Chapter 5

Chapter 5
Modulation Techniques for Mobile Radio

Introduction
• Modulation Techniques is the process of encoding information from a message source in a
manner suitable for transmission.
• Translates a baseband message signal to a bandpass signal at frequencies that are very high
when compared to the baseband frequency.
• Modulation may be done by varying the amplitude, phase, or frequency of a high frequency
carrier in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal.
• Demodulation is the process of extracting the baseband message from the carrier so that it
may be processed and interpreted by the intended receiver.
• Analog modulation schemes are employed in first generation mobile radio systems
• Since digital modulation offers numerous benefits, these are proposed for 2G and future
generation systems.
• A large variety of modulation techniques have been studied for use in mobile radio
communications systems, and research is ongoing.
• Due to the hostile fading and multipath conditions in the mobile radio channel, designing a
modulation scheme that is resistant to mobile channel impairments is a challenging task.
11-11-2022 Poonam Singh EC Dept, NIT Rourkela 2

Analog and Digital Modulation, Line Coding,
AM/FM/SSB
Frequency Modulation vs. Amplitude Modulation
• Frequency modulation (FM) offers many advantages over amplitude modulation (AM), which makes it a better choice
for many mobile radio applications.
• Frequency modulation has better noise immunity when compared to amplitude modulation.
• In FM system, it is possible to tradeoff bandwidth occupancy for improved noise performance.
• However, AM signals are able to occupy less bandwidth as compared to FM signals, since the transmission system is
linear.
• An FM is a constant envelope signal, due to the fact that the envelope of the carrier does not change with changes in
the modulating signal.
• Hence the transmitted power of an FM signal is constant regardless of the amplitude of the message signal.
• This allows efficient Class C power amplifiers to be used for RF power amplification of FM.
• In AM, however, it is critical to maintain linearity between the applied message and the amplitude of the transmitted
signal, thus linear Class A or AB amplifiers, which are not as power efficient, must be used.
• The issue of amplifier efficiency is extremely important when designing portable subscriber terminals since the battery
life of the portable is tied to the power amplifier efficiency.
• Typical efficiencies for Class C amplifiers are 70%, meaning that 70% of the applied DC power to the final amplifier
circuit is converted into radiated RF power. Class A or AB amplifiers have efficiencies on the order of 30-40%.

Amplitude Modulation
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a high frequency carrier signal is varied in
accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating message signal. If is the carrier
signal and m (t) is the modulating message signal, the AM signal can be represented as
The modulation index k of an AM signal is defined as the ratio of the peak message signal
amplitude to the peak carrier amplitude. For a sinusoidal modulating signal m (t) = (Am/Ac) cos
(2πfmt) , the modulation index is given by
The modulation index is often expressed as a percentage, and is called percentage modulation.
Figure 6.1 shows a sinusoidal modulating signal and the corresponding AM signal. For the case
shown in Figure 6.1, Am = 0.5 Ac and the signal is said to be 50% modulated. A percentage of
modulation greater than 100% will distort the message signal if detected by an envelope
detector.

Amplitude Modulation
Equation (5.1) may be equivalently expressed as
where δ(•) is the unit impulse function, and M(f) is the message signal
spectrum. Figure 6.2 shows an AM spectrum for a message signal whose
magnitude spectrum is a triangular function. The AM spectrum consists of an
impulse at the carrier frequency, and two sidebands which replicate the
message spectrum. The sidebands above and below the carrier frequency are
called the upper and lower sidebands, respectively. The bandwidth of an AM
signal is equal to

Double Sideband Spectrum
Demodulation of AM signals
• AM demodulation techniques may be broadly divided into two categories: coherent and
noncoherent demodulation.
• Coherent demodulation requires knowledge of the transmitted carrier frequency and phase
at the receiver, whereas noncoherent detection requires no phase information.
• In practical AM receivers, the received signal is filtered and amplified at the carrier
frequency and then converted to an intermediate frequency (IF) using a superhetrodyne
receiver.
• The IF signal retains the exact spectral shape as the RF signal. Figure 6.5 shows a block
diagram of a product detector which forms a coherent demodulator for AM signals.
• A product detector (also called a phase detector) is a down converter circuit which converts
the input bandpass signal to a baseband signal.
• If the input to the product detector is an AM signal of the form R(t) cos(2πfct+θr) the output
of the multiplier can be expressed as

where is the oscillator carrier frequency, and Or and are the received signal phase and
oscillator phases, respectively. Using trigonometric identities, equation (5.12) may be rewritten
as
Since the low pass filter following the product detector removes the double carrier frequency
term, the output is
where K is a gain constant.

The output of the low pass filter is the demodulated AM signal.
AM signals are often demodulated using noncoherent envelope detectors which are easy and
cheap to build.
An ideal envelope detector is a circuit that has an output proportional to the real envelope of
the input signal. If the input to the envelope detector is represented as R(t) cos(2πfct+θr), then
the output is given by

Angle Modulation
• Angle modulation varies a sinusoidal carrier signal in such a way that the angle of
the carrier is varied according to the amplitude of the modulating baseband signal.
In this method, the amplitude of the carrier wave is kept constant.
• There are a number of ways in which the phase θ(t) of a carrier signal may be varied
in accordance with the baseband signal; the two most important classes of angle
modulation being frequency modulation and phase modulation.
• Frequency modulation (FM) is a form of angle modulation in which the
instantaneous frequency of the carrier signal is varied linearly with the baseband
message signal m(t),

Spectra and Bandwidth of FM Signals
• When a sinusoidal test tone is used such that m(t) = Amcos2πfmt, the spectrum of
SFM(t) contains a carrier component and an infinite number of sidebands located on
either side of the carrier frequency, spaced at integer multiples of the modulating
frequency fm
• Since SFM(t) is a nonlinear function of m(t), the spectrum of an FM signal must be
evaluated on a case-by-case basis for a particular modulating wave shape of
interest. It can be shown that for a sinusoidal message, amplitudes of the spectral
components are given by Bessel functions of the modulation index
• An FM signal has 98% of the total transmitted power in a RF bandwidth given by

FM Modulation Methods
There are basically two methods of generating an FM signal: the direct method and the
indirect method.
In the direct method, the carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with the
input modulating signal.
In the indirect method, a narrowband FM signal is generated using a balanced
modulator, and frequency multiplication is used to increase both the frequency
deviation and the carrier frequency to the required level.

Direct Method
• In this method, voltage-controlled oscillators (VCO) are used to vary the frequency
of the carrier signal in accordance with the baseband signal amplitude variations.
• These oscillators use devices with reactance that can be varied by the application of
a voltage, where the reactance causes the instantaneous frequency of the VCO to
change proportionally.
• The most commonly used variable reactance device is the voltage-variable capacitor
called a varactor.
• The voltage-variable capacitor may be obtained by using a reverse biased p-n
junction diode.

VCO circuit
Indirect Method
The indirect method of generating FM was first proposed by Major Edwin
Armstrong in 1936. It is based on approximating a narrowband FM signal as the
sum of a carrier signal and a single sideband (SSB) signal where the sideband is 90°
out of phase with the carrier.
Using a Taylor series for small values of θ(t), equation (5.16) can be expressed as
where the first term represents the carrier and the second term represents the
sideband.
A simple block diagram of the indirect FM transmitter is shown in Figure 6.7
A narrow band FM signal is generated using a balanced modulator which modulates
a crystal controlled oscillator.

Wideband FM generation
FM Detection Techniques
• There are many ways to recover the original information from an FM signal.
• The objective of all FM demodulators is to produce a transfer characteristic that
is the inverse of that of the frequency modulator.
• That is, a frequency demodulator should produce an output voltage with an
instantaneous amplitude that is directly proportional to the instantaneous
frequency of the input FM signal.
• Thus, a frequency-to-amplitude converter circuit is a frequency demodulation.
• Various techniques such as slope detection, zero-crossing detection, phase
locked discrimination and quadrature detection are used to demodulate FM.
• Devices which perform FM demodulation are often called frequency
discriminators.
• In practical receivers, the RF signal is received, amplified, and filtered at the
carrier and then converted to an intermediate frequency (IF) which contains the
same spectrum as the original received signal.
Digital Fundamentals:
The Sampling Theorem, Nyquist Sampling
Digital Modulation—an Overview
• Modern mobile communication systems use digital modulation techniques.
• Advancements in very large-scale integration (VLSI) and digital signal processing (DSP)
technology have made digital modulation more cost effective than analog transmission
systems.
• Digital modulation offers many advantages over analog modulation.
• Some advantages include greater noise immunity and robustness to channel impairments,
easier multiplexing of various forms of information (e.g., voice, data, and video), and greater
security.
• Furthermore, digital transmissions accommodate digital error-control codes which detect
and/or correct transmission errors, and support complex signal conditioning and pro-
cessing techniques such as source coding, encryption, and equalization to improve the
performance of the overall communication link.
• New multipurpose programmable digital signal processors have made it possible to
implement digital modulators and demodulators completely in software.
• Instead of having a particular modem design permanently frozen as hardware, embedded
software implementations now allow alterations and improvements without having to
redesign or replace the modem.
Factors That Influence the Choice of Digital Modulation
• Several factors influence the choice of a digital modulation scheme.
• A desirable modulation scheme provides low bit error rates at low received
signal-to-noise ratios, performs well in multipath and fading conditions, occupies
a minimum of bandwidth, and is easy and cost-effective to implement.
• Existing modulation schemes do not simultaneously satisfy all of these
requirements.
• Some modulation schemes are better in terms of the bit error rate performance,
while others are better in terms of bandwidth efficiency.
• Depending on the demands of the particular application, trade-offs are made
when selecting a digital modulation.
• The performance of a modulation scheme is often measured in terms of its
power efficiency and bandwidth efficiency.
• Power efficiency describes the ability of a modulation technique to preserve the
fidelity of the digital message at low power levels.

Line Coding
• Digital baseband signals often use line codes to provide particular spectral characteristics of a pulse train. The
most common codes for mobile communication are return-to-zero (RZ), non-return-to-zero (NRZ), and
Manchester codes (see Figure 5.13 and Figure 5.14).
• All of these may either be unipolar (with voltage levels being either 0 or V) or bipolar (with voltage levels being
either -V or V).
• RZ implies that the pulse returns to zero within every bit period. This leads to spectral widening, but improves
timing synchronization.
• NRZ codes, on the other hand, do not return to zero during a bit period — the signal stays at constant levels
throughout a bit period.
• NRZ codes are more spectrally efficient than RZ codes, but offer poorer synchronization capabilities.
• Because of the large dc component, NRZ line codes are used for data that does not have to be passed through
dc blocking circuits such as audio amplifiers or phone lines.
• The Manchester code is a special type of NRZ line code that is ideally suited for signaling that must pass through
phone lines and other dc blocking circuits, as it has no dc component and offers simple synchronization.
• Manchester codes use two pulses to represent each binary symbol, and thereby provide easy clock recovery
since zero-crossings are guaranteed in every bit period.
• The power spectral density of these line codes are shown in Figure 5.13 and the time waveforms are given in
Figure 5.14.

Line Coding spectra
RZ and NRZ Line Codes
Pulse Shaping Techniques
• When rectangular pulses are passed through a bandlimited channel, the pulses will spread
in time, and the pulse for each symbol will smear into the time intervals of succeeding
symbols. This causes intersymbol interference (ISI) and leads to an increased probability of
the receiver making an error in detecting a symbol.
• One obvious way to minimize intersymbol interference is to increase the channel
bandwidth. However, mobile communication systems operate with minimal bandwidth, and
techniques that reduce the modulation bandwidth and suppress out-of-band radiation,
while reducing intersymbol interference, are highly desirable.
• Out-of-band radiation in the adjacent channel in a mobile radio system should generally be
40 dB to 80 dB below that in the desired passband.
• Since it is difficult to directly manipulate the transmitter spectrum at RF frequencies,
spectral shaping is done through baseband or IF processing.
• There are a number of well known pulse shaping techniques which are used to
simultaneously reduce the intersymbol effects and the spectral width of a modulated digital
signal.

Nyquist Criterion for ISI Cancellation
Nyquist was the first to solve the problem of overcoming intersymbol interference while keeping the
transmission bandwidth low. He observed that the effect of ISI could be completely nullified if the
overall response of the communication system (including transmitter, channel, and receiver) is designed
so that at every sampling instant at the receiver, the response due to all symbols except the current
symbol is equal to zero.
If heff(t) is the impulse response of the overall communication system, this condition can be
mathematically stated as
where Ts is the symbol period, n is an integer, and K is a non-zero constant.

The effective transfer function of the system can be represented as
where p(t) is the pulse shape of a symbol, hc(t) is the channel impulse response, and hr(t) is the receiver
impulse response. Nyquist derived transfer functions Heff(f) which satisfy the conditions of (5.42)

Nyquist Pulses for zero-ISI
Raised Cosine Rolloff Filter
• The most popular pulse shaping filter used in mobile communications is the raised cosine
filter.
• A raised cosine filter belongs to the class of filters which satisfy the Nyquist criterion.
• The transfer function of a raised cosine filter is given by
where a is the rolloff factor which ranges between 0 and 1.

This transfer function is plotted in Figure 5.17 for various values of α. When α = 0, the raised
cosine rolloff filter corresponds to a rectangular filter of minimum bandwidth. The
corresponding impulse response of the filter can be obtained by taking the inverse Fourier
transform of the transfer function, and is given by

The impulse response of the cosine rolloff filter at baseband is plotted in
Figure 5.18 for various values of α.
The impulse response decays much faster at the zero-crossings (approx. as
1/t3 for t > Ts) when compared to the 'brick-wall" filter (α = 0).
The rapid time rolloff allows it to be truncated in time with little deviation in
performance from theory.
As seen from Figure 5.17, as the rolloff factor increases, the bandwidth of the
filter also increases, and the time sidelobe levels decrease in adjacent symbol
slots.
This implies that increasing α decreases the sensitivity to timing jitter, but
increases the occupied bandwidth.

Raised Cosine Spectrum
Spectrum of Raised Cosine pulse
Raised Cosine pulses
RF signal using Raised Cosine
Gaussian Pulse-shaping Filter
• It is also possible to use non-Nyquist techniques for pulse shaping e.g. Gaussian
pulse-shaping filter which is particularly effective when used in conjunction with
Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) modulation, or other modulations which are well
suited for power efficient nonlinear amplifiers.
• Unlike Nyquist filters which have zero-crossings at adjacent symbol peaks and a
truncated transfer function, the Gaussian filter has a smooth transfer function with
no zero-crossings.
• The impulse response of the Gaussian filter gives rise to a transfer function that is
highly dependent upon the 3-dB bandwidth. The Gaussian Iowpass filter has a
transfer function given by

The parameter α is related to B, the 3-dB bandwidth of the baseband gaussian shaping
filter,
As α increases, the spectral occupancy of the Gaussian filter decreases and time
dispersion of the applied signal increases. The impulse response of the Gaussian filter
is given by

Gaussian pulse-shapes
Key Digital Modulation Techniques:
BPSK, DPSK, QPSK, M-ary PSK, BFSK, M-ary FSK, MSK,
GMSK, M-QAM, OFDM, DSSS, FHSS
Geometric Representation of Modulation Signals
• Digital modulation involves choosing a particular signal waveform si(t), from a
finite set of possible signal waveforms (or symbols) based or the information bits
applied to the modulator.
• If there are a total of M possible signals, the modulation signal set S can be
represented as
• For binary modulation schemes, a binary information bit is mapped directly to a

signal, and S will contain only two signals.
• For higher level modulation schemes (M-ary keying) the signal set will contain
more than two signals, and each signal (or symbol) will represent more than a
single bit of information.
• With a signal set of size M, it is possible to transmit a maximum of log2M bits of
information per symbol.

Any point in that vector space can be represented as a linear combination of the
basis signals {φj(t), j= 1,2 ,N} such that
The basis signals can be thought of as forming a coordinate system for the vector
space. The Gram-Schmidt procedure provides a systematic way of obtaining the
basis signals for a given set of signals.
consider the set of BPSK signals s1(t) and s2(t) given by

BPSK constellation
Constellation diagrams for various modulation schemes

Average probability of error for a particular modulation signal is given by
where dij is the Euclidean distance between the i-th and j-th signal point in the
constellation, and Q(x) is the Q-function defined as
If all of the M modulation waveforms are equally likely to be transmitted, then the
average probability of error for a modulation can be estimated by
Hence, equation (5.62) gives the average probability of symbol error for a particular
constellation set.
Linear Modulation Techniques
• Digital modulation techniques may be broadly classified as linear and nonlinear.
• In linear modulation techniques, the amplitude of the transmitted signal, s(t), varies
linearly with the modulating digital signal, m(t).
• Linear modulation techniques are bandwidth efficient and hence are very attractive
for use in wireless communication systems where there is an increasing demand to
accommodate more and more users within a limited spectrum.
• In a linear modulation scheme, the transmitted signal s(t) can be expressed as

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
• In binary phase shift keying (BPSK), the phase of a constant amplitude carrier signal
is switched between two values according to the two possible signals m1 and m2,
corresponding to binary 1 and 0, respectively.
• Normally, the two phases are separated by 180°. If the sinusoidal carrier has an
amplitude Ac and energy per bit Eb, then the transmitted BPSK signal is either

It is often convenient to generalize m1 and m2 as a binary data signal m(t), which takes
on one of two possible pulse shapes. Then the transmitted signal may be represented
as
The BPSK signal is equivalent to a double sideband suppressed carrier amplitude

modulated waveform, where cos2πfct is applied as the carrier, and the data signal in
m(t) is applied as the modulating waveform. Hence a BPSK signal can be generated
using a balanced modulator.

Spectrum and Bandwidth of BPSK
The BPSK signal can be expressed in complex envelope form as
where gBPSK(t) is the complex envelope of the signal given by
The power spectral density (PSD) of the complex envelope is

The PSD for the BPSK signal at RF can be evaluated by translating the baseband
spectrum to the carrier frequency
Hence the PSD of a BPSK signal at RF is given by
The PSD of the BPSK signal for both rectangular and raised cosine rolloff pulse shapes is
plotted in Figure 6.22. The null-to-null bandwidth is found to be equal to twice the bit
rate (BW =2fb = 2/Tb).
From the plot, it can also be shown that 90% of the BPSK signal energy is contained
within a bandwidth approximately equal to l.6Rb for rectangular pulses, and all of the
energy is within 1.5Rb for pulses with α = 0.5 raised cosine filtering.

Virtue of pulse shaping
BPSK Receiver
If no multipath impairments are induced by the channel, the received BPSK
signal can be expressed as
where θch is the phase shift corresponding to the time delay in the channel.
BPSK uses coherent or synchronous demodulation, which requires that
information about the phase and frequency of the carrier be available at the
receiver.
If a low level pilot carrier signal is transmitted along with the BPSK signal, then
the carrier phase and frequency may be recovered at the receiver using a phase
locked loop (PLL).

• The probability of bit error for many modulation schemes in an AWGN channel is
found using the Q-function of the distance between the signal points.
• From the constellation diagram of a BPSK signal shown in Figure 6.21, it can be seen
that the distance between adjacent points in the constellation is 2 𝐸𝑏
• The probability of bit error is obtained as

BPSK Coherent demodulator
Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
• Differential PSK is a noncoherent form of phase shift keying which avoids the need
for a coherent reference signal at the receiver
• Noncoherent receivers are easy and cheap to build, and hence are widely used in
wireless communications.
• In DPSK systems, the input binary sequence is first differentially encoded and then
modulated using a BPSK modulator.
• The differentially encoded sequence is generated from the input binary sequence by
complementing the modulo-2 sum of m(k) and d(k –1)
• The effect is to leave the symbol d(k) unchanged from the previous symbol if the
incoming binary symbol m(k) is 1, and to toggle d(k) if m(k) is 0.
• Table 6.1 illustrates the generation of a DPSK signal for a sample sequence which
follows the relationship dk = mk ⊕ dk
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
• Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) has twice the bandwidth efficiency of BPSK,
since 2 bits are transmitted in a single modulation symbol.
• The phase of the carrier takes on 1 of 4 equally spaced values, such as 0, π/2, π, and
3π/2, where each value of phase corresponds to a unique pair of message bits.
• The QPSK signal for this set of symbol states may be defined as
where Ts is the symbol duration and is equal to twice the bit period.

QPSK constellation diagrams
• A QPSK signal can be depicted using a two dimensional constellation
diagram with four points as shown in Fig 6.26a.
• It should be noted that different QPSK signal sets can be derived by
simply rotating the constellation.
• As an example, Figure 5.26b shows another QPSK signal set where the
phase values are π/4, 3π/4, 5π/4 and 7π/4.
• From the constellation diagram of a QPSK signal, it can be seen that the
distance between adjacent points in the constellation is 2𝐸𝑠
• Since each symbol corresponds to two bits, then Es = 2Eb, thus the
distance between two neighboring points in the QPSK constellation is
equal to 2 𝐸𝑏
•
• Substituting this in equation (5.62), the average probability of bit error in the
additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel is obtained as
• The bit error probability of QPSK is identical to BPSK, but twice as much data can be
sent in the same bandwidth.
• Thus when compared to BPSK, QPSK provides twice the spectral efficiency with
exactly the same energy efficiency.
• Similar to BPSK, QPSK can also be differentially encoded to allow noncoherent
detection.

Spectrum and Bandwidth of QPSK Signals
• The power spectral density of a QPSK signal can be obtained in a manner
similar to that used for BPSK, with the bit periods Tb replaced by symbol
periods
• Hence, the PSD of a QPSK signal using rectangular pulses can be expressed
as
• The PSD of a QPSK signal for rectangular and raised cosine filtered pulses is
plotted in Figure 6.27.
• The null-to-null RE' bandwidth is equal to the bit rate Rb, which is half of
that of a BPSK signal.
Virtues of Pulse Shaping
QPSK modulation
QPSK receiver
Offset QPSK
• The amplitude of a QPSK signal is ideally constant.
• However, when QPSK signals are pulse shaped, they lose the constant envelope
property.
• The occasional phase shift of π radians can cause the signal envelope to pass
through zero for just an instant.
• Any kind of hardlimiting or nonlinear amplification of the zero-crossings brings
back the filtered sidelobes since the fidelity of the signal at small voltage levels is
lost in transmission.
• To prevent the regeneration of sidelobes and spectral widening, it is imperative
that QPSK signals be amplified only using linear amplifiers, which are less
efficient.
• A modified form of QPSK, called offset QPSK (OQPSK) or staggered QPSK is less
susceptible to these deleterious effects and supports more efficient
amplification.

Offset QPSK waveforms
8-PSK Signal Constellation
Bandwidth vs. Power Efficiency
Pulse Shaped M-PSK
Constant Envelope Modulation
These are nonlinear modulation methods, where the amplitude of the carrier is
constant, regardless of the variation in the modulating signal.
Advantages:
• Power efficient Class C amplifiers can be used without introducing degradation in
the spectrum occupancy of the transmitted signal.
• Low out-of-band radiation of the order of -60 dB to -70 dB can be achieved.
• Limiter-discriminator detection can be used, which simplifies receiver design and
provides high immunity against random FM noise and signal fluctuations due to
Rayleigh fading.
While constant envelope modulations have many advantages, they occupy a larger
bandwidth than linear modulation schemes.
In situations where bandwidth efficiency is more important than power efficiency,
constant envelope modulation is not well-suited.

FSK Coherent Detection
Noncoherent FSK
Minimum Shift Keying spectra
MSK modulation
MSK reception
GMSK spectral shaping
GMSK spectra shaping
Simple GMSK generation
GMSK Demodulator
Digital GMSK demodulator
Combined Linear and Constant Envelope
Modulation Techniques
• The digital baseband data may be sent by varying both the envelope and phase (or
frequency) of an RF carrier.
• Because the envelope and phase offer two degrees of freedom, such modulation
techniques map baseband data into four or more possible RF carrier signals.
• Such modulation techniques are called M-ary modulation, since they can represent
more signals than if just the amplitude or phase were varied alone.

M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (M-QAM)
• In M-ary PSK modulation, the amplitude of the transmitted signal was constrained
to remain constant, thereby yielding a circular constellation.
• If the amplitude also varies with the phase, a new modulation scheme called
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is obtained.
• Figure 6.47 shows the constellation diagram of 16-ary QAM. The constellation
consists of a square lattice of signal points. The general form of an M-ary QAM signal
can be defined as
where Emin is the energy of the signal with the lowest amplitude, and ai and bi, are
integers chosen according to the location of the particular signal point.
16-QAM Signal Constellation
• M-ary QAM does not have constant energy per symbol, nor does it have constant
distance between possible symbol states.
• If rectangular pulse shapes are assumed, the signal Si(t) may be expanded in terms
of a pair of basis functions defined as
• For a 16-QAM with signal constellation as shown in Figure 6.47, the ai and bi values
are

• The average probability of error in an AWGN channel for M-ary QAM, using
coherent detection, can be approximated by
• In terms of the average signal energy this can be expressed is
• The power spectrum and bandwidth efficiency of QAM modulation is

identical to M-ary PSK modulation.
• In terms of power efficiency, QAM is superior to M-ary PSK.
• Table 6.5 lists the bandwidth and power efficiencies of a QAM signal for
various values of M, assuming optimum raised cosine rolloff filtering in
AWGN.
QAM efficiencies
M-ary Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK)
• In M-ary FSK modulation, the transmitted signals are defined by
where fc = nc /2Ts for some fixed integer n

• The M transmitted signals are of equal energy and equal duration, with frequencies
are separated by 1/2Ts Hertz, making the signals orthogonal to one another.
• For coherent M-ary FSK, the optimum receiver consists of a bank of M correlators,
or matched filters.
• The average probability of error based on the union bound is given by

• For noncoherent detection using matched filters followed by envelope detection,
the average probability of error is given by
• Using only the leading terms of the binomial expansion, the probability of error can
be bounded as
• The channel bandwidth of a coherent M-ary FSK signal may be defined as
• and that of a noncoherent MFSK may be defined as

• The bandwidth efficiency of an M-ary FSK signal decreases with increasing M.
• Therefore, unlike M-PSK signals, M-FSK signals are bandwidth inefficient.
• However, since all the M signals are orthogonal, there is no crowding in the signal
space, and hence the power efficiency increases with M.
• M-ary FSK can be amplified using nonlinear amplifiers with no performance
degradation.
• Table 6.6 provides a listing of bandwidth and power efficiency of M-FSK signals for
various values of M.

M-ary FSK efficiencies
Spread Spectrum:
DS-SS, FH-SS, Coding Gain, Fading Margins
Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques
• Spread spectrum techniques employ a transmission bandwidth that is several orders of
magnitude greater than the minimum required signal bandwidth.
• While this system is very bandwidth inefficient for a single user, the advantage of spread
spectrum is that many users can simultaneously use the same bandwidth without
significantly interfering with one another.
• Spread spectrum signals are pseudorandom and have noise-like properties when compared
with the digital information data.
• The spreading waveform is controlled by a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence or pseudo-noise
code, which is a binary sequence that appears random but can be reproduced in a
deterministic manner by intended receivers.
• Spread spectrum signals are demodulated at the receiver through cross correlation with a
locally-generated version of the pseudorandom carrier
• Cross correlation with the correct PM sequence despreads the spread spectrum signal and
restores the modulated message in the same narrow band as the original data, whereas
cross correlating the signal from an undesired user results in a very small amount of
wideband noise at the receiver output.

Pseudo-noise (PN) Sequences
• A pseudo-noise (PN) sequence is a binary sequence with an autocorrelation that
resembles, over a period, the autocorrelation of a random binary sequence.
• Its autocorrelation also resembles the autocorrelation of band-limited white noise.
• Although it is deterministic, a PN sequence has many characteristics that are similar
to those of random binary sequences, such as having a nearly equal number of 0s
and 1s, very low correlation between shifted versions of the sequence, very low
cross correlation between any two sequences, etc.
• The PN sequence is usually generated using sequential logic circuits. A feedback
shift register, which is diagrammed in Figure 6.48, consists of consecutive stages of
two state memory devices and feedback logic.
• Binary sequences are shifted through the shift registers in response to clock pulses,
and the output of the various stages are logically combined and fed back as the
input to the first stage.
PN Sequence Generator
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS)
• A direct sequence spread spectrum (DS-SS) system spreads the baseband data by directly
multiplying the baseband data pulses with a pseudo-noise sequence that is produced by a
pseudo-noise code generator. A single pulse or symbol of the PN waveform is called a chip.
• Figure 6.49 shows a functional block diagram of a DS system with binary phase modulation.
• This system is one of the most widely used direct sequence implementations.
• Synchronized data symbols, which may be information bits or binary channel code symbols,
are added in modulo-2 fashion to the chips before being phase modulated.
• A coherent or differentially coherent phase-shift keying (PSK) demodulation may be used in
the receiver.
• The received spread spectrum signal for a single user can be represented as
• where m(t) is the data sequence, p(t) is the PN spreading sequence, fc is the carrier
frequency, and θ is the carrier phase angle at t = 0.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
Direct Sequence Spreading
Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FH-SS)
• Frequency hopping involves a periodic change of transmission frequency. A
frequency hopping signal may be regarded as a sequence of modulated data bursts
with time-varying, pseudorandom carrier frequencies.
• The set of possible carrier frequencies is called the hopset. Hopping occurs over a
frequency band that includes a number of channels.
• Each channel is defined as a spectral region with a central frequency in the hopset
and a bandwidth large enough to include most of the power in a narrowband
modulation burst (usually FSK) having the corresponding carrier frequency.
• The bandwidth of a channel used in the hopset is called the instantaneous
bandwidth. The bandwidth of the spectrum over which the hopping occurs is called
the total hopping bandwidth.

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
Performance of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
• A direct sequence spread spectrum system with K multiple access users is shown in Figure
6.52. Assume each user has a PN sequence with N chips per message symbol period T such
that NTc = T.
• The transmitted signal of the k th user can be expressed as
• where pk(t) is the PN code sequence of the k th user, and mk(t) is the data sequence of the
k th user.
• The received signal will consist of the sum of K different transmitted signals (one desired
user and K — 1 undesired users).
• Reception is accomplished by correlating the received signal with the appropriate signature
sequence to produce a decision variable.
• The decision variable for the i th transmitted bit of user 1 is

If mi = -1, then the bit will be received in error if Zi > 0
The probability of error can now be calculated as Pr[Zi >0, mi = -1]. Since the
received signal r(t) as is a linear combination of signals, equation (5.137) can
be rewritten as

Ik represents the multiple access interference from user k

• Assuming that Ik is composed of the cumulative effects of N random chips from the
k-th interferer over the integration period T of one bit, the central limit theorem
implies that the sum of these effects will tend towards a Gaussian distribution.
• Since there are K-1 users which serve as identically distributed interferers, the total
multiple access interference may be approximated by a Gaussian random variable.
• The average probability of bit error is given by

CDMA – Multiple Users
Performance of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
• In FH-SS systems, several users independently hop their carrier frequencies while using BFSK
modulation.
• If two users are not simultaneously utilizing the same frequency band, the probability of
error for BFSK can be given by
• However, if two users transmit simultaneously in the same frequency band, a collision, or
"hit", occurs. In this case it is reasonable to assume that the probability of error is 0.5.
• Thus the overall probability of bit error can be modeled as
• Where ph is the probability of a hit, which must be determined. If there are M possible
hopping channels (called slots), there is a 1/M probability that a given interferer will be
present in the desired user's slot.

If there are K-1 interfering users, the probability that at least one is present in the
desired frequency slot is
assuming M is large. Substituting this in equation (5.146) gives
If K = 1, the probability of error reduces to the standard probability of error for

BFSK. If Eb/No approaches infinity,
which illustrates the irreducible error rate due to multiple access interference.

Performance of Digital Modulation in Slow, Flat
Fading Channels
• As discussed in Chapter 4, flat fading channels cause a multiplicative (gain)
variation in the transmitted signal s(t).
• Since slow, flat fading channels change much slower than the applied
modulation, it can be assumed that the attenuation and phase shift of the signal
is constant over at least one symbol interval. Therefore, the received signal r(t)
may be expressed as
where α(t) is the gain of the channel,θ(t) is the phase shift of the channel. and n(t)
is additive Gaussian noise.
• Depending on whether it is possible to make an accurate estimate of the phase
θ(t) , coherent or noncoherent matched filter detection may be employed at the
receiver.

Effects of Fading
Irreducible BER due to fading
Irreducible BER due to fading
BER due to fading & multipath

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Chapter 5

Modulation Techniques for Mobile Radio

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where K is a gain constant.

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where Ts is the symbol period, n is an integer, and K is a non-zero constant.

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where a is the rolloff factor which ranges between 0 and 1.

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• For binary modulation schemes, a binary information bit is mapped directly to a

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The BPSK signal is equivalent to a double sideband suppressed carrier amplitude

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where gBPSK(t) is the complex envelope of the signal given by

The power spectral density (PSD) of the complex envelope is

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• In terms of the average signal energy this can be expressed is

• The power spectrum and bandwidth efficiency of QAM modulation is

where fc = nc /2Ts for some fixed integer n

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• The channel bandwidth of a coherent M-ary FSK signal may be defined as

• and that of a noncoherent MFSK may be defined as

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