Mr.

Tor Erik Frydenlund has a BSc in Civil E n g i n e e r i n g from

the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow and a MSc from the

University of California, Berkeley Campus. He started at the

Norwegian Road Research Laboratory (NRRL) in 1 9 6 3 as a soils

engineer. From 1980 ha has been head of the Soil Mechanics

Division and from 1995, the Geology and Soil Mechanics

Division. For periods he has been acting deputy direct.or at.

NRRL.

Mr. Roald Aaboe is senior engineer at t.he Norwegian Road

R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y , NRRL. He g r a d u a t e d from t h e U n i v e r s i t y

of T r o n d h e i m in 1 9 7 9 f i n i s h i n g w i t h h i s d i p l o m a a t NRRL on t h e

t h e m e " l i g h t w e i g h t e m b a n k m e n t s - m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s " . He h a s

been involved in research and consulting in geotechnical

p r o j e c t s . His m a i n r e s e a r c h a r e a h a s b e e n l i g h t w e i g h t m a t e r i a l s .

e s p e s c i a l l y t h e u s e of e x p a n d e d p o l y s t y r e n e in r o a d s .

- 3 1 -
 EPS TOKYO '96 Japan, 29·30 October 1996

Expanded Polystyrene - The Light Solution

Tor Erik Frydenlund and Roald Aabae

Norwegian Road Research Laboratory

ABSTRACT: Some 24 years of experience with Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) as a lightweight filling material have

brought about both a wider use on a global scale and introduction of a number of different design applications. In

addition to reduced vertical loads, advantages from using EPS may also include reduced horisonal loads, simplified

designs and increased speed and ease of performing construction activities. Although special care should be

observed to avoid damage related to buoyancy forces associated with fluctuating water levels and fire hazards during

construction, existing fills have proved to behave as expected. A normal design life cycle of at least 100 years for

the EPS blocks may therefore be counted on. Special applications of EPS, involving both a temporary realignment

of a railway line as well as the reconstructed line and support for bridge abutments with continuous multispan

concrete decks, are also described.

1. INTRODUCTION

In 1972 the Norwegian Public Roads Administration adopted the use of Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) as a

superlight filling material in a road embankments. The first project involved the successful reconstruction of road

fills adjacent to a bridge founded on piles to firm ground. Prior to the reconstruction the fills, resting on a 3m thick

layer of peat above 1 0 m of soft marine clay, experienced a settlement rate of more than 20 cm per year. By

replacing 1 m ofordinary fill material with two layers ofEPS blocks, each layer with thickness 0 . 5 m, the settlements

were successfully halted.

Since then authorities in several countries have also found the method advantageous for building roads across soft

ground and for similar construction applications where low loads are essential. The main reason is of course that

EPS-blocks may be produced with densities nearly I 00 times lighter than ordinary :filling materials, but there are also

other advantages. The method is now in common use in several countries in Europe, Asia and North America. At

present more than 300 road projects involving EPS fills have been completed in Norway with the volume of EPS­
3
blocks used totalling some 400,000 m .

3
Figure 1 . 1 E6 at Vestby, Norway - 12000m ofEPS.

- 32 -
 EPS is of course not the only solution to load and settlement problems on soft subsoils. Several other lightweight

filling materials may also be considered together with alternative solutions like replacing or strengthening the subsoil,

pile applications etc. Material availability and costs are important factors to be considered in this connection, but in

many cases the use of EPS will prove to be advantageous and in some cases provide the only practical solution. In

a publication "Lightweight filling materials" prepared by PIARC, the Permanent International Association of Road

Congresses ( expected to be released by mid 1996), lightweight filling materials in common use are presented

together with case histories giving examples of current use. This includes a review of material properties; design,

construction and environmental considerations; pavement structure; quality assurance; availability and economy.

2. CURRENT USE

Various types of applications

Since the first project where the lightweight EPS material provided a substantial load reduction on the subsoil,

various types of applications have been developed. The most common use is as a lightweight filling material in order

to minimise the loads on the subsoil or create a compensated load situation where the stress distribution in the subsoil

is equal to or less than the original soil stress. The latter condition will of course eliminate both stability and

settlement problems (figure 2 . 1 ) . EPS has therefore also been used to obtain compensated foundation solutions for

buildings. In general EPS is most commonly used as a lightweight filling material for road construction purposes,

but EPS blocks have also been used in railway fills and for other types of embankments.

L o a d i n t e n s e t y I in s i t u s t r e s s
Road s u r f a c e
0 10 20 30kN/m2
53cm Bearing course

10cm concrete slab Ground level Completed road

s ructure
G r o u n d w a t e r le el

Before excavation

'

Figure 2 . 1 Compensated foundation

In some cases the lower part of the EPS fill has even been placed below the groundwater level. Advantage is then

taken of the buoyancy forces created. For such a solution to function satisfactory an absolute prerequisite is that the

maximum waterlevel is known or may be controlled. Since the EPS blocks are extremely light in weight, the net

buoyancy forces created when submerged are correspondingly high. So if the waterlevel is allowed to rise above the

level used in the design calculations, the whole fill may easily float away.

Backfill

45cm total pavement tickness

15cm concrete slab with light r e i n f o r c e m e n t

EPS-blocks Concrete beam

���;.;��:;;··�·-mm,

. :
-,.«�, '
-'$

Figure 2.2 EPS fill below ground water level. Road no 6 1 0 at Sande, Norway

- 33 -
 In a normal fill the side slopes of the EPS blocks are usually constructed with a gradient 2: I . For protecting the EPS

material the slopes are covered with ordinary soils having a slope with gradient of I : I Yi or I :2 . This soil wedge

represents little additional weight and will normally be nearly equivalent to the weight of the pavement structure on

top of the EPS blocks, i.e. the subsoil is subjected to a uniformly distributed load across the total width of the

embankment In some cases it may, however, be advantageous to terminate the EPS fill with a vertical side slope.

In such cases the vertical front may be covered by steel or aluminium sheets, wooden planks or shotcrete for

mechanical protection of the EPS material. This type of solution has been successfully applied to projects in urban

areas where limited space is available and in repairing roads on steep slopes damaged by landslides.

0 5 10m

Figure 2. 3 Vertical EPS wall. Road n o . 1 8 1 at Eidsvoll, Norway.

By placing EPS blocks against the vertical face of bridge abutments and retaining walls, the horizontal load on such

structures may be substantially reduced. From load distribution experiments in Japan and Norway it has been

demonstrated that the ratio of horizontal to vertical stress is close to 0 . 1 provided the adjacent soil is terminated in

a stable slope. Even with a vertical soil slope the horizontal stress transmitted by the EPS blocks to the wall are of

the same small magnitude if the length of the EPS fill is equal to or greater than the total hight of the fill. If a gap is

left between the EPS material and the wall, it has been demonstrated that the EPS blocks will not move and hence

no horizontal loads are transmitted to the wall. Although this may be an advantage in many situations, one should

also bear in mind that no external forces can be taken up by the normal passive soil pressure behind such walls. For

bridges this will mean that breaking forces and temperature forces will have to be accommodated at one or more of

the other bridge supports.

Figure 2 . 4 Reduced lateral pressure. E 1 8 Sem, Norway.

EPS blocks are also known to have been used as a backfilling material against the basement walls of buildings. The

main idea here is again to reduce horizontal stress against the basement walls based on the reduced vertical stress.

A more recent application of EPS has been as a support foundation for bridge abutments. Higher strength EPS has

then been required with some increase in cost per unit volume. This solution has been used for both single span

bridges ( figure 2 . 5 ) with up to 5 m high EPS fills and quite recently also for multispan bridges. In all cases the EPS

material has performed satisfactory with no adverse effects on the bridges.

- 3 tJ -
 36,Sm

Figure 2 . 5 EPS as a support foundation for bridge abutments. E 6 Lekkeberg bridge, Norway ( 1 9 8 9 ) .

Yet another application of EPS in connection with bridges is as a lightweight filling material above the bridge or

culvert deck. A simplified bridge or culvert design has been adopted involving steel sheet piles to be driven along

the river on both sides. A thin concrete slab is then cast on top of the steel sheet piles to provide the bridge deck. The

remaining distance up to the road pavement is then filled up with EPS blocks and pavement material placed on top

of the EPS (figure 2.6). The loads experienced by the bridge deck are then limited to the dead load from the

pavement structure and live loads on the road. In particular this may be an advantageous solution when restriction s

are introduced for construction activities in order to prevent river pollution. At the same time such a solution may

also take care of potential stability problems associated with normal bridge design.

C o n c r e t e slab 1 0 c m Concrete

P a v e m e n t 45cm surface 23cm

Elevation !.1i

-8 5
.r==-

Figure 2.6 Simplified bridge design. E 1 8 Nordre Tern bridge, Norway.

Other known uses of EPS blocks are for creating gardens with undulating terrain close to existing structures and

without introducing subsoil settlements that may damage the structures. The EPS blocks are then provided with a

top cover of organic soil in order to promote growth conditions. Similar uses are known to have been adopted for

parts of golf courses placed in areas with soft subsoils. Such applications have been reported from Japan. Using

blocks of EPS to construct grandstands on baseball stadiums are also known to have been introduced in Japan. In

the latter case the upper blocks have been provided with a thin layer of some protective material to prevent

mechanical destruction from baseball fans. Yet another special application introduced in Japan involved using EPS

blocks for the rapid widening of a railway platform.

Use in a global perspective

As knowledge of and experience with the use of EPS as a lightweight filling material are spreading, the method is

adopted in an increasing number of countries and more types of applications are added. From the start in 1 9 7 2 this

process was slow at first, but technology transfer related to the method is now gaining both speed and momentum.

- 35 -
 Mainly it has been the road authorities and construction community represented by consultants and contractors that

· have played the locomotive part in this process. The majority of all the laboratory and field tests performed in order

to verify that the method works satisfactory, have been performed or financed by other sources than the plastic

industry. Right enough the production process has been refined along the way in order to provide more homogeneous

EPS material and with improved dimension characteristics, but this development has been initiated for other reasons

than the use ofEPS as a lightweight filling material.

With the increased use of EPS as a lightweight filling material, more parties will presumably take an interest in

further developments. In countries like Norway, the major use ofEPS is in the packaging industry to protect fragile

or sensitive equipment, to preserve fresh fish and as an insulating material in the building industry. This accounts

for about 90 % of the annual volume of EPS produced. Only about I O % of the annual production is used for

lightweight filling purposes.

Considering the global potential for

using EPS as a lightweight filling

material, a shift in the various

Rest of
applications of EPS may soon occur.

At present the following countries are Asia

known to be using EPS as a 1 0 o/

o
US/Canada

lightweight filling material in Europe

10 %
in addition to Norway; France, The

Netherlands, Sweden, Finland, UK,

Rest of
Ireland, Spain and Germany. In North
Japan
America Canada has been using EPS Europe

for many years already, particularly in 40 - 50 o/

o
10 - 2 0 %

British Columbia, but the method is

Norway
also picking up momentum in the
20 - 3 0 %
USA. The greatest interest and

potential seem at present to be in Asia

where Japan is the major user. In

addition The Philippines, South

Korea, Malaysia and Thailand have

completed some initial projects. Other

Fig 2.7 Estimated share of total volume ofEPS used on a
countries both in Asia and Latin
global scale
America have also shown interest in

the method and more countries than

those mentioned above may actually have applied EPS as a lightweight filling material.

Up to now road projects involving the use ofEPS have typically required the use of a few thousand cubic metres

of EPS in one location. The largest projects have accounted for some seventy thousand cubic metres. For projects

in some of the Asian countries mentioned above EPS is now considered being used on road sections several

kilometres long. For road widths of some 20 metres and thicknesses of 2 metres or more, the total volume of EPS

involved is considerable. If such projects materialise, the volume of EPS used for lightweight filling purposes will

increase dramatically, and will no doubt attract both the interest of the plastic industry and others.

As a rough estimate the total number of completed road projects with EPS at present may be of the order of 1500

on a world basis with a total volume in the range of to 1 . 5 - 2 million rn'

Design specifications

When the first project was designed in 1 9 7 2 the Norwegian Road Research Laboratory decided on a fairly simple

set of design rules. These included a definition of material strength determined as the compressive strength of 50 x

50 x 50 mm cubes at 5 % strain as tested in an unconfined compression test apparatus at a strain rate of about 1 0 %

of the sample height per minute. With material strength defined in this manner the strength requirement of EPS to
2•
be used in an ordinary road project was set to o = 1 0 0 kN/m Also some rules for acceptable variations in design

strength among individual test samples and in different blocks were specified. In order to prevent undesired gaps

between blocks, deviation rules as regards block dimensions and surface curvature were specified. Also some

construction rules were laid down regarding alignment of blocks to prevent continuous vertical joints and obtain even

fills, secure a minimum soil cover on side slopes or some other mechanical protection on vertical walls, obtain

protection against solvents and support for crash barriers. For stability and settlement calculations a unit weight of
3
y = 1 , 0 kN/m was specified both for drained and submerged conditions, but for buoyancy considerations y = 0,2
3
kN/m was to be used. Also a set of rules for pavement design were established recommending a concrete slab to be

cast above the EPS in order to minimise the permanent load on the EPS and the subsoil.

- 36-
 Other countries have since then come up with slightly modified design recommendations. Also various tests have

been performed related to the definition of material strength. In this context both 100 x 100 x I 00 mm cubes and

cylindrical specimens with varying height to diameter ratios have been tested. Furthermore strength definitions have

been set for various strains, e.g. 1 0 % strain . The variations between the countries however are small. It is no doubt

possible to refine the above criteria further, but at the Norwegian Road Research Laboratory we believe there should

be a simple approach to a simple solution. The original design rules have therefore been kept practically unchanged

from the start since they have proved to be adequate.

Regarding pavement design tests have been performed at the Budenanstalt Fur Strassenwesen (BASt) in Germany

in co-operation with the University of Delft in the Netherlands. Here pavements with and without a concrete slab

on top of the EPS were investigated in full scale tests in a test hall. The results indicate clearly that pavements with

a concrete slab included will obtain a longer life cycle. Bearing capacity tests performed in Norway on completed

road projects with and without a concrete slab on top of the EPS, indicate that the pavement thickness will have to

be increased by 300 - 400 mm of ordinary pavement materials in order to achieve the same stress and deformation

characteristics as an EPS fill with a concrete slab. The same tests indicate that the total height of the EPS fill has little

influence on the bearing capacity of the completed road.

Extensive full scale and laboratory tests on EPS have also been performed in Japan in relation to material properties.

In addition the use ofEPS in earthquake design and for vibration damping purposes have been studied.

Failures

Of the many EPS projects now completed in many parts of the world, only five failures have been reported. Two

failures are associated with water fluctuation and buoyancy forces. The other three are caused by fires.

On the 16th of October 1987 Northern Europe experienced exceptionally strong storms with high wind velocities

and high rainfall intensities. Norway was also exposed to major floods, and in the Oslo area the first EPS fill built

in 1 9 7 2 floated off as did an adjacent section of a motorway constructed some years later. What was wrong? Had

the danger of buoyancy forces not been considered? Yes, such calculations had been performed, but the highest

possible flood level predicted at the design stage in 1 9 7 2 was 0.85 m lower than the flood level that occurred in

October 1 9 8 7 . So it was rainfall and flood level predictions in 1 9 7 2 that were misleading.

Also the second failure reported from Thailand involved an unexpected high waterlevel causing a completed road

fill to be washed away. So it should be duly noted that the dangers of buoyancy forces should be carefully studied

when considering the design of an EPS fill. Often soft subsoils are located in lowland areas subjected to flooding.

In such cases accurate predictions of the highest possible waterlevel are essential in order to obtain a safe and lasting

road structure.

Ordinary Expanded Polystyrene is a combustible material and will bum when set on fire. For this reason some

precautions should be taken when constructing EPS fills using the normal quality material. Such precautions may

include fencing in any stockpiles 011 site and provide round the clock guards, or place the blocks directly inn the fill

as they arrive on site, working round the clock shifts if necessary. Alternatively a selfextingushing quality of EPS

may be used at approximately 5 % increase in productions costs. Once the EPS is covered by the pavement material

on top and soil on the side slopes , however, there will not be sufficient oxygen available to sustain a fire.

Two failures due to fires have occured in Norway and were caused by welding activities on bridge abutments
3
adjacent to EPS fills during the construction phase. In the first case 15 00 m of EPS were transformed into black

smoke in a matter of some I O minutes. The concrete bridge abutment was also damaged due to the heat developed

a) EPS embankment on fire. Knatten bridge, Norway. b) Water fluctuation. Rv 1 5 9 Flom bridge, Norway.

Figure 2.8 Two failures with EPS embankments.

- 3 7 -
with concrete spalding off from the reinforcing bars. Since the fire was initiated by sparks from welding activities

on the bridge, the bridge contractor responsible for the welding had both to repair the bridge abutment and replace

the EP S fill at his own expence. A similar incident occured last year and again the repair costs had to be covered by

the contractor responsible for the welding activities. So the fire potential should not be overlooked and in some

counties in Norway the local highway offices are using selfextinguishing material at the somewhat higher cost in

order to exclude fire hazards. A third fire incident is reported from Japan.

EPS is dissolved by petrol and oil related products. The concrete slab on top of the EPS will, however, provide

protection from such solvents. If the concrete slab is omitted, sheets of Polyethylene may be used to protect the

blocks instead. The possibility of such spills occuring on an EPS fill is of course very small, but even if an oil tanker

should have an accident in such a location and petrol or oil are spilled on the road, the precautions mentioned above

should be sufficient to protect the EPS. Also it will take some time for such fluids to percolate through the soil on

the side slopes, allowing time for corrective measures. But even if some solvents should reach and damage the outer

parts of the fill, repair should be easy to perform. Damage of EPS block in road fills due to dissolving agents are,

however, not known to have occured.

3. MONITORING PROGRAMME

Polystyrene is a very stable compound chemically and no material decay should be expected when placed in the

ground and protected as described above. Also from load cycling tests it has been shown that the material can take

an unlimited number of load cycles as long as the repetitive loads are kept below 80 % of the compressive strength.

Since the first project was completed in 1 9 7 2 , several tests have been carried out in order to monitor any material

changes. In this connection test samples have been retrieved from existing fills to be checked for possible changes

in strength and unit density. Also variations in water absorbtion for blocks placed in drained, submerged or

semisubmerged positions have been observed. In order to determine the stress distribution within blocks and fills both

laboratory and field tests have been performed. Finally possible load creep effects have been observed both in the

laboratory and on existing fills.

In Norway test samples have been retrieved from a total of five fills. The testing frequency is shown in table 3 . 1 .

Table 3 . 1 Testing frequencies ofEPS embankments.

Fill location Constructed Test samples retrieved

Year No. of years after construction

National road 1 5 9 Flom bridges 1972 / 7 3 0 7 12 24

National road 1 5 4 Solbotmoan 1975 4 9 21

County road 9 1 Lenken 1978 6

County road 26 Langhus 1977 7

National road 6 1 0 Sande - Osen 1982 9

Material strength

2
As mentioned above the design compressive strength of blocks have been set to be at least a = I 00 kN/m when

not otherwise specified. In actual practice a shipment of blocks may be accepted if the average strength of tested
2 2
blocks is a � 100 kN/m . The average value for test specimens from one block (6 tests) should be a � 90 kN/m and
2
no single tests should show values a < 80 kN/m •

One major indicator of possible deterioration of blocks with time would be a decrease in the material strength. The

strength tests performed on retrieved samples from fills having been in the ground for up to 24 years are shown in

figure 3 . 1 . as a function of dry unit density and compressive strength. Bearing in mind the criteria mentioned above
2
for accepting blocks to be placed in a fill, all test result give values of compressive strength above a = I 00 kN/m

except for one test. This one test was performed on samples taken from the first fill shortly after it was completed

in 1 9 7 2 , and is more an indication of variations in material quality of EPS with the production process used at that

time. Still the observed value is within the accepted statistical variations in material strength .

From figure 3 . 1 it may also be observed that the majority of tests show values of compressive strength in relation

to unit density above that of a normal quality material. Although it is of course impossible to make exact comparisons

- 38-
 between material strength at

the time of construction and

150
some time afterwards since

tests cannot be performed on

140
the same specimen twice, the
N°
results indicate clearly that
E

z 130 there are no signs of material

Solbotmoan
� • deterioration over the total
.It:.
timespan of 24 years. If a
-Q

c
120
•
Flom

change tendency is to be
ti
... Langhus

-• 110
• noted, this would go towards a

slight increase in material

�
ti
.. Len ken
strength. If this is the case,
• �-Sande
• 100 such an increase could be
!
a. explained by a continued
- Normal qual.
E chemical reaction leading to
0 90
o material hardening during the

first few weeks after

80
production. There is also a

18 20 22 24 26 28 30 tendency that the material

Density dry (kg/m3) ( ) Year after construction strength is slightly higher in

the middle of the block than

towards the outer sides.

Figure 3 . 1 Compressive strength on retrieved samles from EPS fills
Furthermore there is no sign

of variation in material

strength whether the retrieved specimens are tested wet or dry. This indicate that water pickup over years in the

ground will not affect material strength.

Unit density

The only change in design rules that have been . . . .

introduced in Norway since the first fill in 1972 is vv��i'eo�ent(volum %) .

that the design unit weight for EPS blocks placed in

0,00 1;00 2,00 3,00 4,00
3
a drained position is reduced from y = 1 . 0 kN/m (p
3 0
= 100 kg/m') t o y = 0.5 kN/m (p = 50 kg/m') when
' 1 0 . , '

stability and settlement calculations are performed.

For blocks placed in a submerged or ! , i . 20

3 -+-Langhus
semisubmerged position the value of y = 1 . 0 kN/m
.2. . ' 30
flO
-+-Lenken
(p = 100 kg/m') is maintained. The change
� 40
mentioned above is based on tests data from
�
existing fills. .S 50 ·

EPS placed in the ground will absorb water in two

t 60
ways. One is by water entering possible voids
l 70
between spheres due to waterpressure or capillary �
80 GWlevel
rise. Since watervapour may diffuse through the A.
.
.

ci ,.• 90
polystyrene when there is a temperature gradient,

the watervapour will condense in the spheres if · 100

there is a drop in temperature. However, in an EPS

Figure 3 . 2 Typical drained construction
block of 500 mm thickness or an EPS fill of greater

thickness the temperature difference over the block

or fill will be very small. Possible water absorption due to watervapour diffusion is therefore expected to be small.

Water absorption due to waterpressure or capillary rise depends on unit density and how well the spheres are

welded together. A number of tests, mainly on small samples in laboratories, have been performed in several

countries in order to study water absorption effects. Both the quality of these tests and the results vary somewhat.

Tests performed on samples retrieved form existing fills in Norway are in agreement with some of the laboratory

tests.

Tests performed on samples retrieved from three EPS fills placed in a drained position, i.e. blocks are located above

the highest groundwater or flood level, all show water contents below 1 % by volume after more than 20 years in

the ground (figure 3.2).Furthermore there is hardly any change in the water content with time. Samples retrieved from

- 39-
 ·: .: . ::· ··:-.:· ... ::.: .. ·' :=::·.:·, .. ,·:, :·. ·.,··.·: ..

. .. .. . . .. . . .. ;r,�t�r�n�tv01qm �r
... 0 S . · . 10

. . . O + .
:..,...
,
,:-.P� ---+�-""-:-.,..--�......_r, ·.
--.........

1Q/··'

i ....... 20,

�
c,, 30 . .
· !

� 40
a,. .
,g 50 ..

J 60
so < :/'){ :: >• , · · · . , : · . .
0

·. 70 . . :,:•:·•� .. ' so e ' .••; , • · · s a n c1 e � 0set : ' -.

"i . _:-, I·-

.a
.I:

a.
80
l :·. to · ·· .. • s�bd�� ·•· .
•
Q
90 -. l

.. :, J;:; : <' · • t.ab;�atjaP41n

100 -50 c� horlsontld!ylnto EPS embankitient I

· ( )Year'after

1 oo · ··constiuetion· .. ,, :: •,�:::.: ., .

Figure 3 . 3 Horizontal gradient of water in EPS Figure 3 . 4 Typical water content in submerged EPS blocks

the outer parts of blocks facing the surrounding soil may have a higher water content as may be seen from figure

3 . 3 . But only 500 mm further into the block the water content is again below 1 % by volume. So the average density

of drained fills therefore have values of p < 30 kg/m' . This is well below the specified design value for such fills.

In blocks which are periodically submerged, water contents of up to 4 % by volume have been measured. In

permanently submerged blocks measured water contents have reached values close to 1 0 % by volume with some

increase over the years (figure 3.4). Further increases above 10 % by volume is, however, not to be expected. For

submerged fills the average density is therefore of the order of p = 90 - 95 kg/m' after some 20 years in the ground.

The water content decreases rapidly above the water table and show values for drained conditions only some 200

mm above the highest water level.

Deformation

Both full scale and laboratory tests have been performed related to material creep. In general only about 30 % of
2
the material strength is utilised for supporting dead loads, i.e. qdw < 30 kN/m for normal strength blocks ( a = 100
2).
kN/m In some special cases higher stress related to dead loads have been used. In a laboratory test at the

Norwegian Road Research Laboratory a test fill of height 2 m with normal size and a compressive strength

Time (days)

0 500 1000 1500

Load condition,:· a, .. 02.e kN/m2

EPS den,tty : 20 kg/1113

0,5 + · EPS embankment height : 2m

g
c
NRRL testhall
�
U> 1,5

Magnan & S.rratrice

2,5

Fig 3 . 5 Deformation of 2 m high EPS test fill

- 4 0 -
 2
o = 100 kN/m has been loaded
2
to a value of qdw = 52.5 kN/m

and the resulting deformations

observed over a period of 3 years.

The results are shown in figure

3 .5 together with calculated

deformations to be expected
6
according to the theories
�
-
IC
,4 introduced by Magnan &

..
�
(/J
Serra trice .

As may be seen the observed

deformations are only about half

2
of the calculated values and creep

deformations with time are also

1
much smaller.

0 In a full scale test where a bridge

has been founded directly on 5 m

high EPS fills deformations have

been monitored. Here three

Figure 3.6 Creep deformation
different qualities of material

strength have been used with

2
design strengths of o =240 kN/m

in the upper layer directly below the

2
bridge abutment, o=180kN/m

in the remaining layers halfway

2
down the fill and o = 100 kN/m in

the bottom half. In the upper layer

only 25 % of the material strength

has been utilised while in the bottom

layer the corresponding figure is

60%. The bridge has now been in

operation for more than 6 years and

the observed deformations are plotted

in figure 3.6 together with data from

the laboratory test and theoretical

values mentioned above calculated

for various stress levls

The figure clearly shows that the

average deformation at the

Lekkeberg bridge are small and

around 1 % of the total fill height.

Figure 3 . 7 Lekkeberg bridge, Norway Also observed creep effects are

almost negligible for the total fill

although deformations in the bottom block layer was 4 % initially and later creep effects amount to further 2.5 %.

Deformations in the bottom layer correspond with the theoretical values predicted by Magnan & Serratrice.

Stress distribution

Based on stress observations from the testhall experiments and the Lakkeberg bridge using hydraulic cells

distributed in and below the fills, attempts have been made to evaluate the stress distribution in EPS blocks.

Measuring stresses between blocks are of course difficult and the results obtained vary quite a bit. In general

measured stresses are, however, relatively low and indicate that the outer perimeter of the stress bulb may lie within

a slope with a gradient 2: 1 measured from the outer edge of the loading area. However, depending on the stiffness

of the loading area and possible load eccentricities, local stress concentrations may occur.

Durability

From the observations discussed above it may be fair to conclude that no deficiency effects are to be expected from

EPS fills placed in the ground for a normal life cycle of 100 years. This should hold true provided possible buoyancy

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forces resulting from fluctuating water levels are properly accounted for, the blocks are properly protected from

accidental spills of dissolving agents and the applied stress level from dead loads is kept below 50 % of the material

strength.

4. SPECIAL APPLICATIONS

Use in railway fi
lls

In Norway EPS has also been used in connection with railway lines. In one of the first cases a 2,5 m thick fill of
2
EPS blocks with material strength a = 1 5 0 kN/m (p = 30 kg/m') was constructed behind the abutment of a railway

bridge in order to obtain satisfactory stability conditions. A 1 5 0 mm thick concrete slab was cast on top of the EPS

with the ballast layer and tracks on top of the concrete slab. After the bridge was completed, load tests were carried

out in order to measure deformations due to train Jive loads. For this purpose a locomotive with axle loads of 1 5 5

kN was used. The observations obtained from the test show that deformations measured on top of the concrete layer

were minor and negligible compared to the deformations measured on the sleepers supporting the rails. This proved

that the significant part of the deformations occurred in the normal ballast layer used for railways and not in the EPS

structure. Trains have since been passing the bridge at normal speeds on a regular basis.

Railway underpass in Fredrikstad

In connection with a new main road through the city of Fredrikstad in southern Norway, a railway underpass had

to be reconstructed at St. Croix in order to increase the free height under the railway bridge. In order to maintain

railway services during the reconstruction period, it was necessary to construct a temporary railway bridge

approximately I O m to the west of the existing bridge. The project also included a new pedestrian overpass bridge

across the road to the east of and parallel to the new railway bridge. With the site being located in a city, the space

available for reconstruction activities was somewhat limited. A plan view of the project is shown on figure 4 . 1 .

Figure 4 . 1 Plan wiew of St Croix

Site investigations showed thick layers of soft, somewhat overconsolidated marine clay at the site. Bedrock was

located at depths varying from around 30 m to 60 m below ground level. Piled foundations down to bedrock would

therefore be expensive and complicated due to existing utility pipes etc.

Taking advantage of the overconsolidation effect in the clay, it was decided to use a continuous culvert design for

the new railway bridge and separate footings for the pedestrian bridge. In order to provide adequate stability

conditions for the fills adjacent to the bridge abutments, EPS was introduced. Also it was decided to use EPS in

connection with the temporary railway bridge and adjacent fills. With the latter solution it was also possible to restrict

the fill area in order to prevent conflicts between existing buildings and construction activities on the new bridge.

This design configuration is illustrated on figure 4 . 2 .

Both for the permanent and the temporary railway bridge it was decided to use EPS of material strength a =200
2 2
kN/m and selfextinguishing quality. For the pedestrian bridge the normal strength of a = J O O kN/m was specified.

Also it may be noted that since the fills adjacent to the pedestrian bridge represented some additional load on the

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subsoil, a continuous vertical joint was introduced between the EPS fills for the railway bridge and the pedestrian

bridge in order to allow any differential movements to take place without interference between the fills.

On all EPS fills a 100 mm thick reinforced concrete slab was cast on top of the EPS. For the railway fills a 600 mm

thick load distributing ballast layer of crushed rock was placed above the concrete slab, while a road base of 400 mm

thickness was used for the footpath. The total volume ofEPS involved was close to 3,700 m'. The main advantage

of using EPS in this case was perhaps achieved in connection with the temporary realignment of the railway line

which constitutes the main railway link between Norway and Central Europe through Sweden. The maximum height

of this EPS fill, carrying both passenger and heavy freight trains, was 6 m, and the total volume of some 3000 rn'

EPS blocks could be reused when the project was completed and opened for traffic in July 1 9 9 3 .

TEMPORARY RAILWAY

§ TRACK

TENSIO< BAR

-. -_. • ..
. ' .... <" . ,,.�
SHEET Ptl.E

��LEll[L

Figure 4.2 Cross section A - A at St. Croix.

Supportforbridgeabutmenn

For previous projects in Norway it had been demonstrated that fills of EPS could be used to support bridge

foundations. The first project at Lekkeberg in 1 9 8 9 involved a single span, temporary steel bridge where both

abutments were founded directly on 5 m high EPS fills. When distress signs were discovered on a bridge carrying

a local road across the main Euroroad E 6 at Hjelmungen, close to the Swedish border, the use of EPS for repair

purposes was considered.

The three span, 54 m long bridge with a continuous concrete deck was completed in 1 9 9 2 with abutments and

pillars founded on concrete piles to firm ground. The 5 m high fills adjoining the bridge consisted partly of ordinary

filling material and partly of waste material from the production of Leca building blocks with a unit weight of y =
1
8 kN/m . The fills were resting on subsoils consisting of some 1 1 - 1 4 m of soft, sensitive marine clay, partly quick

and with a high water content.

During routine inspections bridge damage was discovered in 1994

and deformation observations were initiated. These observations

indicated that both bridge abutments had moved and inflicted

damage on the bridge. Subsoil settlements beneath the adjoining

fills seemed to be the immediate cause of the movements. Before

repair works were initiated,settlements of the order of 600 mm had

been observed with no tendency to any decrease in the settlement

rate. These large settlements, greatly in excess of the calculated

values, are probably caused partly by heavier approach fills than

specified in the design and an overestimation of an apparent

preconsolidation effect in the upper layers of the subsoil.

From the observation programme it became clear that immediate

repair measures had to be initiated. Since settlement caused by

the approach fills was the main problem, it was decided to reduce
2
the load on the subsoil by some 30 - 40 kN/m in order to re­

establish the initial subground stress conditions. This involved

replacing parts of the fills with EPS blocks and supporting new

Figure 4 . 3 Temporary bridge support bridge abutments directly on the EPS. Repair works were started

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in December 1 9 9 5 and completed during the spring of 1 9 9 6 . One abutment was treated at a time while the bridge

deck was provided with a temporary support as shown in figure 4 . 3 . Thickness and density of the original filling

materials were recorded as they were removed in order to have accurate data for control of load and settlement

calculations. After removing the old abutments, the concrete piles were inspected regarding possible damage before

being cut at ground level. No pile damage were observed. Construction of the EPS fills could then be started. In this

case three different qualities of EPS have been employed. In the zone directly beneath the bridge abutment as
2
indicated by the dotted lines in figure 4.4, a material quality of a =235 kN/m is specified for the first three layers
2
beneath the bottom slab of the abutment. Further down a material quality of a = 1 8 0 kN/m is be used within the
2
indicated zone. In the rest of the EPS fill a normal quality of a = 1 0 0 kN/m is specified. These quality requirements

have been decided based on evaluation of stress distribution in the material in order to keep the stress level for dead

loads within 30 % of the material strength. Stricter geometric requirements than normal were also enforced related

to block dimensions in order to obtain an even fill and reduce the initial deformations when the load from the bridge

deck was transmitted to the new abutment, figure 4 . 5 .

Friction late Concrete slab

EPS

Ordinar fillin materials

Figure 4 . 4 Supporting bridge abutments directly on EPS. E 6 Hjelmungen, Norway.

Behind both abutments a 1 0 m long and 200 mm thick concrete apron is specified to be cast above the EPS fill as

a friction plate in order to take up horizontal forces on the abutment. On the rest of the EPS fill a concrete slab of 100

mm thickness is specified. To complete the road pavement 400 mm of pavement material will be placed on top of

the concrete slab.

r Bridge abutment

EPS

D A(C•El B

1 Telescopic rods 2 Pressure gauges

3 S e t t l e m e n t tube

Figure 4 . 5 Abutment at E 6 Hjelmungen figure 4 . 6 Cross section with monitoring equipment

In order to monitor the behaviour of the reconstructed bridge both settlement and stress gauges have been installed.

The different types of gauges and their location in relation to the bridge abutment are indicated in cross section

figure 4 . 6 . Prior to reconstruction the settlement rate of the adjoining fi l l s were observed to be 1 0 0 mm/year and

constant. During the two first months after reconstruction observed settlements have been a negligible O - 2 mm, with

the abutment having experienced the full reaction load from the bridge deck for one month. Observed stresses

beneath the EPS fill indicate a higher stress under the central part of the abutment slab than under the edges as shown

in figure 4 . 7 . Calculated loads on the abutment are indicated by the heavy line in the diagram. Problems associated

with providing enough lifting force when jacking up the bridge deck may, however, indicate that the reaction load

from the bridge deck is somewhat higher than calculated. The higher stress level observed under the central part of

the abutment is expected to be reduced somewhat as minor local soil deformations here may redistribute stresses.

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 The behaviour of the

reconstructed bridge will be

followed closely in the future.

So far the use of EPS for

80 reconstructing the bridge and
.....
N 70 providing support for the new

! bridge abutments seem to have

z 60
;Mi
been successful. The actual
; 'S p :

.. construction work has been

•
.. 40 relatively easy to perform.
.. Settlements seem to have been
! 30
... halted although observations
"' 20
ii over a longer period of time is
� 10
-.. needed in order to confirm this.

•
>
0 The vertical stresses observed

underneath the EPS indicate a

somewhat lesser load

distribution in the EPS material

than was to be expected from

previous laboratory and full

Figure 4.7 Observed stress beneath EPS fill. scale tests.

Figure 4.8 EPS abutments with stone facings.

A similar design, using EPS fills to support the abutments and reduce loads on the subsoil, is now beeing

implemented on two new pedestrian overpass bridges to be constructed during the spring of 1996 in the City of

Fredrikstad. These three span bridges are to be supported on concrete piles to bedrock at the pillars. The sides of

the EPS fills will be terminated in nearly vertical walls with slope gradients of I O : I and protected by slabs of natural

stones for aestetic effecs as indicated on figure 4.8.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Of the many alternatives available for solving load problems associated with construction activities on soft subsoils,

the use of EPS blocks as a lightweight filling material seems for several reasons to be a potential winner in many

cases. The economic benefits may vary somewhat depending on local production costs, but transport costs are usually

low, the blocks are easy to handle on site and may easily be adjusted in shape to fit adjoining structures. This will

normally lead to shorter construction times. Although alternative solutions should always be considered, EPS may

often provide not only the light solution but the right solution.

From a global perspective it is believed that there will be a marked increase in the use ofEPS as a lightweight filling

material in the years to come. The present experience now existing in many countries have not indicated any

deficiencies associated with such uses of EPS provided possible pitfalls are prevented. The one major factor to be

considered in this connection is buoyancy forces. In addition possible fire hazards during the construction period and

the alternative methods available to prevent fires should be considered.

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6. REFERENCES

Aabee, R., ( l 993), Deformasjonsegenskaper og spenningsforhold i fyllinger av EPS (Deformation characteristsics

and stress conditions in fills of EPS), Internrapport nr. 1645, Statens vegvesen (Public Roads administration),

Veglaboratoriet (Road Research Laboratory), Oslo, Norway.

Braaten A., Oset F. & Johansen T.H., (l 996), Refundamentering pa EPS - Hjelmungen bru, (Reconstructing

butments on EPS - Hjelmungen bridge), NGM - Nordic Geotechnical Conference, June 1996 in Reykjavik, Iceland.

Duskov M, (1994), EPS as a light weight sub-base material in pavement structures. Delft University of Technology.

Holland.

EPS Construction Method Development Organisation, Japan, (1994) Contribution to international Geotechical

Symposium on Polystyrene Foam in Below Grade Application, Honolulu, Haway.

Frydenlund, T.E. & Aabee R., ( 1 9 9 4 ) . Expanded Polystyrene - a lighter way across soft ground, Proceedings XIII

ICSMFE, New Delhi, India.

Frydenlund, T.E. Expanded Polystyrene(1990) Expanded Polystyrene - a lighter way across soft ground, EPS

seminar in Oraka,Japan

Magnan & Serratrice, (1989), Propriete mecanique du polystyrene expanse pour ses application en remblais routier.

Bulletin LCPC, France.

Norwegian Road Research Laboratory, (1992), Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Road Embanlments - Design,

Construction and Quality Assurance, Code of Practice (form 482).

Norwegian Road Research Laboratory, (1992), Quality Control of Expanded Polystyrene used in Road

Embankments, Code of Practice (form 483).

Norwegian Road Research Laboratory, ( 1 9 9 2 ) , Material Requirements for Expanded Polystyrene used in Road

Embankments, Code of Practice (form 484).

Norwegian Road Research Laboratory, ( 1 9 8 7 ) , Meddelese nr. 6 1 , Proceeding from international conference on the

use of Expanded Polystyrene as a lightweight filling material in Oslo , Norway June 1 9 8 5 ,

PIARC Committee TC 1 2 , Lightweight filling materials, to be published in 1996.

Skuggedal, H. & Aabee, R. ( 1 9 9 1 ) , Temporary overpass bridge founded on expanded polystyrene, Proceedings X

ECSMFE, Florence 26 - 30 May 1 9 9 1 , Volume 2.

Statens vegvesen (Norwegian Public Roads Administration), ( 1 9 9 5 ) , Veg pa blot grunn, grunnforsterkning (Roads

on soft ground, subsoil improvements), Handbok 1 8 8 (Handbook 1 8 8 ) , Vegdirektoratet (Directorate of Public

Roads), Oslo, Norway.

The Public Work Research, Institute of Ministry of Construction I Construction Project consultants, ( 1992), Design

and construction manual for lightweight fill with EPS,Japan.

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