..............

CHAPTER 1

Underground Mining Methods and Applications

Hans Hamrln*

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Ore is an economic concept. It is defined as a concentration of
minerals that can be exploited and turned into a saleable product
to generate a financially acceptable profit under existing
economic conditions. The definition of ore calls for afterthoughts.
Ore does not properly exist until it has been labeled as such. To
name a mineral prospect an ore body requires more information
than needed to establish metal grades. Sufficient knowledge of
the mineral deposit, mining technology, processing methods, and
costs is needed for undertaking a feasibility study and proving the
prospect worthy of being developed into a mine.
The expression “existing economic conditions” deserves an
explanation. “Run-of-mine’’ore is a mix of valuable minerals and
worthless rock in which each ingredient is priced separately. Run-
of-mine ore is treated in the dressing plant and processed into
different concentrates. Where the ore contains more than one
metal of value, separate concentrates of, for example, copper,
zinc, and lead are produced. The value of in situ ore can be calcu-
lated by applying market prices to metal content and deducting
costs for treatment and transportation of concentrates and
smelter fees. The balance must cover direct mining costs and
leave a margin for the mine operator.
Metal prices are set on international metal market
exchanges in London and New York and fluctuate from day to
day, depending on the supply-and-demand situation. An over-
supply builds stocks of surplus metal, which is reflected in a drop
in the market price. The profit margin for a mine decreases as the
values of its products drop. As costs for processing, transport,
smelting, and refining remain constant, the mine must adjust to a
reduced income. The mine operating on a narrow margin must
be prepared to survive periods of depressed metal prices.
One tactic to deal with such a situation is to adjust the bound-
aries of the area being mined and draw these boundaries at a
higher cut-off grade. This will increase the value of the run-of-mine FIGURE 1.1 The underground mine-basic infrastructure
product, and the mine will maintain its profit. Another way is to
increase the efficiency of mine production. Modifymg the mining
method and introducing new, more powerful machines are actions
that should raise the efficiency of work procedures. The mine must 1.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS
remain a profit generator, which is not a simple task in an environ- To better understand the material presented herein, some of the
ment of increasing labor costs and demands for better living. more common mining terms are defined in the following para-
This chapter describes and explains methods for the under- graphs. Figure 1.1 further clarifies some of the terms.
ground mining of mineral deposits. The descriptions are general- Adit: Horizontal or nearly horizontal entrance to a mine.
ized and focus on typical applications. Examples chosen illustrate Back: Roof or overhead surface of an underground
types of mining practices as of 1999. However, every mineral excavation.
deposit, with its geology, grade, shape, and volume, is unique. As Chute: Loading arrangement that utilizes gravity to move
methods are described here, please bear in mind that rock is vari- material from a higher level to a lower level.
able, miners have ideas, and the world of mines will always Cone: Funnel-shaped excavation located at the top of a
display special features. raise used to collect rock from the area above.

* Retired, Atlas Copco, Stockholm, Sweden.

3
4 General Mine Design Considerations

Crosscut: Horizontal or nearly horizontal underground

opening driven to intersect an ore body.
Dip: Angle at which an ore deposit is inclined from the
horizontal.
Drawpoint: Place where ore can be loaded and removed. A
drawpoint is located beneath the stoping area, and gravity flow
transfers the ore to the loading place.
Drift: Horizontal or nearly horizontal underground
opening.
Finger Raise: Typically, a system of several raises that
branch together to the same delivery point. Used for trans-
ferring ore.
Footwall: Wall or rock under the ore deposit.
Grizzly: Arrangement that prevents oversized rock from
entering an ore transfer system. A grizzly usually consists of a
steel grating for coarse screening or scalping.
Hanging Wall: Wall or rock above an ore deposit.
Level: System of horizontal underground workings
connected to the shaft. A level forms the basis for excavation of FIGURE 1.2 Classic room-and-pillar mining
the ore above or below.
Manway: Underground opening that is intended for this chapter; the goal of this chapter is to summarize briefly the
personnel access and communication. characteristics of the major mining methods.
Ore: Mineral deposit that can be worked at a profit under
existing economic conditions. 1.3.2 Room-and-Pillar Mining
Ore Pass: Vertical or inclined underground opening Room-and-pillar mining is designed for flat-bedded deposits of
through which ore is transferred. limited thickness, such as copper shale, coal, salt and potash,
Prospect: Mineral deposit for which the economic value limestone, and dolomite. This method is used to recover
has not yet been proven. resources in open stopes. The method leaves pillars to support the
Raise: Underground opening driven upward from one level hanging wall; to recover the maximum amount of ore, miners
to a higher level or to the surface; a raise may be either vertical or aim to leave the smallest possible pillars. The roof must remain
inclined (compare winze). intact, and rock bolts are often installed to reinforce rock strata.
Ramp: Inclined underground opening that connects levels
Rooms and pillars are normally arranged in regular patterns.
or production areas; ramps are inclined to allow the passage of Pillars can be designed with circular or square cross sections or
motorized vehicles. Ramps usually are driven downward. shaped as elongated walls separating the rooms. Minerals
Shaft: Vertical or inclined underground opening through contained in pillars are nonrecoverable and therefore are not
which a mine is worked. included in the ore reserves of the mine. Differing geological
Slot: Vertical or inclined ore section excavated to open up conditions give rise to variations in room-and-pillar mining.
for further stoping. Three typical variations are described in the following text.
Stope: Underground excavation made by removing ore Classic room-and-pillar mining (Figure 1.2) applies to flat
from surrounding rock. deposits having moderate-to-thick beds and to inclined deposits
Strike: Main horizontal course or direction of a mineral with thicker beds. Mining the ore body creates large open stopes
deposit. where trackless machines can travel on the flat floor. Ore bodies
Sublevel: System of horizontal underground workings; with large vertical heights are mined in horizontal slices starting
normally, sublevels are used only within stoping areas where they at the top and benching down in steps.
are required for ore production. Post room-and-pillar mining (Figure 1.3) applies to inclined
Wall Rock: Wall in which an ore deposit is enclosed. ore bodies with dip angles from 20" to 55". These mines have
Waste: Barren rock or rock of too low a grade to be mined large vertical heights where the mined-out space is backfilled.
economically. The fill keeps the rock mass stable and serves as a work platform
Winze: Vertical or inclined underground opening driven while the next ore slice is mined.
downward from one level to another level or from the surface to Step room-and-pillarmining (Figure 1.4) is an adaptation of
a level (compare raise). trackless mining to ore bodies where dip is too steep for rubber-
1.3 MINING METHODS tired vehicles. A special "angle" orientation of haulage drifts and
stopes related to dip creates work areas with level floors. This
1.3.1 Introduction allows trackless equipment to be used in drilling and mucking.
Once an ore body has been probed and outlined and sufficient Mining advances downward along the step room angle.
information has been collected to warrant further analysis, the Classic Room-and-Pillar Mining. In classic room-and-
important process of selecting the most appropriate method or pillar mining, only a minimum of development work is required
methods of mining can begin. At this stage, the selection is to prepare a flat-bedded deposit for mining. Roadways for ore
preliminary, serving only as the basis for a project layout and transport and communication are established inside production
feasibility study. Later it may be found necessary to revise details, stopes. Excavation of roadways can be combined with ore
but the basic principles for ore extraction should remain a part of production, and mined-out stopes can serve as transport routes.
the final layout. Ore production involves the same drill-blast techniques as in
With respect to the basic principles employed, relatively few normal drifting where drift dimensions equal the width and
mining methods are used today. Because of the uniqueness of height of the stope. Where geological conditions are favorable,
each ore deposit, variations on each of these methods are nearly stopes can be large, and big drill jumbos can be used for mecha-
limitless. It is impossible to include even the major variations in nized drilling.
Underground Mining Methods and Applications 5

Post Room-and-Pillar Mining. Post room-and-pillar

mining (or “post-pillar” mining) is a combination of room-and-
pillar and cut-and-fill stoping. With this method, ore is recovered
in horizontal slices starting from the bottom and advancing
upward. Pillars are left inside the stope to support the roof.
Mined-out stopes are hydraulically backfilled with tailings, and
the next slice is mined by machines working from the fill surface.
Pillars continue through several layers of fill. Sandfill provides
the possibility of modifymg the stope layout and adapting the
post-pillar method to variations in rock conditions and ore
boundaries. Both backfill and sandfill increase the support capa-
bility of the pillar, permitting a higher rate of ore recovery than
does classic room-and-pillar mining.
Post-pillar mining combines the advantages of cut-and-fill
mining-that is, allowing work on flat, smooth floors-with the
spacious stopes offered by room-and-pillar mining. Easy access to
multiple production points favors the use of efficient mechanized
equipment.
Step Room-and-Pillar Mining. Step room-and-pillar
FIGURE 1.3 Post room-and-pillar mining mining is a variation in which the footwall of an inclined ore
body is adapted for efficient use of trackless equipment. Although
applications cannot be fully generalized, step room-and-pillar
mining applies to tabular deposits with thicknesses from 2 to 5 m
and dips ranging from 15”to 30”.
The method features a layout in which stopes and haulage-
ways cross the dip of the ore body in a polar coordinate system.
By orienting stopes at certain angles across dip, stope floors
assume an angle that is comfortably traveled by trackless vehi-
cles. Transport routes cross in the opposite direction to establish
roadway access to stopes and to transport blasted ore to the shaft.
The main development of step room-and-pillar mining
includes a network of parallel transport drifts traversing the ore
body in predetermined directions. Drift floors are maintained
with grades that allow the use of selected trucks.
Stopes are excavated from transport drifts branching out at
a predetermined step-room angle. The stope is advanced forward
in a mode similar to drifting until breakthrough into the next
parallel transport drive. The next step is to excavate a similar
Numbers indicate drift or side slash one step downdip and adjacent to the first
sequence of
extraction drive. This procedure is repeated until the roof span becomes
almost too wide to remain stable. Then an elongated strip
FIGURE 1.4 Steproom mining of inclined orebody parallel to the stopes is left as a pillar. The next stope is excavated
the same way, and mining continues downward step by step. The
numbers in Figure 1.4 indicate the sequence of extraction.
Deposits with large vertical heights are mined in slices.
Mining starts at the top below the hanging wall. At this stage, 1.3.3 Vein Mining
rock bolts are installed for roof control with the back at a conve- In vein mines (Figures 1.5,1.6, and 1.7), the dimensions of mineral
nient height. Sections below are recovered in one or more steps deposits are highly variable. An ore body can be anything from a
by benching. Standard crawler rigs are used for drilling vertical large, massive formation several square kilometers in surface area
holes and for conventional bench blasting. Horizontal drilling to a 0.5-m-wide quartz vein containing some 20 g/tonne of gold.
and “flat” benching are more practical alternatives because the Miners aim to recover the mineral’s value, but prefer to leave waste
same drill jumbo can be used for both topheading and drilling flat rock in the hanging wall and the footwall intact. In the thicker
bench holds. deposits, a machine operates within the ore body walls without
The blasted ore is loaded at the muckpile with diesel-driven problems. When the mineralized zone narrows to a few meters,
front-end loaders. Different transport systems are used, depending machines may be too wide to fit inside the ore boundaries. To exca-
on stope height and transport distance. Where the opening is high vate rock only to permit the machine to fit produces waste, which
enough, the common dump truck provides economical transport dilutes the ore. The alternative is to use manual labor to recover
from stopes to collection points. In thin ore bodies, specially built high-grade ore. However, labor is costly, and manual mining tech-
low mine trucks are available from manufacturers. Stopes with niques are inefficient. Also, it is difficult to find people who accept
very little headroom can be cleaned by load-haul-dump (LHD) working with hand-held rock drills and using muscle power.
machines, and muck can be transferred onto trucks parked in Today, a selection of standard slim-sized machines is avail-
special loading bays for transport over longer distances. able, allowing mechanized mining in 2-m-wide drifts. These slim-
Mobile mechanized equipment is ideal in flat or slightly sized machines include the face jumbo for narrow drifts matched
inclined ore bodies. In the room-and-pillar layout, several with a longhole rig of the same size. The small drifter jumbo and
production areas can be established. Communications are longhole rig complemented with an LHD with a 2-m3 bucket
straightforward and simple. These factors set the stage for the provides everything needed for the mechanized mining of a 2-m-
high utilization of both men and machines in an efficient ore wide vein.
recovery system.
6 General Mine Design Considerations

FIGURE 1.5 Mining a narrow vein with steep dip

FIGURE 1.8 Shrinkage stoping with cross-cut loading

1.3.4 Shrlnkage Stoping

In shrinkage stoping (Figure 1.8), ore is excavated in horizontal
slices, starting from the bottom of the stope and advancing
upward. Part of the broken ore is left in the mined-out stope,
where it serves as a working platform for mining the ore above
and to support the stope walls.
Through blasting, rock increases its occupied volume by
about 50%. Therefore, 40% of the blasted ore must be drawn off
continuously during mining to maintain suitable headroom
between the back and the top of the blasted ore. When the stope
has advanced to the upper border of the planned stope, it is
FIGURE 1.6 Small size drill jumbo, Dome mine, Canada discontinued, and the remaining 60%of the ore can be recovered.
Smaller ore bodies can be mined with a single stope,
whereas larger ore bodies are divided into separate stopes with
intermediate pillars to stabilize the hanging wall. The pillars can
generally be recovered upon completion of regular mining.
Shrinkage stoping can be used in ore bodies with
Steep dips (the dip must exceed the angle of repose),
rn Firm ore,
Comparatively stable hanging wall and footwall,
Regular ore boundaries,
Ore that is not affected by storage in the stope (certain
sulfide ores tend to oxidize and decompose when
exposed to the atmosphere).
The development for shrinkage stoping consists of
rn A haulage drift along the bottom of the stope,
w Crosscuts into the ore underneath the stope,
Finger raises and cones from the crosscuts to the
undercut,
An undercut or complete bottom slice of the stope
FIGURE 1.7 Mini-rig for longhole drilling, Stillwater platinum mine,
Montana, USA
5 to 10 m above the haulage drift, and
Underground Mining Methods and Applications 7

FIGURE 1.9 Sublevel open stoping FIGURE 1.10 Longhole rig with slide posltioning, remote control, and
tube carousel, Willlams gold, Canada

rn A raise from the haulage level passing through the of ore, known as crown pillars, are also left to support mine work-
undercut to the main level above to provide access and ings above the producing stopes.
ventilation to the stope. Enlarging stope dimensions influences mining efficiency.
The development of the bottom section of the stope can be Miners therefore aim for the largest possible stopes. The stability
simplified in the same way as for sublevel stoping-the finger of the rock mass is a limiting factor to be considered when
raises are deleted, and the cross-cuts are developed for drawpoint selecting the sizes of stopes and pillars. Sublevel stoping is used
loading. for mining mineral deposits with following characteristics:
Drilling and blasting are carried out as overhead stoping. I Steep dip-the inclination of the footwall must exceed
The rough pile of ore in the stope prevents the use of mechanized the angle of repose,
equipment. Standard practice is to use air-leg rock drills and rn Stable rock in both the hanging wall and the footwall,
stoper drillers.
The traditional ore handling system in shrinkage stoping I Competent ore and host rock,

entails direct dumping of ore into rail cars from chutes below the I Regular ore boundaries.
finger raises. Shovel loaders are more effective in conjunction
with a drawpoint loading system. Sublevel drifts for longhole drilling are prepared inside the
Shrinkage stoping was a common and important method in ore body between main levels. These are strategically located
the days when few machines were employed in underground since these are the points from which the longhole rig drills the
mining. Its advantage is the fact that the ore could be dumped blast pattern. The drill pattern specifies where blastholes are to
directly into cars through the chutes, eliminating hand-loading. be collared and the depth and angle of each hole, all of which
This is of little importance today, and the drawbacks-that is, the must be set with great precision to achieve a successful blast.
method is labor intensive, working conditions are difficult and Drawpoints are excavated below the stope bottom for safe
dangerous, productivity is limited, and the bulk of the ore mucking with LHDs, which may be combined with trucks or rail
remains stored in the stope for a long period of time-have cars for longer transport. Different layouts for undercut draw-
resulted in the replacement of shrinkage stoping by other points are used. The trough-shaped stope bottom is typically
methods. Sublevel stoping, vertical retreat stoping, sublevel accessed through loading drifts at regular spacings.
caving, and cut-and-fill mining are methods that usually can be Developing the set of drifts and drawpoints underneath the
applied under similar conditions. stope is an extensive and costly procedure. A simpler layout is
Shrinkage stoping remains, however, as one of the methods gaining in popularity as an alternative to the conventional draw-
that can be practiced with a minimum of investment in machinery point-and-muck-out system. Here, the loading level is integrated
and yet is still not entirely dependent on manual capacity. with the undercut. Mucking out is done directly on the stope
bottom inside the open stope. The LHD works inside the open
1.3.5 Sublevel Open Stoping stope and, for safety reasons, is operated by radio control by an
In sublevel open stoping (Figures 1.9 and l.lO), ore is recovered operator based inside the access drift.
in open stopes normally backfilled after being mined. Stopes are Sublevel stoping requires a regular shape of stopes and ore
often large, particularly in the vertical direction. The ore body is boundaries. Inside the drill pattern, everything qualifies as ore. In
divided into separate stopes. Between stopes, ore sections are set larger ore bodies, the area between the hanging wall and the
aside for pillars to support the hanging wall. Pillars are normally footwall is divided into modules along strike and mined as
shaped as vertical beams across the ore body. Horizontal sections primary and secondary stopes.
8 General Mine Design Considerations

FIGURE 1.11 Bighole open stoping

FIGURE 1.12 Bighole sample pattern, Mount Charlotte, Australia

1.3.6 Bighole Stoping
Bighole stoping (Figures 1.11-1.13) is a scaled-up variant of
sublevel open stoping in which longer blastholes with larger
diameters (140 to 165 mm) are used. The holes are normally
drilled using the in-the-hole (ITH) technique. Hole depths may
reach 100 m, which is double the length that can be drilled with
tophammer rigs. Blast patterns are similar to those used in
sublevel open stoping. The 140-mm-diameter blasthole breaks a
rock slice 4 m thick with a 6-m toe spacing.
The advantage of bighole stoping as compared to sublevel
stoping is the scale factor. The ITH-drilled holes are straight, and
drilling accuracy can be exploited. For instance, vertical spacings
between sublevels can be extended from 40 m with sublevel open
stoping to 60 m with bighole stoping. Risks of damage to rock
structures is a factor to be considered when bighole stoping is
used.
1.3.7 Vertical Crater Retreat
Vertical crater retreat (VCR) mining (Figures 1.14, 1.15, and
1.16) is a method originally developed by the Canadian mining
company INCO. Today, VCR is an established mining method
used by mines all over the world that have competent, steeply
dipping ore and host rock. VCR is based on the crater blasting
technique in which powerful explosive charges are placed in FIGURE 1.13 Bighole drill rlg wlth automatic controls and tube
large-diameter holes and fired. Part of the blasted ore remains in carousel for 50 m long holes, Mount Charlotte, Australia
the stope over the production cycle, serving as temporary support
for the stope walls. The ore in a stope block is drilled with ITH drill rigs posi-
The sequence of development of VCR stopes is tioned in the overcut. Holes are drilled downward until they
H A haulage drift is excavated along the ore body at the break through into the undercut. Vertical holes are preferred
drawpoint level, wherever possible. Hole diameters vary from 140 to 165 mm,
H A drawpoint loading arrangement is created underneath
although holes 205 mm in diameter have been tried in a few
the stope, mines. For 165-mm-diameter holes, a hole pattern of 4 by 4 m is
typical.
m The stope is undercut, Holes are charged from the overcut using powerful charges
H An overcut access is excavated for drilling and charging. contained in a short section of blast hole. These crater charges
Underground Mining Methods and Applications 9

FIGURE 1.14 VCR mining, primary stopes

FIGURE 1.16 VCR mining, recovery of secondary stopes

requires a trained crew for successful blast results, and records

are necessary to keep track of the blasting progress in each hole.
The ore is mucked from stopes through the undercut using
remote-controlled LHDs or recovered by a drawpoint system
underneath the stope as in sublevel stoping. The stopes may or
may not be backfilled.
VCR mining is applicable in conditions similar to those in
which sublevel open stoping is used. VCR is technically simpler
with ITH drilling compared to tophammer drilling. ITH holes are
straight, and hole deviations are minimal. The charging of the
blastholes is complex, and techniques must be mastered by the
charging team. The powerful VCR charges involve higher risks for
damaging the surrounding rock than sublevel open stoping.
1.3.8 Cut-and-Fill Stoping
Cut-and-fill mining (Figures 1.17 and 1.18) removes ore in hori-
zontal slices, starting from the bottom undercut and advancing
upward. Ore is drilled and blasted, and muck is loaded and
removed from the stope. When the stope has been mined out,
voids are backfilled with hydraulic sand tailings or waste rock.
The fill serves both to support the stope walls and provide a
working platform for equipment when the next slice is mined.
Cut-and-fill mining is used in steeply dipping ore bodies in
strata having good-to-moderate stability and comparatively high-
grade ore. It provides better selectivity than the alternative
sublevel stoping and VCR mining techniques. Hence, cut-and-fill
FIGURE 1.15 ITH drilling, 165 mm blast holes, INCO, Canada is preferred for ore bodies having an irregular shape and scat-
tered mineralization. Cut-and-fill allows selective mining, sepa-
are placed a specified distance above the free surface. Holes are rate recovery of high-grade sections, and the leaving of low-grade
grouped so that charges will be at the same elevation and depth. rock behind in stopes.
First, the hole depth is measured. Then the hole is blocked at the The development for cut-and-fill mining includes
proper height. Explosive charges are lowered, and the hole is A haulage drive along the footwall of the ore body at the
stemmed with sand and water placed on top of the charge. Adja- main level,
cent explosive charges aid in breaking the rock, normally loos-
ening a 3-m slice of ore that falls into the void below. Charging H Undercutting the stope area with drains for water,
10 General Mine Design Considerations

Detail of
coal mining
with drum shearer
and sen-advancing
.hydraulic support

FIGURE 1.19 Longwall mining in soft rock (coal seam)

Hydraulic sandfill is often used with cut-and-fill mining. The

FIGURE 1.17 Mining with cut and fill
filldeslimed sand tailings from the mine’s dressing plant-is
mixed with water to 60% to 70% solids and distributed to stopes
via a network of pipes. Before filling, stopes are prepared by
barricading entries, and drainage tubes are laid out on the floor.
The sand fills the stope to almost its full height. As a harder fill is
required on the surface, cement is added in the last pour. When
the water has drained, the fill surface is smooth and compact. It
forms a good base for mobile machines while mining the next
slice of ore.
Cut-and-fill mining is a versatile method and preferred by
mines that require the capability of mining selected ore pockets
and adaptability to variations in the rock mass.
1.3.9 Longwall Mining
Longwall mining applies to thin-bedded deposits of uniform
thickness and large horizontal extent. Typical deposits are repre-
sented by coal seams, potash layers, or conglomerate reefs mined
by the South African gold mining companies. Longwall mining
FIGURE 1.18 Face drilling in cut-and-fill stope
applies to both hard and soft rock as the working area along the
mining face can be artificially supported where the hanging wall
tends to collapse.
I A spiral ramp in the footwall with access drive to the The longwall mining method extracts ore along a straight
undercut, front having a large longitudinal extension. The stoping area
close to the face is kept open to provide space for personnel and
I A raise connecting to levels above for ventilation and mining equipment. The hanging wall may be allowed to subside
filling material. at some distance behind the working face.
Modem cut-and-fill mines drill the stope face with a jumbo. Development of longwall mines involves the excavation of a
The face appears to be a wall across the stope with an open slot at network of haulage drifts for access to production areas and
the bottom above the fill. The face is drilled with breasting holes, transport of ore to shaft stations. As the mineralized zone extends
charged, and blasted. The slot underneath provides space into over a large area, haulage drifts are accompanied with parallel
which the blasted rock can expand. excavations to ventilate mine workings. Haulage drifts are
The drill pattern can be modified before each round to usually arranged in regular patterns and excavated in the deposit
follow variations in ore boundaries. Sections with low-grade ore itself. The distance between two adjacent haulage drifts deter-
are left in place or separated while mucking out. Mining can be mines the length of the longwall face.
diverted from the planned stope boundaries to recover pockets of Longwall mining (Figure 1.19) is a common method for
minerals in the host rock. extracting coal, trona, and potash from seams of various thick-
A smooth fill surface and controlled fragmentation are ideal ness. It can be mechanized almost to perfection. The soft material
for LHDs. Tramming distances inside the stope to the ore pass are does not require drilling and blasting, but can be cut loose
convenient for LHD cycles. Ore passes made from steel segments mechanically. Special machines shaped as cutting plows or
welded to form a large tube can be positioned inside the stope, rotating drums with cutters run back and forth along the faces,
by-passing layers of sandfill. The ore pass can also consist of a each time cutting a fresh slice of the seam. The coal or mineral
raise excavated in rock close to the stope-ramp access. falls onto a chain conveyor that carries the mineral to the haulage
Underground Mining Methods and Applications 11

FIGURE 1.20 Longwall mining in gold reef

FIGURE 1.22 Mining by sublevel caving

1.3.10 Sublevel Caving

In sublevel caving, the ore is extracted via sublevels developed in
the ore body at regular intervals. Each sublevel features a system-
atic layout with parallel drifts along or across the ore body. In a
wide ore body, the sublevel drifts start from the footwall drift and
are driven until they reach the hanging wall. This is referred to as
transverse sublevel caving (Figure 1.22). In ore bodies of lesser
width, longitudinal sublevel caving is used. In this variant, drifts
branch off in both directions from a center crosscut.
Sublevel caving is used in large, steeply dipping ore bodies.
The rock mass must be stable enough to allow the sublevel drifts
to remain open with just occasional rock bolting. The hanging
wall should fracture and collapse to follow the cave, and the
ground on top of the ore body must be permitted to subside.
Caving requires a rock mass where both the ore body and
the host rock fracture under controlled conditions. As mining
removes rock and the mined-out area is not backfilled, the
hanging wall keeps caving into the voids. Continued mining
FIGURE 1.21 Drilling the reef with hand-held rock drill, East Rand
results in subsidence of the surface, and sinkholes may appear.
Properties, South Africa Continuous caving is important to avoid creation of cavities
inside the rock where a sudden collapse could be harmful to mine
drift, from where it is transported for hoisting out of the mine. installations.
Conveyor belts are frequently used to transport material, as belts The amount of development needed to institute sublevel
are adaptable to the almost continuous flow of material from the caving is extensive as compared to other mining methods.
production areas. The roof along the longwall face is supported However, development primarily involves drifting to prepare
and the working area completely protected by a system of sublevels. Drifting is a simple and routine job for a mechanized
hydraulically operated props. The supports move forward as mine. Development of sublevels is done efficiently in an environ-
mining advances, and the roof behind can be allowed to collapse. ment where there are multiple faces on one sublevel available to
Longwall mining is also used for mining thin, reef-type drill rigs and loaders.
deposits. The gold reef conglomerates are very hard and difficult A ramp is needed to connect different sublevels and commu-
to mine. South African gold mines have developed their own nicate with the main transport routes. Ore passes are also required
techniques based on manpower and the use of hand-held pneu- at strategic locations along the sublevels to allow LHDs to dump
matic rock drills. Figures 1.20 and 1.21 show mining of a reef ore to be collected and transported to the haulage level below.
approximately 1 m thick. The width of the mineralized section A drawing showing sublevel drifts is almost identical for
might be even less, but there must be space for miners crawling every second sublevel, which means that drifts on the first
on their knees. Pillars of timber and concrete are installed to sublevel are positioned right on top of drifts on the third sublevel,
support the roof in very deep mines. while drifts on the second sublevel are located underneath pillars
12 General Mine Design Considerations

FIGURE 1.23 Twin boom rig for fan drilling, with operator’s cabin,
tube handling, and drill automatics, Kiruna, Sweden

between the drifts on sublevels 1 and 2. A section through the

sublevel area will show that the drifts are spread across the ore FIGURE 1.24 Block cavlng with finger raises, grizzly treatment and
body in a regular pattern both vertically and horizontally. A chute loading
diamond-shaped area can be traced above one drift and indicates
the volume of ore to be recovered from each drift.
The ore section above the drift is drilled in a fan-shaped 1.3.11 Block Caving
pattern with longhole drills (Figure 1.23). Drilling can be done Block caving is a technique in which gravity is used in conjunc-
independently of other procedures, often well ahead of charging. tion with internal rock stresses to fracture and break the rock
Thus, drilling, charging, and blasting longholes can be timed to mass into pieces that can be handled by miners. “Block” refers to
suit the mine’s production schedules. Blasting on each sublevel the mining layout in which the ore body is divided into large
starts at the hanging wall and mining retreats toward the foot- sections of several thousand square meters. Caving of the rock
wall. The cave line should follow an approximately straight front, mass is induced by undercutting a block. The rock slice directly
and hence adjacent drifts should be mined at a similar pace. A beneath the block is fractured by blasting, which destroys its
section through the cave shows the upper sublevels one step ability to support the overlaying rock. Gravity forces on the order
ahead of the sublevels underneath. of millions of tons act on the block, causing the fractures to
Blasting the longhole fan breaks the ore in the slice. Most of spread until the whole block is affected. Continued pressure
the blasted ore remains in place while some falls down into the breaks the rock into smaller pieces that pass through drawpoints
drift opening. Mucking out with LHDs creates a cave pattern of where the ore is handled by LHDs.
ore and waste from above. Loading continues until the operator Block caving is a large-scale production technique appli-
decides there is too much dilution, stops mucking, and moves to cable to low-grade, massive ore bodies with the following
another heading. With the heading vacated, the charging team characteristics :
moves into the heading and charges and fires the next ring of I Large vertical and horizontal dimensions,
longholes.
Ore handling involves mucking out the blasted material at I A rock mass that will break into pieces of manageable

the front, transporting it on the sublevels, and dumping the ore size, and
into ore passes. These are ideal conditions for LHDs as they can A surface that is allowed to subside.
be kept in continuous operation. When one face is mucked clean,
the LHD is moved to a nearby drift heading and mucking These rather unique conditions limit block caving to partic-
continues. Sublevels are designed with tramming distances ular types of mineral deposits. Looking at worldwide practices,
matched to particular sizes of LHDs. one finds block caving used for extracting iron ore, low-grade
Dilution and ore losses are drawbacks for sublevel caving. copper, molybdenum deposits, and diamond-bearing kimberlite
Extensive scientific investigations have been made to determine pipes. The large tonnage produced by each individual mine
the flow of ore in a cave and to identify means of reducing ore makes block-caving mines the real heavyweights when compared
losses and minimizing dilution. Dilution varies between 15%and to most other mines.
40%, and ore losses can be from 15% to 25%, depending on local
The development of block caving when conventional gravity
conditions. Dilution is of less influence for ore bodies with diffuse flow is applied (Figure 1.24) involves
boundaries where the host rock contains low-grade minerals or I An undercut where the rock mass underneath the block is
for magnetite ores, which are upgraded by simple magnetic sepa- fractured by longhole blasting,
rators. Sulfides, in contrast, must be refined by costly flotation I Drawbells beneath the undercut that gather the rock into
processes. finger raises,
Sublevel caving is repetitive both in layout and working
procedures. Development drifting, production drilling, charging, I Finger raises that collect rock from drawbells to the griz-

blasting, and mucking are all carried out separately. Work takes zlies,
place at different levels, allowing each procedure to be carried I A grizzly level where oversized blocks are caught and
out continuously without disturbing the others. There is always a broken up,
place for the machine to work.
Underground Mining Methods and Applications l3

FIGURE 1.25 Block cavlng LHD loaders and pick-hammer control,

El Teniente. Chile

H A lower set of finger raises that channel ore from grizzlies

to chutes for train loading. The finger raises are arranged
like branches of a tree, gathering ore from a large area at FIGURE 1-26 Block caving with one-level development, longhole
the undercut level and further channeling material to undercutting and drawpoint loading
chutes at the haulage level.
H A lowermost level where ore is prepared for train haulage required and time lag before production starts are also factors to
and chute loading. consider when block caving is being compared to other methods.
Openings underneath the block are subject to high internal 1.4 MECHANIZATION AND EFFICIENCY
stresses. Drifts and other openings in a block-caving mine are
excavated with minimal cross sections. Heavy concrete liners and 1.4.1 Preparing for the Future
many rock bolts are necessary to secure the integrity of mine The mining industry exists in a competitive environment. The
drifts and drawpoint openings. only way to survive in the long term is to ensure that each ton of
After completion of the undercut, the rock mass above ore mined leaves a profit after all cost factors are deducted. All of
begins to fracture. The blocks are gathered by drawbells and us face a climate of escalating labor costs and tougher environ-
crates and funneled down through finger raises. The intention is mental rules that increase the burden on production costs. Devel-
to maintain a steady flow from each block. Miners keep records of opment of new equipment and improved efficiency help us
the volume extracted from individual drawpoints. Theoretically, compensate for these increasing cost factors.
no drilling and blasting are required for ore production. In prac-
tice, it is often necessary to assist rock mass fracturing by long- 1.4.2 Mechanization-Automation-Robotics
hole drilling and blasting in widely spaced patterns. Boulders Labor represents a major share of the production costs in under-
that must be broken by drilling and blasting frequently interrupt ground mines. Replacing labor with powerful machines is a
the flow. Large blocks cause hang-ups in the cave that are difficult natural way to counteract escalating costs. Mechanization has
and dangerous to tackle. proven itself by a steady increase in production in underground
Originally, block-caving techniques relied 100% on gravity mines over the last few decades. More duties are being taken over
flow to deliver ore from the cave into rail cars. The ore was by machines, more powerful machines increase output, and more
funneled through a system of finger raises and ore passes, ending sensitive controls are able to handle dangerous and complex
at trough c 's at the main haulage level. As chute loading
procedures to produce a higher quality product.
requires COI ed fragmentation, the rock had to pass through a Elaborate machines in the hands of skilled operators turn
grizzly befc 1 entered the ore pass. The grizzly-man with a
mine production into an efficient industrial process. Any mine
sledgehammer used to be a bottleneck in old-style block-caving will have the potential to introduce new equipment and
mines. Now it is common to use hydraulic hammers for breaking improve existing standards by exploiting the potential of
the boulders.
modern technology.
Today, block-caving mines have adapted trackless mining in
which LHDs are used to handle the cave in the drawpoints 1.4.3 Quality and Grade Control
(Figures 1.25 and 1.26). As a consequence, ventilation must be Economic mining is a matter not only of production efficiency,
added to development preparations to clear the production level
but also the quality or grade of the run-of-mine product. Thus,
of diesel exhaust. The LHDs are able to handle large rocks while the degree of selectivity achieved by equipment and methods
oversized boulders are blasted in the drawpoints.
becomes a prime consideration. Mechanized cut-and-fill mining
Block caving is an economical and efficient mass-mining
is highly selective. The cut-and-fill method is adaptable to varia-
method when rock conditions are favorable. The amount of tions in ore body boundaries and rock conditions, which makes it
drilling and blasting required for ore production is minimal while
interesting for mine prospects and rehabilitation projects.
the development volume is immense. The behavior of the rock Cement-consolidated backfill has improved recovery during open
mass and conditions for caving are difficult to predict when a stoping so that this method is comparable with cut-and-fill
block-caving mine is planned. The extensive development
mining.
14 General Mine Design Considerations

1.4.4 Efficiency Ratings prevents misunderstandings and is the best way to the correct
Efficiencies of mining operations are rated in tons per man-shift choice.
or kilotons per man-year (with reference to underground workers The development of new products and improvements to
only). Efficiency varies from mine to mine and should not be existing equipment is enhanced through regular contacts
given much weight except when considered as a general charac- between the end-user and the manufacturer. A continuing
teristic. Each mining method provides certain conditions for effi- dialogue ascertains that introduced products meet requirements
ciency, from 1 ton per man shift for a complex method to 100 from both management and operators.
tons per man-shift for an efficient room-and-pillar mine. Effi- Output and Size. Typical mining machines are offered in a
ciency relates to costs per ton. Where the ratio of tons per man- range of sizes distinguished by output or ability to perform speci-
shift is low, ore grades must be high. fied procedures. The potential buyer should be able to make a
first choice of a machine for his application without too much of a
1.4.5 Utilization and Output problem. It is advisable to select a larger rather than a smaller
Work Time and Schedules. Work time in mines is often model. Extra capacity is always a safety margin, adding to flexi-
based on schedules of 8 hours per shift, three shifts a day, 7 days bility in production planning, and a heavy-duty design increases
a week all year around. Other schedules may include a 6-day resistance to wear and tear in a tough underground environment.
week or 11-hour shifts with two shifts per day. Evidently ambi- Capability. Qualifications of a machine are documented in
tions are to keep production going by utilizing the available time the technical specification pages. Here, the important data, such
in the most efficient manner, considering public and religious as engine power, weight, length, width, etc., should be found.
holidays. The specification sheet should be studied carefully before a deci-
Even if the work schedule is continuous, few machines sion is made on a new machine. The machine must meet expecta-
operate more than 70% of the time. Machines that can be kept in tions, in terms of both performance and capability, and it must fit
operation much of the time are those directly involved with inside the mine’s drift openings.
production-longhole drill rigs, LHDs, and mine trucks. For other Options and Extras. Specifications come with a list of
demands, such as development drifting and rock bolting, 30% options and special features that can be added to a basic machine
use would be considered normal. The machine itself is a tool for at additional cost. Each option should be checked and analyzed
doing things in a practical way that minimizes manual efforts. with regard to selecting the basic machine. Some options will be
Multipoint Attack. The mining method influences condi- necessary for the proper function of the basic unit, while others
tions for use of mechanized equipment. Drill-blast rock excava- may seem to be fancy gadgets without real justification. As the
tion involves a cycle featuring frequent changes of techniques and basic machine represents the major share of the capital to be
machinery. Where several attack points lie within a reasonable invested, the options may add valuable qualities to the basic unit
distance of one another, machines can be kept busy shuttling at marginal extra cost. The value of option-services integrated
from one workplace to the next. A drill rig, charging truck loader, into the basic unit should be assessed by the end-user.
and other machines should be scheduled to minimize delays 1.5 SUMMARY
while they are changing places.
Work Specialization. Carrying out the continuity and In the preceding sections, the author has tried to present conven-
volume of a specific procedure without interruption is important. tional underground mining methods as clearly as possible. Natu-
Sublevel stoping, VCR mining, and sublevel caving are methods rally, there are additional considerations that cannot be included
in which drilling, charging, blasting, and mucking out are inde- within the scope of this text.
pendent procedures. The longhole drill rig keeps hammering in Some readers may miss the inclusion of more detailed
the same drift for long periods of time, promoting output from an figures in the text. However, the variations in ore deposits are so
elaborate and capital-intensive machine. As longhole drilling is great and the state of mining technology so dynamic that being
independent of mucking out, blastholes can be drilled and main- too specific could mislead the reader. Every ore body is unique.
tained until the production schedule calls for more tonnage. The successful application of a mining method requires more
than textbook knowledge; it also requires practical reasoning
1.4.6 The Machine-A Versatile Tool with a creative mind that is open to new impressions. The appli-
Selecting Machines. Selecting a machine for a specific cation of a mining method is a distinct challenge to any mining
purpose is a complex procedure. The application is rarely engineer.
straightforward, but includes special requirements and restric- The author wishes to express his gratitude to Atlas Copco
tions. The machine itself is a complex device with capabilities that MCT AB for permission to use the material included herein and
are difficult to explain in specification sheets. A dialogue between for assistance in preparing the illustrations.
a mine’s technical staff and a manufacturer’s representative