University of Santo Tomas

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

Experiment F2:
Pressure Drop and Flooding in a Packed Column

1. OBJECTIVE

1.1 To determine the void fractions of the packed beds.

1.2 To determine the effects of liquid holdups on the pressure drop of the packed column.
1.3 To determine packing factor experimentally with the use of flooding velocity calculations.

2. THEORY

Pressure drops in pipe flow are the result of the combined effects of friction losses, velocity
variations, eddy formation, and back flows. Stagnation points and the tortuous flow path of the fluid
resulting from the assemblage of packings generate additional resistance that in turn reduces fluid
pressure. Packed bed calculations require the following modifications on the variables used for pipe
flow calculations:

1. Velocity to be used is the superficial gas velocity. Superficial gas velocity is defined as the
gas velocity through a pipe assuming there is no obstruction present in the system.
2. Characteristic length of Reynolds number is particle diameter, Dp, instead of pipe diameter,
D.
3. Inclusion of void fraction (porosity, e) to account for the random packing of particles within
the column.

Ergun equation is used to get the pressure drop across a certain length of packed beds but is
suitable only for average void fraction of 0.44. It assumes that the laminar and turbulent effects are
additive to give an equation for flow in the intermediate region, 10 < NRe,p < 1000.

2
P 150v o ( 1 −  )2 1.75g v o ( 1 −  )
= +
Z 3Dp2  3Dp

Using the first term only of the right-hand side of the Ergun equation would result to the Blake-
Kozeny equation which is applicable for the laminar region while using the 2nd term only results to the
Burke-Plummer equation which is only applicable for the turbulent region. These equations are only
applicable for void fraction less than 0.5. For wider values of porosity and Reynolds number, the
Fahien and Schriver modify the Ergun equation by making the constants, i.e. 150 and 1.75, as functions
of porosity. The resulting equations are as follows:

136
L = for Laminar Flow
( 1 −  )0.38
29 1.870.75NRe,p
T = + for Turbulent Flow
( 1 −  )1.45  2 ( 1 −  )0.26
I = q L + (1 − q )T for Intermediate Region

Where:
− 2 ( 1− )NRe, p
q=e 12.6

P3Dp2
=
Zv o ( 1 −  )2

Gas absorption operation would result to packed beds being irrigated by the solvent to be used.
Pressure drop would be due to the total liquid holdup within the bed of packings. Leva (1954) added
a correction factor on the orifice equation to determine the pressure drop of irrigated packed beds
(refer to 6th edition HB). Robbins (1990) developed a pressure drop correlation similar to the approach
used by Leva.

ChE 2127: Chemical Engineering Laboratory II |Experiment Guide 1|Page

 Experiment F2: Pressure Drop and Flooding in a Packed Column

Pt = Pd + PL

C L
Pd = C3 G 2 10 4 f
f
( )
PL = 0.4 0.00005 L f 0.1(Pd )4

(
Gf = 986Fs 0.05Fpd )0.5 (
Lf =  L 0.1L 0.05Fpd )0.5  62 .4 
 L 

Lobo et al (1945) empirically estimated the packing factor as

6( 1 −  )
Fpd =
 3 Dp

But later studies conducted by Eckert suggested that it should be determined experimentally.
Packing factor is used in flooding velocity calculations. In all liquid rates, flooding is the condition
where a large pressure drop will occur with a small change in gas velocity that is due to high liquid
holdup. A pressure drop of 1.5 inches of H2O/foot of packing is said to be the start of flooding but
actual flooding had been at 2.0 to 2.5 inches of H2O/foot of packing. Recent studies had found out that
flooding for 2- or 3-inch packings could occur at lower pressure drops than the prescribed values.

Nomenclature:

C3 = 7.4 x 10-8
C4 = 2.7 x 10-5
Dp = particle diameter
Fpd = dry packing factor, dimensionless
Fs = superficial F-factor for gas, Utrg0.5, ft/s(lb/ft3)0.5
Gf = gas loading factor, lb/hr-ft2
L = superficial liquid mass velocity, lb/hr-ft2
Lf = liquid loading factor, lb/hr-ft2
NRe,p = Reynolds number for packed beds
Dpv o
=
(1 − )
q = fraction of flow in laminar flow regime
vo = superficial gas velocity
Z = length of column
DPd = dry pressure drop, inches H2O/ft packing
DPL = pressure drop due to liquid presence, inches H2O/ft packing
DPt = total pressure drop, inches H2O/ft packing
mL = liquid viscosity, cP
rg = gas density, lb/ft3
rL = liquid density, lb/ft3

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 Experiment F2: Pressure Drop and Flooding in a Packed Column

3. EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS

Gas-Liquid Absorption Column

4. SAFETY

Potential Health Hazards

This could be due to the presence of bacteria in the water to be used for the experiment. Rust,
scale and/or algae could serve as substrates for the propagation of bacteria like Legionella
pneumophila. The spraying of water in the column produces air-borne droplets that can cause a form
of pneumonia. Therefore, the water in the sump tank should not be allowed to stagnate (periodically
replace the water).

Flooding. The column should be monitored periodically to avoid flooding. Flooding starts when
there is an accumulation of water on the top of the packed bed either at the upper or the lower
column. Overflowing of water could result to electrical shocks when the water is in contact with the
electrical equipment like the pump and the compressor of the unit. Flooding could also push the
packings upward and thrown to the ground. Since the packings are made of glass this may result to
injury when tread upon the ground.

5. PRELIMINARY

5.1 Measure the following dimensions:

5.1.1 Length of the packed beds (Z)
5.1.2 Diameter of the gas column (D)
5.1.3 Dimensions of the packing
(you may assume a type of packing similar to the one installed in the column)
5.2 Clean the sump tank and drain all the water from the equipment (already done by lab assistant).
5.3 Fill the sump tank with water to 75% of its capacity (already done by lab assistant).
5.4 Check if the on-off switch and knobs are turned off.
5.5 Check if all the flow meter and drainage valves are closed.
5.6 Check if the valve of the return line (near the sump tank) is fully opened, if this is closed flooding
may occur in suddenly.
5.7 All pressure taps should be opened.
5.8 Entrained liquid in the tubes connected to the pressure tap should be drained.

ChE 2127: Chemical Engineering Laboratory II |Experiment Guide 3|Page

 Experiment F2: Pressure Drop and Flooding in a Packed Column

6. OPERATING PROCEDURE AND CONDITIONS

6.1 Start-Up

6.1.1
6.1.2 Turn on the compressor and pump.
6.1.3 Allow the gas to run at a flow rate of 140 L/min for 15 minutes to remove any water in
the column.
6.1.4 Adjust the three-way glass cocks so that the gas flowing out of the pressure taps should
be only directed to the left manometer (and should leave the equipment via the exhaust
of the Hempl apparatus that is near the syringe).

6.2 Experimental Procedure

6.2.1 Dry Packing Pressure Drop

6.2.1.1 Reset the gas rate to 20 L/min.
NOTE: The gas control valve should be throttled (adjusted up or down slowly)
periodically before setting the desired flow rate so as to minimize the effects of
surface tension on the manometer fluid.
6.2.1.2 Measure the differential pressure (mm H2O) across the upper and lower packed
beds by adjusting the three-way glass cock connected to the pressure tap at the
middle of the column.
6.2.1.3 Repeat steps 6.2.1.1 to 6.2.1.2, increasing the gas flow rate by 10 L/min until it
reaches 140 L/min.

6.2.2 Additional Pressure Drop due to Liquid Hold-ups

6.2.2.1 Reset the gas rate to 20 L/min.

6.2.2.2 Open the liquid control valve and set the liquid rate to 1.0 L/min.
6.2.2.3 Observe the gas flow in the irrigated packed beds.

CAUTION: Periodic throttling should be gradual and controlled so as not to cause a

sudden increase in pressure differentials that could result to the overflowing of fluid inside
the manometer.

NOTE: Flooding should be avoided at all times. Initially, it looks like a mere bubbling of
liquids in the column but an accumulation of liquids will appear after a few seconds in
some sections or portions of the column. In the advent of such occurrence, the gas flow rate
should immediately be decreased so as to avoid the liquid from overflowing from the top
of the column. The technician and the student must periodically check the top of the beds
to prevent electrical shocks caused by flooding.

Do not proceed to higher gas flow rates anymore but take note of the flow rate at which
flooding occurs.

6.2.2.4 Measure the pressure drops at various gas rates and liquid rates and fill out the table
presented in the Data Sheet.

6.3 Shutdown
6.3.1 Turn off the pump and allow the liquid in the flow meter to drain out before closing the
control valve.
6.3.2 Set the gas rate to 140 L/min and allow it to run for 15 minutes before closing the gas
control valve.
6.3.3 Turn off the compressor.
6.3.4 Switch off the equipment then unplug from the socket.

DID YOU LEAVE EVERYTHING SAFE AND TIDY?

ChE 2127: Chemical Engineering Laboratory II |Experiment Guide 4|Page

 Experiment F2: Pressure Drop and Flooding in a Packed Column

7. TREATMENT OF RESULTS
7.1 Calculate the pressure drop from the height of the manometer fluid. Use a specific gravity of 1.0.

7.2 Determine the void fractions of each bed by using any of the appropriate equations in Section 2.
Also, calculate the available surface area for contact per unit volume of column as defined in
Geankoplis.

7.3 Plot the following graphs:

7.3.1 ΔP vs NRe,p for dry packings
7.3.2 log(DP/Z) vs log(G) for different L
Lf
7.3.3 ΔP vs Gf for different
Gf

7.4 Calculate the packing factor based on the graph for flooding velocity.

8. ANALYSIS/INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
8.1 Compare the results obtained for the pressure drop through dry packings from the experiment
with those obtained from
8.1.1 Ergun-type equation
8.1.2 Leva-type equation
8.1.3 Robbins equation
Explain the reasons for such variation if there are any and construct a plot that will serve as a
correction from the pressure drop obtained from the equation used.

8.2 Compare the pressure drop from actual experimental data with the one obtained from Robbins
equation for irrigated packed beds.

8.3 Determine the loading zone from the plot of Section 8.3.3.

9. QUESTIONS
9.1 What are the characteristics that a packing should have for it to be employed in mass transfer
operation?

9.2 Explain the mechanism of gas flow through a packed bed with liquid flowing counter-
currently.

9.3 Differentiate between static and dynamic or operating holdup. How does this affect the
pressure drop through a packed column?

9.4 Define loading and channeling? Give the relevance of these two factors in packed column
operation.

9.5 How does the packing factor obtained from the flooding velocity differ from the one
estimated empirically with the use of the correlation of Lobo et al?

10. REFERENCES

Fahien, Ray W. Fundamentals of Transport Phenomena. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1983.

Geankoplis, Christie J., Transport Processes and Unit Operations, 3rd Ed. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1993.

Kister, Henry Z. Distillation Design. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1992.

McCabe, Warren L., Julian C. Smith and Peter Harriott. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering 5th
Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1993.

Perry, Robert H. and Don Green (ed.), Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 6th Ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1984.

ChE 2127: Chemical Engineering Laboratory II |Experiment Guide 5|Page

 Experiment F2: Pressure Drop and Flooding in a Packed Column

Perry, Robert H. and Don Green (ed.), Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 7th Ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 1997.

Welty, James R., Charles E. Wicks and Robert E. Wilson. Fundamentals of Momentum, Heat and
Mass Transfer 3rd Ed. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1984.

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 Experiment F2: Pressure Drop and Flooding in a Packed Column

Name and signature of members: Section: _______________________

1. ____________________________ _______________ Group No.: _____________________
2. ____________________________ _______________ Date Performed: _________________
3. ____________________________ _______________ Date Submitted: _________________
4. ____________________________ _______________
5. ____________________________ _______________ Instructor’s signature: _____________
6. ____________________________ _______________

EXPERIMENT F2: PRESSURE DROP AND FLOODING IN A PACKED COLUMN

DATA SHEET

Table 1. Dimensions of the column and packed bed

Length of packed bed (Z)
Diameter of gas column (D)
Diameter of Raschig rings (Dp)

Table 2. Manometer readings (Δh, mm H2O) at different air and water flow rates (L/min)
Liquid
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
flow rate

20

30

40

50

60

70
Air flow rate

80

90

100

110

120

130

140
*Put F when flooding occurred

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