sound, which, though a quality, is perceived by
itself.
According to Bhatta Mimamsa, however, sound is a substance.
Savikalpaka-pratyaksham- determinate perception, is that knowledge which apprehends relatedness

(of the substantive and the qualifying attribute) (vaisishtya), such as, "I know the jar". (Here there is
the relation of subject and object). In Nyaya determinate perception is cognition which involves an
attribute or an adjunct, such as "This is a Brahmana", "This is black", "This is a cook". See page 163
of A Primer of Indian Logic by Prof. S. Kuppuswami Sastri).
Nirvikalpaka-pratyaksha - indeterminate perception, is that knowledge that does not apprehend this
relatedness; for example, knowledge arising from sentences like, "This is that Devadatta" or "Thou art
That". In these cases the knowledge arises by ignoring the particular features of 'This' and 'Devadatta'
or 'Thou' and 'That'. In Nyaya indeterminate perception is a cognition which does not involve any
attribute or adjunct (prakara).
The criterion of perception is not the fact of its being due to an organ. The criterion is the fact of the
Consciousness associated with the means of knowledge not being different from the Consciousness
associated with the object, when the object is present and is capable of being perceived, i.e., the
identity of pramana-chaitanya and prameya-chaitanya.
Hence the knowledge arising from the sentence "Thou art That" is pratyaksha, because the subject
itself being the object, the condition about the identity of the Consciousness limited by That and that
limited by Thou is satisfied.
There is a difference between perceptuality of cognition and perceptuality of objects. In the inference,
'The hill has fire, because it has smoke', both the hill and the smoke are objects of perception, but not
the fire, which is inferred. Hence, if the perception is considered only with regard to the objects, then
the knowledge of the fire would not be a perception. But if perceptuality is considered in respect of the
cognition, the cognition of fire is a case of perception, since all knowledge is perceptual in respect of
itself in Vedanta.
Dream Perception
Consciousness, which is self-effulgent, is the sub-stratum of the chariot, etc, seen in dream. They are
experienced as existent; hence it is Consciousness manifesting itself as Existence that is the
substratum.
Some hold that the chariot, etc, seen in dream are direct transformations of Maya; others that they
are its transformations through the medium of the mind.
Two fold destruction of effects
The destruction of an effect is of two kinds. In one the destruction is together with that of the material
cause, and in the other the material cause remains intact. The first is nullification or badha and the
second is cessationor nivrtti. The cause of the first is the realisation of the truth of the substratum,
Brahman for, without that, nescience, which is the material cause, is not removed. The cause of the
second is the rise of a contrary mental modification, or the removal of defects. Hence, although on
waking up the world conjured up in dream may not be nullified, i.e., destroyed with its material cause,
nescience, in the absence of realisation of Brahman, yet, like the cessation of a pot by the blow of a
club, the cessation of the chariot seen in dream occurs as a result of a contrary cognition, or through
the removal of the defect of sleep.
Thus, according to the view that the silver seen in a nacre is an effect of the subsidiary nescience
abiding in the Consciousness limited by the nacre, there is nullification of the silver together with the
nescience regarding the nacre by the knowledge that the apparent silver is only nacre. But according
to the view that the silver is an effect of the primal nescience, since the latter is destroyed only by the
realisation of Brahman, there is just a cessation of the silver through the knowledge that it is a nacre--
as in the case of the destruction of a pot through the blow of a club.
Perception through or without an organ
The perception of happiness, etc, is not due to an organ, since the mind is not considered as an
organ. The nose, tongue and skin generate cognitions of smell, taste and touch, just remaining at
their seats, while the eye and ear apprehend their objects by themselves reaching the spot occupied
by the objects.
From Methods of Knowledge - p.112:
According to Nyaya, the cognition 'This is a jar is manifested by a subsequent reflective knowledge
(anuvyavasaya) in the form of 'I have the knowledge of the jar'. But according to Bhatta Mimamsa, the
knowledge of the jar is known by inference. When the jar is known it acquires the quality of
'knownness' (jnaatataa), which is observable. By perceiving this mark of 'knownness' in the jar one
infers one's antecedent knowledge of the jar. Thus, while the jar is known directly, its knowledge is
known indirectly, by inference. Both Bhatta and Nyaya hold the theory known as paratah-prakasa-
vada, according to which the manifestation of a particular knowledge does not rest on itself, but on
another knowledge.
Vedanta rejects both the above views. If knowledge is not self-manifest, if one knowledge depends on
another for its manifestation, then the second would depend on a third, and so on, ad infinitum.
From Gangesa's Theory of Truth-- by Jitendranath Mohanty p. 3:
The theory of svatah- pramanya:
Advaita, and the Bhatta, Prabhakara and Misra Mimamsa.
Paratah-pramanya:
Bauddhas and Nyaya.
Svatah-prakasa
Advaita, Prabhakara Mimamsa and Bauddhas.
Paratah-prakasa
Misra and Bhatta Mimamsa and Nyaya.
Prakasa is concerned with the apprehension of the knowledge itself. It asks the question, how is the
knowledge itself known? How do I know that I know?
Pramanya is about how a knowledge becomes true and how is its truth ascertained.
Inference
Inference or anumaana is defined as that cognition which presupposes some other cognition. It is
knowledge which arises (anu) after another knowledge. It is mediate and indirect and arises through a
mark, linga or hetu (middle term) which is invariably connected with the saadhya (the major term).
Invariable concomitance (vyaapti) is the nerve of inference. The presence of the linga in the paksha
(minor term) is called pakshadharmataa. The invariable association of the linga with the saadhya is
called vyaapti.
According to Nyaya, anumaana (inference) is the efficient instrument (karana) of inferential

knowledge (anumiti). Anumiti is knowledge that arises from paraamarsa. Paraamarsa is a complex
cognition which arises from a combination of the knowledge of invariable concomitance
(vyaaptijnaana) and that of the presence of the linga in the paksha -- technically known aspaksha
dharmataa jnaana.
From 'A Primer of Indian Logic', page 194:
Paraamarsa is an indispensable antecedent and should, therefore, be treated as the cause of

anumiti. It is contended by the Naiyayikas that, in the absence of such a paraamarsa, anumiti does
not arise. Paraamarsa is also known as linga paraamarsa or tritiya linga paraamarsa (the third
cognition of the reason). The cognition of the presence of the linga in the paksha may be said to be
the first linga paraamarsa; the cognition of the invariable concomitance is the second. The complex
cognition which arises from these two cognitions is the third.
The Mimamsakas and the Advaitins hold that the complex cognition called paraamarsa is not
indispensable for anumiti, though it may actually arise just before anumiti in many cases. They
therefore maintain that it would be necessary to treat anumiti as the effect of vyaapti jnaana and
paksha dharmataa jnana and to exclude paraamarsa from the causal complement of anumiti.
From Methods of Knowledge, page 146:
According to Advaita, the instrument of inferential knowledge is the knowledge of invariable

concomitance, the latent impression of which knowledge is the cause. As soon as a person who has
gained from previous experience the knowledge of the invariable concomitance between smoke and
fire sees smoke on a hill, the latent impression of this knowledge is revived within him and
immediately follows the conclusion, 'The hill has fire'. Hence the interposition of the third
consideration of the mark is redundant.
Major term - saadhya - fire - probandum
Minor term - paksha - hill
Middle term - linga or hetu - smoke - probans
Anupaadhi in Nyaaya is an adventitious factor which is invariably concomitant with the probandum
and not so with the probans. The relation of vyaapti embodied in the proposition--- "Wherever there is
fire, there is smoke"-- is not a necessary and unconditioned relation and depends upon the
association of fire with the adventitious contact of wet fuel with fire. Such an adventitious
circumstance is called upaadhi. It is called upaadhi because its invariable concomitance with the
probandum (fire) comes to be erroneously associated with the probans (smoke), just in the same way
as the redness of a flower is erroneously associated with a crystal in its vicinity.
In a statement of vyaapti, the vyaapya (pervaded - smoke) should be first referred to and the
vyaapaka (pervader - fire) should be the principal predicate.
Nyaya postulates five component parts in the syllogism:

Pratijnaa - The proposition
Hetu - reason
Udaaharana - example
Upanaya - application
Nigamana - conclusion.
According to Advaita Vedanta only the first three steps or the last three are necessary.
The Naiyayikas classify inference into three different types, as below:
Anvaya-vyatireki- in which the invariable concomitance can be either affirmative or negative, e.g. -
'Wherever there is smoke, there is fire, as in a kitchen', and, 'Where there is no fire, there is no
smoke, as in a lake'.
Kevala-vyatireki - that which is based solely on negative invariable concomitance, e.g. - 'Whoever is
not omniscient is not the creator'. The inference, 'God is omniscient, because He is the Creator' is
based on this negative invariable concomitance. No knowledge of affirmative invariable concomitance
is possible in this case, because the co-presence of Omniscience and Creatorship cannot be seen
anywhere.
Kevala-anvayi- This is where the sadhya is present everywhere, e.g. - 'The jar is nameable, because
it is knowable', because name ability (the thing inferred), is present everywhere. This inference is
based solely on the affirmative invariable concomitance, namely, 'W hatever is knowable is nameable'.
Here negative invariable concomitance is not possible.
The Advaitins, like the Mimamsakas, do not acknowledge negative invariable concomitance - kevala-
vyatireki, because, according to them, knowledge of negative invariable concomitance is not possible
without the knowledge of affirmative invariable concomitance. The conclusion derived from negative
invariable concomitance is treated as arthaapatti. Both anvaya-vyatireki and kevala-vyatireki are
rejected by them and only anvayi is accepted. This includes the type of inference designated as
kevala-anvayi by the Naiyayikas. But Advaitins repudiate the latter term as too narrow.
In Vedanta, as in Nyaya, inference is twofold - that for oneself and that for others.
Inference for oneself:
The inferential knowledge, "The hill has fire", arises when one has knowledge of the reason (smoke)
being present in the thing (hill) where something (fire) is to be inferred, in the form, "This has smoke",
and there is awakening of the latent impression left by previous experience, in the form, "Smoke is a
subordinate concomitant of fire". The knowledge "The hill has fire" is inferential only in respect of the
fire, and not in respect of the hill, because the knowledge of the hill is a perception.
Inference for others:
This requires the help of syllogisms. The component parts of a syllogism have already been given
above.
The three levels of reality
According to Advaita Vedanta there are three levels of reality- absolute (paaramaarthika), empirical
(vyaavahaarika) and illusory (praatibhaasika). Brahman alone is absolute reality. Everything in the
universe has only empirical reality, i.e. they are real only till the dawn of Self-knowledge. Things such
the illusory snake appearing on rope, silver on shell, objects experienced in dream, have only illusory
reality.
The unreality of the universe is inferred from the statements in the srutis that there is nothing other
than Brahman.
Gods, Sages and Yajnas in Vedas
This work offers a bird‘s eye view on the Vedic gods, sages and the Yajnas that the sages prescribed.
Vedic Gods
Savitr: The word Savitr is derived from the root su, which means to stimulate. The God of Gaytri
mantra, who has been meditated upon by millions for thousands of years is pre-eminently a golden
deity whose car and its pole are golden. Shining with the rays of the sun, yellow-haired, Savitr raises
up his light continually from the east. His ancient paths in the air are dustless and easy to traverse,
and on them he protects his worshippers; for he conveys the departed spirit to where the righteous
dwell. He removes evil dreams, and makes men sinless. He is also connected with the evening as
well as the morning; for at his command night comes and he brings all beings to rest.
Savitr is often distinguished from Surya. In some passages, he is said to shine with the rays of the
Sun, to impel the sun, or to declare men sinless to the sun. But in other passages it is hardly possible
to keep the two deities apart.
Dyāvā-prthivi: Heaven and Earth are the most frequently named pair of deities in the Rigveda. They
are also separately addressed as 'father' and 'mother', since they have made and sustain all
creatures; they are also the parents of the gods. At the same time they are in different passages
spoken of as themselves created by individual gods.
They never grow old. They are great and wide-extended; they are broad and vast abodes. They grant
food and wealth, or bestow great fame and dominion. Sometimes moral qualities are attributed to
them. They are wise and promote dharma. As father and mother they guard beings, and protect from
disgrace and misfortune.
Rudra: Just like Visnu, Rudra occupies a subordinate position in the Rigveda. It was much later that
he became quite prominent in his form as Shiva. The epics and the Puranas drew the character
heavily from that of Rudra. The famous mantra traymbakam yajamahe used universally as prayer to
Lord Shiva, comes in the Vedas itself.
Rudra has beautiful lips and wears braided hair. His colour is brown, his form is dazzling, he shines
like the radiant sun, is arrayed with golden ornaments, and wears a glorious necklace, drives in a car,
holds the thunderbolt in his arm, and discharges his lightning shaft from the sky; but he is usually said
to be armed with a bow and arrows, which are strong and swift.
He is fierce and destructive, strongest of the strong, swift, unassailable, unsurpassed in might, young
and unaging. He is easily invoked and auspicious (siva). He not only preserves from calamity, but
bestows blessings. His healing powers are often mentioned; he has a thousand remedies, and is the
greatest physician of physicians
Mitra: The association of Mitra with Varuna is so intimate that he practically has no individuality of his
own. His very name means 'friend', or 'ally'. In the Persian religion 'Mithra' is a sun-god or a god of
light specially connected with the sun. The dual invocation of Mitra-Varuna goes back to the Indo-
Iranian period, for Ahura and Mithra are coupled in the Avesta. In the Brahmanas, Mitra is connected
with day, and Varuna with night.
Uttering his voice, Mitra marshals men and watches the tillers with an unwinking eye. Like Varuna, he
is upholder of laws, and Visnu takes his three steps by the laws of Mitra
Brihaspati: Brhiaspati is a purely Indian god, and is also called 'Brahmana pati'-- 'Lord of prayer'.
Addressed as the father of the gods, he is said to have blown forth their births. Like Agni, he is the
priest of the gods. He is the generator of all prayers, and without him sacrifice does not succeed. His
song goes to heaven, and he is associated with singers. He is said to help and protect the pious man,
to prolong life, and to remove disease.
In the later literature, he plays a very important role as the priest of gods, and tries to defeat the
power of Shukracharya, the priest of the asuras.
Usas: Decked in gay attire like a dancer, clothed in light, Usha (early morning) appears in the east
and unveils her charms. Rising resplendent as from a bath she comes with light, driving away the
darkness and removing the black robe of night. She is young, being born again and again, though
ancient. Shining with a uniform hue, she also wastes away the life of mortals.
She drives away evil dreams, evil spirits, and the hated darkness. She discloses the treasures
concealed by darkness, and distributes them bountifully. She awakens every living being to motion.
When Usas shines forth, the birds fly up from their nests and men seek nourishment. Day by day
appearing at the appointed place, she never infringes the ordinance of nature and of the gods. She
renders good service to the gods by awakening all worshippers and causing the sacrificial fires to be
kindled.
Usas is closely associated with the Sun. Since she precedes the Sun, she is occasionally regarded
as his mother. She is also called the sister, or the elder sister of Night and their names are often
conjoined as a dual compound (usasa-nakta). As the sacrificial fire is kindled at dawn, Usas causes
Agni to be kindled, and Agni goes to meet the shining Dawn as she approaches.
Usas brings the worshipper wealth and children, bestowing protection and long life.
Parjanya: The name literally means 'rain-cloud', but he is frequently described as a bull that quickens
the plants and the earth. The shedding of rain is his most prominent characteristic. He flies around
with a watery car, and loosens the water-skin. In this activity he is associated with thunder and
lightning. He is in a special degree the producer and nourisher of vegetation, and by implication Earth
is his wife.
Pusan: His individuality is vague, and his traits are scanty. He wears braided hair, a beard and carries
a golden spear. His car is drawn by goats instead of horses. With his golden aerial ships, Pusan acts
as the messenger of Surya. He sees all creatures clearly and at once. He also conducts the dead on
the far-off path of the Fathers, is a guardian of roads, removing dangers out of the way, protects cattle
and brings them home unhurt and driving back the lost.
Āpas: These are the waters who follow the path of the gods. The deification of the Waters is pre-
Vedic, for they are invoked as apo in the Avesta also.
Indra, armed with the bolt, dug out a channel for them, so they never infringe his ordinances. They
are celestial as well as terrestrial, and the sea is their goal. King Varuna moves in their midst, looking
down on the truth and the falsehood of men. They are also mothers to Agni. They give their
auspicious fluid like loving mothers, and they purify, carrying away defilement. They also cleanse
moral guilt, the sins of violence, cursing, and lying.
Vísve devāh: The comprehensive group called Vísve devāh occupies an important position. Probably
it is an artificial sacrificial group intended to include all the gods in order that none should be left out
during sacrifices, or prayer.
Yama: Yama is the chief of all the dead whose last rites were performed according to Vedic rites. He
is not expressly designated a god, but only a being who rules over the dead. His father is Vivasvat,
and he is said to have chosen death of his own will to find out the path for many, to where the ancient
Fathers passed away. Thus, death is the path of Yama.
As the first father of mankind and the first of those that died, Yama appears to have originally been
regarded as a mortal who became the chief of the souls of the departed. He is associated with
Varuna, Brihaspati, and especially Agni, the conductor of the dead, who is called his friend and his
priest.
Yama dwells in the remote recess of the sky. In his abode, which is the home of the gods, he is
surrounded by songs and the sound of the flute.The owl and the pigeon are mentioned as his
messengers, but the two four-eyed, broad-nosed, bridled dogs, sons of Sarama are his regular
emissaries. They guard the path along which the dead man hastens to join the Fathers who rejoice
with Yama. They watch men and wander among the peoples as Yama's messengers, but not in a bad
sense. Yama is invoked to lead his worshippers to the gods, and to prolong life.
Vāta: Vata's name is connected with forms of the root va, (blow), which is also used for the name of
Vayu. Vata is the breath of the gods, and like Rudra he has a hand in healing and prolonging life. He
has the treasure of immortality in his house. His activity is chiefly mentioned in connection with the
thunderstorm.
Purusa: There are seven hymns dealing with the creation of the world as produced from some
material. In the well-known Purusa sukta, the gods are the agents of creation, while the material out
of which the world is made is the body of Purusa, the God. The act of creation is here treated as a
sacrifice in which Purusa is the victim, whose body parts became the universe. The Vedas sprung
from him, the animals and plants were born of him, and the castes of men came out of him.
Pitras: They are the blessed dead who dwell in the third heaven. The term as a rule applies to the first
ancestors who followed the ancient paths.
The Pitaras are classed as higher, lower, and middle, as earlier and later, who though not always
known to their descendants, are known to Agni. They receive oblations as their food and are
entreated to hear, intercede for, and protect their worshippers, and besought not to injure their
descendants for any sin humanly committed against them. They are invoked to give riches, children,
and long life to their sons, who desire to be in their good graces.
The path trodden by the Fathers (pitr yāna) is different from that trodden by the gods (deva yāna).
Vedic Rishis
Vāchaspatyam, the ancient Sanskrit to Sanskrit dictionary, defines rishi as: rishati jnānena samsāra-
pāram (one who reaches beyond this transmigratory world by means of spiritual knowledge).
Etymogically, the word may also mean "to see" or "to realise" spiritual truths.
Going through the Vedas, we realise that it would have been impossible for an ordinary poet, or even
an spiritual aspirant to have the wisdom that have been recorded in the Vedas. Commenting on the
special attainments of the Vedic rishis, Max Muller said that "these sages climbed up to the heights
where their lungs only could breathe, and where those of other beings would have burst." These
greats followed reason and meditation wherever it led them, no matter at what cost. They just did not
care if all their best beliefs were smashed, never cared for what society of them, or talked ab out them.
That is how they became what they became.
Coming to more realistic plane, we find each hymn of the Rig Veda traditionally attributed to a specific
rishi, and the "family books" (Rigveda: 2-7) are said to have been the spiritual wisdom received by the
various families. The main families, listed by the number of verses ascribed to them are:
Angirasas: 3619 (especially Mandala 6); Kanvas: 1315 (especially Mandala 8); Vasishthas: 1267
(Mandala 7) ; Viswamitras: 983 (Mandala 3); Atris: 885 (Mandala 5); Bhrgus: 473; Kashyapas: 415
(part of Mandala 9); Grtsamadas: 401 (Mandala 2); Agastyas: 316; and Bharatas: 170.
Of these, three families stand out as connected with fire sacrifices: Angirasaa, Atharvan, and Bhrigu.
As sages, they carried an aura around them, and were respected as divine, having humbled even the
gods in their feud with them. Some other sages like Atri were deified to be made one of the seven
sages of saptarshi mandala.
Manu, as a sage is the living equivalent of what is Yama for the dead. He is also the son of Vivasat,
as Yama is, and is considered to be the progenitor of the human race. His name is connected more
with the deluge during which the Lord came as Mina Avatara.
Viswamitra and Vasistha became more famous as the sage connected with the life of Sri
Ramachandra. However, their feud and rivalry became so famous that these stories and their
outcome have entered the Indian lore.
Not much is known about the Vedic sages other than what we get in the epics and the Puranas. The
little that we gather about them from the later works makes us feel that they considered themselves
mere instruments in receiving the divine wisdom and knowledge for the benefit of the mankind.
Despite their impersonal way of life in which rituals and meditation occupied their nearly whole of
waking hours, they unknowingly left behind a way of life that was later on emulated by the Brahmins
for centuries to come.
Rishikas -- The Female sages
We come across quite a few names of the rishikas (women Rishis) in the Vedas. Probably none of
them was the composers of the Vedic mantras, but they were definitely samhitākartās, who assisted
in the collection of the Veda mantras. Since the sages normally led a married life, and had children
who grew up in the Vdic atmosphere, it was quite natural to have some great rishikas.
Some famous great female sages are: Maitreyi who was Yajnavalkya's wife; Gargi, who challenged
Yajnavalkya with her sharp questions, Lopamudra (wife of Agastya), who has two mantras (RV
I.179.1-2) attributed to her, Roamasa the wife of Svanya , Visvavara belonging to the Atri family,
Aangirasi Sarasvati of Angirasa family, Apala of the Atri family, Yami Vaivasvati, Sraddha, Ghosha,
Urvasi, Sarama, Poulomi, and others. Most of them are mentioned in the Rigveda.
Yajna: Vedic rites and sacrifices
Broadly speaking, religious acts of an individual, or of a group is yajna (religious sacrifice).
Under normal conditions, every act of a person is mundane, and at times, even profane. But when
those very acts are performed with a religious outlook, they becomes yajna. Even the simple act of
breathing can be transformed into a sacrifice (Gita, IV.29) when it is performed with proper attitude.
Thus yajna (sacrifice) is the consecration of the mundane to the divine. It is the transformation of the
profane into the sacred; is the bridge between the material and the spiritual; and is the instrument to
convert the belittled to the exalted.
For a person to be spiritual, his acts have to be spiritualised, and for that every act of his has to
become a yajna. That is why even the act of creation by Purusha (God) was perceived as a yajna by
the Vedic sages, and was described so (Purusa Sukta, Rig Veda X. 90) . But, it is impossible for a
common man to treat every act of his as a yajna, which means that an easier way has to be found for
his upward journey towards spirituality.
It was to solve this problem that the Vedic sages came up with the solution of public and private yajna
for all. Soon they had framed methods by which the life of an individual and the society could be
regulated by sacrificial acts. In birth, death, marriage, acquisition, renunciation, sorrow, joy, victory,
loss -- there came up a yajna.
Slowly these yajnas diversified into sacraments (samskaras), and sacrifices (offerings and oblations).
The sacraments for the individual's private life (like marriage, sacred thread ceremony, funeral rites
etc.) grew up to forty in number, but was later brought down to eighteen, then to sixteen in the Smriti
period, and finally to ten in the Tantra system. Most Hindus now follow these ten samskaras. A brief
overview of the samskaras will be given in "An Overview of the Smritis " .
The yajna which were not sacramental (i.e. not a samskara) were characterised by offering of
oblations to various deities and personalities. The oblations (haviH) meant for gods were poured as
ahuti into fire, known as homa , whereas the offerings made to the ancestors and the demigods
(Nirriti and the Rakshasas) were known as bali and were placed on the strewn grass, or put in water.
These practises continue even today. It is believed that in the early days, even the offerings to gods
were not made in the fire, but were placed on the ground, or strewn grass, but later on nearly all the
offerings were made into fire (Agni got a severe stomach problem due to this, as narrated in
Mahabharata).
Here we discuss only the fire sacrifices addressed to the gods.
The Vedic yajna are prayer to the divine in anticipation of something in which the offering (including
the sacrificial goat) effects the communication between the mundane and the sacred; and the priest
acts both as the agent of the sacrificer and the mouthpiece of the gods.
These fire sacrifices had: a) one single fire used in domestic rites, or b) three fires for bigger
sacrifices. In case of the three fires, the most important fire used to be the Gārhapatya (of the master
of the house), which descended from the domestic hearth of the sacrificer, and was kept perpetually
burning. All oblations were cooked in this fire. To its east used to be Āhāvaniya fire, in which offerings
were made. To the south of the Gārhapatya, the dakshina agni used to be set, in which the fire used
to be brought at the end of a sacrifice.
The Vedic rites can be classified into two groups: Grihya (domestic) and Shrauta (public), which were
characterised respectively by the absence and the presence of priests. Grihya sacrifices included the
individual samskaras (purificatory sacraments), a daily sacrifice called mahayajna (great sacrifice),
and seven pākajanya (cooked sacrifices).
The Shrauta sacrifices consisted of haviryajna, and Somayajna. The haviryajna were performed with
grains, ghee, milk etc., whereas the Somayajna were performed with soma juice. These sacrifices
were again categorised as nitya (daily), naimittika (occasional), kāmya (with a specific desire), and
prāyaschitta (penance).
Some of the the famous Vedic rites are:
Agnihotra: This was the twice daily pouring (at sunrise and sunset) of oblation (mostly milk) in the
sacrificial fire by the family. The ritual was performed by a priest for his own or the benefit of a
sponsor (yajamāna). This sacrifice was considered purificatory in nature, and is still practised by
some.
Darshapaurnamasa: This was performed on the new moon and the full moon days.
Agrāyana: This involved offering of newly produced grains in different seasons.
Chāturmāsya: These were the four monthly rites which used to be started in the beginning of any of
the three seasons: spring, rainy, or the autumn.
Agnishtoma: It was performed annually in the spring season in the praise of Agni.
Pravargya: It was an oblation offered to Ashvins of goat's and cow's milk heated in a vessel.
Vājapeya: This was done to celebrate a great victory by the king. It lasted from 17 days to a year.
Rājasuya: It was the consecration of a famous king in which great expenses were made. In the
Mahabharata period Yuddhisthira performed this yajna.
Aswamedha: This was a complex sacrifice marked to prove the sovereignty of a king. After the
sacrifice, the king was known as Chakravarty. Raja Ramachandra had performed this yajna.
Sarvamedha: It was a ten day sacrifice, in which a person sacrificed everything he had. It was
performed for the sake of gaining and winning every kind of food, and attaining supremacy.
Prayer
Along with the growth and consolidation of the yajnas, prayer to the divine also grew in importance. In
the Vedas prayers are linked with the sacrifices in the form of a formula (yajus), pronounced in a low
voice. There were also declamations of verses, called shastras, in which 'Aum' was inserted at
regular interval.
References are also made in the Vedas to an 'internal' mental sacrifice which can be used in cases of
urgency. The part played by thought, side by side with word and action is emphasised many times in
various hymns. Later on this concept was taken up by various religious systems as manasā- vācā -
karmanā, and a devotee was advised to offer all his acts of thinking, speaking, and doing to the Lord.
Although prayer played an integral role in any sacrifice, with time it grew independent of the yajna.
The independence and the autonomy of prayer ensured its own dynamics, and it soon became
powerful enough to overthrow the role of sacrifices in a spiritual life altogether. When the scholars try
to present Upanisahdic thoughts as a revolt of the Kshatriyas against the Brahmins, they overlook the
fact that the Upanishads are the natural outcome of the power of prayer to the Self. Any open
religious system is sure to reach the state where prayer becomes the essential part of its outlook.
Prayers are a kind of paradigm shift in spirituality -- a fact that was recognised and practised by the
Vedic sages more than five thousand years ago.
*****
Sections of the Vedas
Brāhmanas
The discussion till now has been on the Samhitā portion of the Vedas. As mentioned earlier, the
Vedas have three more sections: Brāhmana, Āranyaka, and Upanishads. Of these, the Upanishads
continue to influence the lives and philosophy of the Hindus, but the other two reached a dead end
long ago, after giving birth to more specialised branches of religion connected with the issues
discussed in them.
Commenting on Taittiriya Samhita 1.2.1, Bhatta Bhaskara defines ‗Brahmanas‘ as texts which
expound the Vedic mantras and Yajnas. In chapter 2 of his Kavyamimansa, Rajasekhar defines the
Brahmanas as texts which are characterised by statements of eulogy, censure, exposition and (ritual)
application (of mantras). The word is used distinctively to denote certain texts for the first time in
Taittiriya Samhita 3.7.1.1
Many scholars, modern and ancient, have tried to define the Brahmanas by stating their
characteristics. The reality however is that there is no sharp difference in the character of the Mantra
and the Brahmana portions of the Vedas. The only thing that we may state safely is this – Mantras
are those portions of the Vedas that are designated as such traditionally. And the rest is Brahmana.
Vedic sages felt that there was nothing that could not be achieved by sacrifices – the sun could be
stopped from rising, and Indra, the chief of gods, could be deposed from his throne. The Samhitā
contain the mantras that are required in various sacrifices, but the methodology and the science of
the rituals and sacrifices required a separate kind of work.
With the growth of Samhitā literature, the corresponding science of performing the yajna also
increased in bulk. With time, these were collected in a special class of literature which was known as
Brāhmana. The formulas and rules for conducting extremely complex rituals are explained to the
minutest detail in these works, and, every ritual is performed with a specific purpose, for which a
specific result is described. Thus, for each Samhitā, there were a number of Brāhmana, which are
treated as the Veda itself. Unlike the Samhitā, the Brāhmana are exclusive prose works, although
some are accented.
In addition to these, the Brāhmanas also contain myths, legends, and narratives to explain or
rationalise the then religious practices. The duties of men professing different occupations, the
eternity of the Veda, popular customs, cosmogony, historical details, praise of ancient heroes are
some other subjects dealt with in the Brahmanas. The later philosophical speculations concerning the
Self were also a part of the Brāhmana, but later it broke free to become a separate section.
Thus, the Brāhmana literature can be classified under three sections:
1. vidhi, which are the practical sacrificial directions
2. arthavāda, (eulogy) which are the explanations of meanings and purpose of the sacrifices
3. upanishads, the later philosophical developments which focus on "I am That."
The staunch traditionalists, however, accept only vidhi and arthavada as the Vedas.
As in the case of Samhitā, a major portion of the Brāhmana literature has been lost, but what has
reached our hands, forms an extensive literature.
The Brāhmana are indispensable if one wants to understand the later religious and philosophical
literature of Hinduism. These works are also important to understand the history, science, and growth
of priesthood and sacrifices. Most of the beliefs practised in modern Hinduism has been adapted from
these works.
The famous Brāhmanas:
Rig Veda
* Aitareya Brāhmana: It deals with Soma sacrifices, Agnihotra, and Rajasuya yajna.
* Kausîtaki/Sānkhāyana Brāhmana: It deals with Soma sacrifices and the food sacrifices.
Samaveda
* Tāndya Maha Brāhmana/ Panchavimsa: It contains some very old legends and the details of a
sacrificial ceremony (Vrātyastomas) by which Vrātyas (total outcastes) were received in the
Brahiminical fold.
* Sadvimsa Brāhmana: It deals with miracles and omens
* Jaiminîya Brāhmana: It has legends and the history of religion
* Chāndogya Brāhmana: The first two 'lessons' deal with ceremonies relating to birth and marriage;
whereas the last eight 'lessons' constitute the famous Chāndogya Upanishad.
* Sāmvidhāna, Devatādhyana, Vamsha, Samhitopanisat Brahmans: These four Brāhmanas are very
short, and are not really treated as Brāhmana.
* Sātyāyana Brāhmana: It is only found in quotations of Sayanacharya.
Krishna Yajurveda
* Taittiriya Brāhmana: This Brāhmana is in addition to the commentary already interspersed in the
Samhitā. It also contains Kāthaka portion of Brāhmana, which otherwise is considered lost. The text
details various sacrifices and also narrates some legends.
Shukla Yajurveda
* Shatapatha Brāhmana: It is in a hundred chapters, and is the most extensive and the most
important of all the available Brāhmanas. It has tow recension -- Kānva, and the Mādhyandina. The
work deals with sacrificial matters, sacred thread ceremony, svādhyāya (self study of scriptures), and
some special sacrifices like Asvamedha.
Atharva Veda
* Gopatha Brāhmana: This is the only available Brāhmana of the Atharvaveda. In this work we have
Upanishad texts like the Pranava Upanishad.
Evolution of the religious ideal in the Brāhmana:
Japa: The rationale of the sacrifices were discussed threadbare in the Brāhmana, but that did not
satisfy every mind. Questions were raised against sacrifices and their methodology. Even gods
themselves started becoming redundant. And with all this kind of mental activity poured into the
analysis of the rites and their explanation, abstractions were increasing rapidly in the Vedic religion.
As the sacrifices were glorified and given power even over the Vedic gods, the power of the word
increased. Japa (the practice of chanting a mantra silently) of 'Aum' practised ascetically with the
sacrifices was believed to produce all one's desires. At the same time knowledge was beginning to be
valued. In one exchange mind says that speech merely imitates it, but speech emphasises the
importance of expression and communication; however, Prajapati decides that mind is more
important than the word.
In the long run, the sacrifices went away, the gods went away, prayers and chant went away. What
remained was only japam of the sacred 'Aum'. Later, this was also given up to pave way for
meditation.
Tapasyā: Prajapati was the father of both the gods and the demons. The ethical principle of truth
became stronger as the gods were described as truthful and the demons as not so truthful. However,
realising the ways of the world, many complained that the demons grew strong and rich (as people
complain even today of those who become successful by taking the wrong path). Instead of telling
that the demons would perish due to their own karma, emphasis was laid on the power of goodness.
The gods were advised to perform sacrifice, or perish. The gods performed sacrifices that made them
triumph over the demons, and also helped them attain Truth.
To emphasise the power of tapas and sacrifice, it was said that Prajapati practised tapas to create the
world by the heat of his own tapasya. Prajapati not only created, but also entered into things as form
and name, giving them order. In the later literature, Prajapati was replaced by Brahma, who was
identified with Truth and became the Creator God in the trinity that included Vishnu and Shiva.
Self Analysis: A judgement after death using a scale to weigh good against evil is described in the
Satapatha Brāhmana. The text recommends that the one who knows this will balance one's actions in
this world so that in the next the good deeds will rise, not the evil ones. This concept, however,
underwent a great change in later times, and spiritual aspirants were advised to discriminate between
the Real and the unreal to attain spiritual wisdom.
Rebirth: Belief in repeated lives through reincarnation is indicated in several passages in the
Brāhmanas. A beef-eater is punished by being born as a strange and sinful creature. However, as
knowledge rivalled the value of ritual, this new problem of how to escape from an endless cycle of
rebirth presented itself automatically, which led to the more abstract philosophy of the Upanishads.
A few Selections from the Brāhmana
** Bhrigu, the son of Varuna was devoted to learning. Unfortunately his learning made him egotistic
and he thought that he was superior to all, including the gods and his own father. So Varuna decided
to make him grow in humility, and had his life breath stopped. This made Bhrigu enter the worlds of
death. In the first he saw someone cut another man to pieces and eat him; in the second, one man
was eating another who was screaming, and in the third a man was silently screaming. In another
world there were two women guarding a treasure, and at one place a stream of blood was guarded by
a naked black man with a club, while a stream of butter provided all the desires of golden men in
golden bowls. In the sixth world five rivers of blue and white lotuses were flowing. There also was the
river of honey, wonderful music, celestial nymphs dancing and singing, and a fragrance enveloping
the whole region.
When Bhrigu returned, his father explained to him that the first man represented people who in
ignorance destroyed trees, which in turn ate them; the second were those who cooked animals that
cried out and in the other world were eaten by them in return; the third were those who ignorantly
cooked rice and barley, which screamed silently and also ate them in return; the two women were
Faith and non-Faith; the river of blood represented those who squeezed the blood out of a Brahmin,
and the naked black man guarding the river was Anger; but the true sacrificers were the golden men,
who got the river of butter and the paradise of the five rivers. -- Satpatha Brahmana XI.6.1
** ―Prajapati alone existed before this Universe came into being. The word certainly was his only
possession. Therefore, the word was the second. He desired: ‗Let me emit this very word, it will
pervade this whole (space). He emitted the word and it pervaded the whole (space). It rose upwards
and spread, as a continuous (well joined) stream of water.‖ -- Tāndya Brāhmana 20.14.2
** ―Some ask- ‗If a man establishes the sacrificial fire and then dies while touring abroad, then how
does one do his Agnihotra? To this, we reply that it is to be performed by offering the oblation of the
milk of a cow which has been suckled by a calf that is not its own. This is because the milk of such a
cow is akin in nature to the Agnihotra of such a dead man. Alternately, perform the Agnihotra with the
milk of any cow. Others state the relatives of the dead man should keep the alters of that man fired up
without offering sacrificial oblations till the bones of the dead man have been collected after cremation
of his corpse. And if the corpse is not traceable, then twigs from 360 ‗flame of the forest‘ trees should
be cut and fashioned into a human figure. This should then be cremated with full ceremony and at
that time, the fires from the altar established by the dead man should be extinguished by a transfer to
his funeral pyre. The likeness of the corpse should be created in this manner- 150 twigs for the torso,
140 for the twigs for the two thighs. 50 for the legs and the rest should be placed above its head.
Thus ends the procedure for the atonement performed for a man who establishes a sacrificial fire in
the altar but dies while touring abroad.‖
-- Aitareya Brāhmana XXXII.1-2
Āranyakas
As appendices to nearly all the Brāhmanas are the texts known as Āranyakas (lit. forest texts). The
main content of these texts are the mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy. In
turn these Āranyakas end in the Upanishads. Although the very orthodox Vedic schools did not give
much importance to the Āranyakas and the Upanishads, these are extremely important for the
Vedanta philosophy. The Vedantins do not see Upanishads as the end of the Vedas, but as the final
aim of the Vedas.
The Aranyakas were called the forest texts because the ascetics who taught them used to retreat into
the forest, and the disciples used to follow them there. This resulted in a loss of emphasis on the
sacrificial rites that were performed in the villages and the towns. It is believed that these texts were
for the Vānaprasthis (those who had completed their worldly duties and renounced them), who were
supposed to meditate on the mystical significance of the sacrifices only. Thus the Aranyakas were the
transitional link between the Brāhmanas and the Upanishads; they discussed rites, had magical
content, lists of formulas and the hymns from the Vedas, but also had the early speculations and
intellectual discussions that finally flowered in the Upanishads.
The Taittiriya Aranyaka tells how when some great sages were approached by some ordinary sages
for instruction, they refused. But when the sages came back with faith and tapas, they were
instructed.
The sense of social morality also started growing: truth was considered to be the highest value,
debtors were in fear of punishment in hell, and immorality was condemned.
The emphasis now was on spiritual knowledge. The concept of prana as the life energy of the breath
was exalted and was declared to be present in trees, animals, and people in ascending order. Human
immortality was identified with the atman, and not with the body. Hell was still feared, but it was
believed that by practising tapasya,one could hope to be born in a better world after death or be
liberated from rebirth. Non-attachment (Vairagya) was also declared to be the great purifier of the
body and the liberator from the cycle of life and death.
Brahman, the Supreme Reality, and Atman, the individual's essence, were now more important than
gods and sacrifices. The guardians of the spiritual treasures of the community were called
Brahmavadins (those who discussed Brahman).
The Various Āranyakas

Rig Veda: Aitaraya, Kaushitaki or Shānkhyāyana
Krishna Yajurveda: Taitttiriya, Maitrāyani,
Shukla Yajurveda: Brihadaranyaka (two recensions)
Samaveda: Chhandogya, Jaiminiya
A few Selections from the Aranyaka
―They said: ‗Sir, you are the teacher, you are the teacher. What has been said has been duly fixed in
mind by us. Now answer a further question. Fire, air, Aditya (sun), time, prana, food, Brahma, Rudra,
Vishnu- some meditate upon one, some meditate upon another. Tell us- which one is the best for us?‘
Then he replied to them: ―All these are merely the manifest forms of Brahman, the Immmortal, the
Formless. To whichever form each man is devoted here, in the realm of that deity does that man
rejoice. For it has been said- ‗This whole is Brahman (Brahma khalvidam vāv sarvam). These, which
are its manifest forms that one meditates on, worships and finally discards. For, by meditation upon
these forms, one moves to higher and higher realms, and when all things perish, one attains unity
with the Purusha!‖ -- Maitrayani Aranyaka
'He by Whom all this Universe is pervaded-- the earth and the mid region, the heaven and the
quarters and the sub-quarters, that Purusha is fivefold and is constituted of 5 elements. He who has
attained the Supreme Knowledge through Sannyāsa (renunciation) is indeed this Purusha. He is all
that is in the present, was in the past and will be in the future. Though apparently human, his true
nature is that which is settled by the Vedas and what is attained by his new birth is in right knowledge.
He is firmly established in the richness of knowledge imparted by his teacher, as also in his faith and
in Truth. He has become the self resplendent. Being such a one, He remains beyond the darkness of
ignorance. O Aruni! Having become one possessed of knowledge by realising Him, the Supreme,
through sannyasa, and with your mind fixed in your heart, do not again fall a prey to death, because
sannyasa is the supreme means of spiritual realisation, therefore wise men declare that to be above
all the means of liberation.' -- Taittiriya Aranyaka, X.79
'Thereafter, when the body is made fit for a state of desirelessness, he should be bent over the
offering to Brahman. In this way, he will drive repeated deaths away. ―The Soul is to be envisioned, to
be heard, to be thought of and to be meditated upon.‖ ―Him (the Soul) they aspire to know by reciting
the Vedas, by practicing the rigors of studentship (including celibacy), by asceticism, by faith, by ritual
sacrifices and by fasting‖ says Sage Mandukeya. ―Therefore, he who knows this should, becoming
tranquil, restrained (in senses), still in meditation, enduring of the opposites and immersed in faith,
perceive the Soul in his own soul,‖ thus says Sage Madavya. That Purusha, who lives in the midst of
life forces, and is a repository of consciousness, is incomprehensible and ought to be distinguished
(form the animate and inanimate creation) as ‗Not this, Not this‘.‖ ―This Soul alone is the Kshatriya, it
is the Brahminhood, it is all the divine beings, the Vedas, all the worlds, it is all beings, indeed it is all!
This Soul is that is designated by ‗Tat tvam asi‘ (That Thou are). This Soul is to be comprehended in
‗I am Brahman‘. This Brahman (the Supreme Soul), without any predecessor, without any superior,
without another equivalent, immanent in all, without an exterior (i.e. all pervading), is this Soul-- the
Brahman (the Supreme Being), the entity that experiences everything in the Universe-- such is the
doctrine‖- says Sage Yajnavalkya. ' --- Shānkhyāyana Aranyaka
The Upanishads
There are as many Upanishads to each Veda as there are Sakhas, branches or recension, i.e., 21,
102 (according to some, 109), 1000 and 50 respectively to the four Vedas (The Rig-Veda, The Yajur-
Veda, The Sama-Veda and the Atharva-Veda). However, just like the lost recension, the
corresponding Upanishads are also lost.
According to various sources, there are different number of important Upanishads, but Acharya
Shankara has commented upon eleven: Isa, Kena, Katha, Mundaka, Mandukya, Prasna, Aitareya,
Taittiriya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, and Svetasvatara. There are some upanishads coming from
very old times other than these, but nearly all of the other upanishads (including Allahopanishad) is a
later addition. These later works claim to belong to the lost portions of the Vedas, which can neither
be proved nor disproved.
The fundamental principle governing the Upanishads is the great spiritual realisation that "Atman is
Brahman" -- the individual is one with the Universal.
Because of their importance and vastness, the Upanishads will be discussed in a separate section.
The Vedangas
From the aspect of the spiritual tradition, the Vedangas do not have much importance, because they
act as auxiliaries to the Vedas. These subjects of study were quite important for the performance of
Vedic rites and sacrifices, but they had no direct role in the spiritual life of a person. In later times, the
evolved branches of these Vedangas were taken up by the greats of their fields and made into a
complete shastra, which when followed devotedly, could take one to the realisation of the Supreme
Rality.
There are six Angas or explanatory limbs, to the Vedas: Sikshā (Phonetics), Vyakarana (Grammar),
Chhanda (Prosody metre), Nirukta (etymology), Jyotisha (Astronomy and astrology), Kalpa (Srauta,
Grihya, Dharma and Sulba).
Sikshā: In the Taittiriya Upanishad there is the famous mantra: " Aum. We will expound siksha, or the
science of pronunciation. It deals with sound, pitch, quantity, force, modulation and combination. Thus
is explained the lesson on pronunciation."
As mentioned in the above Upanishad, Sikshā was the science of pronunciation. The oldest
phonetics textbooks are the Prātishakyas that describe pronunciation and intonation as well as the
rules of sandhi of the vedic Sanskrit. These books were specific to the individual Shakhas of the
Vedas. With time, more popular versions of these Prātishakhya came into existence which were
known as siksha.
The importance of the study of this branch of study has been beautifully stressed in a popular story
(Taittiriya Samhitā, 2.4.12): Tvasta, the divine carpenter wanted to take a revenge on Indra, and
hence conducted a yajna to beget a son who would destroy Indra. When he chanted the mantra,
'Indrasatur varddhasva...' , he went wrong in intonation: he was supposed to pronounce "indra"
without raising or lowering the syllables in it, whereas "tru" and "rddha" should have been raised
(udatta). Had Tvasta pronounced correctly, it would have meant 'May Tvasta's son grow to be the
slayer of Indra'. Unfortunately because of the wrong intonation, the mantra now meant, 'May Indra
grow to be killer of this son (of mine).' Consequently, Tvasta's son was killed by Indra, although there
was no change in the wordings of the mantra, only the change in the stress of the letters caused this
havoc.
Vyākarana: The Vedic grammar is lost forever but the remnant of it can be found in the works of
Panini's grammar.
Chhandas: This the science of prosody. There are very few books left on this subject, that too of very
late origin. Sutras of Pingala on metrics is one of the more famous one, but this was also recorded
much after the Vedic period.
Chhandas expound the 'metres of the gods', the 'metres of Asuras' etc., and treat the seven famous
metres of the Vedas, along with the other complex metres. Reflections on the names and forms of
metres, and the mysticism of the syllable and of the verse were developed to an extraordinary extent
in the hymns of the Samhitā, and also the Brāhmanas.
Nirukta: This Vedanga is the philosophy of etymology, but deals exclusively with the words of Rig
veda. Yaska's Nirukta is the only famous work that has come down to us, which in itself is the
commentary of an earlier work, Nighantu. It is in the form of explanations of words, and is the basis
for later lexicons and dictionaries.
Jyotisha: The importance of the Vedic sacrifices necessitated the drawing up of the calendar for
rituals and fix the proper times for the sacrifices. This meant that the sages had to study the
movements of the planets and observe the celestial phenomena in detail. It was thus that the science
of astronomy and astrology came up in India.
Kalpa: It is the description of the methodology of ritual. To help the priests perform the various details
connected with a sacrifice, a kind of manual was worked out. With time every Veda had its own
handbook (written in short form, known as sutra) of rituals, which came to be known as Kalpa. Thus
the Shrauta Sutras (dealing with public sacrifices), Grihya Sutras which concern domestic life and the
Dharma Sutras which deal with ethics, customs and laws -- all belong to Kalpa. The Sulba, which
treat of the measurements necessary for laying out the sacrificial area, also belong to Kalpa.
Among the Kalpa Sutras, the works of Asvalayana, Sankhayana, Gobhila, Katyayana, Apastamba,
Hiranyakesi, Bodhayana, Bharadvaja are more famous.
In later times, the Kalpa evolved into Smriti literature of law books, of which Manusmriti became the
most famous.
Conclusion
The Hindus consider the Vedas to be synonymous with knowledge. However, even a brief survey of
the Vedas, as presented in this short monograph, is enough to make one realise that the Vedas
(which include the rituals, the code of conduct, mythologies, and the philosophy of Vedanta) are
synonymous with religion. Whatever principle or practice is there in the religious world can be found
in the Vedas, although not every religion can be traced to it. Swami Vivekananda says, '.. the
Vedanta, applied to the various ethnic customs and creeds of India, is Hinduism. The first stage, i.e.
Dvaita, applied to the ideas of the ethnic groups of Europe, is Christianity; as applied to the Semitic
groups, Mohammedanism. The Advaita, as applied in its Yoga-perception form, is Buddhism etc. Now
by religion is meant the Vedanta; the applications must vary according to the different needs,
surroundings, and other circumstances of different nations.'
The spiritual experiences of Sri Ramakrishna have once again proved that the Vedas are infallible.
The experiences portrayed in many of the hymns of the Vedas were thought to be poetic in nature by
the scholars, but Sri Ramakrishna had those experiences even before he knew of the existence of
such Vedic passages.
It is wrong to search for any kind of religious evolution in the Vedas; the ideas are as they are. The
Vedic sages meditated upon the various aspects of the external and the internal nature to come up
with the ultimate spiritual solution to the enigmas that presented themselves to these sages. Naturally
it is impossible to say which of these enigmas were more advanced in nature when they came to the
sages. Further, if it be accepted that the Vedas are the revelations received in the transcendental
state of a pure mind, then it would be wrong to conclude that there can be any evolution in it. It would
be more like concluding that the words of Sri Ramakrishna are later than the words of a novice of the
twenty-first century, simply because Sri Ramakrishna's words are spiritually more perfect. So, one
must accept the Vedas as they are.
Every student of religion and every devout Hindu has to go back to the Vedas if he wants to make his
life blessed.
References for An Overview of the Vedas I-IV:
-- Vedic India by Louis Renou. Pub: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd, Kolkata -12
-- Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda
-- Translations of the Vedas by Ralph Griffith
-- The Call of the Vedas by A.C. Bose, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
-- A Vedic Reader by Arthur Anthony Macdonell
-- Vedas by Max Muller
-- Vedic Selections by Calcutta University
-- The Secret of the Veda by Sri Aurobindo
An Overview of the Vedas
Swami Vivekananda's Vision
While travelling through the length and breadth of India, Swami Vivekananda once reached Punjab,
where he had a strange vision. He saw an old man standing on the banks of the Indus, and chanting
Vedic hymns, using intonations that were distinctly different from those used in modern times. The
passage that he heard was:
Āvahi varadé devi tyaksharé brahmavādinī
Gāytri chandasām mātā brahmayoni namo‘stu té
--"O come! Thou Effulgent One, Thou Bestower of Blessings, Signifier of Brahman in three letters!
Salutation be to Thee, O Gayatri, Mother of Vedic Mantras, Thou who hast sprung from Brahman!"
Talking about that vision, Swamiji was to say later, 'I saw an old man seated on the bank of the great
river. Wave upon wave of darkness was rolling in upon him, and he was chanting from the Rig Veda.
Then I awoke and went on chanting. They were the tones that we used long ago... Shankarâchârya
had caught the rhythm of the Vedas, the national cadence. Indeed I always imagine that he had some
vision such as mine when he was young, and recovered the ancient music that way. Anyway, his
whole life's work is nothing but that, the throbbing of the beauty of the Vedas and Upanishads.' (from
Complete Works, Vol. IX).
This vision explains the origin, nature, form, and utility of the Vedas. The Vedic hymns are the prayers
to various divinities; they were realised by the rishis (sages) in the depths of their transcendental
state; they are supposed to be handed down in a guru-shishya paramparā (teacher to student
tradition); they are the rhythm of the national life of India; and spiritual eminence can come to a
person only when he catches the rhythm signified by the Vedas.
What are the Vedas
The Vedas are the achievement, glory, power, strength and sustenance of the Hindu race.
Although most Hindus never see Vedic texts in their lifetime, yet, anyone who claims to be a Hindu,
has to bow down in reverence to the Vedas, and has to accept their supreme authority in matters
individual, social, philosophical, religious, and spiritual. There is nothing in Hinduism that does not
owe its origin and allegiance directly or indirectly to the Vedas.
The Vedas are full of all kinds of knowledge, and is the perfect guide for man in his quest for the four
purusartha (goal of life) – Dharma (religious practices), Artha (material welfare), Kama (pleasure and
happiness) and Moksha (Salvation). In sacred Hindu literature, the Vedas are considered the very
manifestation of God, and the ultimate source of all wisdom and of all Dharma. It is for this reason
that every Hindu's conduct, social carriage, religious ambition, and spiritual attainments have been
shaped by the Vedas. These sacred texts are the foundation of the Hindu way of life, and also the
technical support for its evolution.
There can be no doubt that without these great texts the Hindus would have continued to be savages,
and in the long run they would have been annihilated by the marauding looters and the proselytising
zealots. When the warrior caste of the Hindu race failed to save the country from the invaders, it was
the Vedas that saved the race from internal dissipation; when the bulldozers of science started
pulverising every religion into meek submission, it was the Vedas that made the Hindus stand in all
majesty and with dignity -- unconquered, unscathed; and today, when materialism and its never
satiating ally, consumerism, is sucking the globe of its vitality, it is the Vedas that make the Hindus
laugh at the greedy and vain monster in derision.
No words can do justice to the Vedas' contribution to the world civilisation in general, and to the
Hindus in particular.
The word veda is derived from the root vid, which has five different meanings (jnaane, labhe,
vichaarane etc.), but of which "to know" is more popular. When used as common noun, the term may
be used to mean the study of a particular science e.g., dhanurveda, ayurveda etc. As an adjective, it
may be used to glorify a book, or a subject, e.g. Srimad Bhagavatam, which is respectfully called "the
fifth Veda" by the Bhagavata devotees.
In its more popular sense, Vedas (with an 's') is used as proper noun to refer to the Samhitas (Vedic
mantras) associated with the four Vedas (Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda). In a
general sense, Vedas also means the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads attached to these
Samhitas. As a noun, the word first appears in the Rig Veda, where it means ritual lore.
The Vedas have other names like: Nigama, Shruti, Āmnāya, and trayee to express variously the
outlook of various schools of thoughts. For example, Mimamsakas, the traditional Vedic schools,
define Shruit as: Shruyate dharma anayā iti (The injunctions of Dharma that are heard from the guru),
and Āmnāya as: Āmnāyate upadishyate anen iti (That which gives instructions). Nigama is defined as
the traditional wisdom transmitted from generation to generation, and Veda has been described by
Shankaracharya as: Parmātmānām labhante iti (That through which one attains God).
Mimasakas, the traditionalists, limit the scope of the Vedas to instructions and injunctions concerning
ritualistic sacrifices, and lay emphasis on the first two portions of the Vedas, The Mantra, and The
Brahmana: "Mantrabrāhmanyoh vednam dheyam". According to them, the Upanishads and other
texts that talk about Atman, or any such topic, are intended to encourage people towards Vedic
sacrifices. As opposed to this view, Shankaracharya believes that the goal of all Vedic texts is to lead
a person towards self realisation. According to him, Vedic sacrifices are meant for people who are not
yet ready to give up selfish action, and who must wend their way up by first purifying their mind
through action.
The Origin and Antiquity of the Vedas: Shruti
The Dating: Who wrote the Vedas? This is an oft-repeated question by the scholars, and the critics of
the Vedas. Naturally. When most writers use the 'copy and paste' technique to see their name in
print, it is natural for the world to wonder how someone could create such a great thing and not leave
their name behind! Since our childhood, we have grown to see the name of the creator associated
with the creation. But in India, the concept of the Creator is impersonal, and hence it has been the
tendency of the great creators of art, poetry and music to remain anonymous. According to them, the
personal degrades, whereas the impersonal elevates.
The Vedas, and their recorders are as impersonal as God Himself.
No single person, or a group of persons wrote the Vedas. As mentioned, the ancient rishis (sages) in
the depths of their meditation and also in their transcendental state of mind came face to face with
truths which they recorded as The Vedas. These truths were passed from the father to the son, or
from the teacher to the disciple orally. Mostly these truths stayed with the families whose ancestors
had discovered them. With time, more and more revelations were added to the existing mass, which
made it difficult to manage the work through oral tradition. After some time, addition to the existing
mass of knowledge was stopped, and every new finding was recorded in some other kind of work.
All this information comes to us from the tradition and writings of the ancient times. Indian scholars
neither know, nor care to know the dates related to the Vedas: when they were composed, which
section was composed earlier, when their writing began, etc. The system of such dating began from
the times of Max Muller, and continues with the Western scholars. Unfortunately, even for them it is a
daunting task. Max Muller fixed the date of the first composition at 1500 BCE, which has now been
greatly questioned. Interestingly, there has been a discovery in Asia Minor of the names of the Vedic
deities Mitra, Varuna, and Indra, in an inscription of about 1400 BCE.
According to some Indian Vedic scholars like Tilak, who based their calculations on astronomical
data, the Vedas were composed at least 8000 years ago. Swami Vivekananda agrees with Tilak, and
says, "It was written, nobody knows at what date, it may be 8,000 years ago, in spite of all modern
scholars may say, it may be 9,000 years ago."
One serious problem in fixing the date of the Vedas is the ludicrous Aryan invasion theory, according
to which Aryans came to India around 2000 BCE, and destroyed the existing civilisation to settle
down there. However, this theory and the dates related to it have been refuted by the modern
scholars. Swami Vivekananda also debunked this theory strongly, and wrote:
'Whenever the Europeans find an opportunity, they exterminate the aborigines and settle down in
ease and comfort on their lands; and therefore they think the Aryans must have done the same! The
Westerners would be considered wretched vagabonds if they lived in their native homes depending
wholly on their own internal resources, and so they have to run wildly about the world seeking how
they can feed upon the fat of the land of others by spoliation and slaughter; and therefore they
conclude the Aryans must have done the same! But where is your proof? Guess-work? Then keep
your fanciful guesses to yourselves! In what Veda, in what Sukta, do you find that the Aryans came
into India from a foreign country? Where do you get the idea that they slaughtered the wild
aborigines? What do you gain by talking such nonsense? '
Another interesting reason for this problem of dating is the prejudices in the minds of the European
scholars, who were all Christians. According to Christianity, the earth, the sun, the stars and
everything was created in 4032 BCE (according to the Bible, and the year calculated by the great
scientist Newton himself!). Naturally it was impossible for them to believe in a culture which went
beyond the official date of the Lord's act.
For our studies, fixing the date of the Vedas is no issue at all. Suffice it to say that the Vedas were
revealed to the sages, who passed on the wisdom to their disciples orally. Writing appeared in India
around the 5th century BC in the form of the Brahmi script, but texts of the length of the Rig Veda
were not written down until much later. Very few manuscripts (a maximum of 80) are available of this
work, since most families carried the whole thing in their head. The oldest surviving manuscript dates
to the 11th century.
Shruti: The sages took extraordinary precautions to preserve from loss or corruption the sacred text,
which was being passed orally. The first step towards this was the formation of the Pada or 'word'
text. In the Pada, all the words of the Samhita text are separated and given in their original form,
before being shaped by the rules of Sandhi (conjunction). There are other rules too. The two methods
of memorisation came to be known as: Samhitāpātha, which has all Sanskrit rules of sandhi applied
and is the text used for recitation; and the Padapātha has each word isolated and is used for
memorisation.
Padapātha was followed by other and more complicated methods of reciting the text, and by various
works called Anukramanis or 'Indexes', which enumerate from the beginning to the end of the Rig
Veda the number of stanzas contained in each hymn, the deities, and the metres of all the stanzas of
the Rig Veda. It is due to these various precautions that the text of the Vedas have been handed
down for thousands of years with a fidelity that finds no parallel in any other literature.
Since these were learnt by listening, these were called Shruti (heard). Other than the Vedas, every
other literature which had spiritual connotation was termed Smriti. Throughout the history of India,
Shrutis occupied the highest position in matters of respect and authority. In matters of chance conflict
between the statements of the two, the words of the Shrutis were accepted as correct.
What is amazing about these works is that they were passed on from generation to generation for
8000 years or so, and were preserved in families all over India. When in the nineteenth century, Max
Muller compiled the whole work for its first printing, the world was amazed to see that there was not a
single alphabet's discrepancy between the manuscripts of any two families, though they lived
separated by thousands of miles and had maintained them orally! This meant that even the most
ancient manuscripts were no more authentic than what the Brahmins of the period were reciting from
memory.
The world still wonders at the prodigious memory of the Brahmins who preserved a whole library of
books in their head, generation after generation for thousands of years! This was the reason why the
burning of libraries and the destruction of books in India by the invaders could not destroy the Vedas,
and Hinduism was saved from annihilation.
Division of the Vedas
The tradition says that with the growing mass of Vedic literature, and the associated problem of
keeping the whole thing in memory, it had become imperative to find ways and means of preserving
the pure, and leaving out the unimportant. So, Vyasa (c. 1500 B.C.E), the great authority that he was
of his time, divided the Vedas into four and gave the responsibility of preserving them to four of his
great disciples.
He compiled the Rig Veda by collecting the rik mantras, which are a kind of chant set to fixed
melodies which are used as prayers during yajnas (sacrifices). This was taught to Paila
The Sāma Veda is a collection of Sāma songs (a particular metre, which can be sung) from Rig Veda.
The arrangement of its verses is with reference to their place and use in the Soma sacrifice. This
Veda was handed over to Jaimini.
The Yajur Veda is composed of yajus (prose mantras), which are used in sacrifices. Most of its
verses are taken from the Rig Veda, but it also contains some original prose mantras which could be
used as sacrificial prayers. However, even the Riks in Yajurveda are recited as if they were prose
passages. This Veda was taught to Vaishampayana.
Later on, there was a quarrel between Vaishampayana and his prodigious disciple Yajnavalkya.
Following the quarrel, Yajnavalkya left his guru and performed the tapasya of the Sun God, who
taught him the Veda afresh. This version of Yajurveda is called Shukla Yajur Veda, or Vājasaneyi
Samhitā (from Vāj, which means energy, or strength).
The Atharva Veda consists of a special class of Vedic texts known as chhanda, which are comprised
of Riks (5/6) and Yajus (1/6). These mantras deal mostly with magic, spells, incantations, kingly
duties, and also spiritual truths. Sumanta was taught this work.
There are lots of repetitions of the mantras in these Vedas. For example, 140 Rig Veda mantras are
repeated in the Rig Veda itself, 1800 Rig Veda mantras are repeated in Samaveda, 230 Atharva
Veda mantras have been repeated in the Atharva Veda, 1 Yajurveda mantra has been repeated in
Samaveda, and so on.
The division of the Vedas and the arrangement of the hymns followed precise rules and was fully
scientific. To take one small example, in mandala II to VII of the Rig Veda Samhita, the arrangements
of the hymns is by gods, with Agni at the head, followed by Indra; and in Mandala IX the arrangement
is by metres. Within any series, the arrangement of the hymns is in descending order of the number
of verses. Thus various rules were applied to make the arrangements systematic.
The four basic Vedas gradually branched off into many recension, or śākhās which were maintained
by various teachers. Slowly these recension came to be known by the name of these teachers. Thus
the Satapatha Brahmana of the Shukla Yajur Veda survives in Kānva and Mādhyandina recension,
according to the two disciples of Yajnavalkya. These versions differ greatly in content, the number of
verses, and the arrangement of the sections and chapters; the former has seventeen, whereas the
latter has fourteen sections. Interestingly, the concluding portion of both recension is the
Brihadaranyaka Upanishada; but that too differs in the two shakhas. Shankaracharya's commentary
on this Upanishad is based on the Kānva recension.
Trayee: The three Vedas: The term trayī, or triad, often used to denote the Vedas, is collectively
applied to Rig, Sam, and Yajur. The Atharva is excluded from the triad because it has no application
to sacrificial actions. This has made many Western scholars conclude wrongly that Atharva Veda is a
later composition. What they miss is the fact that one of the four priests officiating in all Vedic
sacrifices had to be from Atharva Veda tradition.
Categories of Vedic texts
Vedic texts are traditionally categorised into four classes: the Samhitās (Mantra), Brahmanas,
Aranyakas, and Upanishads. Certain Sutra literature like Shrautasutras and the Grhyasutras are also
classified as "Vedic".
A collection of Mantras is called a Samhita. At times, it is often the Samhita portion alone which is
referred to as the Veda. For instance, the word ‗Rigveda‘ may mean the Rigveda Samhita.
The Brāhmanas are prose texts that discuss the sacrificial rituals as well as comment on their
meaning and some other connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the
Samhitas or its recension. The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated
into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.
The Āranyakas, or "forest texts", are the concluding part of the Brahmanas that contain discussions
on upasana, the meditation on sacrificial symbols. However, there is often no clear-cut distinction
between the Brahmanas proper and the Aranyakas, or between the Aranyakas and the Upanishads.
The Brahmana text proper often merges into the Aranyakas and many old Upanishads are actually
embedded in the Aranyakas.
The Upanishads are the philosophical works of the Vedas. They discuss the nature of the soul and
the world, and conclude that "Atman is Brahman". These works are now known as Vedanta ("the end
of the Vedas") and are the basis of the all the Vedantic schools of thought which developed in later
times. For thousands of years now, the Upanishads have been the backbone of the Hindu religion.
Although the four sections (Samhita, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads) of the Vedas follow each
other in succession, there are exceptions to this. For example, in Rigveda, Samaveda, Shukla
Yajurveda and the Atharvaveda, there is a clear-cut separation of the Mantra collection from the
Brahmana portions, but in Krishna Yajurveda, the Mantra and the Brahmana portions are intermixed.
Thus, the Taittiriya ‗Samhita‘, belonging to the Krishna Yajurveda, has Mantras interspersed with
Brahmana portions. Again, Taittiriya ‗Brahmana‘ has both Mantras and Brahmana passages mixed
with each other. Similarly, Isa Upanishad comes at the end of the Samhita itself instead of the
Aranyaka. Some Upanishads come at the end of the Brahmana and some others are not distinctly
separate from their respective Aranayka. The list goes on.
Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to this kind of division (which was advocated strongly by Max
Muller) because it more or less follows the Indian tradition and conveys the historical sequence fairly
accurately.
The Shrauta Sutras, regarded as belonging to the Smriti, are late Vedic in language and content. The
composition of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras marks the end of the Vedic period, and at the same
time, the beginning of the Vedanga literature (the six auxiliary texts of the Vedas).
While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceased with the end of the Vedic period, a large
number of Upanishads were composed after the end of the Vedic period. But to make them authentic,
the followers of these Upanishads claim them to be belonging to the lost portions of the Vedas.
It is believed by many scholars that the four kinds of Vedic texts: Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and
Upanishads were actually meant for people belonging to the four ashrama: Brahmacharya,
Garhasthya, Vanaprastha, and Sannyasa respectively. Although the subject matters in the four
divisions of the Vedas tend to overlap, the preponderance of prayer, rituals, contemplation, and
knowledge respectively indicate that the view held by the scholars may be correct. However, there is
no specific instruction regarding this.
Vedic Shakhas
The Vedic literature that has come down to us is attached to various traditional schools of recitation
and ritual called the ‗shakhas‘. All the four Vedas have more than one shakha at present, but in the
past, the number of shakhas studied was many times more. According to Patanjali, there were 21
shakhas of Rigveda, 9 of Atharvaveda, 101 of Yajurveda (86 of Krishna Yajurveda and 15 of Shukla
Yajurveda, according to later authorities) and a 1000 varieties of chanting of Samaveda. Maybe, the
number 1000 for the Samaveda merely refers to ‗numerous‘.
Two different Vedic shakhas might share one or more texts amongst themselves. Conversely, the
distinction between two shakhas of the same Veda might result from the use of a different Samhita
text, and/or a different Brahmana text, and/or different Kalpasutra text and so on. A group or a
community of people who study a particular shakha in its entirety (Samhita + Brahmana + Aranyaka +
Kalpasutra + any additional texts) and perform its ritual constitute a ‗charana‘.
The various shakhas of the Vedas were, at one time, spread throughout South Asia. Their
geographical location has not been constant down the ages, as Brahmins of a particular shakha
migrated from one part of India to the other, or adopted another shakha for some reason.
Language of the Vedas
Early Vedic language was a pitch accent language in which the same alphabet was used in three
different ways -- svarita, udatta, anudatta; the higher on scale, the normal, and the lower. This helped
the Vedic sages to adjust the rhythm and melody of the hymns, and were considered extremely
important during pronunciation.
The kind of Sanskrit used in the Vedas became obsolete long ago. Even the words and expressions
used there are now difficult to understand. The meaning of the major portion of the Rig Veda is clear,
but some hymns and a great many of the single stanzas are still obscure or unintelligible. This was
already the case in the time of Yaska, the author of the Nirukta ( in which the Vedic grammar,
etymology, and semantics are explained), the oldest available commentary (c. 700 B.C.) on about
600 detached stanzas of the Rig Veda.; for he quotes one of his predecessors, Kautsa, as saying that
the Vedic hymns are obscure, difficult to understand, and mutually contradictory.
In the 13th century, the celebrated Vedic scholar Sayanacharya, wrote his famous commentaries on
the Vedas. It is mainly with the help of these commentaries and the Nirukta that we are able to
understand the contents of the Vedas.
Secular Matters in the Vedas
Secular hymns: Scholars believe that less than 20 hymns of the Rig Veda are secular in character.
These have a special value since they throw some light on the earliest thought and civilisation of
India. They talk of wedding, funeral rites, and one of them [R. X. 34] is the lamentations of a gambler
who, unable to resist the fascination of the dice, deplores the ruin to which he has brought on his
family.
However, traditionalists do not accept that there is anything secular in the Vedas; everything is
subjected to religious norms, sometimes openly, sometimes in a couched language. For example, the
hymn related to the lamentations of the gambler is actually a mantra used for driving away the evil
spirit that causes the tendency to gamble. Similarly the hymns to the frog (VII.103) are used for
getting rains when they fail to come on time.
Mythological dialogues: Besides several mythological dialogues in which the speakers are divine
beings, there are two in which both agents are human. One is a somewhat obscure colloquy (R. X.
95) between the mortal Puraravas and the apsara Urvasi, who is on the point of forsaking him. The
other one (R. X. 10) is the dialogue between Yama and Yami, the twin parents of the human race.
This group of hymns has a special literary interest as the forerunner of the dramatic works of a later
age.
Riddles: Two hymns of the Vedas consist of riddles. One of these (R. VIII. 29) describes various gods
without mentioning their names.
There is an elaborate and obscure poem of fifty-two stanzas (R.I.164), in which a number of riddles,
largely connected with the sun are propounded in mystical and symbolic language.
Geographical data: From the geographical names mentioned in the Rig Veda., it has been inferred
that when the hymns were composed, the sages occupied the territory corresponding to Punjab of to-
day. The interesting mention in the Vedas is of the river Saraswati, now extinct. Scholars were
concluding many things from the misrepresentation of the fact, but recent developments have proved
the existence of that river.
Historical data: According to some scholars, many hymns apparently show that the Indo-Aryans (the
early race of the Vedic sages) were engaged in war with the local aborigines, and many victories over
these foes have been mentioned. The conquered ones were called 'dasa', which also meant, 'of the
dark colour. But, this theory is now disputed. 'Dasa' may mean anyone with evil tendencies (and were
considered non-sacrificers and non-believers of law, and morality), and victory over them may mean
the victory of the good over the bad.
Society: Incidental references scattered throughout the hymns supply a good deal of information
about the social conditions of the time. The family, with the father at its head, was the basis of
society, and women held a freer and more honoured position than in later times. Many women were
sages, and contributed in the composition of the hymns.
Rig Veda (X.18.8) and Atharva Veda have hymns which talk of the wooing by a young man of the just
widowed lady for remarriage. Also in Atharva Veda (9.5.27) there is a clear mention of widow
remarriage.
Occupation: The caste system had already started growing in India, but had not yet become as rigid
as it became later on. So, the distribution of occupations to people belonging to various guilds was
already in practice. Also, the need to pass on the Samhita to a worthy disciple, necessitated the
crystallisation of the caste system.
Some basic facts about the Vedas
Vedas Rig Veda Krishna Yajur Sukla Yajur Sāma Veda Atharva
Veda Veda Veda
No. of original 21 85 17 1000 50
Recensions (shakha)
Available Shakala, Taitiriya, Kanva, Kauthuma, Pippalada
Recensions Bashkala Maitrayani, Madhyandina Ranayaniya, Shaunaka
or Shakas Katha, (Vajasanya) Jaiminiya or
Kapisthala Talavakara
Taught to Paila Vaishampayana Vaishampayana Jaimini Sumanta
sages:
Number of 10,552 1975 1975 1875 5977
Verses in in
Samhita Shaunakiya
Brahmanas Aitaraya, Taittiriya, Sathapatha Vamsa, Gopatha
Kaushitaki or Kāthaka (two Jaiminiya,
Shankhyayana recensions) Tandya/
Panchavimsa,
Chhandogya,
Sāmavidhana,
Sadvimsa,
Samhitopanishad,
Devatadhyana
Aranyakas Aitaraya, Taitttiriya, Brihadaranyaka Chhandogya,
Kaushitaki or Maitrāyani (two Jaiminiya
Sānkhyāyana recensions)
Upanishads Aitaraya, Mahanarayana, Isavasya, Chandogya, Prasna,
Kaushitiki, Maitrāyani, Brihadaranyaka Kena Mundaka,
Bhashkala Katakha, Mandukya
Swetaswetara,
Taitiriya
Shrouta Sutras Aswalayana, Apasthamba, Katyayana Khadira, Vikhanasa
Shankhyayana Baudhayana, (Paraskara) Latyayana,
Hiranyakesi, Drahyayana,
Bharadwaja, Jaiminiya
Vaikhanasa,
Vadhoola,
Manava,
Varaha
Grihya Sutras Ashwalayana, Manava, Kaatyayana Khadira, Kaushika
Sankyayana Apasthamba, (Paaraskara) Gobhila,
Baudhayana, Gautama,
Hiranyakesi, Jaiminiya
Vaikhanasa,
Katha
Dharma Sutras Vasishtha Apasthamba Shankkhalikita Gautama Pathinasi
Baudhayana,
Hiranyakesi
Upaveda Ayurveda Dhanurveda Dhanurveda Gandharvaveda ArthaSastra
Priests Hotri Adhvaryu Adhvaryu Udgatri Brahma
Priest's job Invoking the Performing Performing Singing the Overall
during Yajna gods through the sacrifice the sacrifice Sāmagāna supervision
hymns
Characteristics of the Vedas
Veda is knowledge in entirety: There can be no end to knowledge since it is as infinite as God
Himself, and is one with Him. This has been pointed out beautifully in the Bible, 'In the beginning was
the word and the word was with God and the word was God' (John 1:1). Such being the nature of
knowledge, it is ever present, and everywhere; since God is also ever present and is present
everywhere. Depending on the state of one's mind, one can reach the various levels of the Eternal
Knowledge, which we call art, science, philosophy, poetry, spiritual truths etc. However, the major
portion of the sum total of knowledge has to remain unexplored because of the limitations of the mind.
Veda is the sum total of all knowledge: discovered and undiscovered, and The Vedas (the books) are
the records of the truths discovered by the human mind. Thus in a general sense, Vedas are the
orthodox religious and philosophical wisdom of India, and in its particular sense, these are the books
in which the earliest wisdom is preserved. In this writing, the term Veda has been used to mean
Knowledge, and the Vedas, to mean the entire Samhita, Brahman, Aranyaka, and the Upanishads.
Vedas are impersonal and eternal: For the Hindus, Vedas are eternal, without beginning and without
human authorship. The reason is simple. Creation means appearance of objects. Each object has a
name or word for it, and each word has for its counterpart an object. The object denoted by a word is
not individual in nature, but is generic. For example, the word "cow" is generic, and it does not
depend on the birth or death of any particular cow.
The universe and its objects have both name and form as the essential condition for their
manifestation. The thought wave in us, or in God, first manifests as a word and only then it manifests
as the more concrete form, the object. In every created thing, the idea is the essence, whereas the
form is only the external shell, and the name acts as the intermediary. It is in this sense that the
universe is said to be created/manifested from the Vedic words.
Objects being eternal (during creation), and the relationship between word and object being eternal,
Vedas and Vedic words are eternal. When dissolution takes place, Vedas are merged with God. It is
like the idea of "pot" staying merged with the potter, when there is no "pot" around.
Unlike the works of, say a great poet, Vedas are impersonal. It is wrong to think that Vedas are the
works of sages. The rishis only discovered them. By means of good deeds (the priests) attained the
capacity to understand the Vedas; (then) they found them dwelling in the Rishis (RV 10.71.3)..
Vedas have also been described as the inner life of man, and hence eternal. Making it more clear,
Patanjali, the author of Yoga Sutras, says that the words of the Vedas are not eternal, but it is the
knowledge (ideas) conveyed through them that is. In Sanskrit, the eternal Knowledge is also known
as Sphota, and so the Vedas are also known as Shabda Brahman, i.e, God as word. It is because of
this that the work is treated with the greatest reverence by the Hindus. In many Indian temples, they
are even worshipped as a deity.
The Vedas command so much respect that every Hindu philosopher has to show that whatever they
have to say, is in consonance with the Vedas. This is known as Shruti Praman. The systems of
philosophy that refuses to accept the Vedas as the ultimate authority, are called nastika darshana (lit.
atheistic philosophy).
Vedas are the oldest literature of the world: The oldest trace of literary sources from the ancient
Greek world is the works of Homer (c. 700 BCE). From the Middle East, the oldest books are the
Hebrew Bible. Parts of the Old Testament are much older, but they took shape only around 500 BCE.
The Gathas of Zoroaster are also old (525 BCE), but they appeared later than the Vedas. The oldest
book from the Chinese tradition is the I Ching whose core portions are believed to be of 1000 BCE or
so.
Thus Samhitas (according to Max Muller, 1500 BCE), the collections of Vedic hymns, are the oldest
literature of the world. It has been conclusively proved that no book, or literature as we understand
the terms, was written anywhere near the period that these Samhitas were recorded. They are the
earliest records of the aspirations of human minds, the questions that arose, and the possible
answers that they comprehended to those great riddles.
Vedas are vast: It is believed that the total content of the Vedas was so vast that the Samhitas (texts)
alone were enough to fill up a room. Patanjali mentions that the Sama Veda had one thousand
branches, but they are all lost, and we are left with only three branches. Similar loss has occurred
with each of the Vedas; the major portion of them has disappeared, and we have been left with only
minor portion. As we shall see, the various portions were under the care of particular families; each
branch put into the head of certain priests and kept alive by memory and when these families died
out, or were killed under foreign persecution, or somehow became extinct; these portions were lost
forever.
The whole corpus of Vedic mantras (only the Samhita) have around 20,400 hymns which run in
around 90,000 padas (lines). This does not include the mantra, aranyak, and the upanishad portions
of the Vedas. Compared to this, The Mahabharata, considered to be the largest work, has 1,00,000
shlokas (mostly of 2 lines each).
The Two approaches: The approach to the study of the Vedas is twofold: the Western, and the
traditional Indian. F. Max Muller, the great Indologist, initiated a deep interest in the Western minds
towards the Vedas. His contribution in the various fields of study of the Vedas has been simply
immense, but his approach is constrained. Even Swami Vivekananda, who had met Max Muller, and
admired him a lot, was not willing to accept everything that he had said about the Vedas, their date,
or their interpretation.
The traditional Indian approach, on the other hand, has a rich heritage, and has an unbroken tradition
of thousands of years which continues even now. Swami Vivekananda, despite his modern outlook,
always held the orthodox Indian view when it came to the Vedas.
In this article, the approach is traditional. Whenever needed, help has been taken from the Western
sources, but in case of any conflicting view, the traditional approach has been retained.
Religion in the Vedas
The Vedas are the first attempt in recorded history of mankind to express the Divine in words. So
these sacred books present before us the various layers of understanding of spiritual matters. No
wonder that these layers appear to many as confusing, and to some others as contradictory. But in
reality these ideas are complimentary, and are more like stepping stones to the highest truth.
Vedas are about Nature worship, and not about ancestor worship: Scholars all over the world believe
that religion began with the practice of ancestor worship. But this cannot be accepted as true in the
case of the Vedas.
The Vedic religion began with nature worship, as we have seen earlier. Swami Vivekananda says,
'The human mind seems to struggle to get a peep behind the scenes. The dawn, the evening, the
hurricane, the stupendous and gigantic forces of nature, its beauties, these have exercised the
human mind, and it aspires to go beyond, to understand something about them. In the struggle they
endow these phenomena with personal attributes, giving them souls and bodies, sometimes beautiful,
sometimes transcendent. Every attempt ends by these phenomena becoming abstractions whether
personalised or not.'
The gods and their life: The gods of the Vedas are largely personifications of the powers of nature.
The hymns are mainly invocations of these gods, and are meant to accompany the offering that is
made in the fire during a yajna. In the Rigveda, it is stated that there are 33 gods divided into three
groups of eleven, distributed in earth, air, and heaven. Many other deities, such as the Maruts, are
not included in this number. The gods were believed to have had a beginning, but were not projected
as having come into being at the same time. Rigveda occasionally refers to earlier gods; and certain
deities are described as the offspring of others.
The gods were conceived of as human in appearance. Their bodily parts are figurative illustrations of
the phenomena of nature represented by them. For example, the arms of the Sun are his rays; and
the tongue and limbs of Agni are the flames of fire. Some of the gods appear as warriors, especially
Indra, while others like Agni and Brihaspati are priests. All of them drive through the air in cars, drawn
chiefly by steeds, but sometimes by other animals. The favourite food of men is also that of the gods,
which include non-vegetarian items. These are offered to them in the sacrifice, which is either
conveyed to them in heaven by the god of fire, or they come physically to join the sacrifice. Their
favourite drink is Soma rasa, the exhilarating juice of the Soma plant. The home of the gods is
heaven, where cheered by draughts of Soma, they live a life of bliss.
Attributes of the gods: Being great and mighty, their most prominent attribute is power. They regulate
the order of nature and also defeat creatures with evil tendencies (like asuras). They hold sway over
all creatures; no one can thwart their ordinances or live beyond the time they appoint, and the
fulfilment of desires of human beings is dependent on them. They are benevolent beings who bestow
prosperity on mankind. They are described as 'true' and 'not deceitful', being friends and protectors of
the honest and righteous, but punishing sin and guilt.
These gods have many features common in them, such as power, brilliance, benevolence, and
wisdom. This identification was further increased by the practice of invoking deities in pairs
(mentioned later)-- a practice that made many gods share a lot of common characteristics.
Classification of gods: The Vedic gods may be classified as deities of heaven, air, and earth. The
celestial gods are Dyaus, Varuna, Mitra, Surya, Savitr, Pusan, the Asvins, and the goddesses Usas,
and Ratri. The atmospheric gods are Indra, Rudra, the Maruts, Vayu, Parjanya, and the Waters. The
terrestrial deities are Prthivi, Agni, and Soma. There are also certain rivers that are personified and
invoked in the Rigveda, the most important of them is Saraswati.
The nature and character of the gods will be discussed in a latter section.
Abstract deities: One can clearly see the flow of worship from the concrete to the abstract, which also
gave rise to abstract deities. For example, 'Dhatri' was an attribute of Indra, but later on became itself
a deity who was responsible for the creation of the earth, sun and moon.
There are a few other abstract deities whose names were originally epithets of older gods, but later
became epithets of the supreme God. For example, the epithet Visvakarman, 'all-creating', appears
as the name of an independent deity. The concept of a Supreme God, as we understand it now,
evolved a little later.
The second and smaller class of abstract deities are those who are the personification of abstract
nouns. In this class are the Manyu, 'Wrath'; Sraddha, 'Faith'; Anumati, 'Favour (of the gods)', Nirrti,
'Disease', and others.
A purely abstract deity is Aditi, whose main characteristic is the power of delivering from the bonds of
physical suffering and moral guilt. It was much later that she was personified as the mother of the
small group of deities called Adityas, 'sons of Aditi'.
Goddesses: Only a few goddesses are mentioned in the Vedas, of whom, Usas and Sarasvati are the
famous ones. Sarasvati is celebrated in two whole hymns (R. VI. 61, and R. VII. 95) as well as parts
of others. There are others like Vac, 'Speech' (R.X. 71. 125), Prthivi, 'Earth', and Ratri, 'Night'. The
wives of the great gods are insignificant, being mere names formed from those of their consorts, and
altogether lacking in individuality.
Dual Divinities: A novel feature of the religion of the Rigveda is the invocation of pairs of deities
whose names are combined as compounds. About two dozen such pairs are mentioned. The most
famous of these pairs are Mitra-Varuna, and Dyava-prthivi.
Groups of Deities: There are also groups of gods like the Maruts (wind gods) who attend on Indra.
The smaller group of the Adityas, of whom Varuna is the chief, is constantly mentioned in company
with their mother Aditi. Their number is stated to be seven or, with the addition of Martanda, eight. A
much less important group, without individual names or definite number, is that of the Vasus, whose
leader is generally Indra.
Lesser Divinities: Besides the higher gods, there are a number of lesser divine powers, of which the
most prominent are the Ribhus. They are three divinities with marvellous skills, which made them
divine. There is also the mention of an apsara (celestial dancer), and a gandharva (celestial
musician). In later literature, these two celestial beings became more numerous. There are also a few
divinities who are guardians watching over the welfare of the homes and fields of human beings. For
example, Sita, the 'Furrow', is invoked to give rich crops and blessings.
We also find the rivers, waters, and the mountains praised as divinities. Also deified are the sacrificial
implements like mortar, pestle, sacrificial post etc.
The Demons: They are often mentioned of as two kinds. The higher and more powerful class are the
aerial foes of the gods, called the asuras. Danu was the mother of these asuras, so they are also
called dānava.
The second or lower class of demons are the terrestrial ones who are the enemies of men. Their
generic name is Rakshasas. Another class of demons scarcely referred to in the Rigveda, but often
mentioned in other Vedas, are the Pisachas, eaters of raw flesh and corpses.
The Pitris: The term fathers (pitris) in the Veda means the first ancestors, but the term is also used to
generally mean the totality of the dead, whose last rites have been performed according to the Vedic
injunctions. These pitris are immortal, equal to gods, their comrade-in-arms, and desirous of offerings
by their descendent. Mantras used for making food offerings to them end with svadhā, whereas the
offerings made to the gods, end with svāhā.
However, these pitris are the antithesis of gods, for, a person who gets attracted to pitriloka, cannot
proceed further in his spiritual journey. This idea was first mentioned in the Brahmanas and was
further developed in later literature. It is for this reason that eating of shrāddha food is discouraged for
spiritual aspirants.
Rituals: When gods have appeared in a religion, can rituals be far behind? Once the Vedic sages
came up with the concept of gods, the practice of making offerings to them became more and more
pervasive. Soon there were rituals for the various hours of the day, for different special days,
seasons, occasions and purpose. The Samhita and the Brahmana literature are mostly about these
yajna.
The aspects of these rites and sacrifices will be discussed in a later section. Here we only mention
that these sacrifices were of two types: domestic, grihya, and public, shrauta. The former did not
require the presence of priests, whereas the latter required them.
Do's and don'ts: Being a guide to the path of pravritti (religion characterised by action), the Vedas
discuss vidhi (injunctions) and nisedha (prohibitions) in the form of rituals, and a few codes of
individual conduct. These were further classified as Nitya (daily rituals), naimittika (rituals performed
on special occasions), kāmya (rituals related to some desired goal), prāyaschitta (penances), and
nisiddha (prohibited actions).
The code givers of later times made a thorough job of this aspect of the Vedas, and tied the Hindu
race in the rigours of rituals. This class of literature came to be known as Smritis.
Morality: The term in the Vedas for the cosmic moral laws, ritual, and order -- all in one-- is rtam,
which is higher even to the gods.
Vrata (religious observances) are performed in accordance with rtam; dharma is the ritual support of
vrata; shraddhā is the power that allows one to perform vrata; and tapas is that which is released
from the body due to the efforts made during ascetic effort (during vrata, or other religious rites).
Atman: There can be no religious life unless one accepts the continuation of life in some form after
death. One can be moral without this idea, but cannot be religious.
The whole of Vedic literature and the later scriptures of Indian origin accepted the presence of
something permanent behind the impermanent body. This was called jiva (the soul). Why else would
one worry about making sacrifices and leading a moral life?
With time, the idea of the self, transmigrating through heaven and hell, was perfected. But the sages
soon realised that this was a naive concept. Finally the Upanishadic sages came up with the
remarkable solution to the great riddle of existence. They proclaimed: Atman is Brahman -- the
Individual is one with the Universal. This unique concept of Atman (different from jiva) differentiates
Hinduism from all other religions. A thorough discussion on the nature of Atman can be found in the
Upanishad section.
Karma and Rebirth: The concept of rebirth came pretty early on in the Vedas, but the term signifying
samsāra and total migration was coined in the Katha Upanishad (Atharva Veda) only. The idea was
the logical fall out of the law of cycle, according to which, a thing that has happened once, will happen
again. Later on, this doctrine was to become the most powerful and profound pillar of Hindu
philosophy.
Heaven and hell: The early ideas of the dead in the Rig Veda were that they went by "the path that
their fathers had taken" and reached heaven, where they were awaited by pleasure, idleness and
enjoyment. Those who practised asceticism, performed sacrifices, gave gifts, cultivated rtam
(universal moral order), and studied the Vedas reached these sukrita loka (heaven).
The idea of hell developed later and gradually. The place was reserved for the enemies of the Vedas,
impious, and greedy.
However, by the Upanishadic times, it was universally accepted that both these abodes of the dead
were only temporary places of residence. After the exhaustion of its karma, the soul returned back to
earth to continue with its journey towards liberation, mukti.
Mukti: The concept of mukti is the culmination of the great spiritual truth: Atman is Brahman. In the
state of mukti, one transcends the states of duality like pleasure and pain, joy and sorrow, birth and
death etc. and experiences unalloyed, and infinite joy.
The sages also realised that the mukti (liberation) of a soul was not possible through any sacrifice,
asceticism, moral observance, or any other action; it could be achieved only through the knowledge
of the Self.
Philosophy of the Vedas
The discussions in the Vedas on a great many topics are so vast that it is impossible to organise
them in a single work; and, even a whole life devoted to its study would be too short to fully
understand and comprehend any aspect of the Vedas. The same is true of its philosophy-- they are
vast, obscure, and very difficult to organise.
Creation: In the Vedas we come across various theories of creation, most popular of which are found
in Purusa Suktam and Nasadiya Sukta. Whatever the theory, they all agree in the periodic nature of
creation and dissolution.
In Purusa Sukta, creation is described as having come from God, the Lord, whose external form is
one-fourth of the whole manifest universe.
The theory of creation in Nasadiya Sukta is more impersonal, according to which the creative power
existed without vibration (Ānidavātam) after the dissolution of the previous cycle (kalpa). In that state,
there is a kind of equilibrium, which is characterised by absence of any kind of motion. When the
process of creation is about to begin, there appears mysteriously the power that disturbs this
equilibrium, and the creative process begins.
The later philosophers and poets took up both these concepts to develop and consolidate their
system of thought, the most famous of which are Samkhya, and the Bhagavata dhrama (detailed in
the Puranas). The whole of Indian philosophy (excepting those who do not believe in any creation at
all), accepts one of these two models and modifies them to suit its needs.
Vedic hymns are god-centred: Vedic hymns, as mentioned earlier, are mostly in praise of god, their
life stories, mythologies connected with them, and the method by which oblations can be offered to
them. In between these, one does get a peep at the higher philosophy of life. These occasional
utterings were later developed fully in the Upanishads.
The idea of Infinity: Unlike the mythologies of other religions, the Vedas treat their gods as
expressions of the Infinite. For example, Indra is described as having a body, and is also described
as being omnipresent and omnipotent. Most of these gods are treated as beings in whom the whole
universe exists, who can read every mind, and who are also the ruler of the universe.
It was through this idea of infinity that the sages came up with the idea of Ekam Sat Vipra Bahudha
Vadanti--That which exists is One; sages call It by various names. To the sages, the Being perceived
was one and the same, but the perceiver was different. And, that is how they sang out:
They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni,
And there is the Divine nobly winged Garutmān
To what is One, sages give many a name
And call It Agni, Yama, Matarisvān. (Rigveda. I. 164-46)
Beginning of Monotheism without the ideas of fear and sin: Monotheism (the doctrine of one God),
came very early in the Vedas, but not in the form that the Semitic religions believe. As mentioned
earlier, the gods were taken up one by one and made into the Supreme God. In the case of Varuna,
the sages even came up with the idea of sin and fear (the essential component of all monotheistic
religions), but these ideas were soon given up as demeaning. Later, the sages were to give up the
very idea of monotheism itself, realising that it was too inadequate to explain the world.
The answer to mysteries lies within: The Vedas teach both pravritti (prohibitions and injunctions in the
life of a householder), and Nivritii (giving up of all worldly enjoyments) as twin spiritual ideals.
The sages realised that by nature the senses are limited, and are capable of getting only the external
sense data. This meant that they were not in a position to grasp the supreme self, which is infinite,
and behind the world of phenomena. That was when the sages declared that all philosophical search
for spirituality had to be internal and not external.
The reality of the external world is obvious to every human being. This obvious presence of the
external world logically suggests the presence of a Creator God. However, the presence of this kind
of God always poses serious logical fallacies, and instead of remaining infinite, He is reduced to
being finite. It is at this point that true spirituality is born. True spirituality preaches that God is beyond
and untouched by Creation, and search for Him must be made within one's own heart.
Vedas culminated into Vedanta: The sages reached those heights of philosophy where even the most
daring would be frightened. How?
The Vedas were never monotheistic. So in the ultimate analysis, the sages realised that 'behind the
unreal, God alone was Real'. This meant that everything other than God, was unreal. Even the rituals,
scriptures, and injunctions were equally unreal when it came to the ultimate realisation. So, in the last
leg of the spiritual journey, a person had to give up even those supports with the help of which he had
made his spiritual journey so far. At that final stage, he had to depend only on his purified mind for the
realisation of his self. The Vedas declare, 'tatra ved aveda bhavati' – in that state the Vedas become
aveda, of no significance. This indeed is the ultimate in boldness for any spiritual seeker, for, no
Christian, or a Muslim can ever think of outgrowing his scripture.
This inward turning gave birth to real philosophy, which came to be known as Vedanta. Swami
Vivekananda says, 'And they found out step by step that that which is external is but a dull reflection
at best of that which is inside. ... He is not a God outside, but He is inside; and they took Him from
there into their own hearts. Here He is, in the heart of man, the Soul of our souls, the Reality in us.'
Post Vedic Influence
Philosophy: Philosophies and sects that developed in the Indian subcontinent have taken differing
positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their authority are
classified as āstika, "orthodox". The other one is nāstika, "heterodox" or "non-Vedic" schools, which
comprise of Chārvāka (materialism), Buddhism and Jainism. So, a philosophy can be called "Hindu"
only if it accepts the authority of the Vedas as supreme.
Religion: The Vedas contain all the four essential pillars of religion: ritual, mythology, philosophy, and
conduct. But they were not fully evolved. It was for the sages of later period to develop each of these
four aspects separately as. Rituals were taken up by Tantra, mythology was taken up by the Puranas,
philosophy evolved into Upanishads, and code of conduct evolved into Smritis.
Poetry: The Vedic poetry evolved into The Ramayana, and The Mahabharata, which also came to be
known as epics. Vedic poetry had a tremendous impact on the Indian psyche, and it influenced nearly
every poet of later times.
Society: The society of the Vedic period had started organising itself in varna and ashrama (the caste,
and the four stages). Although these were not as rigid as they were in later times, they were also not
as fluid as one might suppose. The norms that were set by the Vedic sages, and the practises that
were advocated by them, continue to be in vogue even today. Only necessary additions and
corrections, considered useful for the contemporary society, have been made over the years.
Contents of the Vedas
Rig Veda
The hymns of the Rig Veda are considered the oldest and most important of the Vedas. Atharva Veda
and Yajurveda draw heavily from it, and nearly the whole of Samaveda is a collection of hymns from
this sacred book.
The Rig Veda has 1028 hymns (suktas) divided into ten mandalas (books). The shortest sukta (hymn)
has 1 verse, whereas the longest has 58 verses. The total number of verses in it is 10,462. Each
sukta consists of a number of verses, which are called richā. Here it may be mentioned that the
verses of the Vedas are in general called mantra (as opposed to shloka¸ of other works), and also
have specific names like rik, or, richā .
The hymns addressed to various divinities vary in frequency. The maximum number of hymns, 250,
are addressed to Indra, followed by Agni with 200. These hymns were used, and are still used as
prayers during a sacrifice (yajna). The priest who recited these verses was known as hotr.
The samhita is preserved in two shakha (recension): Śākala and Bāskala, which are practically
identical. The slight difference is in the Brāhmana associated with them. However, it is the Sakala
tradition (Shakalya was the sage) which survived the ravages of time, and reached us.
The division of the Vedas and the arrangement of the hymns follow precise rules. In mandala II to VII,
hymns to Agni comes in the beginning, and is then followed by those to Indra. The hymns contained
in each of these mandalas were composed by the poets of same family, and were handed down from
generation to generation. The poets in the order of books are: Gritsamada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva,
Atri, Bharadwaja, and Vasistha.
Within any series, the arrangement of the hymns is in descending order of the number of verses.
When several hymns have the same number of verses, they are arranged in descending order of the
length of the metre, and so forth.
This precise arrangement of verses is a proof that Vyasa (or someone like him) must have organised
the whole thing systematically much after they were composed.
Book I, and VIII are of mixed nature, but have similarity in the arrangement of the hymns.
Book IX is distinguished from the rest of the Rig Veda in the sense that all its hymns are addressed to
one and the same deity, Soma, (the other books do not contain a single Soma hymn). Also, its
grouping is based not on authorship, but on metres used. Many scholars believe that Book IX was
deliberately taken out of other books, so that it could be used easily for Soma sacrifice.
The Xth book has the same number of verses as the Ist book, and was handled by the sages of
different families. In contrast, each one of books II – VII was handled by a particular family. In spite of
this book's generally more modern character, it contains hymns quite as old and poetic as the
average of those in other books. The grammatical forms and words are quite obsolete, and yet new
words and meanings seem to be emerging from them. All these factors combine to confuse the
scholars regarding its possible date of composition, and also about its correct place in the series of
the ten books.
Content of Rig Veda: The chief gods of the Rig Veda are Indra, a heroic god who is praised for having
slain his enemy Vrtra; Agni, the sacrificial fire; and Soma, the sacred potion. Other prominent gods
are Mitra-Varuna and Ushas (the dawn). Also invoked are Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra, Pushan, Brihaspati,
Brahmanaspati, as well as deified natural phenomena such as Dyaus Pita (the sky), Prithivi (the
earth), Surya (the sun), Vayu (the wind), Apas (the waters), Parjanya (the rain), Vac (the word), many
rivers (notably the Sapta Sindhu, and the Sarasvati River). Groups of deities are the Ashvins, the
Maruts, the Adityas, the Ribhus, the Vishvadevas. It contains many other minor gods, persons,
concepts, phenomena and items, and sketchy references to historical events.
According to the Śatapatha Brāhmana, the number of syllables in the Rig Veda is 432,000, equalling
the number of muhurtas in forty years (30 muhurtas make 1 day). Interestingly, that is also the
number of years that one kalpa (the life span of Brahma, the Creator) has, i.e., 4,320,000,000 years.
This stresses the underlying philosophy of the Vedic books that there is a strong connection between
the astronomical, the physiological, and the spiritual.
Sāma Veda
In sanctity, the Sāma Veda ranks next to the Rig Veda. Its Samhita consists of hymns, portions of
hymns, and detached verses, taken mostly from the Rig Veda. These were transposed and re-
arranged to suit the religious ceremonies in which they were to be employed. Of the 1875 hymns that
it contains, most are from the eighth and ninth mandala of the Rig Veda, and were sung by the
Udgatri priests during the Soma sacrifices.
The animal sacrifices did not use Sāma chants, but these chants were extensively used in agricultural
rites and in soma rituals. The hymns are addressed to Indra, Agni, and Soma.
The Sāmaveda is considered to be the origin of Indian music. Its melodies use the seven svaras or
notes. Unfortunately the melodies belonging to the samhita age have not been preserved, and what
we have now is only gāna of late origin.
In these compiled hymns of the Samaveda, there are frequent variations from the text of the Rig
Veda. While singing, the verses are altered further by prolongation, repetition, insertion of syllables,
various modulations, rests, and other modifications.
Yajur Veda
The tradition says: rgvih stuvanti, yajurbhhih yajanti -- rik mantras are for prayer, and Yajus are for
oblation. Consequently the samhitā of this Veda contains mantras which are used in yajna. However,
most of these mantras are a collection from Rigveda.
There are two versions of the samhitās of the Yajurveda: Shukla (white) and Krishna (black). Both
contain verses necessary for rituals, but Krishna Yajurveda includes the Brahmana prose
commentary within the samhita, while the Shukla Yajurveda contains the Brahmana as separate
texts. However, both contain the same number of verses, 1975. Also, the priest associated with both
of them is known as Adhvaryu. The job of these priest is to pour oblation in the sacrificial fire during a
yajna.
Shukla Yajurveda: There are two (nearly identical) shakhas of the Shukla Yajurveda: Madhyandiniya,
and Kanva. Both are known as Vajasaneyi Samhita. The former is popular in North India, whereas
the latter is more popular in the South. It has forty adhyaya (sections), and it contains the hymns used
in various yajnas like, New and Full Moon sacrifices, Agnihotra , Soma yajna , Vajapeya and
Rajasuya (two variants of the Soma sacrifice), construction of yajnavedi, the altars and hearths,
Sautramani (it was originally a ritual to counteract the effects of excessive Soma-drinking),
Ashvamedha, Purushamedha, Sarvamedha, Pitriyajna, and Pravargya.
The last, 40th chapter, is Isa Upanishad, which is an exception to the character of the work.
Krishna Yajurveda: There are four recension of the Krishna ("black" or "dark") Yajurveda: Taittirīya
samhita, Maitrayani samhita, Kathaka samhita, and Kapisthala katha samhita. Each of these
recension has a Brahmana associated with it, and some of them also have Aranyakas, Upanishads
Shrautasutras, and Grihyasutras.
The best known of these recensions is the Taittiriya, which consists of seven books or kandas,
divided in chapters or prapathaka. These are further subdivided into individual hymns. Some of these
mantras have gained particular eminence in Hinduism. The most important of these mantras is the
Gaytri mantra. Viswamitra is credited as the seer of this most famous mantra of Hinduism.
Atharva Veda
With its 5987 hymns collected in 20 kandas and 731 sections, the Atharva Veda is much longer than
the Sama and Yajur, and is nearly half the size of Rig Veda.
Unlike the other Vedas, it contains a lot of prose, which are all original composition. However, most of
its poetic hymns come from the Rig Veda (about one-seventh of the whole Atharva Veda). This Veda
comes in two shakha: Shaunaka and Pippalada.
During a sacrifice, the priest belonging to Atharva Veda is known as Brahma. His duty is to ensure
perfection in the yajna, and also to check the correctness of the chanting of the hymns. It was the
normal practise of Brahma to collect half of the offerings made during the sacrifice.
The mantras of Atharva Veda were not directly used in any sacrifice, so the other three Vedas came
to be known as trayee. Due to this many scholars (European) wrongly concluded that Atharva Veda
was a later creation. The fact is that the hymns of this Veda belong to a particular class of metre,
called chhanda, and are used primarily as magical spells and incantations. Considering the strong
orthodox nature of the Brahmins (who would have never allowed a supervisor from an inferior
background, and who also took away half of the total offerings!), the overall content of Atharva Veda,
it is naive to conclude that Atharva Veda was a later addition.
Some of the charms described in Atharva Veda are for fever, cough, jaundice, bodily pain, hereditary
diseases, leprosy, worms in children, poison, snake bite, mania etc. They also contain charms to
grow long hair, for a healthy life, prosperity, for getting a bride, for getting a son, killing one's enemy
etc. The book also contains prayers of penances for various sins.
Interestingly, Atharva Veda has no Aranyaka attached to it.
Shabda Brahman: The Fountainhead of Creation
Hindus believe that the Vedas are apaurusheya, i.e., 'not created by any person'; sage or scholar. It is
their belief that God Himself breathed out the Vedas before the creation of the universe. In turn, when
Brahma began to create, He made use of Veda and started the new cycle of creation in the same
order and style as it existed in the previous cycle.
The process of creation and its relation to the Vedas has been beautifully explained by Swami
Vivekananda in his various speeches, dialogues and writings. Here is mentioned his exposition in
brief.
'A word is Veda, if I can pronounce it rightly. Then it will immediately produce the [desired] effect. This
mass of Vedas eternally exists and all the world is the manifestation of this mass of words. Then
when the cycle ends, all this manifestation of energy becomes finer and finer, becomes only words,
then thought. In the next cycle, first the thought changes into words and then out of those words [the
whole universe] is produced. If there is something here that is not in the Vedas, that is your delusion.
It does not exist.
'Veda means the sum total of eternal truths; the Vedic Rishis experienced those truths; they can be
experienced only by seers of the supersensuous and not by common men like us. That is why in the
Vedas the term Rishi means "the seer of the truth of the Mantras"....Veda is of the nature of Shabda
or of idea. It is but the sum total of ideas. Shabda, according to the old Vedic meaning of the term, is
the subtle idea, which reveals itself by taking the gross form later on. So owing to the dissolution of
the creation the subtle seeds of the future creation become involved in the Veda. Accordingly, in the
Puranas you find that during the first Divine Incarnation, the Minavatara, the Veda is first made
manifest. The Vedas having been first revealed in this Incarnation, the other creative manifestations
followed. Or in other words, all the created objects began to take concrete shape out of the Shabdas
or ideas in the Veda. For in Shabda or idea, all gross objects have their subtle forms. Creation had
proceeded in the same way in all previous cycles or Kalpas. This you find in the Sandhya Mantra of
the Vedas: " The Creator projected the sun, the moon, the earth, the atmosphere, the heaven, and
the upper spheres in the same manner and process as in previous cycles."
'...Supposing this jug breaks into pieces; does the idea of a jug become null and void? No. Because,
the jug is the gross effect, while the idea, "jug", is the subtle state of the Shabda-state of the jug. In
the same way, the Shabda-state of every object is its subtle state, and the things we see, hear, touch,
or perceive in any manner are the gross manifestations of entities in the subtle or Shabda state. Just
as we may speak of the effect and its cause. Even when the whole creation is annihilated, the
Shabda, as the consciousness of the universe or the subtle reality of all concrete things, exists in
Brahman as the cause. At the point of creative manifestation, this sum total of causal entities vibrates
into activity, as it were, and as being the sonant, material substance of it all, the eternal, primal sound
of "Om" continues to come out of itself. And then from the causal totality comes out first the subtle
image or Shabda-form of each particular thing and then its gross manifestation. Now that causal
Shabda, or word-consciousness, is Brahman, and it is the Veda.
'... even if all the jugs in the universe were to be destroyed, the idea or Shabda, "jug", would still exist.
So if the universe be destroyed--I mean if all the things making up the universe be smashed to atoms-
-why should not the ideas or Shabdas, representing all of them in consciousness, be still existing?
And why cannot a second creation be supposed to come out of them in time?
'... nothing is produced if you or I cry out like that; but a jug must be revealed if the idea of it rises in
Brahman which is perfect in Its creative determinations. When we see even those established in the
practice of religion (Sadhakas) bring about by will-power things otherwise impossible to happen, what
to speak of Brahman with perfect creativeness of will? At the point of creation Brahman becomes
manifest as Shabda (Idea), and then assumes the form of "Nada" or "Om". At the next stage, the
particular Shabdas or ideas, that variously existed in former cycles, such as Bhuh, Bhuvah, Svah,
cow, man, etc., begin to come out of the "Om". As soon as these ideas appear in Brahman endowed
with perfect will, the corresponding concrete things also appear, and gradually the diversified universe
becomes manifest."
To highlight this power of the Vedic mantras to create anything, Valmiki in Ramayana (chapter 91),
describes how Bharadwaja created quality food, dancing girls and other objects of enjoyment for the
army of king Bharata when he was on his way to meet Sri Rama in exile.
The concept that ideas, words and the corresponding objects are related, is one of the essential
pillars of Hinduism. This concept was later taken up by the Vaishnavas who proclaimed that the name
and the named object are same. Sri Ramakrishna used to quite often mention this fact of God and
His name being the same.
Creation according to two hymns of the Vedas
Purusha Suktam (RV X.90) and Nasadiya Suktam (RV X.129) describe the process of creation in two
different ways. Purusha Suktam describes creation as having come out from, and by Purusha (God).
"The universes, past, present and future, are but manifestations of the Supreme Lord who expands
Himself as the Purusa. He is the Lord of immortality but has manifest Himself as the Purusa in the
universe so that the jivas may enjoy material fruits. '.
"The past, present and future universes are manifestations of the Lord‘s powers, but the Lord Himself
is much greater. The material creation is but one quarter portion, and the eternal nature in the
spiritual sky exists in three quarters portion.
"The three quarters portion of the Lord transcended the material portion. The Lord in the one quarter
portion manifested the universe again, as He had done repeatedly before. The Lord of the one
quarter portion began the work of creation, by going all around, taking the form of all animate and
inanimate objects." (RV X.90.2-4)
This concept was taken up by the later philosophers to describe how God creates the universe.
Nasadiya Suktam begins with the concept of "pure existence" described as "in the beginning there
was neither nothingness (i.e. creation did not come out of vacuum), nor was there any existence (i.e.
there was nothing that could be known through senses or the mind)". The first step of creation was
when "desire descended on it. That was the primal seed, born of the mind."
It was from this point that the subtle became gross, and then acted on itself. Thus Prana (the cosmic
energy) hammered at Akasha (the finest first particles) to produce gross matter which ultimately to
become the universe.
Swami Vivekananda loved this idea of creation so much that he translated the hymn into Sanskrit,
and used its various concepts and imagery freely in his talks. One of the listeners of his talks was Mr
Nicholas Tesla, who was a highly respected scientist and an electrical engineer of his time. Swamiji
wrote about him, 'Mr. Tesla was charmed to hear about the Vedantic Prana and Akasha and the
Kalpas, which according to him are the only theories modern science can entertain. Now both Akasha
and Prana again are produced from the cosmic Mahat, the Universal Mind, the Brahma or Ishvara.'
Interestingly, Nasadiya Suktam throws up its hands in despair at the perplexity of creation and
concludes with:
But, after all, who knows, and who can say
Whence it all came, and how creation happened?
The gods themselves are later than creation,
So who knows truly whence it has arisen?
This inexplicability of creation through inferential knowledge is fundamental in Hinduism.
Summing up
The Vedas set the boundary for Hinduism. Every new spiritual thought of the Hindus must have the
sanction of the Vedas. Fortunately, they give tremendous freedom and flexibility to its adherents.
They contain everything that is essential for a man to live a meaningful, dignified and worthy life. They
encourage the adherents to earn well and live well, and also goad them towards a highly moral life.
They teach the ways and means to achieve anything that a person may be craving for, and they also
lead the aspirants toward the Supreme Reality.
In these words of God, no one is left out. There is something for everybody. Even people with strong
passions and desires find a way to have their wishes fulfilled through various sacrifices. This is how
such people are slowly led towards a higher life.
Above all, the Vedas are unique in the world of scriptures, since they alone proclaim that one has to
outgrow everything, including the Vedas themselves, to attain the Supreme.
Vidhi - Vedic Injunctions
Download Link of Vidhi - Vedic Injunctions [Separate PDF File]
Vivekachudamani of Adi Sankara
[Crest Jewel of Discrimination]
A Summary - Based on the Commentary of Pujya Sri Jagadguru Chandrasekhara Bharati Swami
By S. N. Sastri
Introduction
Sri Sankara Bhagavatpada has blessed the world with an enormous legacy of invaluable gems.
These can be grouped under three broad categories. The first category, meant for the intellectually
most advanced, comprises his commentaries (bhaashya) on the Upanishads, Brahmasutras and the
Bhagavadgita, known collectively as the prasthaanatrayam. The second category consists of
independent works, known as prakarana granthas, which expound the gist of the upanishads in
simple language. These vary in length from half a verse to one thousand verses. In the third category
fall devotional hymns addressed to various deities. Through these devotional hymns also the
teachings of Vedanta are conveyed. There is a wrong impression among some persons, particularly
Western scholars, that Sri Sankara did not attach importance to devotion to a personal God. On the
basis of this view they conclude that the devotional hymns cannot be works of Sri Sankara. This view
is belied by Sri Sankara's own statements in his commentaries, which are accepted by all to be his
works. For example, in his commentary on the Gita, 2.39, he explains Krishna's words to Arjuna thus
- "You will become free from bondage by the attainment of knowledge through God's grace". Again,
in18.65 - "Knowing for certain that liberation is the definite result of devotion to God, one should be
intent only on surrender to God". Moreover, Sri Sankara is well known for having re - established the
worship of the supreme God - head in His six aspects, and is referred to as the Shanmatasthapaka.
Unlike the Sankhyas who gave importance only to the Jnaanakaanda and the Purva Mimamsakas
who dismissed the Upanishads as mere arthavada or eulogy, Sankara established in his bhaashyas
that both the kaandas have validity, though at different stages of the aspirant's spiritual progress. In
his bhaashya on Br. Up. 4.4.2 he says - "All the obligatory rites serve as means to liberation through
the attainment of Self - knowledge. Hence we see that the ultimate purpose of the two parts of the
Vedas, that dealing with rites and that dealing with Self - knowledge, is the same". In many places in
the Karma kanda there are clear indications that the ultimate goal of life is liberation.
What is Advaita Vedanta? Dr. T.M.P. Mahadevan says in his book 'Ramana Maharshi and His
Philosophy of Existence' - "We believe that Advaita is not a sectarian doctrine. It is the culmination of
all doctrines, the crown of all views. Though other views may imagine themselves to be opposed to
Advaita, Advaita is opposed to none. As Gaudapada, a pre - Sankara teacher of Advaita, says,
Advaita has no quarrel with any system of philosophy. While the pluralistic world - views may be in
conflict with one another, Advaita is not opposed to any of them. It recognizes the measure of truth
that there is in each of them; but only, that truth is not the whole. Hostility arises out of partial vision.
When the whole truth is realized, there can be no hostility. (Mandukya Karika, III. 17 &18; IV. 5)".
The core of Advaita is that Brahman is the only reality. 'Reality' is defined as that which does not
undergo any change at any time. By this test, Brahman, which is absolutely changeless and eternal,
is alone real. The world keeps on changing all the time and so it cannot be considered as real. At the
same time, we cannot dismiss it as unreal, because it is actually experienced by us. The example of a
rope being mistaken for a snake in dim light is used to explain this. The snake so seen produces the
same reaction, such as fear and trembling of the limbs, as a real snake would. It cannot therefore be
said to be totally unreal. At the same time, on examination with the help of a lamp it is found that the
snake never existed and that the rope alone was there all the time. The snake cannot be described
as both real and unreal, because these two contradictory qualities cannot exist in the same entity. It
must therefore be said that the snake is neither real nor unreal. Just as the snake appears because of
ignorance of the fact that there is only a rope, this world appears to exist because of our ignorance of
Brahman. Thus the world is also neither real nor unreal; it is 'mithya' or 'anirvachaniya', meaning
'indescribable'. Just as the snake is superimposed on the rope, the world is superimposed on
Brahman. Our ignorance of Brahman is what is called avidya or ajnana or nescience. This nescience
has two powers, the power to conceal the reality, known as aavarana sakti and the power to project
the unreal, known as vikshepasakti. Because of these two powers, nescience not only covers
Brahman, but it further projects the universe and makes it appear real. The world has no reality apart
from Brahman, just as the snake has no reality apart from the rope. When the knowledge of Brahman
arises, the world is seen as a mere appearance of Brahman. Another example may be taken to
explain this. Ornaments of different sizes and shapes are made out of one gold bar. Their
appearance and the use for which they are meant vary, but the fact that they are all really only gold,
in spite of the different appearances and uses, cannot be denied. The appearance may change, a
bangle may be converted into rings, but the gold always remains as gold. Similarly, on the dawn of
the knowledge of Brahman (which is the same as the Self), though the different forms continue to be
seen by the Jnaani, he sees them all only as appearances of the one Brahman. Thus the perception
of difference and the consequences of such perception, such as looking upon some as favourable
and others as the opposite, and the consequent efforts to retain or get what is favourable and to get
rid of or avoid what is not favourable, come to an end. This is the state of liberation even while living,
which is known as Jivanmukti.
The Jiva, or individual, is none but Brahman, but because of identification with the body, mind and
senses he looks upon himself as different from Brahman and as a limited being, subject to joys and
sorrows caused by external factors. This identification with the body, mind and senses is what is
called bondage. In reality the Jiva is the pure Brahman and is different from the body - mind complex.
When this truth is realized as an actual experience, the identification with the body - mind complex
ceases. This is liberation. Thus liberation is not the attainment of a state which did not exist
previously, but only the realization of what one has always been. The illusory snake never existed.
What existed even when the snake was seen was only the rope. Similarly, bondage has no real
existence at all. Even when we are ignorant of Brahman and think of ourselves as limited by the body,
we are really none but the infinite Brahman. Liberation is thus only the removal of the wrong
identification with the body, mind and senses. The attainment of the state of liberation - in - life or
Jivanmukti is the goal of human life according to the Upanishads.
The method followed in Vedanta to explain the nature of Brahman is known as 'superimposition and
denial' (adhyaaropa and apavaada). Only an object that has a quality or an activity or a relationship
with some other known object can be described by words. Brahman is devoid of all these and so it
cannot be described directly. The world, with which we are familiar, is therefore taken as the starting
point and we are gradually led from the known to the unknown and unknowable that is Brahman. It
cannot be known because it can never be objectified. It is the eternal subject in whose mere presence
the body, mind and the sense organs function. It is pure consciousness and it is the reflection of this
consciousness that makes the body, mind and senses appear to be conscious.
The world is called prapancha because it has five characteristics, namely, existence (asti),
manifestation (bhaati), lovability (priyam), name (naama), and form (roopa). Of these, the last two are
different for each entity or object. They are always subject to change and are the products of maaya.
The unenlightened person looks upon this aggregate of five characteristics as the world. The first
three constitute the essential nature of Brahman (or the Self) which is Existence - Consciousness -
Bliss. The enlightened person knows that this Brahman is the only reality and that the world is only an
appearance on this Brahman which is the substratum. The Upanishads speak of Brahman as the
cause of the world, but this is only to enable us to understand the ultimate truth that the world has no
reality. Sri Sankara makes this clear in his bhaashya on Br.up.2.1.20 : "Therefore, the mention in all
the Vedanta texts of th eorigin, sustenance and dissolution of the universe is only to strengthen our
idea of Brahman being a homogeneous entity, and not to tell us that the origin, etc, is real. Nor is it
reasonable to suppose that a part of the indivisible, transcendental Supreme Self becomes the
relative, individual self, because the Supreme Self is intrinsically without parts". This is the method of
superimposition and subsequent denial. Ultimately the nature of Brahman as the only reality is
brought out by the famous words in the Br.Up, 'neti, neti', ('not this, not this'). When the whole
universe, which is only a projection by nescience, is negated what remains is the eternal, immutable,
non - dual Brahman.
Vivekachudamani is a prakarana grantha. It consists of 581 verses. It is not divided into chapters or
sections. It is in the form of a dialogue between an ardent seeker and his Guru. The fundamental
principle in Vedanta is that its teachings should be imparted only to those who sincerely seek it and
approach a Guru with deference and faith. In this work the Guru proceeds step by step, answering
the doubts of the disciple with patience until at the end the disciple attains realization.
The actual text will be taken up in the subsequent pages. Though this is entitled 'A Summary', what is
proposed is not only to give the meaning of the verses, but to further supplement it by explanatory
notes wherever necessary.
****
In the first sloka Sri Sankara pays obeisance to God and his own Guru. The sloka says: I bow down
to Govinda who is the goal of all Vedanta, who is beyond words and thought, who is supreme bliss
itself and who is my Guru. By the word Govinda the supreme Lord as well as Sri Sankara's Guru Sri
Govinda bhagavatpada are meant. It is laid down in our tradition that the Guru should be looked upon
as God Himself and not as a mere human being. In his work entitled Satasloki, in the very first sloka
Sri Sankara declares that the Sadguru is incomparable in all the three worlds. He says:
"There is nothing in all the three worlds that can be compared to the Sadguru who imparts the
knowledge of the Self. The legendary Philosopher's stone may perhaps be suggested as an apt
comparison, because it has the capacity to convert a piece of iron into gold, just as the Sadguru
converts an ordinary disciple into an enlightened person. But this comparison cannot stand because,
while the Sadguru makes the disciple another Guru like himself, the Philosopher'ss tone does not
have the power to convert a piece of iron into another Philosopher's stone like itself. Therefore the
Sadguru is incomparable and his glory transcends the world".
Human Birth is Precious
After paying obeisance to God and Guru, Sri Sankara says that birth as a human being is difficult to
get. A jiva goes through innumerable births in the form of various other creatures before being born
as a human being. Even after birth as a human being, to have an inclination to study the scriptures, to
attain discrimination between the Self and the not - Self, and ultimately to attain liberation, are the
results of punya acquired in innumerable past lives.
Three things are very rare, and attained only through the grace of God: the quality of being a human
being in the true sense of the term (not mere birth as a human being), an intense yearning for
liberation, and association with a great soul. A person who, in spite of having the advantages of birth
in a cultured family and study of the Vedas does not strive for liberation wastes his precious life.
Liberation cannot be attained through acquisition of wealth or through mere performance of rituals
laid down in the Vedas or through noble deeds, as long as they are performed with the desire to get
some personal benefit. This should not be understood to mean that rituals and noble deeds are to be
discarded. On the other hand, Sri Sankara stresses in many places that the actions ordained by the
Vedas should be performed in order to attain purity of mind. If the same actions are performed as
karma yoga, that is, without desire for any personal benefit for the performer and as an offering to
God, they will lead to purity of mind. Even a good action, whether ritualistic or worldly, performed with
the desire to derive some personal benefit or just fame, creates bondage. Even the acquisition of
punya by the performance of good deeds produces bondage because the person has to be born
again in order to enjoy the results of his good actions. So a spiritual aspirant has to perform actions in
such a way that they do not produce even punya. The Gita says that no one can remain without
performing action even for a moment. Since the performance of actions is inevitable, one has to
perform them in such a way that they do not produce either punya or paapa. The method of achieving
this is karma yoga. Sri Sankara explains in his commentary on the Gita that in the word 'karmayoga'
the word 'yoga' is used in the sense of the 'means to attain union with Brahman'. So 'karmayoga'
means action performed in such a way that it becomes the means to union with Brahman, which is
liberation. The statement in Bhagavadgita, 2.50, "yogah karmasu kaushalam' is interpreted by Sri
Sankara in his Bhashya thus: Yoga is skillfulness in action. The skillfulness consists in converting
action which is by its very nature the cause of bondage into a means for removal of bondage. This
means is karma yoga. Karma yoga purifies the mind. It is only a pure mind, that is, a mind free from
desires, greed, infatuation etc., that is fit to receive the knowledge of the Self. Liberation is attained
only through knowledge of one's real nature and not by actions alone, whether Vedic or worldly. For
attaining knowledge of the Self one should give up the hankering after worldly pleasures and
approach a Guru who is an enlightened person. He should then enquire into the nature of the Self, in
accordance with the instructions of his Guru.
A man who has mistaken a rope for a snake in dim light is frightened and screams for help. His fear
will disappear only if he finds out the real nature of the object in front with the light of a lamp. No
action to drive away the illusory snake will help. Similarly, one should enquire into one's own real
nature by hearing the scriptures from his Guru (sravanam), reflecting on what he has heard to remove
doubts (mananam) and meditating on the teachings (nididhyaasanam).
Why liberation cannot be the result of any action.
The results of all actions fall under four categories only: production, attainment, modification, and
purification. Brahman is ever - existent and so it is not something to be produced. We are always
Brahman even when we do not know it and so it is not something to be attained. Brahman ever exists
as changeless and so it is not something to be attained by modifying something. It is ever pure and
so it is not to be got by purifying something. As we know from actual experience, anything brought
into existence by action has a beginning and has therefore an end also. But liberation is permanent.
Because of all these reasons liberation cannot be the result of any action. Liberation is nothing but
the removal of our ignorance about our real nature. Ignorance can be removed only by knowledge
and not by any other means.
The spiritual aspirant has to acquire certain preliminary qualifications known as saadhana -
chatushtaya. These will be described in the next article.
Four Preliminary Requisites (Saadhana Chatushtayam)
In order that hearing, reflection and meditation may be fruitful, the aspirant should have acquired the
four preliminary qualifications mentioned below.
The four requisites are (1) discrimination between the eternal and the non - eternal (nitya - anitya -
vastu vivekah),(2) detachment towards all enjoyments in this world as well as in higher worlds like
heaven (iha - amutra - phalabhoga - viraagah), (3) possession of the six virtues commencing with
control of the mind (shamaadi shatka sampattih), and (4) intense yearning for liberation
(mumukshutvam). Each of these is explained below.
(1) The firm conviction that Brahman alone is real and that the universe is illusory (mithyaa) is
discrimination between the eternal and the non - eternal.
(2) Detachment is revulsion towards all objects of enjoyment in this world as well as in higher worlds,
including one's own body.
(3) The six virtues starting with shama are - shama, dama, uparati, titikshaa, shraddhaa,
samaadhaana. These are explained below.
(a) Withdrawing the mind from all sense - pleasures by realizing their harmful nature, and making it
rest on one's objective (namely, the Self) is shama.
(b) Restraining the organs of sense and of action (jnaanendriya and karmendriya) is known as dama.
(c) When the mind ceases to function through the external organs, that state is uparati.
(d) Enduring all adversities without lament or anxiety and without seeking to counter them is titikshaa.
(e) Firm conviction about the truth of the scriptures and the teachings of the Guru is shraddhaa.
(f) The mind remaining firmly fixed in the attributeless Brahman is samaadhaana.
(4)The fourth requisite, mumukshutvam is intense yearning to become free from nescience (avidya)
and its effect, bondage, by the realization of one's true nature. In his Bhashya on Gita,4.11 Sri
Sankara says that itis impossible for a person to be a seeker of liberation and also a seeker of the
fruits of action at the same time. From this it is clear that only a person who has attained total and
intense detachment can be called a mumukshu. The definition of yogaarudha in Gita 6.4 as one who
is free from attachment to sense - objects and actions and does not even think of them indicates that
both these terms have the same meaning.
Of these, detachment and the yearning for liberation are the most important. Only if these two are
strong, will the others like shama, etc, be fruitful. If detachment and desire for liberation are not very
strong, the other qualities will be unreal like the water in a mirage and will be of no use.
In sloka 32 of Vivekachudamani it is said, "Among the various means for liberation, bhakti is the
greatest". But the word 'bhakti' is not used here in the usual sense of devotion to a personal God. In
this sloka itself bhakti is defined as 'continuous contemplation of one's essential nature - sva -
svarupa - anusandhaana. According to the commentary of Swami Chandrasekhara Bharati this word
means nididhyaasana or profound repeated meditation on the mahaavakya, which follows sravana,
hearing the sruti from the Guru, and manana, reflecting on the same to remove all doubts.
In this context the specific meanings of these three words, sravana, manana, and nididhyaasana, as
given in other authoritative works may be quoted because these words have a very important place in
Vedanta: - -
Vedantasaara of Sadaananda, ch.5, para 182 - Hearing is the determination, by the application of the
six characteristic signs, that the purport of the entire Vedanta is the non - dual Brahman. The six
signs are - (1) the beginning and the conclusion, (2) repetition, (3) originality, (4)result, (5) eulogy and
(6) demonstration. The Sanskrit terms for these are, respectively, upakramopasamhaara, abhyaasa,
apoorvataa, phala, arthavaada, and upapatti. Each of these terms is explained below.
Vedantasaara,ch.5. para 185 - The term ' the beginning and the conclusion' means the presentation
of the subject matter of a section at the beginning and at the end of the section. For example, in the
sixth chapter of the Chhaandogya Upanishad, Brahman, which is the subject - matter of the chapter,
is introduced at the beginning with the words, "One only without a second", etc. (6.2.1). At the end of
the chapter Brahman is again spoken of in the words, "In It all that exists has its Self", etc. (6.8.7).
Para 186 - Repetition is the repeated presentation of the subject - matter in the section. In the same
chapter, Brahman, the One without a second, is mentioned nine times by the sentence "Thou art
That".
Para 187 - 'Originality' means that the subject - matter of the section is not known through any other
source of knowledge. For instance, the subject matter of the above section, namely, Brahman, cannot
be known through any source of knowledge other than the sruti.
Para188 - The 'result' is the utility of the subject - matter. For example, in the same section, we find
the sentences" One who has a teacher realizes Brahman. He has to wait only as long as he is not
freed from the body; then he is united with Brahman". (6.14.2). Here the utility of the knowledge is
attainment of Brahman.
Para 189 - Eulogy is the praise of the subject - matter. The words in this section, "Did you ask for that
instruction by which one knows what has not been known, etc" (6.1.3) are spoken in praise of
Brahman.
Para 190 - Demonstrationis the reasoning in support of the subject - matter, adduced at different
places in the same section. An example is - "My dear, as by one lump of clay all that is made of clay
is known, every modification being only a name, and being real only as clay" - (6.4.1). This shows that
the universe has no reality except as an apparent modification of Brahman, the only Reality.
Para 191 - Reflection is the constant thinking of Brahman, the One without a second, already heard
about from the teacher, by making use of arguments in a constructive manner.
Para 192 - Meditation is keeping the mind fixed on the thought of Brahman, uninterrupted by any
other thought.
The result achieved by 'hearing' etc.
'Hearing' removes the doubt whether the upanishadic text which is the pramaana purports to teach
about Brahman or about some other entity. This doubt is known as pramaana - asambhaavanaa, or
the doubt about the pramaana itself. The pramaana here is the upanishad.
'Reflection' removes the doubt whether Brahman and the jiva are identical or not. This doubt is called
prameya - asambhaavanaa, doubt about the subject - matter.
'Meditation' is intended to remove wrong notions such as "The universe is real; the difference
between Brahman and jiva is real", which are contrary to the teachings of the upanishads, by
developing concentration of the mind. Such wrong notions are known as viparita - bhaavanaa.
doubts and wrong notions that stand in the way of the origination of Self - knowledge.
A person who has acquired the preliminary qualifications mentioned earlier should approach a Guru
and seek his help. Sri Sankara says in his Bhashya on the Mundakopanishad that no one should
undertake the enquiry about Brahman without the help of a Guru. This is because the subject is very
subtle and one is apt to misunderstand the scriptures.
Qualities of the Guru
The Guru should be well - versed in the scriptures, sinless, free from desires. The mind of the Guru is
always fixed on Brahman. He is full of compassion. He is always intent on helping others without the
expectation of anything in return. The disciple should approach the Guru with humility and pray to him
to instruct him on the means to attain liberation. The Guru tells such an earnest seeker that he is in
reality none other than the supreme Self and that all sufferings are due only to ignorance of his real
nature. This ignorance can be removed by the knowledge that will arise by a proper enquiry into the
import of the Upanishads. The disciple then asks the following seven questions.
1. What is bondage?
2. How did it arise?
3. How does it continue?
4. How can it be eradicated?
5. What is the not - Self?
6. Who is the Paramaatmaa?
7. How can we distinguish between the two?
These questions are answered in the rest of this treatise.
Self-effort Stressed
On hearing the questions put by the disciple the Guru tells him that by his intense yearning for
liberation he has sanctified his lineage. Now the Guru stresses the importance of personal effort by
giving several examples. If a father has incurred debts, his sons and others can relieve him by paying
off the debts, but liberation can be attained only by one's own effort and not by anybody else's help.
Even the Guru can only show the way. If a person carrying a heavy load is tired, some other person
can take it over, but the suffering caused by hunger can be assuaged only if the person himself eats.
A person can get cured of a disease only if he himself takes the medicine. The nature of the Reality
can be known only if the person himself acquires the knowledge free from all doubt by his own effort
by the practice of hearing, reflection and meditation and not by merely hearing a learned person talk
about it. The beauty of the moon can be seen and enjoyed only through one's own eyes and not by
somebody else seeing and describing it. This example shows that one should himself attain the
experience of the Reality and mere intellectual knowledge acquired from books and teachers is not
enough. Who, other than the person himself, can liberate one from the bondage caused by
ignorance, desire and actions even in millions of years? Desire, action, and rebirth form a continuous
vicious circle, each being the cause of the next. This circle can be broken only by the realization of
the Self. Liberation cannot be attained through the Yoga of Patanjali or the Sankhya of Kapila
because they give only dualistic knowledge and not the knowledge of the non - dual Brahman. Nor
can liberation be attained by any action including Vedic rituals, as already explained earlier.
Knowledge of the upasanas (meditations on Saguna Brahman) described in the Upanishads too
cannot give liberation. Only the knowledge of the identity of the individual self with Brahman will give
liberation. Even here it is wrong to say that realization of Brahman is an effect of the knowledge of
Brahman. If it is an effect it will, like all effects, be subject to destruction at some time. Knowledge of
Brahman does not make one Brahman. It only removes nescience or avidya and reveals the fact that
he was always Brahman, which was not known earlier. Scholarship in the Sastras and the ability to
give brilliant discourses on them can help to earn fame and a comfortable life, but not liberation.
As long as the supreme Self is not known, mere study of the Sastras is fruitless. Once the supreme
Self is known, the study of the Sastras does not serve any further purpose. The idea is that the study
of the Sastras is for attaining Self - realization. Until it is attained the purpose of the study is not
achieved. After realization the Sastras are no longer necessary. Mere study of the words of the
scriptures only confuses the mind. One should, with effort, learn the inner truth of the scriptures from
a Guru.
For a person who has been bitten by the snake of ignorance the only medicine is knowledge of
Brahman. How can the Vedas, Sastras, mantras and other medicines help? A person cannot be
cured of a disease unless he takes the appropriate medicine. Mere repetition of the name of the
medicine cannot cure him. Similarly, release from bondage can be attained only by direct realization
and not by merely repeating the word 'Brahman'. Without negating the world as unreal and without
knowing the truth of one's nature, how can liberation be attained by mere repetition of words? In order
to retrieve a treasure buried under the earth one must first of all know the exact location of the
treasure from a knowledgeable person. Then he should dig and remove the earth, stones, etc., that
cover the treasure. Merely calling out to the treasure will not make it come out. Similarly, the pure
Reality which is covered by the products of ignorance (the body, mind, and senses) can be attained
only by hearing the sruti from a competent person who has realized Brahman, and by reflection and
meditation and not by perverted logic. Therefore each one should himself strive for liberation with
utmost effort, just as a sick man strives hard to get cured.
After stressing personal effort and explaining in detail what a seeker should do, the Acharya
encourages the disciple by telling him that the questions he has asked are excellent, in accord with
the scriptures, brief and full of meaning. The answer to these questions should be known by all
seekers of liberation.
After this the Guru first takes up the fourth question, how can bondage be got rid of, because this is
the most important subject.
Means to Liberation
The first requisite for a spiritual aspirant is intense detachment towards all things that are
impermanent, i.e. everything other than the Self. Then come control of the senses, control of the
mind, etc. He should give up all actions motivated by desire for his own benefit. That means that all
actions should be performed in the spirit of karma yoga. He should hear the teachings of the sruti
from a teacher, reflect on the teachings to remove all doubts, and meditate on them. All these should
be done continuously over a long period.
Discrimination between the Self and the not - Self
The seventh question asked by the disciple is now taken up. The Acharya first takes up the physical
body which everyone knows about and which everyone refers to as 'I'.
The physical body is made up of seven substances; marrow, bone, fat, flesh, blood, skin and the
cuticle. All these are the products of the food and drinks consumed. This is explained in
Chandogyopanishad as follows: - -
Ch.up.6.5.1. SankaraBhashya (S.B) - Food, when eaten, becomes divided in three ways. The
grossest portion of the food turns into faeces. The medium constituent becomes flesh. The subtlest
part, having reached the heart, enters into the fine nerves named hitaa, becomes transformed into the
mind - stuff and nourishes the mind. It therefore follows that the mind is made of matter. It is not
considered as eternal and part less as held by the Vaiseshikas. (It is of the size of the body -
madhyama parimaana).
Ch.up.6.5.2.S.B - Water (or any liquid) when drunk becomes divided in three ways. The grossest
portion becomes urine. The medium constituent becomes blood. The subtlest part becomes the vital
force (praana). Ch.up.6.7.1 says - "The vital force is made up of water. It will depart from him who
does not drink water".
Ch.up.6.5.3.S.B - Butter, oil, etc, when consumed, become divided in three ways. The grossest
portion becomes bone. The medium constituent becomes marrow, the greasy substance inside the
bones. The subtlest part becomes the (subtle) organ of speech (vaak). It is a well known fact that by
the consumption oil, butter and the like, speech becomes clear and powerful.
The physical body is the basis of the delusion in the form of 'I' and 'mine'. It is made up of various
components as stated above. Just as a house made up of various materials is meant for its owner, so
also the body made up of various components is for the atma which is the owner of the body. So the
atma is different from the body. Moreover, the body is always undergoing changes and is
impermanent and so it cannot be the atma which is changeless and eternal.
The gross body is made up of the five gross elements. The process by which the five subtle
elements, namely, ether, air, fire, water and earth, become gross elements is known as
'pancheekaranam' or quintuplicate. The process is described by Swami Vidyaranya in Panchadasi as
below: -
Panchadasi.1.26,27 - The omnipotent Lord combined the five subtle elements by the process known
as 'pancheekaranam' (quintuplicate) and produced gross elements to provide the jivas (individual
souls) with physical bodies and objects of enjoyment. The process of combination of the subtle
elements is this. Each subtle element is divided into two equal parts. The second half of each such
element is again divided into four equal parts (i.e. to get one - eighth of each element). Then the first
half of each element is combined with one - eighth of each of the other four elements to make a gross
element. The result is that in a gross element of earth one half is earth itself and the other half is
made up of the elements of water, fire, air and space in equal shares. Similarly with the other four
gross elements.
The five essences of the subtle elements, namely, sound which is the essence of ether, touch which
is the essence of air, colour which is the essence of fire, taste which is the essence of water, and
smell which is the essence of earth, become the objects of sense which are experienced by the
respective sense - organs. Human beings who are attached to objects of senses continue to
transmigrate. As long as there is attachment to sense - objects there is no hope whatsoever of
liberation. A person who attempts to cross the ocean of transmigratory existence without acquiring
total detachment is sure to be seized by the crocodile of desire and drowned. One who has killed the
crocodile in the form of desire for sense pleasures with the sword of detachment can alone hope to
cross the ocean of samsara without obstruction. The aspirant for liberation should follow the
teachings of his Guru and cultivate detachment. He should shun worldly pleasures, equating them to
poison. He should cultivate with great eagerness the virtues of contentment, compassion,
forbearance, honesty, straight forwardness, calmness and self - control. He who aspires to realize the
Self while continuing to indulge in sense pleasures is like a man who tries to cross a river on the back
of a crocodile, mistaking it for a log of wood. He is sure to be swallowed up by the crocodile midway.
For the seeker of liberation attachment to his body, wife, children, etc., is as bad as death. He alone
deserves liberation who has completely rid himself of attachment. The importance of detachment has
been stressed in a number of verses by the Acharya. In order to create dispassion it is pointed out
that the gross body is despicable because it is made up of revolting substances such as skin, flesh,
blood, blood - vessels, fat, marrow and bones and contains within it urine and faecal matter. The
gross body is produced by one's own karma in past lives. It is the instrument for all worldly
experiences which the jiva has to undergo. In the waking state the gross body experiences gross
objects through the sense organs. A person's entire contact with the external world is through the
gross body. The gross body is to the jiva what a house is to its owner. The gross body undergoes
birth, old age and death. It is qualified by stoutness, leanness, and the like. The ideas of caste and
station (varna and asrama) apply to it. It is afflicted by diseases. It is subjected to worship, honour,
dishonour, etc.
After dealing with the gross body and stressing the need for giving up attachment to it, the subtle
body is taken up for examination. This will be dealt with in the next article.
Subtle Body
The sense of hearing, the sense of touch, the sense of sight, the sense of taste and the sense of
smell are known as jnanendriyas or organs of perception. It is through these organs that external
objects are experienced. These organs are produced from the sattva part of space, air, fire, water and
earth respectively. It must be noted that these are not the physical organs, such as ear, skin, etc, in
the physical body. These physical organs are known as golaka. The indriyas are the subtle
counterparts of these physical organs and form part of the subtle body. The presiding deities of these
five indriyas are, respectively, the deities of the quarters, the deity of air, the sun, Varuna (the god of
the waters) and the two Asvini devas. (See alsoPanchadasi.1.19).
It may be noted that each sense - organ is produced from the particular subtle element whose
distinctive quality it has the power to reveal. For example, the organ of hearing which is produced
from the sattva part of the subtle element, space, reveals sound, which is the distinctive quality of
space. The organ of smell is produced from the sattva part of the subtle element earth whose
distinctive quality, smell, it reveals. Sri Sankara says in his commentary on Br.up.2.4.11 - The sruti
considers the organs to be of the same category as the objects, not of a different category. The
organs are but modes of the objects they perceive.
The subtle counterparts of the vocal organ, hands, feet, anus and genitals are known as
karmendriyas or the organs of action. These are produced from the rajas part of the five subtle
elements. The presiding deities of these organs are, in order, the deity of Fire, Indra, Vishnu, Yama
and Prajaapati.
From the sattva parts of all the five subtle elements together is produced the antahkaranam or
internal organ which is known by four different names according to the different functions performed
by it. The four names are - manas, buddhi, chittam and ahamkaara. (Sometimes only two names,
manas and buddhi, are mentioned, as in Panchadasi.1.20, the other two being included in them).
These four functions are explained in Vivekachudamani, verses 95 and 96 thus. When any situation
arises, a person first considers various alternatives to explain or understand the situation. When the
internal organ performs this function of cogitation it is known as the manas or mind. When ultimately a
determination is made or a decision is taken, it is known as buddhi or intellect. The function of storing
experiences in memory is called chittam. Behind all these three functions there is the notion of 'I' in
the form 'I cogitate', 'I decide', and 'I remember'. This 'I - ness' or ego is named ahamkaara. Very
often the word 'mind' is also used to denote the antahkaranam as a whole, when these distinctions
are not relevant. We shall use the word 'mind' in this sense hereafter.
There is difference of opinion among Advaitins on the question whether the mind is an indriya, organ,
or not. Vaachaspati Misra, the author of Bhaamati, considers the mind as an indriya. Prakaasaatma
muni, the author of Vivarana, takes the view that the mind is not an indriya. The author of Vedanta
paribhaashaa also takes the same view. This point assumes importance when the question as to how
realization takes place through the mahaa vaakyas is considered.
From a combination of the rajas aspect of the five subtle elements, is produced praana, or vital air.
This has five divisions, according to the function performed. These are described in the Bhashya on
Prasna upanishad, 3.5, thus: - He (praana) places apaana, a division of himself, in the two lower
apertures, as engaged in the work of ejecting the excreta. Praana himself, who occupies the position
of the sovereign, resides in the eyes and the ears and issues out through the mouth and nostrils. In
the navel is samaana, which is so called because it assimilates all that is eaten or drunk, distributes
them equally in all parts of the body and effects digestion. Udaana, another division of praana, moves
throughout the body and functions upwards. It leads the soul out of the body at the time of death and
takes it to other worlds according to one's punyaand paapa. Vyaana regulates praana and apaana
and is the cause of actions requiring strength. (See also Br.up.1.5.3.S.B).
Br.up.3.9.26.S.B. - The force called praana would go out (through the mouth and nostrils) if it were
not held back by apaana. The force called apaana would also depart (through the lower orifice) if it
were not held back by vyaana. All these three forces would go out in all directions, if they were not
fixed to udaana. All these four forces rest on samaana.
Taitt.up. 2.2.S.B. Praana is that aspect which goes out through the mouth and nostrils.
Vedantasaara - Paras84 and 85 - According to Sankhya, there are five more vital forces known as
naaga, koorma, krikala, devadatta and dhananjaya. Their functions are, respectively, causing
vomiting, winking, creating hunger, producing yawning and nourishing the body.
The aggregate of these eight, namely,

(1) the five organs of action (karmendriyas),
(2) the five organs of perception (jnanendriyas),
(3) the five forms of praana or vital air,
(4) the five subtle elements beginning with space,
(5) the four divisions of the antahkaranam (manas, buddhi, chittam and ahamkaara),
(6) avidya,
(7) desire, and
(8) the impressions of all actions,
is what is called the subtle body or sookshma sarira. This is also known as the linga sarira. The word
'linga' is derived from the root 'ligi'which means 'that which reminds'. The subtle body reminds us of
the atma and so it is called linga sarira. The word 'sarira' is used in the sense of 'that which perishes'.
The subtle body will cease to exist on the realization of the self and so it is also called a sarira though
it does not have any shape or form like the gross body. The subtle body is made up of the five subtle
elements as they exist before the process of quintuplicate described earlier. It has in it the
impressions of past actions. It is the experiencer of the fruits of actions. It is the beginningless limiting
adjunct (upadhi) of the atma. The dream state is the special state of the subtle body. In this state the
gross body is not active, but the subtle body projects various objects and experiences based on the
vasanas in it. In this state the atma itself illumines the objects projected, since the sense organs do
not function then and there are no sources of light like the sun.
The intellect (buddhi) is the limiting adjunct of the atma. The atma is the mere witness of all the
modifications of the intellect, but is not tainted by the modifications or their results. It is compared to
the sun which enables all creatures to act by providing light, but is not in the least affected by their
good or bad actions. The atma is therefore described as unattached. The subtle body is the cause of
all activities. It is the instrument of the self, just like the tools for a carpenter. A carpenter cannot do
his work without his tools. So too all activities are possible for the atma only when it is associated with
the subtle body. In deep sleep the atma is not associated with the subtle body and so there is no
action. However, even in the waking state the atma does not perform any action but is a mere
witness; it is wrongly looked upon as a doer and an enjoyer because of identification with the subtle
body, as a result of ignorance.
The qualities such as blindness, poor vision, clear vision, etc., belong only to the eye and not to the
atma. Similarly, deafness, dumbness, etc., pertain only to the respective organs. Inhalation of breath,
exhalation, yawning, sneezing, secretion, departure from the body on death, hunger and thirst are
qualities or activities of the vital air (praana). It is the internal organ that experiences sound, etc.,
through the respective sense organs. Because of the reflection of the atma which is pure
consciousness in the internal organ, the latter itself appears to be conscious, like the moon appearing
as bright because of the reflection of the light of the sun on it.
Sri Sankara says in his Bhashya on Br.up.4.3.7 : - -
Justas an emerald or any other gem, dropped into a vessel of milk, imparts its luster to the milk, so
does this luminous self, being subtler than even the mind and the intellect, impart consciousness to
the whole body, mind and organs. (When an emerald is dropped into milk, the latter gets a green hue.
Similarly, the self, being pure consciousness, makes the insentient mind, body and organs sentient.)
Why people identify themselves with the body, mind, etc.
Sri Sankara says in his Bhashya on Br.up.4.3.7: - -
The intellect, being transparent and next to the self, easily catches the reflection of the consciousness
of the self. Therefore it is that even wise men identify themselves with the intellect first; next comes
the mind which catches the reflection of the self through the intellect; then the organs through contact
with the mind; and lastly, the body, through the organs. Thus the self successively illumines with its
own consciousness the entire aggregate of body and organs. This is the reason why all people
identify themselves with the body, mind and organs, to a greater or lesser degree, according to the
extent of their discriminating capacity.
The ahamkaara or ego - sense is the internal organ (antah karana) with the reflection of
consciousness init. It identifies itself with the body and sense organs and looks upon itself as a doer
and an enjoyer. It assumes the states of waking, dream and dreamless sleep by association with the
three gunas. The waking state is the result of association with rajo guna, the dream state with sattva
guna, and dreamless sleep with tamo guna, according to the commentary of Sri Jagadguru Pujya
Swami Chandrasekhara Bharati of Sringeri Peetham. Though all the three qualities are present in all
the three states, the particular quality mentioned above predominates in each state.
When sense objects are favourable, the person is happy. If they are not, he is unhappy. Happiness
and unhappiness are the qualities of the ego and not of the atma which is ever blissful.
All objects in the world are dear only for the sake of the atma; they are not dear in themselves. But
the atma is dear to everyone by itself. This sloka in Vivekachudamani (sloka 108) is based on Br. up.
2.4.5.
It is said in the Brihadaranyaka upanishad (2.4.5) that the husband is dear to the wife not for the sake
of the husband, but for her own sake. The wife is dear to the husband not for the sake of the wife, but
for his own sake. Everything is dear only for one's own sake. The idea is that the wife, son, wealth,
etc, are dear to a person only because he derives happiness from them. The self (the person himself)
is thus the real object of love and not others. When the wife, son and others dear to a person do not
act in the way he wants them to, they cease to be dear to him. Even the greatest miser will not
hesitate to spend his money when that becomes necessary to save his own life from disease or
danger. Attachment to wife, son and others is given up by a person when they become obstacles to
the fulfillment of his own wishes. Even attachment to wealth makes way when one's own life is at
stake. Attachment to the body however continues because everyone looks upon the body as himself.
In order to realize the truth that he is the self or Atma which is different from the body he has to give
up attachment to the body also. Attachment is the cause of all sorrow. Thus it is taught here that one
should first give up attachment to wife, son, wealth and the like which are known to be external to
oneself. Ultimately attachment to the body, which is looked upon, due to ignorance, as identical with
oneself should also be given up by one who seeks liberation.
The atma is ever blissful. It never suffers misery. In dreamless sleep there are no sense objects, but
the bliss of atma is experienced then. This is testified by perception, tradition and inference. This
matter has been dealt with elaborately in Chapter11 of Panchadasi. Please see the summary of this
chapter given in this website under the head 'Panchadasi'.
The causal body is taken up next. This will form the subject - matter of the next article.
Causal Body
Maya is unmanifest (avyaktam). It cannot be known through the sense - organs because it has no
quality like colour, etc. It is the power of the supreme Being. If such a power is not accepted, the
creation of the universe cannot be explained, since Brahman by itself is devoid of any activity. It is
beginningless nescience. It is constituted of the three gunas, sattva, rajas and tamas. It can only be
inferred from its effects by the wise who follow the sruti. Maya is neither real nor unreal, nor both. An
unreal thing is something that is never experienced, such as the horn of a hare. Since the universe,
the effect of Maya, is actually experienced, its cause cannot be unreal like the horn of a hare. At the
same time, it cannot be real because it is sublimed on the attainment of self - realization. It cannot be
both real and unreal, because these contradictory qualities cannot exist in the same substance at the
same time. It is therefore indescribable (anirvachaniya). It is neither different nor non - different from
Brahman, nor both. It is neither composed of parts nor without parts, nor both. If it has parts then it
must have an origin, but it is without a beginning. If it has no parts then it cannot become modified as
the universe. It is most wonderful.
Maya will cease to exist for a particular individual when he realizes the pure non - dual Brahman, just
as the illusory snake disappears when its substratum, rope, is known.
Maya is made up of the three gunas, sattva, rajas andtamas. There are three powers in Maya: th e
power of concealing the reality (avaranasakti), the power of projecting what is not real
(vikshepasakti), and the power of jnana (jnanasakti). The first two are the causes of bondage; the
third leads to liberation. The first is the result of the tamas part of Maya, the second is due to the rajas
part and the third is due to the sattva part. Isvara's Maya is predominantly sattvic and it is under His
control. So there is no bondage for Him. The jiva's Maya is constituted of all the three gunas in
different proportions and so he suffers bondage. The rajo guna is the cause of attachment, aversion,
etc., in the jiva. All qualities such as desire, doubt, fear, courage, resolve, faith, lack of faith, anger,
avarice, pride, jealousy etc., (both good and bad qualities) relate only to the mind and not to the atma.
They are superimposed on the atma because of lack of discrimination between the mind and the
atma due to ignorance. These qualities of the mind are the cause of all the activities of the jiva.
The veiling power of Maya belongs to its tamasic aspect. It is only because the reality, Brahman, is
concealed by it that the projecting power of Maya is able to function and project the world and make it
appear real. Thus the veiling power of Maya is the root cause of the jiva's bondage and
transmigration. Sri Chandrasekhara Bharati Swami says in his commentary that even in the case of a
realized person the projecting power (vikshepasakti) continues to operate as a result of praarabdha
karma. Therefore he also sees the world as ordinary persons do, but he is not affected by any
happenings, good or bad, because his knowledge of Brahman is not veiled and so he looks upon
everything as Brahman. An example may be given to illustrate this. A child looks at a lion made of
stone and runs away screaming in fear. An adult also sees it as a lion, but is not frightened because
he knows that it is only stone. So it is the veiling power of Maya that is the cause of all misery.
Even a person who is learned in the scriptures does not realize the nature of the self if he is
overpowered by tamo guna. He considers the world, which is only a superimposition on the self due
to beginningless nescience, as real. This delusion leads to sorrow. The power of Maya to delude has
been described by Sri Sankara thus in his Bhashya on Kathopanishad, 1.3.12: - "Alas, how
unfathomable, inscrutable and variegated is this power of Maya, that every human being, though in
reality identical with the supreme Brahman, and is told this again and again by the upanishads, does
not realize that truth, but considers himself as the body, mind and senses, even though he is not told
so by any one".
The veiling power of Maya produces four obstacles to knowledge in the mind of man. These are, (1)
the notion that the identity of jiva and Brahman and the illusoriness of the world propounded in the
upanishads cannot be correct (known as abhaavanaa), (2) the idea that the body itself is the self
(viparitabhaavanaa), (3) notions contrary to the teachings (vipratipattih), and (4) doubt
(asambhavana). The vikshepa sakti of Maya which projects the world as a reality keeps the man in
bondage.
Ignorance, laziness, lack of discrimination, torpor, indifference, delusion, and similar negative
qualities are the result of tamo guna. A person subject to these does not make any effort to uplift
himself.
Sattva guna is very pure. But because of admixture with rajas and tamas transmigration results.
When a person is predominantly sattvic, with only a tinge of rajas and no tamas, he is free from pride,
and practices the disciplines such as yama and niyama. Such a person has faith, devotion, yearning
for liberation, and divine qualities. He withdraws from the pursuit of worldly pleasures. 'Yama' has five
components: non - injury, truthfulness, not coveting other's possessions, continence, and non -
acceptance of gifts. 'Niyama' also has five components: purity of body and mind, contentment,
austerity, study of the scriptures, and dedication of all actions to God.
When sattvaguna is uncontaminated by rajas and tamas the results are alertness of mind, experience
of the self, supreme calmness, contentment, bliss, and remaining established in the supreme bliss
because of which there is everlasting bliss.
The causal body made up of the three gunas is unmanifest. Dreamless sleep is its distinctive state. In
this state the organs and the mind do not function. The mind remains in seed form in this state. The
absence of knowledge of any kind in this state is evident from the fact that a person who wakes up
from sleep says that he did not know anything.
The not-self
The physical body, the sense organs, the vital air, the mind, the ego - sense, all functions of these, all
the sense - objects, pleasure, pain, etc., the five elements, the entire universe up to the un -
manifested (Prakriti) - all these constitute the not - self. All this is mithya, what cannot be described as
either real or unreal. These are all the effects of Maya. On the realization of Brahman these will be
found to have no reality.
In Panchadasi, 6.130 Swami Vidyaranyasays: - - From the standpoint of the ordinary worldly man,
Maya is real. From the standpoint of the man of realization, Maya has no existence at all. For those
who try to understand it through reasoning, Maya cannot be determined as either real or unreal; it is
anirvachaniya.
Sri Sankara says in Maayaa panchakam that Maya has the capacity to make the impossible happen.
It imposes on Brahman, which is eternal and devoid of parts and which is pure Consciousness, the
false distinctions as the world, individual souls and God. It makes even those who have mastered all
the scriptures no different from animals by tempting them with wealth and the like. It makes Brahman
which is infinite bliss, pure Consciousness and non - dual, struggle in the ocean of samsaara by
associating it with the body made up of the five elements. It imposes on Brahman which is devoid of
qualities the distinctions of colour, caste, etc, and attachment to wife, son, possessions and the like. It
creates even in non - dual Brahman distinctions such as Brahmaa, Vishnu and Siva and deludes
even the learned into thinking that they are different from one another.
The question 'What is the supreme Self' will be taken up in the next article.
Supreme Self [Paramatma]
By realizing one's real nature as identical with the supreme Brahman one becomes free from the
bond of samsara and attains liberation. All the effects of Maya, from Mahat to one's own body, are
mithya, like a mirage. The Self is self - existent (It has no cause). It is the substratum of the ego -
consciousness. It is the witness of all the three states of waking, dream and deep sleep and is
different from the five sheaths (which will be described later on). It illumines the experiences in the
states of waking and dream and also the absence of all experiences in deep sleep. It perceives all the
activities of the sense organs, but the sense organs cannot know it. It illumines the intellect, but the
intellect cannot know it. It pervades the whole universe, but no object in the universe can pervade it.
Everything else in this universe is insentient and attains sentiency only because of it. Because of its
mere presence, the body, senses, mind and intellect perform their respective functions, as if
prompted by it. This means that the Self does not itself do anything, nor does it cause the body, etc.,
to act. It merely provides the sentiency for them to act by its mere presence. The Self is therefore
compared to the sun which provides the light for everyone to act, but is not the cause of their actions.
Being of the nature of eternal consciousness, everything from theego - sense to the body, as well as
all objects, all emotions such as pleasure, pain etc., are known by it. They are all objects of
knowledge and the Self alone is the subject. The Self is innermost, eternal, without a beginning, of
the nature of infinite bliss, is always of the same nature, and is behind every cognition. It shines in the
cave of the intellect.
The Self has no birth or death; it does not increase or decrease or undergo any change; it is eternal.
It is not destroyed even when the body is destroyed, just as the space inside a pot is not destroyed
when the pot is destroyed. it is different from Prakriti as well as its modifications. It is pure
consciousness. It illumines everything, those with form and those without form. It is devoid of all
attributes. It shines in all the states of waking, dream and deep sleep as the witness of the intellect
and as the basis of the ego. One should realize this self as identical with oneself by controlling the
mind and making it pure. Thus one can cross this ocean of samsaara with its waves of birth and
death.
The answer to the question, "What is bondage" is taken up next.
What is Bondage?
The firm belief that one is the body, senses, etc., (the not - self) is bondage. It is due to nescience, i.e.
ignorance of one's real nature. It is the cause of repeated births and deaths and all sorrows. Because
of it a person looks upon the unreal body as real and identifies himself with it. He nourishes the body
and protects it by indulging in sense pleasures. Just as a silkworm builds a cocoon of silk threads
around itself and becomes imprisoned in it, man becomes bound to his body.
(Note. When a person says 'I am stout', 'I am lean', etc, he is really referring to his body as identical
with himself. When he says 'I see', 'I hear', 'I taste' and so on, he is identifying himself with his organs
of seeing, hearing and tasting. When he says 'I am intelligent' or 'I am dull' he identifies himself with
his intellect. All these identifications are totally wrong. The Self is ever pure, untouched by the joys or
sorrows of the body and mind).
The not - self is mistaken for the self by everyone because of lack of discrimination between the two,
resulting from ignorance. In sloka 140this is compared to a person mistaking a snake for a rope and
taking it in his hand. The usual example of a rope being mistaken for a snake is reversed here to
show how disastrous such a mistake is. A man who mistakes a snake for a rope and takes it in his
hand is almost certain to be bitten by the snake and lose his life. Mistaking the body, mind, etc., for
the self is pointed out to be equally dangerous because one cannot progress spiritually as long as
one does not get rid of this wrong notion. Taking the not - self to be the self, i.e. identifying oneself
with the body - mind complex is bondage. The concealing power of avidya conceals the atman, like
Rahu concealing the sun. Because of this, people are deluded and consider themselves to be nothing
other than the body, etc. This gives rise to desire, which is the cause of all misery. The man who is in
the grip of the crocodile of delusion is not able to realize the real nature of the self. He drifts in the
ocean of samsaara.
An example is given here. Clouds arise when the heat of the sun makes the water of the ocean
evaporate. Thus the sun is the ultimate source of the clouds. The clouds conceal the very same sun
from our view. At the same time, we are able to see the clouds only because of the sun behind them.
Similarly, Brahman is the source of the world, and the very same world conceals Brahman from us.
We are able to experience the world through our sense organs only because of the light of
consciousness which is itself Brahman. Just as a wayfarer suffers when the sky is overcast and it is
very cold, the man whose self is hidden from him suffers misery.
The tree of samsaara is now described. Avidya is the seed of this tree. The shoot is the wrong notion
that the body is the self. Desire is the tender sprout. Karma is the water. The body is the trunk. The
praanas are the wind. The contacts of the senses with the objects are the tendrils. The sense -
objects are the flowers. Suffering is the fruit arising from different karmas. The experiencer is the bird
on the tree which eats the fruit.
The cause of bondage is ignorance of one's real nature. This ignorance is natural to everyone and is
without beginning. It continues until it is destroyed by self - knowledge. It is the cause of all suffering
in the form of birth, disease, old age, death, etc. This ignorance cannot be destroyed by any missiles,
nor by the wind, nor by fire, nor even by the performance of innumerable rituals laid down in the
scriptures. It can be destroyed only by the sharp and beautiful sword of discrimination which arises by
the grace of the Supreme Being.
But it should not be thought that the rituals laid down in the scriptures are futile. The performance of
these rituals with full faith is essential for attaining purity of mind which is the prerequisite for the dawn
of knowledge.
Discriminating Self from Non-self
The self is not clearly known because it is covered by five sheaths, which are superimposed on it, like
the water in a pond covered by a layer of moss. When the moss is removed, the pure water becomes
clearly visible and accessible. It can quench one's thirst and make him happy. Similarly, when the five
sheaths are negated the indwelling self which is pure, eternal bliss, homogeneous, supreme, and self
- effulgent shines unobstructed. Therefore one should discriminate between the self and the not - self
and negate the not - self for attaining liberation from bondage. Realizing the self which is Existence -
Consciousness - Bliss one becomes blissful.
The five sheaths are described one by one in the subsequent sections.
Five Sheaths
The three bodies of the jiva were previously named the physical or gross body, the subtle body and
the causal body. Now the same three bodies are being described as five sheaths covering the atma
or self within. The gross body is the first or outermost sheath. It is named annamaya kosha or the
sheath of food. The subtle body is made up of three sheaths, praanamaya kosha or the sheath of vital
air, manomay kosha or the sheath of the mind, and vijnaanamaya kosha or the sheath of the intellect.
These sheaths have to be negated one by one in order to realize the self.
Sheath of Food
This is the physical body, known also as the gross body. It is born of food, sustained by food, and
dies if there is no food. It is made up of skin, flesh, blood, and excreta. It is impure. It is always
undergoing change. It has a birth and a death. It is an object of knowledge like a pot. So it cannot be
the atma which, according to the upanishads, is pure, unborn, eternal, changeless, and the knower of
all changes and all objects.
The body has limbs such as hands, feet, etc. One is able to live even if any of these limbs is
damaged and cannot function. So the body cannot be the self which is devoid of parts and is
homogeneous. It is by the light of consciousness, which is the very nature of the self, that all the
limbs, the sense organs and the mind are able to function. The Kathopanishad says that it is not by
the vital airs such as praana, apaana, etc., that creatures live, but by the atma which enlivens them.
The vital airs themselves are insentient, like the physical body.
Because of ignorance the human being identifies himself with his body. When a person says 'I am
tall, or short, or stout, or lean, etc.' he looks upon his body as himself. Such a person is not even
aware that he has a subtle body which is different from the gross body and which does not die when
the physical body dies, but goes to other worlds and is again born on this earth in a new body. The
person who has acquired intellectual knowledge about the nature of the self from the scriptures
knows that there is a subtle body which goes to other worlds and is again born on this earth in a new
physical body. In normal worldly transactions he identifies himself with his physical body. But when he
performs vedic rituals such as yajnas for attaining heaven, he does not identify himself with his
physical body, because he knows that the physical body cannot go to heaven and that itis only the
subtle body that goes to heaven after death. So he then looks upon the subtle body as himself. The
man of realization, however, knows that he is not either of these bodies, but is the atma which is
identical with Brahman which is devoid of all the three limitations of time, place and other objects.
(See Panchadasi of SwamiVidyaranya - - 3.35, 36, 37 - Being all - pervasive, Brahman is not limited
by space. Being eternal, it is not limited by time. Since all objects in the universe are merely
superimposed on Brahman, Brahman is not limited by any object, just as a rope is not limited by the
illusory snake superimposed on it).
Therefore the aspirant is exhorted to give up identification with the body - mind complex and fix his
mind on Brahman. As long as the scholar does not give up his identification with his body, mind, etc.,
there can be no question of his release from transmigratory existence even if he is most proficient in
Vedanta. Mere intellectual knowledge that he is not the body, etc., but the atma is not sufficient; it has
to become an actual experience. Just as one does not identify oneself with one's shadow or the
reflection of the body in a mirror, etc., or with his own body seen in a dream, one should not identify
oneself with his living body. Identification with the body is the root cause of all sorrows and of
repeated births and deaths.
The sheath of vital air will be taken up in the next article.
Sheath of Vital Air
This sheath, known as the praanamaya - kosha, is made up of the vital air (with its five subdivisions)
and the five organs of action. It permeates the sheath of food and enables it to perform all its
functions. But, as already stated in the previous article, this sheath is also insentient and is enlivened
only by the self. The vital air is nothing but a form of wind. So it cannot be the self.
Sheath of Mind
This sheath, known as manomaya - kosha, consists of the mind and the five organs of knowledge. It
permeates the sheaths of vital air and food. It is the cause of the sense of 'I' and 'mine'. This sheath is
very powerful because bondage and liberation depend on the mind. Attachment of the mind to sense
objects is the cause of bondage and detachment towards them is the means to liberation. The five
organs of perception bring offerings to the mind in the form of experience of sense objects. The
sheath of the mind is described as the sacrificial fire, the five organs of perception as the sacrificial
priests, and the sense objects are the oblations which are being continuously poured into the
sacrificial fire. The vasanas in the mind are the dry fuel for the fire. If there is no fuel, there can be no
lasting flame in the sacrificial altar even though the oblation, clarified butter, is continuously poured
into it. Similarly if there are no vasanas, the mere presence of sense objects will not be able to
produce bondage. It is the vasanas that obstruct one's spiritual progress. So it has been said that the
elimination of vasanas is liberation. When the mind is functioning, as in the waking state, there is
bondage in the form of identification with the body and the sense of possession, which are the cause
of sorrow. When the mind is not functioning, as in deep sleep, there is no identification with the body
and so there is no experience of sorrow.
In dream there are no objects, but various objects and experiences are created by the mind. Similarly
the objects in the waking state are also not real. They are only an expansion of the mind.
(Note: In this context Mandukya Karika, ch.2, verses 6 and 7 are relevant. Verse 6 says that what
does not exist in the beginning and at the end is unreal. By this test things experienced in the waking
state as well as those in dream are equally unreal. Verse 7 points out that the objects of the waking
state are contradicted in the dream state. For example, a man goes to bed after a full meal, but soon
dreams that he is extremely hungry. A man who dreams that he has eaten a hearty meal, wakes up
feeling very hungry. Because of these reasons, things experienced in both the states are equally
unreal. But though they are both unreal, it is admitted that there is a difference between the two. In
his Bhashya on Brahma sutra 2.2.29 Sri Sankara points out that there is a difference between the
dream state and the waking state. The difference consists in the perceptions in dream being sublated
immediately afterwards and the other not. To a man who has woken up from sleep the objects
perceived in dream never had any existence at all, for he says "I falsely imagined that I was in the
company of great men. In fact, I never came in contact with great men; this delusion arose because
my mind was overpowered by sleep". But an object seen in the waking state, such as a pillar, is not
thus sublated under any condition. Moreover, dream vision is a kind of remembrance, whereas the
visions of the waking state are forms of perception. The difference between remembrance and
perception, consisting in the absence and presence of objects, is well known).
In the state of dreamless sleep nothing is experienced because the mind is dormant. This further
establishes that the mind is the creator of objects in dream and waking. Clouds are brought together
by the wind and they are also dispersed by the wind. Similarly both bondage and liberation are
brought about by the mind. The mind creates attachment for all objects including one's own body and
binds a man. Later the same mind creates aversion for objects by reminding him of their harmful
nature and leads the person to liberation. The mind is the cause of bondage when it has a
preponderance of rajo guna. When the mind becomes free from rajas and tamas it leads to liberation.
The mind becomes capable of leading to liberation if firm discrimination and strong dispassion are
cultivated. So one who seeks liberation should cultivate these qualities. The mind is like a ferocious
tiger which roams about n the forest of sense - objects. The wise person should restrain the mind
from roaming about in this forest. It is the mind that produces the experiences of sense - objects and
creates all kinds of distinction such as body, varna, ashrama, causes and effects.
The jiva is in reality the pure consciousness which is free from all attachment, but the mind makes
him forget his real nature and identify himself with the body, mind, senses and vital airs. As a result
he looks upon himself as an agent and an enjoyer with the notions of 'I' and 'mine'. Avidya by itself
cannot cause bondage without the association of the mind. Attachment to the body, etc., is not there
in deep sleep even though avidya is present, because the mind does not function then. As the mind is
the cause of samsaara, the enlightened persons have declared that the mind itself is avidya. It is by
the mind that all jivas are tossed about like clouds by the wind. Therefore one who seeks liberation
should purify his mind by ridding it of desire, greed, anger, and all other such emotions. When the
mind is pure liberation becomes as clear as a fruit in the palm of the hand. After getting rid of all
attachments the seeker should resort to sravana, manana, and nididhyaasana (hearing of the
scriptures, reflection and meditation) with faith. This will cleanse the mind of rajo guna.
The sheath of the mind cannot be the self because it has a beginning and an end, is always
undergoing changes, is of the nature of sorrow, and is an object of knowledge. The self is always the
subject and never an object.
Sheath of Intellect
The intellect (buddhi) along with the five organs of sense, the modifications of the mind (vrittis), and
the notion of agency is known as the sheath of the intellect (vijnaanamaya kosha). Because of the
reflection of pure consciousness in it this sheath appears to have consciousness. Like the earlier
sheaths, this sheath is also a modification of prakriti, since it is a product of the five subtle elements. It
is characterized by knowledge and action. It is the cause of the identification of the jiva with his body
and organs. It is beginningless because creation is beginningless. It performs various actions, good
and bad, prompted by its vaasanas. The states of waking and dream and the experiences of joy,
sorrow, etc., belong to it. (In these statements this sheath is identified with the subtle body of which it
forms a part.) Because of the identification of the Atma with this sheath, the qualities of the latter are
wrongly attributed to the Atma, just as fire is said to be long or round according to the shape of the
iron rod or ball which has been made red - hot.
It has been said above that the sheath of the intellect, which is the limiting adjunct of the Atma, is
beginningless. The question arises, whether it is also endless, in which case, no liberation would be
possible. The answer is that this limitation and the consequent identification with the sheath are only
due to delusion caused by ignorance. The Atma is unattached, actionless and formless. It can have
no connection with the objects of the world, just as blueness has really no connection with the sky.
Jivahood continues only as long as there is delusion born of ignorance. When the delusion ceases on
the destruction of ignorance by knowledge, the jivahood ceases and there is only Atma or Brahman.
Though avidya is beginningless, it has an end. When right knowledge arises, avidya ceases to exist.
The knowledge that the jivatma is none other than the Paramatma (Brahman) is what is called right
knowledge.
Justas water is not clear when it is associated with mud, but becomes clear when the mud is
removed, the Atma is realized in its pure state when the taint of identification with the body - mind
complex is removed.
The sheath of the intellect cannot be the Atma because it is subject to change, is insentient, is limited,
is an object of perception and is not constant, being dormant in deep sleep.
Sheath of Bliss
The sheath of bliss (anandamaya kosha) is the modification of avidya in the form of the happiness
which is experienced in the waking and dream states. In these two states the happiness arises on the
attainment of some desired object. This sheath is fully manifested in the state of deep sleep. But even
this sheath is not the Atma because it is also a modification of avidya.
When all the five sheaths are thus eliminated one by one, what remains is pure consciousness, which
is the Atma.
The Atma which is self - effulgent, distinct from the five sheaths, the unchanging witness of the states
of waking, dream and deep sleep, which is always of the nature of bliss, and is not tainted by the
defects of the sheaths, is to be realized as one's self.
The disciple now raises a doubt - - when all the five sheaths are eliminated there appears to be only
void. So what is there to be realized as the self?
The guru answers that there is an entity that is the witness of the presence as well as the absence of
these sheaths and their modifications. This witness is the self.
The self or Atma shines in the states of waking, dream and deep sleep. It is behind the awareness as
'I'. It is the witness of the ego - sense and of the functioning of all the organs. It is self - effulgent,
eternal and bliss itself.
A person of dull intellect thinks that the reflection of the sun in a pot of water is the sun itself.
Similarly, human beings, being deluded by avidya (nescience), think that the reflection of pure
consciousness in the mind is the Atma. A wise man knows that the sun in the sky is different from the
pot, the water in the pot and the reflection, and that the sun illumines all the three of them. Similarly
the Atma is different from the mind and the reflection of consciousness in it and it illumines them. The
Atma has therefore to be realized as different from the body, mind and organs, as self - luminous,
eternal, infinite, extremely subtle, and identical with Brahman. On this realization the person becomes
liberated from transmigratory existence. The realization of one's real nature as Brahman is the only
means to liberation.
Unreal (Mithya) Nature of the Universe
Brahman is absolute existence and pure consciousness. It is infinite, pure, supreme, self - luminous,
of the nature of eternal bliss, non - different from the indwelling self, and without parts.
It is the only reality. The universe which is superimposed on it is not different from it, just as the
illusory snake is not different from the rope on which it appears. A pot made of clay is not different
from the clay. There is no separate entity as pot apart from clay. The pot is only a name given to clay
in a particular shape. When the same clay is given another shape it is given the name 'plate'. So what
really exists is only clay, and names such as pot are imaginary. The Chandogya Upanishad,
6.1.4says, "All modification (of clay) is nothing but name based on words; the clay alone is real".
Similarly everything that is the effect of Brahman is nothing but Brahman. The appearance of the
universe as an entity separate from Brahman is due only to delusion caused by nescience. The
Mundaka upanishad declares that this universe is nothing but the supreme Brahman. If the universe
were real, the statement in the srutis that Brahman is infinite would become invalid, the Vedas would
lose their authority and Isvara's words would become untrue. Such a result is not acceptable. If the
world is real it should appear in dreamless sleep also. As it is not at all perceived in dreamless sleep,
it is unreal like objects seen in dream. Therefore it is clear that the universe does not exist apart from
Brahman.
Therefore the supreme Brahman is the only reality. It is pure consciousness, without beginning or
end, and devoid of any activity. It is pure eternal bliss. It is free from all differences brought about by
Maya. It is eternal, unchanging, pure, beyond the faculty of reasoning, formless, subtle, and self -
effulgent. It is beyond the trichotomy of knower, knowledge and known. It is beyond mind and speech.
The explanation of the maha vakya "That thou art" will be taken up in the next article.
Maha Vakya "That thou art"
In the sentence 'tat tvam asi' the primary meaning of the word 'tat' is Brahman as qualified by the
functions of creation, sustenance and dissolution of the universe, that is, Isvara. The primary meaning
of the word 'tvam' is the jiva as qualified by the states of waking, dream and deep sleep. The qualities
of Isvara and jiva are totally contradictory, like those of the sun and the glow - worm, or the king and a
servant, or the ocean and a well, or the earth and an atom. Isvara is omniscient and omnipotent while
the jiva's knowledge and power are limited. The identity affirmed by the maha vakya cannot obviously
be between Isvara and jiva which are the primary meanings of the words. Therefore the implied
meanings of the two words have to be taken. The contradiction between the primary meanings of the
two words is due to the limiting adjuncts which are not real. Maya is the limiting adjunct (upadhi) of
Isvara, while the upadhi of the jiva is the five sheaths. When these limiting adjuncts are negated,
there is neither Isvara nor jiva. The kingdom is the symbol of the king and the shield is the symbol of
the warrior. When these are removed there is neither king nor warrior. The sruti negates the duality
imagined in Brahman. The negation of the limiting adjuncts is to be effected by reasoning supported
by sruti. Everything in the universe is a superimposition on Brahman by ignorance and has no reality,
like the snake superimposed on a rope. The entire universe must therefore be rejected as unreal.
Then what remains is only Brahman . Thus both Isvara and jiva are found to be only Brahman when
the unreal upadhis are rejected.
Thus only the implied meanings of the terms 'tat' and 'tvam are to be taken for affirming their identity.
The implied meanings of words are of three kinds - jahal lakshanaa, ajahal - lakshanaa and jahad
ajahal lakshanaa.
jahal lakshanaa - (exclusive secondary signification) - The literal meaning is to be rejected and some
other meaning consistent with it is to be adopted. An example is - gangaayaam ghoshah, the literal
meaning of which is - a hamlet on the river Ganga. Since there cannot be a hamlet on the river itself,
it is the bank of the river that is meant. Here the literal meaning of the word 'Ganga' has to be given
up completely and the implied meaning 'bank' has to be adopted.
ajahal lakshanaa - (non - exclusive secondary signification) - Without giving up the literal meaning of
the word, what is implied by it is also adopted to get the meaning intended to be conveyed. An
example is - "The red is running", which is intended to convey that the red horse is running. Here the
literal meaning of the word 'red' is retained and the implied word 'horse' is added to get the correct
sense of the sentence.
jahad ajahal lakshanaa - (exclusive - non - exclusive secondary signification) - Here a part of the
literal meaning is retained and the other part discarded. The sentence "This is that Devadatta" is
interpreted by using this lakshanaa. The meaning intended to be conveyed by this sentence is that
Devadatta who is seen at the present time in this place is the same as the person who was seen
earlier in another place. The literal meaning of the word 'this' is Devadatta associated with the present
time and place. The literal meaning of the word 'that' is Devadatta associated with the past time and
some other place. Since this sentence purports to convey the identity of the person seen in different
places at different times, we get this meaning by discarding the reference to the place and time
conveyed by the words 'this' and 'that' and retaining the reference to Devadatta. This is also known as
bhaagatyaaga - lakshanaa. The meaning of the sentence tat tvam asi is obtained by using this
method. Just as in the sentence "This is that Devadatta" the identity is stated by rejecting the
contradictory qualities, so also in the sentence "That thou art" the contradictory qualities (namely, the
limiting adjuncts) are rejected. Thus it follows that the jiva and Brahman are in essence one when the
limiting adjuncts, namely Maya and the five sheaths, are rejected.
Meditation on Brahman
The identity of the jiva and Brahman has been affirmed by the maha vakya 'That thou art'. Now
Brahman is being described negatively, in order that the disciple may give up his identification with
the gross body. Brahman is not gross, not short, not long, and has no attributes whatsoever. It is
infinite pure consciousness. It can be realized only by a mind which has been disciplined by reflection
and meditation. Justas any object made of clay is nothing but clay, the entire universe, which is an
effect of Brahman, is nothing but Brahman. There is nothing other than Brahman. The guru tells the
disciple, "You are that supreme Brahman, ever full of peace, free from blemish, and without a
second". The place, time, objects, and their knower, appearing in a dream are all 'mithya'. They have
no reality. Similarly, the world experienced in the waking state is nothing but a projection of one's own
nescience. Consequently, the body, senses, ego, are all unreal.
The disciple is now asked to meditate that he is Brahman which is devoid of distinctions such as
caste, lineage, etc., is free from the limitations of name and form, and is beyond space, time and
objects of sense. He should meditate that, being himself none other than Brahman; he is not affected
by the six waves - hunger, thirst, grief, delusion, old age and death. Brahman cannot be apprehended
by the senses. It cannot be known by the intellect. Brahman is the substratum of the universe which is
superimposed on it by ignorance. Since it is not a substance, it cannot be described either as existent
or as non - existent. It is existence itself. Everything in this world appears to exist only because they
are all superimposed on Brahman which is existence, just as the illusory snake appears to exist only
because the substratum, rope, exists. It is indivisible. Brahman does not have birth, growth, change,
decay, disease and death. All these are only for the body - mind complex, but they are wrongly
attributed to the Atma which is the same as Brahman. Brahman is the cause of the creation,
sustenance and dissolution of the universe.
Brahman is free from the three kinds of difference. The difference of a tree from its leaves, flowers,
fruits, etc, is the difference within an object. This is known as svagata bheda. The difference of one
tree from another tree is the difference between objects of the same species. This is known as
sajaatiiya bheda. The difference of a tree from a rock is the difference between objects of different
species. This is known as vijaatiiya bheda. None of these differences exists with regard to Brahman,
because there is nothing else of the same species or of a different species and there is no internal
difference because Brahman is homogeneous. This is what is affirmed in the Chhaandogya
upanishad (6.2.1) by the words "ekam evaadvitiyam" - one, only, without a second. The word "one'
negates sajaatiiya bheda, the word 'only' negates svagata bheda and the words 'without a second'
negate vijaatiiya bheda.
Brahman is motionless like a wave less ocean. It is of the nature of existence, consciousness and
bliss. It is ever free from bondage. It is the cause of multiplicity as the substratum, but is itself
causeless. It is however only from the empirical standpoint that it is said to be the cause of
multiplicity. From the absolute standpoint the multiplicity does not exist and so Brahman cannot be
described as a cause. It is neither cause nor effect. The aspirant should meditate on Brahman thus.
Brahman should be meditated on as devoid of internal variety, infinite, imperishable, different from the
world as well as from Maya, supreme, eternal, of un - diminishing bliss, and not tainted by avidya.
Brahman appears as name, form, quality, and action because of delusion, but is really free from
change, just as gold, though appearing in the form of various ornaments, is itself always the same.
Thus the name, form, etc., are unreal and they are all nothing but Brahman .
There is nothing before or after Brahman, because Brahman is infinite. It is devoid of activity. It is
higher than the highest. It is the indwelling self of the jiva. It is un - decaying.
If one meditates on Brahman in this manner with conviction, he will attain to the truth.
In this way, one should merge the whole universe in Brahman and realize himself as pure
consciousness.
In the cave of the intellect dwells the supreme non - dual Brahman which is the ultimate reality and is
different from all gross and subtle substances. One who identifies himself with this Brahman will not
have any further birth.
Remaining Established as Brahman
Even after a person has acquired from the scriptures and by reasoning the knowledge that he is
distinct from the five sheaths and is identical with Brahman, the beginningless vaasanaas which make
him look upon himself as an agent and enjoyer, which are the cause of transmigration, remain strong.
These have to be removed with effort by turning the senses away from external objects and fixing the
mind on Brahman. The sages say that liberation is the elimination of vaasanaas. The wise man
should get rid of the notions of 'I' and 'mine' with regard to the not - self in the form of the body and
senses by being firmly established in the self. Realizing your innermost self, the witness of the
intellect and its modifications, by means of the modification of the intellect in the form 'I am Brahman'
give up the notion of 'I - ness' in the not - self. Give up concerns about conforming to the ways of the
world and concerns about your own body; give up reading books other than those useful for the
attainment of liberation. By these means get rid of identification with the body, etc.
(In sloka 271 the Acharya says that 'lokaanuvartanam', 'dehaanuvartanam' and saastraanuvartanam'
should be given up. These three are referred to aslokavaasanaa, dehavaasanaa and
saastravaasanaa by Svami Vidyaranya in Jivanmuktiviveka. What he says there is reproduced below:
--
Impure vaasana is of three kinds: desire for (unblemished reputation in) the world (loka vaasana),
obsession with learning (sasstra vaasana) and undue attachment to the body (deha vaasana). The
first one takes the form 'I want to be always praised by everyone'. This is called impure because it is
something impossible of achievement. No one, however good, can always escape slander. Even
absolutely blemishless Sita was slandered. People speak ill of others merely because of local
peculiarities. The southern Brahman as censor the northerners, well - versed in the Vedas, as meat -
eaters. The northern Brahmanas retaliate by ridiculing the southern custom of marrying the daughter
of a maternal uncle and for carrying earthenware during travel. A pure man is looked upon as a devil,
a clever man as presumptuous, a man of forbearance as weak, a strong man as cruel, an absent -
minded man as a thief, and a handsome man as lewd. Thus nobody can please everyone. So the
scriptures advise us to treat censure and praise alike.
The obsession with learning (sastra vasana) is of three kinds: addiction to study, addiction to many
scriptural texts and obsession with the mechanical observance of injunctions with regard to the
performance of rituals. The first only is exemplified by sage Bharadvaja, who was not satisfied with
having devoted three successive lives to the study of the Vedas and continued the same in his fourth
life also. This is also an impure vasana because it is not possible of achievement. Indra cured him of
this by explaining to him the impossibility of his undertaking and initiated him into the knowledge of
the conditioned Brahman for the attainment of a higher end.
Addiction to many scriptural texts is also an impure vasana because it is not the highest aim. The
example for this is Durvaasaa. Once he went with a cart - load of scriptural works to Lord Mahadeva.
Narada ridiculed him by comparing him to a donkey carrying a huge load. Durvaasaa became angry
and threw away the books into the ocean. Lord Mahadeva then imparted to him the knowledge of the
Self which does not come from study alone.
Obsession with injunctions relating to the performance of rites is exemplified by Nidaagha, as

described in Vishnu purana. Another example of this is Daasura who, because of the intensity of his
desire to adhere to the injunctions, could not find any place in the whole world pure enough for the
performance of rites. This mad desire for performing karma is also an impure vaasanaa because it
results in the person continuing in the cycle of repeated birth and death. Saastra vaasanaa is also
impure for another reason, namely, that it is the cause of vanity.
Deha vaasanaa is of three kinds - - looking upon the body as the Self, concern about making the
body attractive and desire to remove defects in the body. The first two are clearly impure vaasanaas
because they are obstacles to spiritual progress. The third is impossible of achievement because the
body is essentially impure and so it is also an impure vaasanaa).
As long as these three vaasanaas are there, knowledge of the Self cannot arise. They are like iron
fetters binding the legs.
If a sandal - stick remains in water for a long time, its natural fragrance remains hidden. But if it is
rubbed and the external odour is removed, then its natural fragrance emerges in full measure.
Similarly, the fragrance of the Self which remains hidden because of the dirt in the form of the
vaasanaas, emerges when the vaasanaas are removed by 'rubbing' with wisdom. The aatma
vaasanaa which has remained obscured by the anaatma vaasanaas (loka vaasanaa, saastra
vaasanaa and deha vaasanaa) shines forth when the anaatma vaasanaas are destroyed by
concentrating the mind on the aatman.
Note. Gita, 5.15 says that knowledge is covered by ignorance and so all creatures are deluded. The
jiva is identical with Brahman and so knowledge is his very nature. But this is obscured by ignorance.
Kathopanishad, 2.1.1 says that the creator has made the senses go only outward and so they cannot
know the indwelling self. But a rare human being withdraws his senses from external objects and
concentrates his mind on the self and realizes that he is Brahman).
The more the mind is concentrated on the self, the more the vaasanaas relating to the not - self are
destroyed. When all the vaasanaas are destroyed the realization that one is the pure Brahman is
perfect. When it is always established in the self, the mind is stilled. This means that the mind gives
up likes and dislikes and remains calm whatever happens. Vaasanaas are the propensity of the mind
to react to situations by the rise of anger and other similar emotions without any consideration of the
consequences. When the mind becomes calm it means that the raajasic and taamasic vaasanaas
have been eliminated. In this way the superimposition of the not - self on the self should be removed.
The taamasic qualities such as drowsiness and laziness are destroyed by raajasic qualities such as
activity. The raajasic qualities are eliminated by the cultivation of sattva guna by concentration of the
mind. Ultimately one should go beyond sattva guna also by concentrating the mind on nirguna
Brahman. Convinced that the praarabdha karma will protect the body, with a mind which is not
affected even when some cause for worry arises, one should strive with courage for the removal of
super - imposition.
One should get rid of superimposition by distinguishing between the self and the body - mind complex
and by the knowledge of the sruti statements such as 'tat tvam asi' which declare the oneness of
Brahman and the Atman. This process should be continued till the awareness of the jiva and the
universe becomes as false as a dream to one who has woken up from sleep. The Atman should be
constantly meditated on. As the space in a pot is dissolved in the universal space, the individual self
should be dissolved in Brahman. Like an actor discarding his role after the play is over, one should
dissociate oneself from the gross and subtle bodies and remain as the pure Self. That which is
signified by the word 'I' is the witness of the ego, etc. It is found to exist even in deep sleep. The sruti
says that it is unborn and eternal. Identification with one's family, clan, name, and station in life, all of
which relate to the gross body should be given up. Similarly the qualities of the subtle body such as
agency should also be given up. The ego is the root cause of samsaara and is the first to be
superimposed on the self.
All Rights Reserved. Unauthorized Copying, Distribution and Publication of these Online Books without the
prior written permission of the Author, Publisher or Translator are prohibited.
Celextel Enterprises Pvt. Ltd.

Articles and Summary

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Articles and Summary

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Articles and Summary

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Articles

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 2 of 372 Articles and Summary

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 3 of 372 Articles and Summary

GSB13 - 26 Kshetrakshetrajnayoh vishayavishayinoh - apagacchatimithyajnanam.

Atma - The Self

Bhakti - an essential requisite for liberation

GSB - 18.65 - Here also the importance of devotion is stressed.

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 5 of 372 Articles and Summary

GSB - 18.50 - Purvapakshah - nanu vishayakaram - atmakaram jnanam iti anupapannam. -

Siddhanta [Vedantin] - Na, atyantanirmalatva - svacchatva - sukshmatvopapatteh atmanah -

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 6 of 372 Articles and Summary

Yesham api nirakaram jnanam - abhyupagantavyam -

Karanam - Karyam - Cause and Effect

GSB - 13.24 - Dhyanam nama - Dhyanam.

Cannot be combined with karma -

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 7 of 372 Articles and Summary

Liberation is due to knowledge alone -

GSB - 5.12 - Sattvasuddhi - nishthakramenaiti vakyaseshah. - Liberation is attained through the

GSB - 6.8 - Jnanamsastrokta - padarthanam - svanubhavakaranam - nana is intellectual knowledge

Kama and Raga

See GSB - 7.11 for the meanings.

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 9 of 372 Articles and Summary

Difference between knowledge and action.

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 10 of 372 Articles and Summary

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 12 of 372 Articles and Summary

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 13 of 372 Articles and Summary

GSB - 18.46 - God is the Antaryami.

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 14 of 372 Articles and Summary

Mumukshutvam - Yearning for Liberation

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 15 of 372 Articles and Summary

Prakrtih - The Nature [of a person]

GSB - 8.21 - Dhama sthanam - padam - that supreme state of Vishnu.

GSB - 8.22 - The same as the above.

GSB - 2.44 - In this verse Samadhih means the mind.

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 17 of 372 Articles and Summary

Sannyasa and Tyaga

Increase of Sattva guna leads to increased manifestation of Consciousness.

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 18 of 372 Articles and Summary

Svadharmah - what is it?

Pratibimba - vada and Avaccheda - vada

GSB - 15.12 - Yasya ca padasya - Avacchedavada is applied here.

See also Br.up. 1.4.7 - Bhashya - Pratibimbavada.

Vedas - the sphere of their validity

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 19 of 372 Articles and Summary

Different meanings of the word 'Yoga' -

GSB - 3.3 - Yogi here is one who is devoted to rituals,

GSB - 4.41 - Here 'Yoga' means 'knowledge of the supreme Reality'.

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 20 of 372 Articles and Summary

Three Levels of Reality

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 21 of 372 Articles and Summary

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 22 of 372 Articles and Summary

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 23 of 372 Articles and Summary

2. Visit of Sanaka and other sages to Vaikuntha

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 25 of 372 Articles and Summary

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 26 of 372 Articles and Summary

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 28 of 372 Articles and Summary

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 29 of 372 Articles and Summary

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 30 of 372 Articles and Summary

6. Churning of the Ocean of Milk

Vedanta Spiritual Library | www.celextel.org Page 31 of 372 Articles and Summary