CHAPTER 4 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE CELL

Importance of Water in the Cell

1. The human body consists of approximately 70% water.
2. If more than 5% of water is lost from your body, you will become unconscious. However, if more than
8% of water is lost from your body, it may lead to death.

Polarity of water
1 A polar molecule is a molecule with an unequal distribution of charges, that is, each molecule has a
partial positive and negative charge.
2. In a water molecule, the nucleus of oxygen attracts electrons stronger than the nucleus of hydrogen. This
causes the irregular distribution of electrons.
3. The irregular distribution of electrons causes water molecules to have partial charges/a few negative
− +
charges ( δ ) at the end of the oxygen atom and partial charges/a few positive charges ( δ ) at both ends of
the hydrogen atoms that make the polarised water molecules.
4. The polarity property of water molecules causes the water molecules to pull one another, that is the end of
+ −
hydrogen ( δ ) is attracted to the end of oxygen ( δ ) electrostatically to form a weak hydrogen bond.
5 This allows water to act as a universal solvent which can dissolve ionic compounds (salts) and other polar
molecules such as sugar and amino acid.

Specific heat capacity of water

1 The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J kg -1 °C-1 or 4.2 kJ/kg/°C. This means that 4200 J of heat
energy is needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by 1°C.
2 Water has a high specific heat capacity. Water can absorb a lot of heat energy with a small increase in
temperature. On the contrary, the high specific heat capacity of water causes the water to take a longer time
to cool.
3 This property is important in maintaining the body temperature of organisms.

Cohesive force and adhesive force of water

1 Water molecules stick to one another through cohesive force. For example, a drop of water on a smooth
surface appears spherical because of the attraction between the water molecules.
2 At the same time, water molecules stick to other surfaces through adhesive force.
3 Both these forces results in capillary action that draws water u within the long and narrow column of the
xylem to the branches and leaves

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Carbohydrates
Types of Carbohydrates
1. Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
2. The ratio of C:H:O in the molecules is 1:2:1.
3. Many carbohydrates have the general formula (CH2O)n, or CnH2nOn
4. There are three main groups of carbohydrates:
a) monosaccharides
b) disaccharides
c) polysaccharides

Monosaccharide
1. Are the monomers of carbohydrates which are the simplest type of carbohydrates.
2. Glucose (grape sugar) is the most common monosaccharides and respiratory substrate.
3. Fructose (fruit sugar) are found in sweet fruits and honey. Galactose is present in milk.
4. All monosaccharides are reducing sugars because of their ability to transfer hydrogens or electrons to
other compounds, a process known as reduction.
5. The presence of reducing can be detected by using Benedict’s test.
a) When a simple sugar is boiled with Benedict’s reagent (alkaline solution of CuSO4), the colour
changes from blue to green, yellow, orange and finally, a brick red precipitate is produced.
b) The simple sugar reduces the blue copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4 (Cu2+ ) in the Benedict’s reagent to
insoluble copper (I) oxide ,Cu2O (Cu+)
( A colour change from blue to green, yellow or brick-red indicates that a reducing sugar is present. The
difference in colour is due to the difference in the quantity of reducing sugar present.)
Amount of reducing sugar present Colour of solution or precipitate
Increasing quantity Green
Of reducing sugar Yellow
Brick-red
Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides
Known as Simple sugar Complex sugar / double Large complex sugar
sugar
Molecular C6H12O6 C12H22O11 (C6H10O5)n
formula
Examples Glucose, fructose, Maltose, sucrose (sugar Glycogen, starch, cellulose
galactose cane), lactose (milk sugar)
Taste Sweet, can be crystallized Sweet , can be crystallized No taste, cannot be
crystallized
Solubility in Dissolve Dissolve Insoluble
water
Reducing Yes Reducing – maltose and Non-reducing
sugar lactose
Non-reducing – sucrose
Confirmation Iodine solution turns dark
test blue in the presence of
starch.
Disaccharides

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1. A disaccharides consists of two monosaccharides combined together chemically through a process
called condensation. In this process, one water molecule is eliminated. Are also known as complex
sugar.
2. Disaccharides are soluble in water and form crystals.
3. Examples of disaccharides are maltose (malt sugar, presents in germinating seeds), sucrose (cane sugar,
occurs in fruits, sugar cane, sugar beet) and lactose (milk sugar, occurs in all mammalian milk).
4. Maltose is made up of 2 molecules of glucose; sucrose consists of one glu and one fructose; lactose is
made up of one glu and one galactose.

5. Disaccharides can be broken down into monosaccharides through a process called hydrolysis
(hydro:water, lysis: break). This process requires a molecule of water to break down disaccharides.
Maltose + water → glucose + glucose
Sucrose + water → glucose + fructose
Lactose + water → glucose + galactose

6. All disaccharides are reducing sugars except sucrose which is a non-reducing sugar.
7. When sucrose is heated with Benedict's solution or Fehling's solution, a brick-red precipitate does not
form. Sucrose must first be broken down to fructose and glucose by boiling sucrose in a dilute acid
(hydrolysis). The solution is neutralized with caustic soda. When the products of hydrolysis are tested, a
brick-red precipitate is formed.

Polysaccharides

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1. Are polymers of monosaccharide monomers.
2. Consists of hundreds of monosaccharides that are joined together by condensation to form a long chain
simple sugars.
3. Examples are starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
4. Are insoluble in water due to the large molecular size. Do not taste sweet and do not crystallise
5. Polysaccharides can be broken down into smaller molecules through hydrolysis using dilute acid and
enzymatic reaction.
Polysaccharide + water ------► monosaccharides
6. Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in animal cells whereas starch is the storage form of glucose in
plant cells. This is because glycogen and starch are insoluble in water, easily hydrolysed into glucose for
cellular respiration and too large to diffuse out of the cells, and thus remain within the cells.

Polysaccharide Sub unit Structure Occurrence

Starch Glucose Unbranched, helical Found in plants such as wheat, rice, potatoes,
chains of glucose bread and corn. As a major food storage of
carbohydrate in plants.
Starch granules can be found in chloroplasts,
cereal and beans.

Glycogen Glucose Highly branched short Known as animal starch. Store in liver and
chain of glucose units muscle cells in humans and animals.

Cellulose Glucose Straight unbranched Plant cell walls. Provide support for plant
chains of glucose units. cells.

Importance of carbohydrates in cells

1 As a support structure
(a) Cellulose is the main component that builds up the cell wall.
(b) Cellulose is also the main source of fibre in our diet.
(c) Chitin forms the outer skeleton of insects and the cell wall of most fungi.
2 As a source of energy and food reserve
(a) Starch is the main polysaccharide stored in plants. It is also found in chloroplasts. Sources of starch
includes wheat, rice, potatoes and bread.
(b) Glycogen is the main polysaccharide stored in muscle cells and liver cells.
(c) Glucose is the main source of energy in the cell (each gram of glucose can produce approximately 17 kj
of energy when oxidised during respiration).

Proteins
1. About two-thirds of the total dry mass of a cell is composed of proteins.

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2. Proteins are complex and large organic compounds.
3. Proteins are organic macromolecules found in all organisms.
4. Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Sulphur is often present and sometimes
phosphorus and other elements too.
5. The monomer (building blocks) of protein is called amino acid. Amino acid is soluble in water but not in
organic solvent.
6. Each amino acid carries two functional groups: a carboxyl group (-COOH) which is acidic and an amino
group (-NH2) which is basic.

7. Two amino acids can combine to form a dipeptide by a condensation reaction. The bond linking the two
amino acids is called peptide bond.

8. Polypeptides are formed when many molecules of amino acids are joined together to form long chains of
amino acids.
9. Polypeptides are broken down through hydrolysis reaction to become dipeptides and finally amino acids.
The peptide bond can be broken by hydrolysis with heat, dilute acids or by enzymes.

10. The loss of the three-dimensional structure of a protein is known as denaturation. The protein loses its
biological functions.

11. Factors that lead to the denaturing of proteins are: heat, pH, pressure, chemical and heavy metal.
12. Heating proteins usually denatures protein irreversibly. For example, the transparent egg white
irreversibly solidifies and becomes opaque on boiling.
13. There are 20 different types of amino acids found in the proteins of living cells.

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14. Even though there are 20 types of amino acids, millions of combination amino acids can occur to form
various types of protein molecules.

Importance of Proteins in a Cell

1. Proteins are important:
(a) For the formation of cells for growth and for replacing damaged cells or tissues
(b) For producing enzymes to catalyze biochemical reactions
(c) For producing hormones to regulate a balanced internal environment in the body
(d) For the production of antibodies to eliminate pathogens and fight infections
(e) For forming haemoglobin to carry oxygen to the whole body
(f) As a replacement source of energy when carbohydrates are not enough
(g) Protein also forms structural components such as keratin in skin, collagen in bones and myosin in
muscle tissues.
(h) Histone is a type of protein that is important in packaging the DNA threads and also helps to strengthen
the chromosome structures.
(i) Glycoproteins (proteins that bind to carbohydrate) on the surface of the cell plasma membrane
strengthen and stabilize the cell plasma membrane and also help in the introduction and communication
between cells
(j) Carrier protein and pore protein help in the movement of essential substances across the plasma
membrane into the cell.

Lipids
1. Lipids are organic compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
2. Lipids have a high hydrogen to oxygen ratio (much higher than that of carbohydrate which is at 2:1).
3. Some lipids contain phosphorus and nitrogen.
4. The main types of lipids are :
Lipids Characteristic Function
Triglycerides 1. Made up of one glycerol and three fatty 1. Serve as a good energy store.
(Fats and oils) acids. Is formed through condensation and 2. Stored under the skin as a heat
broken down by hydrolysis. insulator.
3. Protect the organs
4. Transport fat-soluble vitamins
(ADEK)

2. Fats are solid at room temperature (20oC)

whereas oils are liquid. They are chemically
very similar.
3. Are insoluble in water but soluble in
alcohol.
Phospholipids Composed of diglyceride that is bonded to a Most abundant lipids in plasma
phosphate group. membrane. Controls cell permeability.

Waxes 1.Waxes are long-chained esters that give wax Are used to waterproof the external
its water repellent property. surfaces of plants and animals (furs of

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 2. Are insoluble. mammals, feathers of birds). The
3.Are usually hard solids at room temperature. cuticle of the leaf and the protective
4. Wax also exists in sebum, a substance that is covering on an insect’s body are made
excreted from the oil glands inside the skin of waxes.
epidermis. Sebum provides protection to our skin
by preventing excessive loss of water,
preventing bacterial growth and it
softens the skin.

Steroids 1. Steroids are lipid compounds that do not 1.Cholesterol is mainly synthesised in
have fatty acids and has a complex ring the liver and is the precursor of many
structure. steroid hormones, such as testosterone,
2. Examples are vitamins, bile salts, oestrogen and progesterone.
cholesterol, sex hormones such as Cholesterol make the membrane more
testosterone, oestrogen and progesterone. rigid and stable.
2. Sex hormones controls sexual
development and body physiology.

Saturated and unsaturated Fats

1. There are two types of fats:
a) saturated fats
b) unsaturated fats
Saturated fat Unsaturated fat
Similarity Both are triglycerides that contain fatty acids and glycerol.
Both are non-polar molecules. They yield 38kJ per gram.
Differences Is a triglyceride that contains saturated Is a triglyceride that contains un saturated
fatty acid. fatty acid.

Has only single bond. The carbon atoms Has double bond in the form of –
are bonded to maximum number of other CH=CH –
atoms.
Solid at room temperature. Liquid at room temperature.
Has a high melting point Has a low melting point.
More stable at room temperature and less unstable at room temperature and readily
readily become rancid become rancid
Less reactive More reactive because of the double bond.

More likely to cause diseases of the heart Less likely to cause diseases of the heart
and arteries because excess cholesterol and arteries
will be deposited on the wall of arteries
and blocking the flow of the blood.

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 Example: mostly in animal product such Example: mostly in plant product such as
as red meat, chicken fat, chicken skin, vegetable oils, palm oil, corn oil, olive oil,
butter. Coconut oil peanut oil

Importance of Lipids in Cells and in Multicellular Organisms

1. In cells and multicellular organisms, lipids are
important:
(a) For storing energy
If taken in excess, the extra available energy will
be stored in the adipose tissue.
(b) For protection and as a heat insulator
Lipids under the skin layer (subcutaneous fat)
regulate body temperature and absorbs shock
from impact.
The lipid storage around organs such as the
kidneys and heart gives mechanical protection to
the organs.
(c) For digestion and absorption
Bile juices is made up of lipid. It emulsifies fat
and aids in the digestion process.
(d) For building the plasma membrane
The presence of cholesterol within the plasma
membrane gives flexibility to an otherwise rigid
structure.
(e) For transport
Lipid is needed to transport the fat-soluble
vitamins A, D. E and K.
(f) For the production of hormones
Cholesterol is needed in the production of
estrogen, testosterone and progesterone necessary
for the development of secondary sex
characteristics.
(g) Buoyancy - Multicellular living things such as
marine fish (and many single-celled aquatic
organisms) store lipids in their body to obtain
buoyancy.

Nucleic Acids
1 Nucleic acids are complex macromolecules that store genetic information in the form of codes.
2 The elements in a nucleic acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus.
3 Nucleic acids are single or double- chain polymers made up of nucleotide monomers.

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4. Each nucleotide consists of a pentose sugar (5-carbon sugar), a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base
that combine through the process of condensation.
5. There are two types of pentose sugars; ribose and deoxyribose.
6. Nitrogenous bases consist of purine and pyrimidine.
(a) Purine consists of the bases adenine (A) and guanine (G).
(b) Pyrimidine consists of the bases cytosine (C), thymine (T) and uracil (U).
7. There are two types of nucleic acids:
(a) Ribonucleic acid (RNA) which contains ribose.
(b) Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which contains deoxyribose.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

1 DNA consists of two polynucleotide strands that coil around each other in opposite directions to form a
double helix (Figure 4.4).
2. When a chromosome is uncoiled, it forms a very long thread that is made up of one DNA molecule and
protein.
3. DNA is made up of units called nucleotide. Each nucleotide consists of three units:
a) A sugar ( pentose, deoxyribose sugar)
b) A phosphate group
c) A nitrogenous base

2 The nitrogenous bases on both polynucleotide chains complement each other and are held together by
hydrogen bonds.
3 The nitrogenous bases for DNA are adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T) and cytosine (C). A pairs
with T while G pairs with C.
4. The phosphate group and the deoxyribose sugar are the backbone in the DNA molecule as they are a
fixed structure.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

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 1 The structure of RNA is a single polynucleotide
chain that is shorter than DNA.
2. RNA nucleotide has:
(a) Ribose sugar (DNA has deoxyribose sugar)
(b) Four nitrogenous bases which are adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine (S) or uracil (U) - Uracil
replaces thymine (T) available in DNA
(c) Phosphate group
3 Most RNA is present in the cytoplasm,
ribosomes and nucleus.
4 There are three types of RNA that is messenger
RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and
transfer RNA (tRNA) which are involved in the
synthesis of proteins.

Importance of Nucleic Acids in a Cell

1. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) in cells are important because of their role in:
(a) carrying genetic information
(b) the production of protein
2. DNA carries genetic information in the form of genetic codes (in sequence of four different nucleotide
bases A, G, C and T) on a polypeptide chain.
3. Production of protein
(a) Both types of nucleic acids complement each other to produce proteins.
(b) DNA is in the nucleus, but the synthesis of protein occurs in the ribosome in the cell cytoplasm.
4. Genetic codes are written as a series of three nucleotides that determine the sequence of amino acids in
the protein that will be synthesised. For example, the codon ACC (base sequence: adenine, cytosine,
cytosine) on mRNA is the code for the amino acid tryptophan.
5. There are two stages in the production of protein:
(a) Transcription
(i) Transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule
of messenger RNA (mRNA).
(ii) The mRNA leaves the nucleus after this process.
(b) Translation
(i) Translation is the process in which a message carried by mRNA is decoded into a polypeptide chain
(protein)
(ii) The mRNA attaches to a ribosome. The mRNA interacts with ribosomes to direct the synthesis of the
protein it encodes during this process.
(iii) The mRNA is “read” according to the genetic code.
(iv) Each group of three bases in mRNA constitutes a codon which specifies a particular amino acid.
(v) Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that helps decode a messenger RNA
(mRNA) sequence into a protein. tRNAs function at specific sites in the ribosome during translation, which
is a process that synthesizes a protein from an mRNA molecule.
6. The sequence of nucleotides in DNA determines the amino acid sequence in a polypeptide chain that
builds the corresponding protein.

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Formation of chromosome from DNA and protein
(a) DNA is a long polymer up to thousands of metres long, tightly packed up, to fit in the nucleus of every
cell.
(b) DNA molecule wraps around histone proteins forming tight loops known as nucleosomes.
(c) These nucleosomes coil and stack together to form fibres known as chromatin.
(d) Chromatin will then loop and fold with the help of additional proteins to form chromosomes.
(e) DNA is condensed into chromosomes to prevent DNA from getting tangled and damaged during cell
division.

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