What is an RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)?

A Resistance Temperature Detector (also known as a Resistance Thermometer or RTD)

is an electronic device used to determine the temperature by measuring the resistance of an
electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a temperature sensor. If we want to measure
temperature with high accuracy, an RTD is the ideal solution, as it has good linear
characteristics over a wide range of temperatures. Other common electronics devices used to
measure temperature include a thermocouple or a thermistor.
The variation of resistance of the metal with the variation of the temperature is given as,

Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance values at toC and t0oC temperatures. α

and β are the constants depends on the metals.

This expression is for huge range of temperature. For small range of

temperature, the expression can be,

A resistance Temperature detector (RTD) is a popular choice of temperature sensors

which measures temperature using the principle that the resistance of a metal
changes with temperature.

Principle:

RTDs work on the basis of relationship between metal and temperature. As the
temperature of a metal increase, the metals resistance to the flow of electricity
increases. In the same way as the temperature of RTD resistance element increase
the electrical resistance measured in OHM increase.
RTD elements are specified according to their resistance in ohms (Ω) at zero degree
Celsius (°C).

he most common RTD specification is 100 Ω, which means that at 0°C the RTD
element should display 100 Ω of resistance.

Materials used most commonly in resistance thermometry are platinum, Nickel,

Copper and Semiconductors. Platinum metal is widely used in the temperature
measurement. Copper and Nickel are less used compared to platinum.

Construction: There are three major RTD construction types.

 Wire-wound RTDs (Coiled Element Design)

 Wire-wound RTDs (Outer wound Design)
 Thin-film Design

Wire-wound RTD (Outer wound Design):

Wire wound resistance temperature detectors consists of a length of fine coiled wire
of platinum and is wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. They are relatively
fragile and are generally supplied with a metal sheath for protection. They have
demonstrate greater accuracy over a wider temperature range than flat film
detectors, but they are expensive.

Wire-wound RTD (Coiled wound Design):

Its housing is a hard fired ceramic oxide tube with equally spaced bores that run
horizontal to the axes. The coil is inserted into the bores and packed with a very
finely ground ceramic powder. This arrangement provides good contact with the
process.
Thin-Film RTD:

These are manufactured by placing a fine layer of platinum wire on to a ceramic

substrate, the element then coated in epoxy or glass which provides protection.

They are cheaper alternative to wire wound detector and have fast response time.
But they provide less stability and have a lower temperature range than wire wound
design.

Platinum RTD:

Resistivity of platinum is six times that of copper. Platinum is relatively un-reactive

has high melting point (1769 °C) and, because it has a well-established temperature
coefficient of resistance.

Temperature Range: It is a common choice for precise measurement of

temperature between -200 °C to 1000 °C. However, in industrial applications, the
range is limited to 400C. This is because, poor accuracy at high temperature
measurements.

Advantages:

Platinum metal is the most commonly used for RTD elements due to a number of
factors, which includes

 Chemical inertness
 Nearly linear relation between temperatures versus resistance relationship.
  Temperature coefficient of resistance is high enough to give readily measurable
resistance change with temperature 
 Stability (in that its temperature resistance does not drastically change with
time)

What is a Thermistor?
A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type of resistor whose electrical
resistance varies with changes in temperature. Although all resistors’ resistance will fluctuate
slightly with temperature, a thermistor is particularly sensitive to temperature changes.

• A Thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure temperature changes, relying on

the change in its resistance with changing temperature.

• Thermistors can measure temperatures across the range of -40 ~ 150 ±0.35 °C

• Typical operation resistances are in the kW range, although the actual resistance may
range from few W to several MW.

:
. The circuit symbol for a thermistor is shown below:

• Classification: Thermistors can take various shapes; rod, disc, washer, bead

types of Thermistors

There are two types of thermistors: Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) and Positive
Temperature Coefficient (PTC).
With an NTC thermistor, when the temperature increases, resistance decreases. Conversely,
when temperature decreases, resistance increases. This type of thermistor is used the most.

A PTC thermistor works a little differently. When temperature increases, the resistance
increases, and when temperature decreases, resistance decreases. This type of thermistor is
generally used as a fuse.

Typically, a thermistor achieves high precision within a limited temperature range of about
50ºC around the target temperature. This range is dependent on the base resistance.

NTC Thermistor:
 Definition – NTC or negative temperature coefficient thermistor is a device whose
resistance decreases with increase in temperature. These types of resistor usually exhibit
a large, precise and predictable decrease in resistance with increase in temperature.
 Material Used for Construction – Unlike other resistors (fixed or variable), these are
made of ceramics and polymers, which composed of metal oxides that are dried and
sintered to obtain a desired form factor. In case of NTC thermistor, cobalt, nickel, iron
and copper oxides are preferred
 NTC Thermistor Symbol – The symbol for NTC thermistor is given as:

 Characteristic Curve – A typical NTC thermistor gives most precise readings in the
temperature range of -55oC to 200oC. However some specially designed NTC
thermistors are used at absolute zero temperature(-273.15oC) and some can be used
above 150oC.The figure below shows the characteristic curve of a NTC thermistor:
  Heat dissipation:
Like any resistor, Thermistor also dissipates heat whenever a significant amount of current
flows through it. This heat is dissipated in the core of the Thermistor, therefore it can tamper
the precision of the device.

 Heat capacity:
The heat required to increase the temperature by 1oC in a NTC Thermistor, is called its heat
capacity. It defines the response speed of NTC Thermistor and hence its knowledge is needed
to decide where it has to be used.
PTC Thermistor:
PTC Thermistor:
 Definition – PTC or Positive temperature coefficient Thermistors are those resistors
whose resistance increases with increase in ambient temperature.
 Types of PTC Thermistors – PTC Thermistors are grouped according to their structure,
materials used and their manufacturing process. Silistors, are PTC Thermistors that
belong to the first group(according to material used and structure). They use silicon as
the semiconductor and have linear characteristic. Switching type PTC Thermistors
belong to the second category (according to the manufacturing process). This
Thermistor has a non linear characteristic curve. As the switching type PTC Thermistor
gets heated, initially the resistance starts to decrease, up to a certain critical temperature,
after which as the heat is increased, the resistance increases dramatically.
 PTC Thermistor Symbol – The following figure shows the symbol used for PTC
Thermistors in a circuit diagram.
 haracteristic Curve – The following figure shows the characteristic
curve of a Silistor and a switching type PTC Thermistor.
We see that, a silistor PTC has a linear characteristic. This means that this PTC
Thermistor is quite sensitive to the change in temperature. Its resistance increases
linearly with increase in temperature. The switching type PTC however, is different.
Due to its poly-crystalline ceramic body, has a nonlinear characteristic curve. We see
from the figure that upto a certain temperature, lets call it a threshold temperature, the
resistance decreases with increase in temperature much like a NTC Thermistor. As the
temperature increases beyond the threshold temperature, the resistance starts to
increase dramatically with increase in temperature.
Uses of Thermistors
Thermistors have a variety of applications. They are widely used as a way to measure
temperature as a thermistor thermometer in many different liquid and ambient air
environments. Some of the most common uses of thermistors include:
 Digital thermometers (thermostats)
 Automotive applications (to measure oil and coolant temperatures in cars & trucks)
  Household appliances (like microwaves, fridges, and ovens)
 Circuit protection (i.e. surge protection)
 Rechargeable batteries (ensure the correct battery temperature is maintained)
 To measure the thermal conductivity of electrical materials
 Useful in many basic electronic circuits (e.g. as part of a beginner Arduino starter kit)
 Temperature compensation (i.e. maintain resistance to compensate for effects caused
by changes in temperature in another part of the circuit)
 Used in wheatstone bridge circuits

Thermistor Applications:

 PTC thermistors were used as timers in the degaussing coil circuit of most CRT displays.
A degaussing circuit using a PTC thermistor is simple, reliable (for its simplicity), and
inexpensive.

 We can also use PTC thermistors as heater in automotive industry to provide additional heat
inside cabin with diesel engine or to heat diesel in cold climatic conditions before engine
injection.

 We can use PTC thermistors as current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as

replacements for fuses.

 We can also use NTC thermistors to monitor the temperature of an incubator.

 Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and to monitor the
temperature of battery packs while charging.

 We regularly use NTC thermistors in automotive applications.

 NTC thermistors are used in the Food Handling and Processing industry, especially for
food storage systems and food preparation. Maintaining the correct temperature is critical to
prevent food borne illness.

 NTC thermistors are used throughout the Consumer Appliance industry for measuring
temperature. Toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc. all rely on
thermistors for proper temperature control.

 We can regularly use the Thermistors in the hot ends of 3D printers; they monitor the heat
produced and allow the printer’s control circuitry to keep a constant temperature for melting
the plastic filament.

 NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements of

the order of 10 K.

 NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power supply circuits.
 Magneto resistor

Magneto resistor definition

Magneto resistor is a type of resistor whose resistance changes when an external magnetic

field is applied. In other words, the flow of electric current through the magneto resistor

changes when an external magnetic field is applied to it.

Magnetic field is the region present around a magnetic object within which other objects

experience an attractive or repulsive force.

How magneto resistors work?

The magneto resistors that are placed in the magnetic field will experience a change in
resistance. When the strength of the magnetic field is increased, the resistance of magneto
resistors also increases. On the other hand, when the strength of magnetic field is reduced, the
resistance of magneto resistors decreases. This change in resistance is caused by the magneto
resistive effect.

In the absence of magnetic field, the charges carriers in the material move in a straight path.
Therefore, electric current flows in a straight path. When the magnetic field is applied to the
material, the magnetic forces cause the mobile charge carriers (free electrons) to change their
direction from direct path to indirect path. This increases the length of electric current path.

Hence, large number of free electrons collides with the atoms and loses their energy in the

form of heat and only a small number of free electrons flow through the conductive path. The

small number of free electrons moving from one place to another place carries the electric

current. Therefore, the resistance of the material increases with increasing magnetic field.
Magneto resistive effect

Magneto resistive effect is the property of some materials, which causes them to change their
resistance under the presence of magnetic field. This magneto resistive effect occurs in
materials such as semiconductors, non-magnetic metals, and magnetic metals.

An Irish mathematical physicist and engineer William Thomson first discovered this magneto
resistive effect in 1856. He observed that resistance of the pieces of iron increased when the
electric current is flowing in the same direction as the magnetic force or magnetic field and
the resistance is decreased when the electric current is flowing at 90° to the magnetic field or
magnetic force.

After that, he performed the same experiment with nickel and he found that the resistance of
the nickel is affected in the same manner but the magnitude of this magnetic field was much
greater than before. This effect is called Anisotropic Magneto Resistance (AMR).

Types of magneto resistive effects

Magneto resistive effects are of three types:

 Giant Magneto Resistance (GMR)

 Extraordinary Magneto Resistance (EMR)
 Tunnel Magneto Resistance (TMR)

 Giant Magneto Resistance (GMR)

Albert Fert and Peter Grunberg discovered the Giant Magneto Resistance (GMR) in 1988.
This effect is observed in the ferromagnetic materials. The resistance of the ferromagnetic
material is depends on the whether the magnetization of adjacent ferromagnetic layers are
aligned parallel or anti-parallel. The resistance is high for the ferromagnetic layers with anti-
parallel alignment whereas the resistance is low for the ferromagnetic layers with parallel
alignment.

 Extraordinary Magneto Resistance (EMR)

The extraordinary magneto resistive effect is discovered in 2000. The magnetic field effect of
EMR (Extraordinary Magneto Resistance) is much greater than (GMR) Giant Magneto
Resistance. The EMR effect occurs in semiconductor metal hybrid systems when a transverse
magnetic field is applied.

In the absence of magnetic field, the resistance of semiconductor metal hybrid system is very
low whereas in the presence of strong magnetic field, the resistance of semiconductor metal
hybrid system is high.
  Tunnel Magneto Resistance (TMR)

M. Julliere discovered the Tunnel Magneto Resistance (TMR) in 1975. The Tunnel Magneto
Resistance (TMR) occurs in Magnetic Tunnel Junction (MTJ). Magnetic Tunnel Junction
(MTJ) is a component consists of two ferromagnets separated by an insulator. The electrons
will flow from one ferromagnet to another ferromagnet through the tunnel barrier or
insulator. The amount of electric current or charge carriers flowing through the tunnel is
depends on orientation of magnetizations.

If the magnetic field is applied to Magnetic Tunnel Junction (MTJ) in such a way that the
direction of magnetizations of ferromagnet is aligned in a parallel manner, a large numbers of
electrons flow easily. As a result, electric current increases and resistance decreases. On the
other hand, if the magnetic field is applied in such as way that the direction of magnetizations
of ferromagnet is aligned in an anti-parallel manner, only a small number of charges carriers
(free electrons) flows through the tunnel and large number of free electrons are blocked. As a
result, electric current decreases and resistance increases.

Advantages of magneto resistors

 Magneto resistors operate without any physical contact.

Applications of magneto resistors

The various applications of magneto resistors include:

 Bio-sensors
 Hard disk drives
 Magnetic field sensors
 Magneto resistors are used in electronic compass for measuring earth’s magnetic
field.
 Magneto resistors are used for measuring electric current.
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR), Construction, Working , Characteristics and
Applications

What is Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

Light Dependent Resistor is called by many names such as photo resistor, photocell,
photoconductor, photoconductive cells. The resistivity of LDR depends on the light incident
on it and the sensitivity of LDR depends on the wavelength of the incident light. Thus it is a
light sensitive device. Mostly it is used in circuits to detect the presence of the level of the
light.

Symbol of LDR:

There are many symbols. The most commonly used symbol of LDR is shown in the figure.
The arrow in the symbol indicates the light falling on it.

Construction of LDR:
 Construction of LDR

The LDR is constructed by placing a thin zigzag shaped strip of photosensitive device upon
the insulating material. The light sensitive materials used in LDR are Cadmium Sulphide
(Cds), Cadmium Selenide (CdSe) or lead Sulphide (Pbs). The insulating material used in
LDR is ceramic. The metal films are connected with the terminal leads.

The whole structure is placed inside a plastic or resin case to have direct exposure to the
sunlight. When there is no light the resistance is very high in Mega Ohms. When the light is
incident the resistance value decreases and the conductivity increases.

Working of LDR:

Working of LDR

The photoconductive material does not consists of any free electrons or it consists of  few
free electrons when it is not exposed to light. When the light is incident on the LDR the
covalent bond breaks and many free electrons and holes are formed. The free electrons and
holes gains energy and they jump from valence band to the conduction band. Thus current is
generated. The resistivity of LDR decreases with increase in the incident light. More the
light, more the charge carriers.

Illumination characteristics of LDR:

Illumination characteristics of LDR

 When there is no light resistivity is very high of Mega Ohms. When the light is incident the
resistance decreases to kilo Ohms.

Advantages:

 Low cost
 Available in many shapes and sizes
 Low power operation
 High sensitivity
Disadvantages:

 Large response time- The variation in resistance value is slow to the light action.
Application:

 Used in automatic street lighting

 Used in cameras
 Used in alarm clocks
 Used in burglar circuits
 Used to count objects in conveyor belts.

Hygrometer

. What is a Hygrometer?

A hygrometer is a specially designed apparatus that calculates relative humidity in an open or

enclosed area. The term hygrometer is formulated from the Greek word ‘Hygros’, which
means moist or wet.

Humidity can also be explained as air humidity or relative humidity, which is

stated as the quantity of water vapour in the atmosphere.
The population of water molecules in the atmosphere relies on multiple factors, including the
air’s temperature.

Warm air usually is much more humid than cold air. When the

The humidity is classified into two types.

1. Absolute Humidity
2. Relative Humidity
The absolute humidity shows the amount of water vapour presents per unit volume. And the
relative humidity is the ratio of the actual water vapour pressure to the maximum water
vapour pressure reaches in the substance at the particular temperature. The relative humidity
depends on the temperature.

Classifications of Hygrometer

The following are the classification of hygrometer by the material used for measuring the
humidity.

Resistive Hygrometer

The conducting film of the resistive hygrometer is made by the lithium chloride and the
carbon. The conducting film places between the metal electrodes. The resistance of the
conducting film varies with the change in the value of humidity present in the surrounding
air.

The moisture absorbs by the lithium chloride will depend on the relative humidity. If the
relative humidity is high, the lithium chloride will absorb more moisture and their resistance
decreases.

The change in the value of resistance is measured by applying the alternating current to the
bridge. The direct current is not used in the bridge as they breakdowns the layer of lithium
chloride. The obstructions occur in the flows of current shows the value of resistance or the
value of relative humidity.
Capacitive Hygrometer

The change in capacitance of the capacitor shows the surrounding humidity. The capacitive
hygrometer gives the very accurate result. It is made by placing the hygroscopic material
between the metal electrodes.

The hygroscopic material can quickly absorb the water. The material absorbs water because
of which the capacitance of the capacitor decreases. The electronic circuit measures the
change in capacitance.

Microwave Refractometer

The microwave refractometer measures the refractive index of the moist air when their
humidity is change. The refractive index means the ratio of the velocity of air in one medium
to that of another medium. The refractive index of humid air is measured either by measuring
the dielectric constant using the capacitor or by measuring the change in frequency.

Aluminium Oxide Hygrometer

In this hygrometer, the aluminium oxide is coated with the anodised aluminium. The
dielectric constant and the resistance of the aluminium changes by the effects of the humidity.
The aluminium oxide hygrometer uses the aluminium as their one electrode and the gold
layer as the second electrode.

The second electrode is porous for absorbing the air vapour mixture. The changes occur in
the capacitance and resistance of the material because of the humidity. The change in
properties changes the impedances of the material. The impedance measures with the help of
the bridge. This hygrometer is the essential component of the electronic system.

Crystal Hygrometer

The figure below shows the crystal hygrometer using quartz.

In crystal hygrometer, the hygroscopic crystal or the crystal having the coating of
hygroscopic material is used.  When the crystal absorbs the drops of the water, the mass of
the crystal changes. The change in mass is proportional to the total water absorbed by the
crystals

Hygrometer Working Principle – Dry and Wet Bulb Hygrometer

Hygrometers function by the phenomenon known as evaporative cooling. When water
evaporates from a surface, it becomes cold as water molecules absorb heat from the surface
during the process of evaporation. Due to this effect, the wet bulb consistently exhibits a lower
temperature than the dry bulb. The same principle goes for the instant cooling effect while
bathing.
A combination of dry air and low humidity can result in high evaporation, which decreases wet-
bulb temperature. When the atmosphere is quite humid with very high humidity, the temperature
of the wet-bulb decreases less, as evaporation from the wet-bulb stands low.
In the case of 100 percent humidity, the dry-bulb and wet-bulb will show the same temperature.
This is due to negligible water evaporation from the wet-bulb; therefore, no cooling effect
emerges.