Physiological Processes Affecting Crop Production Significance of Photosynthesis:

A. Photosynthesis 1. Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy in the form of
- Manufacture of sugars and its precursors by green plants in the presence of organic nutrients
light and chlorophyll 2. Photosynthesis supplies oxygen to the atmosphere
- Represented by the following chemical equation: 3. Photosynthesis produces food

The fixation or reduction of CO2 into carbohydrates can occur via three pathways:
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
(See Table 1)
- Carbon dioxide is taken from the air through the stomata, while water is a. Calvin Benson Cycle/ Reductive Pentose Pathway/ C3 Pathway
absorbed from the soil by the roots and is transported in the xylem to sites of
photosynthesis. b. C4 or Hatch Slack Pathway
- The main organ for photosynthesis is the leaf; the main organelle involved is
the chloroplastid. c. Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) Pathway
- The features which make the leaf an ideal organ for photosynthesis are:
1. Its typically expanded form
2. It’s usually perpendicular angle to incident light
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
3. It’s extensive internal surface with an efficient vascular system for
channeling thee various reactants and end products of 1. Internal Factors
photosynthesis a. Enzymes - biological catalysts/ agent of life
4. Its pigment for light absorption b. Genetic factor - chlorophyll, kind of plant, etc.
c. Leaf age
Chloroplast d. Demand of sinks for photosynthesis
- Are usually lens-shaped bounded by a double membrane e. Water content of the plant
- The inner membrane invaginates parallel to the surface and becomes f. Amount of plant regulates
organized into specialized cytoplasmic body consisting of a stack of thylakoids
called granum which are embedded in a proteinaceous matrix called the 2. External Factors
stroma. a. Light
- Quality
Chlorophyll - Intensity
- Duration
- Principal pigment in photosynthesis located in the partition between two
b. CO2 and H2O availability
adjacent thylakoids
c. Temperature
- Chlorophyll a occurs in all higher plant, but other isomers like chlorophyll b, c,
d. Wind velocity
d etc may also be found
- In higher plants, the two main isomers are chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b in
ratio of 3:1
- Its basic unit is the porphyrin ring system, a structure made up of four simple
pyrrole nuclei joined by carbon linkages
- The center of porphyrin is occupied by a single magnesium atom
B. Respiration
- Defined as an enzyme-catalyzed reaction involving the transformation
Types of Transpiration
of organic substrate into carbon dioxide and water accompanied by the
release of energy. 1. Cuticular Transpiration
- Loss of water through the epidermis which is usually covered with a
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6H2O + 6O2 + E cuticle. In some temperate plants, about 5- 10% of the water lost from
plants maybe lost by this pathway
Factors Affecting Respiration:
2. Lenticular Transpiration
1. Age and Tissue type
- Loss of water through numerous pores in the outer layer of a woody
- large, young tissues respire more strongly than old
plant stem, called lenticels. In deciduous species and in some fruits,
- developing tissues respire more than mature once
water loss through lenticels maybe quite substantial
- tissues undergoing metabolic processes respire more than resting
tissues
3. Stomatal Transpiration
2. Temperature
- Loss of water through the stomata which can account as much as 90%
- enzymes activity doubles for energy 10°C rise in temperature within
of the water loss from plants
certain limits
- more rapid breakdown of respiration as temperature increases above
35°C due to destruction of enzymes by heat
D. Translocation
3. Oxygen
- A long-distance transport of photo assimilates
- presence of oxygen is essential for oxidative metabolism
- Transport of solutes by the roots to the other parts of plant passing the
4. CO2
dead conduits or dead xylem vessels (apoplastic transport)
- high level (higher than normal atmosphere) inhibits respiration
- Transports of photosynthates in living conduits or phloem vessel
- high concentration causes the stomata to close
(symplastic transport)
5. Physiological status of plant or plant parts
- Transport of solution from the roots to the upper parts through the
- Dormant parts respire less than active parts of the plant
xylem of the stem (transpirational stream) transpiration or loss of
6. Moisture Content of Tissues
water in plant is the cause of the movement.
- seeds with higher moisture content respire more than seeds with drier
- Tissues involved are the phloem and the xylem
tissues
- Sucrose is the main photosynthates being translocated
- The translocation is from the sources to the sinks
C. Transpiration
- Is the loss from plants in the form of water vapor. This evaporative
process is dependent on energy, the heat of vaporization (539 cal per
gram) which is required to convert water from liquid state to gaseous Source - an organ or tissue that produces more assimilates than the requirement
state of the said organ for its own metabolism and growth exporter organ
- Considered as "necessary evil" Sink - importer or consumer of assimilates
a. it keeps cells hydrated
b. it maintains favorable turgor pressure for the transport of nutrients
absorbed by the roots from the soil
c. it serves as a cooling process
 Table 1. General Characteristics of C3, C4, and CAM plants.

C3 plants C4 plants CAM plants

Typically, tropical or semitropical species

Typically, temperate species e.g. Rice, Typically, xerophytic species. e.g. cacti,
e.g. corn, sugarcane, Amaranthus, sorghum;
Crop examples spinach, wheat, potato, tobacco, sugar beet, orchids, agave, bromeliads, and other
plants adapted to high light, temperature,
soybean, sunflower succulents
and semi-arid environments

Biomass Production Moderately productive Highly productive Very poor productivity

Water-use efficiency/salinity tolerance Low High High

Do not readily photosaturate at high light Do not readily photosaturate at high light
Light saturation At about 1/5 full sunlight
density intensity

C02 compensation point High Low High affinity for CO2 at night

Stomatal opening Open stomata by day Open stomata by day Open stomata by night
FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION In a production system;
➢ Inputs – controllable, manageable resources such as seeds, fertilizers,
Crop production can be viewed from two properties
pesticides, etc.
a. at the CROPS level ➢ Output – yield
b. at the SYSTEMS level
➢ Environment – uncontrollable factors external to the system
Genotype and Environment
➢ System – component crops, processes and activities
Genotype
- Genetic design of a plant which dictates the ceiling of how much a
variety/cultivar can yield ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
- Genes controlling a character (yield, plant height, taste, color) - Includes CLIMATIC or above-ground factors and EDAPHIC or soil factors
- Varies among and even within species (abiotic factors)
- Sets the ultimate limit for plant variation - Also includes pests and beneficial organism (biotic factors)

Environment A. ABIOTIC FACTORS

- Any factor external to the plant that influences its growth and A. Climatic Factors
development. a. Climate
- May be biotic or abiotic; examples are climate, soil, topography, pest and - The seasonal pattern of a particular place occurring from year to
diseases year
- A composite of day to day weather conditions described
G x E Interaction in averages and variability

✓ A high yielding variety grown under poor environment will have low yield. B. Weather
✓ A low yielding variety grown in optimum (good) environment will still - A momentary state of the atmosphere brought about the
have low yield. combination of elements. Ex., temperature, pressure, moisture
content, air movements, radiation, etc.
- An ideal genotype therefore is one that has a wide range of environmental - Day-to-day changes of the state or condition of the atmosphere
- An optimum environment is one that poses a minimum of constraints to
crop growth and development C. Macroclimate
- Through G x E interaction, some particular elements of the environment - The climatic environment one meter above the plant canopy
may draw varying responses from different genotypes.
D. Microclimate
- Generally, it refers to the climatic environment one meter below
the canopy in the case of tall plants or the climate within the leaf
canopy for short (below one meter) plants.
The Climatic Elements

1. Precipitation Drought - insufficiently low of rainfall/moisture which seriously affects plant

- is any form of water particles falling on the ground in liquid or solid form growth.
(rainfall, hail, snow, etc.
➢ Absolute drought - 29 consecutive days without rainfall of at least
0.25 mm.
Role of water in plants ➢ Partial drought - 15 consecutive days without rainfall of at least 0.25
a. As reactants in many biological reactions mm.
b. Enters into the structure of biological molecules
c. Serves as medium of transport of nutrients and other
substances 2. Temperature
d. Helps regulate plants temperature - The degree of hotness and coldness of a body
- Every chemical, physiological and biological process in plants is influenced
by temperature
Categories of plants based on need for moisture
a. Xerophytes – desert plants
b. Hydrophytes – aquatic plants Three (3) cardinal temperatures:
c. Mesophytes – land plants, most economically important plants
a. Minimum temperature
- that temperature below which the velocity of the reaction
becomes zero, due to the deactivation of enzymes.
Factors affecting amount of distribution of rainfall b. Optimum temperature
- temperature where the velocity of the reaction is at maximum.
a. Topography
- influences the amount and distribution of rainfall c. Maximum temperature
- that temperature above which the velocity of the reaction
b. Mountain ranges
- present barriers to clouds, causing them to rise to higher becomes zero, due to the desaturation of enzymes
elevations and generally colder temperatures causing vapor to
condense and water to fall on the windward sides as the clouds
pass over, leaving the leeward side relatively dry. Temperature of the environment depends upon:
c. Air circulation a. Solar radiation
- patterns affect the seasonal distribution of precipitation - vertical rays are more energy efficient/unit area than oblique
rays (in polar regions).
Rain formation requirements b. Surrounding land masses or bodies of water.
c. Altitude
a. High relative humidity (RH) - for every 100-meter rise in elevation, there is a 0.6°C decrease
b. Sufficiently low temperature (below condensation point) in temperature.
c. Condensation nuclei
d. Sufficiently low pressure
 Classification of crops according to temperature requirement b. Photocybernetic effect
- effect on plant development (light quality is rather important
a. Cool season crops - Ex. cole crops like cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower
b. Warm season crops - Ex. rice, banana than quantity of light)
c. Tropical - Ex. coconut c. Photoperiodic effect (response)
d. Sub-tropical - Ex. Citrus - plant response as conditioned by daylength

Classification of plants according to light intensity requirements

3. Wind or Air in horizontal motion
- Normal wind speed in the Philippines = 7.2 km/hr a. Heliophytes
- At 30 km/hr = leaf tearing may already occur especially in banana and
abaca - Sun loving
- Light saturated at about 5000-foot candles
4. Solar radiation or Light - Examples: banana, corn, cowpea, eggplant, papaya, peanut.
- energy given out by the sun through radiation
b. Sciophytes

- Shade loving
Three aspects important to plants
- Light saturated at about 500-foot candles
1. Light intensity - examples: ginger, spinach, ferns, coffee, lanzones
- Plants are generally spaced so that maximum leaf area is
exposed to sunlight Plants belonging to the intermediate group may be converted through
- Some plants do not require high light intensity (shade- loving) acclimatization into either heliophytes or sciophytes.
because they have low light saturation point.
- Some plants require subdued light to survive. Ex. some
ornamentals 5. Relative humidity
2. Duration or day length - expressed in hours per day - proportion/amount of moisture in the air
3. Wavelength - low relative humidity and high temperature will result to high
- expressed in Angstrom or nanometers or identified by color evapotranspiration
- Not all wavelengths of light are equally effective - high relative humidity and high temperature will result to low
In Photosynthesis - red and blue wavelength evapotranspiration
In photoperiodism - far red and red wavelength
Climatic Stresses:
Effect of light on plants: a. Typhoon and weather variations
a. Photoenergetic effect Typhoon - strong winds with speed greater than 21 kph
- direct effect on photosynthesis (intercepted radiation is
important) b. Ozone Destruction
 Ozone - protective shield against the harmful UV rays; it is 6-30 miles above - considered a non-renewable resource because it takes about a hundred
the earth years for natural processes to form an inch of soil
Harmful effects:
i. Depressed photosynthesis
Soil Properties in relation to Crop Production
ii. Reduced levels of seed protein, lipids, and carbohydrates
1. Soil Texture
c. Global warming - Relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in a particular soil
- Increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
Comparison between sand and clay separates.
- Methane gas contributes to global warming
Sand Clay
d. El Niño/ La Niña Low total porosity (more High total porosity (more
- El Niño phenomenon happens when there is a periodic ocean- macropores) micropores)
warming and atmospheric disturbance characterized by deficient Low water holding capacity High water holding capacity
rainfall or prolonged drought in some areas, while heavy rains, storms (draughty)
or hurricanes occur in other areas of the globe Very good aeration Poor aeration and drainage
• Effects of El Niño Easy to till (''light" soil) Difficult to till ("heavy" soil)
a. Fish kill especially cold-water fish-tuna and milkfish catch
Non sticky and non-plastic when Very sticky and plastic when
declines
wet wet
b. Decrease in yield for most crops
Low nutrient holding capacity High nutrient holding capacity
c. Human death (less fertile) (more fertile)
e. Acid Rain
f. Lahar 2. Soil Structure
- refers to the clustering of the soil particles into characteristic
aggregates of various sizes, shapes and stability
B. EDAPHIC FACTORS
- Refers to the soil as a factor in crop production
Importance of Soil Structure to Crops:
Soil
a. Influences the infiltration of water through the soil
- a mixture of organic and inorganic materials which developed on the b. Influences soil aeration which is critical during seed
earth's surface through weathering process of rocks and minerals and germination and seedling emergence
whose properties are conditioned in various degrees by the influence of
climate, living organisms, and topography acting on the parent material
over a period of time
- serves as a medium of plant growth (physical support for anchorage of
plant roots; water and nutrient supplier)
 3. Bulk Density - Accumulation is affected by temperature, soil moisture, vegetation,
- The mass (dry weight) per unit volume of soil soil texture, and cropping system
- A measure of degree of compaction of the soil and an indicator - Cultivated soils contain an average of 2 to 3% organic matter.
of porosity - Organic matter declines when the soil is cultivated because of the
- The more compact the soil, the higher is the bulk density value and enhanced oxidation and microbial activity brought about by the
the less porous it is. loosening of the soil

Soil Chemical Properties

Soil Biological Properties
1. Soil pH
1. Soil organisms
- The most favorable pH for growing most agricultural plants is between
- Composed of large and small plants and animals
pH 6 and pH 7 because at the availability of the nutrients and activities
- The larger organisms (insects, worms, moles, etc.) prepare the
of beneficial microorganisms are at maximum at his range.
organic materials for further degradation by breaking them into
- The range of pH in the Philippines is from pH 5.5 to pH 6.5.
smaller pieces
- When the pH is too low (< 5.0, strongly acidic):
- The smaller organisms (bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae,
. nutrients particularly Ca, Mg, K, P, Mo, N become less available
nematodes, protozoa) cause biochemical changes in the organic
to plants
materials
. N release may also be hindered when the symbiotic nitrogen
fixation and nitrification are inhibited
Roles:
. Fe, Al, and Mn become more soluble to the point of toxicity
. Responsible for biochemical changes
- When pH is too high (>8.0, strongly alkaline):
. Agents in the decomposition of plant and animal residues
. Most micronutrients (except Mo) become unavailable at high pH
. Improve soil structure through aggregation
. Iron deficiency commonly develops
. K also competes with the now abundant Ca for plant absorption

2. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

- the ability of the soil to adsorb and exchange cations with those in the
surrounding soil solution as well as with the plant roots
- the sum of all adsorbed cations per unit amount of soil commonly
expressed as milliequivalent per 100 g of soil (me/100g) or cmolc/ kg
soil

3. Soil Organic Matter (SOM)

- refers to the totality of all carbon-containing compounds in the soil
derived from either plants or animals
BIOTIC FACTORS Genetically Modified Organisms

- All living elements in the environment that can affect crop production - The latest development in biotechnology in relation to crop
improvement
a. Beneficial organisms - Transgenic crops: corn, tomato, soybean, cotton and potato
- provides beneficial effects on crop production - Genetic engineering moves genes from one organism to another in
b. Pollinators ways that could never be possible in nature
- important role in the preservation of species and in biodiversity
conservation
c. Decomposers Human Factors
- a trophic level, usually consisting soil microorganisms specifically
important in the maintenance of soil organic matter 1. Farmer's preference (crop type, variety)
d. Natural pest enemies
- provide balance in a crop production system particularly in the 2. Farmer's capability
control of pests - Depends on resources and knowledge of the farmer Most Filipino
e. Pests farmers are resource poor
- a collective term that includes pests, diseases, weeds, - Our culture is very rich in indigenous knowledge particularly
invertebrates and vertebrates about farming

3. Management
Genetic Factors

- Includes all factors internal to the plant

1. Genotype - the genetic design of a plant which dictates the ceiling

of how much a variety/cultivar can yield
• Genome - sets the ultimate limit for plant variation
2. Selection indices of major Philippine crops:
a. The choice of variety is one of the most critical decisions in
crop production
b. Technologies required in growing a certain crop are
dependent on the characteristics of a particular variety
especially growth characteristics, quality of the product and
market acceptability
CROP PESTS Major Insect Pests in the Philippines

PEST – biotic components of agroecosystems that intervene or interfere crop 1. Brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens)
2. Rice bug (Leptocorisa oratorius)
production
3. Asiatic corn borer (Ostrinia furnacalis)
a. Invertebrate Pests 4. Coconut scale insect (Aspidiotus rigidus / Aspidiotus
. Insects destructor)
. Mites 5. Fruitfly of cucurbits (Daucus cucurbitae)
. Mollusks 6. Banana aphids (Pentalonia nigronervosa)
b. Vertebrate Pests
. Rodents b. Mites
. Birds - belong to Class Arachnida (e.g. spider)
c. Weeds - all stages have piercing and sucking mouthparts
d. Pathogens - scrape off the leaf surface and sucks up the fluids from the top
layer of cells which causes the leaf to turn a silvery color

PEST NATURE OF DAMAGE c. Mollusks

- belong to Class Gastropoda
1. Directly damage the different plant organs - e.g. golden apple snail (Pomacea canaliculata)
2. Impair physiological processes such as photosynthesis, absorption of - direct feeding damage by attacking rice seedlings
water and nutrients, translocation of assimilates and transpiration
3. Directly or indirectly compete for the requisites of the hosts such as
water, nutrients, sunlight and CO2 VERTEBRATE PESTS
4. May completely kill the seedlings
5. Influence the quality and quantity of produce a. Rodents
- belong to Class Mammalia, genus Rattus
- have hairs and mammary glands
INVERTEBRATE PESTS - have gnawing incisors, whiskers, poor eyesight
- nocturnal
a. Insects
- attack rice, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables and root crops
- belong to Class Insecta/Hexapoda (six-legged) in the Phylum
Arthropoda Important Species of Rats
- have 3 body regions namely: head, thorax, abdomen
1. Rattus tanezumi (common rice field rat)
- have three pairs of legs
- most common species of rats
- have one pair of antennae (rarely no antennae)
- medium-sized rat; adults averaging 175 g
- wings either present or absent
- serious pest in upland and lowland rice field and gardens
 2. Rattus argentiventer (Asian field rat) WEEDS – plants that are unwanted or undesirable at a particular place and
- smaller than R. tanezumi time
- grassland inhabitant; restricted in Mindoro and - short life cycle
Mindanao; found in habitat highly disturbed by man - wide environmental tolerance
- wasteland and rice paddies - high competitive ability
3. Rattus norvegicus (Norway rat) - high nutrient uptake
- urban rat - adapted to disturbed areas
- large and heavy, about 250-350 g Types of Weeds
- commensal species common in port areas and human
dwelling places a. Grass
- potential problem in rice fields near homes and buildings - belongs to family Poaceae
- has round and hollow stem known as ‘culm’
4. Rattus exulans (Polynesian rat) - has nodes and internodes
- smallest of the typical rat - leaves are narrow with parallel venation arising in
- occurs in every island in the Philippines alternate manner along the stem
- most predominant species in rice field of Palawan
Examples:
1. itchgrass (Rottboellia cochinchinensis)
2. barnyard grass (Echinocloa glabrescens)
b. Birds 3. cogon (Imperata cylindrica)
- belong to Class Aves
- diurnal, have feathers, horny beak (adapted for different modes b. Sedge
of feeding) and uniform body temperature (homeothermy) - belongs to family Cyperaceae
- e.g. Philippine weavers or maya – most destructive pest of rice
- has solid and triangular stem
(of the genera Lonchura and Passer)
- ligule and nodes are absent
- chew rice grains in the milky stage causing whitehead or unfilled
panicles Examples:
1. purple nut sedge (Cyperus rotundus)
Four Species of Philippine Weavers
2. small-flower umbrella plant (Cyperus difformis)
1. Lonchura leucogaster - mayang bato (white-bellied manikin)
c. Broadleaf
2. Lonchura malacca – mayang pula (chestnut manikin)
- belongs to other plant families
3. Lonchura punctulata – mayang bulik/batik (nutmeg manikin) - generally dicots but few species are monocot
4. Passer montanus – mayang simbahan/bahay (Eurasian tree
Examples:
sparrow)
1. garden spurge (Euphorbia hirta)
2. gabing uwak (Monochoria vaginalis)
3. spiny amaranth (Amaranthus spinosus)
PATHOGENS – any living agent that causes diseases in plants . Symptom – manifestation or expression of a plant as a result of a
disease
a. Bacteria
a. Local symptoms – expressed as physiological or structural
- typically one-celled prokaryotic (lack nuclear membrane and a
changes in a limited area of the tissues of the host (e.g. galls,
well-defined nucleus) organisms possessing a unit membrane
spots, cankers)
and cell wall
b. Systemic symptoms – expressed as the reaction of a greater part
- reproduce through binary fission
or all of the plant parts (e.g. dwarfing, wilting, yellowing)
- mostly flagellated (responsible for motility)
b. Fungi
- small, eukaryotic, usually filamentous, spore-bearing organisms Bacterial Diseases
that lack chlorophyll 1. Bacterial blight of rice (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae)
- cell walls are composed of chitin and glucan in a matrix of 2. Bacterial wilt of tomato (Ralstonia solanacearum)
polysaccharides 3. Bacterial spot of tomato (Xanthomonas campestris pv. Vesicatoria)
c. Fungal-like Oomycetes
d. Virus Fungal Diseases
- ultramicroscopic obligate parasites (replicates only in living
hosts) consisting of a nucleic acid core (DNA or RNA) and a 1. Downy mildew of corn (Peronosclerospora philippinensis)
protein coat 2. Leaf blight of corn (Helminthosporium maydis)
- virus disease symptoms range from local lesions to systemic ones 3. Mungbean rust (Puccinia sorghi)
such as reduction in plant size, mosaic patterns, and ringspots 4. Cercospora leaf spot of mungbean (Cercospora cruenta)
e. Viroid
Virus Diseases
f. Mycoplasmas
g. Flagellated Protozoans 1. Rice Tungro
h. Parasitic Plants CAUSAL ORGANISM: INSECT VECTOR:
rice tungro bacilliform virus (badnavirus) Green leafhopper
rice tungro spherical virus (waikavirus) (Nephotettix virescens)
Disease – abnormal change in structure or function manifested in the form of
symptoms 2. Banana Bunchy Top
CAUSAL ORGANISM: INSECT VECTOR:
. Biotic Disease – caused by pathogens
banana bunchy to virus (BBTV) banana aphid
. Abiotic Disease – caused by environmental stresses, nutritional
(Pentalonia nigronervosa)
deficiencies/excesses, phytotoxic chemical
3. Tomato Leaf Curl
Plant Disease Diagnosis – defined as identification of diseases based on signs CAUSAL ORGANISM: INSECT VECTOR:
and symptoms tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)

. Sign – a pathogen or a part of a pathogen found associated on a host

plant