EECF 3142: Irrigation Engineering I

Irrigation water requirement:

Irrigation requirement = Crop water requirement − water gains

Crop water requirement = the crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions, 𝐸𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑝

Water gains: Rainfall, groundwater contribution (through capillary), and soil water

Crop water requirement

Evapotranspiration concepts

Figure. Reference (ET0), crop evapotranspiration under standard (ETc), and non-standard
conditions (ET c adj)

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 EECF 3142: Irrigation Engineering I

Reference crop evapotranspiration (𝐄𝐓𝟎)

The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is called the reference
crop evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration and is denoted as ET0 . The reference
surface is a hypothetical grass reference crop with specific characteristics.
The only factors affecting ET0 are climatic parameters. Consequently, ET0 is a climatic parameter
and can be computed from weather data.

Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (𝐄𝐓𝐜 )

The crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions denoted as ETc, is the evapotranspiration
from disease-free, well-fertilized crops, grown in large fields, under optimum soil water
conditions, and achieving full production under the given climatic conditions.
Crop water requirement – the amount of water required to compensate for the
evapotranspiration loss from the cropped field. It refers to the amount of water that needs to be
supplied.

Crop evapotranspiration - refers to the amount of water that is lost through evapotranspiration.
It is calculated from climatic data and by integrating directly the crop resistance, albedo, and air
resistance factors
Crop water requirements and crop evapotranspiration are identical.
Experimentally determined ratios of ETc /ET0, called crop coefficients (𝐾𝑐 ), are used to relate ETc
to ET0 :
𝐄𝐓𝐜 = 𝑲𝑪 𝐄𝐓𝟎
Differences in leaf anatomy, stomatal characteristics, aerodynamic properties, and even albedo
cause the crop evapotranspiration to differ from the reference crop evapotranspiration under
the same climatic conditions. Due to variations in the crop characteristics throughout its growing
season, 𝐾𝐶 for a given crop changes from sowing till harvest.

Crop evapotranspiration under non-standard conditions (𝐄𝐓𝐂 𝐚𝐝𝐣)

The crop evapotranspiration under non-standard conditions (ETC adj) is the evapotranspiration
from crops grown under management and environmental conditions that differ from the
standard conditions. E.g.
- the presence of pests and diseases,
- soil salinity,
- low soil fertility,
- water shortage,
- waterlogging.
- Etc

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This may result in scanty plant growth, low plant density and may reduce the evapotranspiration
rate below ETc.
The crop evapotranspiration under non-standard conditions is calculated by using a water stress
coefficient 𝐾𝑠 and/or by adjusting 𝐾𝑐 for all kinds of other stresses and environmental constraints
on crop evapotranspiration.
𝐄𝐓𝐜 = 𝑲𝑪 𝐄𝐓𝟎

Determination of Evapotranspiration
ET field measurement
Evapotranspiration is not easy to measure. Specific devices and accurate measurements of
various physical parameters of the soil water balance in lysimeters are required to determine
evapotranspiration.
The methods are often expensive, demanding in terms of accuracy of measurement, and can only
be fully exploited by well-trained research personnel.
Although the methods are inappropriate for routine measurements, they remain important for
the evaluation of ET estimates obtained by more indirect methods.
Soil water balance
Evapotranspiration can be determined by
measuring the various components of the
soil water balance. The method consists of
assessing the incoming and outgoing water
flux into the crop root zone over some time.
Irrigation (I) and rainfall (P) add water to the
root zone. Part of I and P might be lost by
surface runoff (RO) and by deep percolation
(DP) that will eventually recharge the water
table. Water might also be transported
upward by the capillary rise (CR) from a
Figure. Soil water balance of the root zone shallow water table towards the

root zone or even transferred horizontally by subsurface flow in (𝑆𝐹𝑖𝑛 ) or out of (𝑆𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) the root
zone. In many situations, however, except under conditions with large slopes, 𝑆𝐹𝑖𝑛 and 𝑆𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑡 are
minor and can be ignored. Soil evaporation and crop transpiration deplete water from the root
zone. If all fluxes other than evapotranspiration (ET) can be assessed, the evapotranspiration can
be deduced from the change in soil water content (∆ 𝑆𝑊) over the period:
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐼 + 𝑃 − 𝑅𝑂 − 𝐷𝑃 + 𝐶𝑅 ± ∆𝑆𝐹 ± ∆ 𝑆𝑊

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Some fluxes such as subsurface flow, deep percolation, and capillary rise from a water table are
difficult to assess and short periods cannot be considered.
The soil water balance method can usually only give ET estimates over long periods of the order
of week-long or ten-day periods.
Lysimeters
By isolating the crop root zone from its environment and controlling the processes that are
difficult to measure, the different terms in the soil water balance equation can be determined
with greater accuracy.
This is done in lysimeters where the crop grows in isolated tanks filled with either disturbed or
undisturbed soil. There two types ofo lysimeters:
a. Weighing lysimeters, where the water loss is directly measured by the change of mass,
evapotranspiration can be obtained with an accuracy of a few hundredths of a millimeter,
and small periods such as an hour can be considered.
b. In non-weighing lysimeters, the evapotranspiration for a given period is determined by
deducting the drainage water, collected at the bottom of the lysimeters, from the total
water input.
Lysimeters require that the vegetation both inside and immediately outside of the lysimeter be
perfectly matched (same characteristics). This requirement has historically not been closely
adhered to in a majority of lysimeter studies and has resulted in severely erroneous and
unrepresentative 𝐸𝑇𝑐 and 𝐾 𝑐 data.

As lysimeters are difficult and expensive to construct and as their operation and maintenance
require special care, their use is limited to specific research purposes.

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ET computed from meteorological data

Owing to the difficulty of obtaining accurate field measurements, ET is commonly computed from
weather data.

The principle is to first calculate ET0 then ETC = KC x ET0

Many empirical or semi-empirical equations have been developed for assessing crop or reference
crop evapotranspiration from meteorological data.

The FAO Penman-Monteith equation

The FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the sole method for determining ET0 .
The method has been selected because it closely approximates grass ET0 at the location
evaluated, is physically based, and explicitly incorporates both physiological and aerodynamic
parameters. Moreover, procedures have been developed for estimating missing climatic
parameters.

Fig. Characteristics of the hypothetical crop

The FAO Penman-Monteith equation:
900
0.408∆(𝑅𝑛 − 𝐺 ) + 𝛾 𝑢 (𝑒 − 𝑒𝑎 )
𝐸𝑇0 = 𝑇 + 273 2 𝑠
∆ + 𝛾(1 + 0.34𝑢2 )
Where:
ET0 = reference evapotranspiration [mm⁄day]
R n = net radiation at the crop surface [ MJ⁄m2 day]
G = soil heat flux density [ MJ⁄m2 day]
T = mean daily air temperature at 2m height [℃]

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u2 = wind speed at 2m height [m⁄s]

es = saturation vapor pressure [kPa]
ea = actual vapor pressure [kPa]
es − ea = saturation vapor pressure deficit [kPa]
∆ = slope of vapor pressure curve [kPa⁄℃]
γ = psychometric constant [kPa⁄℃]
Data requirements
Location
Altitude above sea level (m) and latitude (degrees north or south) of the location should be
specified. These data are needed to:
1. adjust some weather parameters for the local average value of atmospheric pressure (a
function of the site elevation above mean sea level)
2. compute extraterrestrial radiation (𝑅𝑎 ) and, in some cases, daylight hours (N). In the
calculation procedures for 𝑅𝑎 and N, the latitude is expressed in radian (i.e., decimal
degrees times 𝜋/180).
A positive value is used for the northern hemisphere and a negative value for the southern
hemisphere.
Temperature

Fig. Saturated vapor pressure as a function of

temperature over water. Point C has vapor
pressure e and temperature T, for which the
saturated vapor pressure is es. The relative
humidity is Rh = e/es. The temperature at
which the air is saturated for vapor pressure e
is the dew-point temperature Td.

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From the curve, es at different temperatures can be obtained is

17.2𝑇 4098 ea
e𝑠 = 611𝑒 (237.3+𝑇) 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠; ∆= 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 ⁄℃ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 γ = 66.8 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 ⁄℃
(237.3 + 𝑇)2

Humidity

The (average) daily actual vapor pressure, 𝑒𝑎 , in kilopascals (kPa) is required. The actual vapor
pressure, where not available, can be derived from maximum and minimum relative humidity
(%), psychrometric data (dry and wet bulb temperatures in ℃ or dewpoint temperature (℃).
Radiation
The (average) daily net radiation expressed in megajoules per square meter per day
([ MJ⁄m2 day]) is required. These data are not commonly available but can be derived from the
(average) shortwave radiation measured with a pyranometer or from the (average) daily actual
duration of bright sunshine (hours per day) measured with a (Campbell-Stokes) sunshine
recorder.
Wind speed
The (average) daily wind speed in meters per second (m⁄s]) measured at 2 m above the ground
level is required. It is important to verify the height at which wind speed is measured, as wind
speeds measured at different heights above the soil surface differ.

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The calculation ETC procedure consists of the following steps:

1. Derivation of some climatic parameters from the daily maximum (𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) and minimum
(𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) air temperature, altitude (z), and mean wind speed (𝑢2 ).
2. Calculation of the vapor pressure deficit (𝑒𝑠 − 𝑒𝑎 ). The saturation vapor pressure (𝑒𝑠 is
derived from 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛, while the actual vapor pressure (𝑒𝑎 ) can be derived from
the dewpoint temperature (𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑤 ), from maximum (𝑅𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) and minimum (𝑅𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
relative humidity, from the maximum (𝑅𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 ), or from mean relative humidity (𝑅𝐻𝑚𝑖𝑛 ).
3. Determination of the net radiation (𝑅𝑛 ) as the difference between the net shortwave
radiation (𝑅𝑛𝑠 ) and the net longwave radiation (𝑅𝑛𝑙 ). In the calculation sheet, the effect
of soil heat flux (G) is ignored for daily calculations as the magnitude of the flux, in this
case, is relatively small. The net radiation, expressed in MJ⁄m2 day], is converted to
mm/day (equivalent evaporation) in the FAO Penman-Monteith equation by using 0.408
as the conversion factor within the equation.
4. ET0 is obtained by combining the results of the previous steps.

Priestley and Taylor method

For evaporation over very large areas, energy balance considerations largely govern the
evaporation rate. For such cases, Priestley and Taylor (1972) found that the second term of the
combination equation is approximately 30 percent of the first so that the Penman-Monteith
equation can be re-written as the Priestley-Taylor evaporation
∆
𝐸 =∝ 𝐸 ; ∝= 1.3
∆+𝛾 𝑟

Blaney – Criddle method formula

This is suggested for areas where available climatic data cover air temperature data only.
ETp = p(0.457Ta + 8.13) mm/month
ETB&C = K × ETp mm/month
where
ETp potential evapotranspiration in mm/month for the month considered
ETB&C Evapotransiration in mm/month
K crop coefficoent
p monthly percentage of day light hours in the year
Ta mean monthly air temperature (24 hour means) in ℃

Thornthwaite formula
Monthly potential evapotranspiration of a short crop (e.g. grass) is estimated from monthly
average daily temperatures:

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𝐿 𝑁 10𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝐷𝑛 𝑁𝑛
𝐸𝑇0 = 16 ( ) ( ) ( ) ; 𝐸𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑛 = 𝐸𝑇0 ( )
12 30 𝐼 360
Where
ET0 is potential evapotranspiration in mm/month
Td is the average daily temperature (℃; if this is negative, use 0)
of the month being calculated
N is the number of days in the month being calculated
L is the average day length (hours)of the month being calculated
∝ = (6.75 × 10−7 )(I)3 − (7.71 × 10−5 )(I)2 + (1.792 × 10−2 )I + 0.49239
12
Tmi 1.514
I = ∑( ) is a heat index
5
i=1
I depends on the 12 monthly mean temperatures, Tmi
ETThorn is the actual evapotranspiration
Dn number of days; Nn is day length

Makkink’s formula
∆
ETMakkink = 0.61Rm ( − 0.12)
∆+γ
Where:
ETMakkink is potential evapotransiration in mm/month
Rm is measured incoming radiation in mm/day
∆ is the slope of temperature − vapor pressure curve
γ is the psychrometer constant = 0.49mm. hg/℃

Using the pan evaporation method

Evaporation from an open water surface provides an index of the integrated effect of radiation,
air temperature, air humidity, and wind on evapotranspiration.
However, differences in the water and cropped surface produce significant differences in the
water loss from an open water surface and the crop.
The pan been used successfully to estimate reference evapotranspiration by observing the
evaporation loss from a water surface and applying empirical coefficients (𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 −
𝐾𝑝 ) to relate pan evaporation (𝐸0 ) using the following relationship:

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ET0 = 𝐾𝑝 E0

In selecting the appropriate pan coefficient, the following should be considered:

1. the pan type
2. the ground cover in the station
3. Its surroundings as well
4. The general wind conditions
5. The general humidity conditions
The siting of the pan and the pan environment also influence the results. This is particularly so
where the pan is placed in fallow rather than cropped fields.
Two cases are commonly considered:
Case A where the pan is sited on a short green (grass) cover and surrounded by fallow soil
Case B where the pan is sited on fallow soil and surrounded by a green crop.
Typical pan coefficients for case A and B pans
Class A pan Case A: pan placed in short green cropped area Case B: pan placed in dry fallow area
RHmean % Low Medium High Low Medium High
<40 40 – 70 >70 <40 40 – 70 >70
Wind Windward side Windward side
km/day distance of green distance of green
crop (m) crop (m)
Light <175 1 0.55 0.65 0.75 1 0.7 0.8 0.85
10 0.65 0.75 0.85 10 0.6 0.7 0.8
100 0.7 0.8 0.85 100 0.55 0.65 0.75
1000 0.75 0.85 0.85 1000 0.5 0.6 0.7
Moderate 1 0.5 0.6 0.65 1 0.65 0.75 0.8
175-425
10 0.6 0.7 0.75 10 0.55 0.65 0.7
100 0.65 0.75 0.8 100 0.5 0.6 0.65
1000 0.7 0.8 0.8 1000 0.45 0.55 0.6
Strong 425- 1 0.45 0.5 0.6 1 0.6 0.65 0.7
700
10 0.55 0.6 0.65 10 0.5 0.55 0.65
100 0.6 0.65 0.7 100 0.45 0.5 0.6
1000 0.65 0.7 0.75 1000 0.4 0.45 0.55
Very strong 1 0.4 0.45 0.5 1 0.5 0.6 0.65
>700
10 0.45 0.55 0.6 10 0.45 0.5 0.55
100 0.5 0.6 0.65 100 0.4 0.45 0.5
1000 0.55 0.6 0.65 1000 0.35 0.4 0.45
Pan coefficient (Kp) for colorado sunken pan different groundcover and levels of mean relative
humidity and 24 hour wind
Sunken Case A: pan placed in short green cropped area Case B: pan placed in dry fallow area
Colorado
RHmean % Low Medium High Low Medium High
<40 40 – 70 >70 <40 40 – 70 >70

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Wind Windward side Windward side

km/day distance of green distance of green
crop (m) crop (m)
Light <175 1 0.75 0.75 0.8 1 1.1 1.1 1.1

10 1.0 1.0 1.0 10 0.85 0.85 0.85

100 1.1 1.1 1.1 100 0.75 0.75 0.8
1000 0.7 0.7 0.75
Moderate 1 0.65 0.7 0.7 1 0.95 0.95 0.95
175-425
10 0.85 0.85 0.9 10 0.75 0.75 0.75
100 0.95 0.95 0.95 100 0.65 0.65 0.7
1000 0.6 0.6 0.65
Strong 425- 1 0.55 0.65 0.65 1 0.8 0.8 0.8
700
10 0.75 0.75 0.75 10 0.65 0.65 0.65
100 0.8 0.8 0.8 100 0.55 0.6 0.65
1000 0.5 0.55 0.6
Very strong 1 0.5 0.55 0.6 1 0.5 0.6 0.65
>700
10 0.65 0.7 0.7 10 0.7 0.75 0.75
100 0.7 0.75 0.75 100 0.55 0.6 0.65
1000 0.45 0.5 0.55

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wind wind
Pan Pan

Green crop Green crop Dry surface

Dry surface

Varies Varies
50 m or more 50 m or more
Case A Case B
The Class A Evaporation pan (see figure galvanized, is painted annually with
below) is circular, 120.7 cm in diameter and aluminum paint.
25 cm deep. It is made of galvanized iron (22
gauge) or Monel metal (0.8 mm).
The pan is mounted on a wooden open
frame platform which is 15 cm above ground
level. The soil is built up to within 5 cm of the
bottom of the pan.
The pan must be level. It is filled with water
to 5 cm below the rim, and the water level
should not be allowed to drop to more than
7.5 cm below the rim. The water should be
regularly renewed, at least weekly, to
eliminate extreme turbidity. The pan, if Fig. A typical layoutfor a Class A pan
Pans should be protected by fences to keep animals from drinking.
The site should preferably be under grass, 20 by 20 m, open on all sides to permit free circulation
of the air. It is preferable that stations be located in the center or on the leeward side of large
cropped fields.
Pan readings are taken daily in the early morning at the same time that precipitation is measured.
Measurements are made in a stilling well that is situated in the pan near one edge. The stilling
well is a metal cylinder of about 10 cm in diameter and some 20 cm deep with a small hole at the
bottom.

𝐄𝐓𝐂 – Single crop coefficient (𝑲𝒄)

ETc is determined by the crop coefficient approach whereby the effect of the various weather
conditions are incorporated into 𝐸𝑇0 and the crop characteristics into the 𝐾𝑐 coefficient:
𝐸𝑇𝑐 = 𝐾𝑐 𝐸𝑇0
The 𝐾𝑐 coefficient incorporates crop characteristics and averaged effects of evaporation from the
soil.

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The calculation procedure:

1. Identify the crop growth stages, determining their lengths, and selecting th corresponding
𝐾𝑐 coefficients
2. Adjust the selected 𝐾𝑐 coefficients for frequency of wetting or climate conditions during
stage
3. Construct the crop coefficient curve (allowing one to determine 𝐾𝑐 values for any period
during the growing period), and
4. Calculating 𝐸𝑇𝑐 as the product of 𝐸𝑇0 and Kc

Length of growth stages

The general lengths for the four distinct growth stages and the total growing period for various
types of climates and locations is summarized in the following table.
Table. Lengths of crop development stages* for various planting periods and climatic regions
(days) (Source FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24)

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Crop coefficients
Changes in vegetation and ground cover mean that the crop coefficient Kc varies during the
growing period.
The trends in Kc during the growing period are represented in the crop coefficient curve.
Only three values for Kc are required to describe and construct the crop coefficient curve: those
during the initial stage (Kc ini), the mid-season stage (Kc mid) and at the end of the late season
stage (Kc end).
Tabulated Kc values
The following table lists typical values for Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end for various agricultural crops. The
coefficients presented are organized by group type (i.e., small vegetables, legumes, cereals, etc.)
to assist in locating the crop in the table and to aid in comparing crops within the same group.
There is usually close similarity in the coefficients among the members of the same crop group,
as the plant height, leaf area, ground coverage and water management are normally similar.

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Table. Single (time-averaged) crop coefficients, Kc, and mean maximum plant heights for non-
stressed, well-managed crops in subhumid climates (RHmin is approximatelt 45% and U 2 is
approximately 2 m/s) for use with the FAO Penman-Montheith ET0.
(Source FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24)

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Construction of the Kc curve

For annual crops
Only three-point values for Kc are required to describe and to construct the Kc curve. The curve
is constructed using the following three steps:
1. Divide the growing period into four general growth stages that describe crop phenology
or development (initial, crop development, mid-season, and late season stage),
determine the lengths of the growth stages, and identify the three Kc values that
correspond to Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end from earlier Kc values table.
2. Adjust the Kc values to the frequency of wetting and/or climatic conditions of the growth
stages as outlined in the previous section.
3. Construct a curve by connecting straight line segments through each of the four growth
stages. Horizontal lines are drawn through Kc ini in the initial stage and through Kc mid in
the mid-season stage. Diagonal lines are drawn from Kc ini to Kc mid within the course of

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the crop development stage and from Kc mid to Kc end within the course of the late season
stage.

Calculating ETc
From the crop coefficient curve, the Kc value for any period during the growing period can be
graphically or numerically determined. Once the Kc values have been derived, the crop
evapotranspiration, ETc, can be calculated by multiplying the Kc values by the corresponding ETo
values.
Graphical determination of Kc
Weekly, ten-day, or monthly values for Kc are necessary when ETc calculations are made on weekly,
ten-day, or monthly time steps. A general procedure is to construct the Kc curve, overlay the curve
with the lengths of the weeks, decad or months, and to derive graphically from the curve the Kc value
for the period under consideration. If all decades have a duration of 10 days facilitates the derivation
of Kc and introduces little error into the calculation of ETc.
Example
You have been given the following:
Crop: dry bean crop
Planting date: 23rd May.
Length of initial stage – 25 days
Length of development stage – 25 days
Length of mid-season – 30 days
Length of late-stage – 20 days
the values for Kc ini, Kc mid and Kc end : 0.15, 1.19, and 0.35.
(i) Draw the Kc curve
(ii) Calculate the ETc for the season
Solution
For all decades the Kc values can be derived directly from the curve. The value at the middle of
the decade is considered to be the average Kc of that 10-day period. Only the second decade of
June, where the Kc value changes abruptly, requires some calculation.
First five days of that decade, Kc = 0.15, while during the second part of the decade Kc varies from
0.15 to 0.36 at the end of day 10. The Kc for that decade is consequently: 5/10 (0.15) +
5/10(0.15+0.36)/2 = 0.20.

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Figure. Kc curve and ten-day values for Kc, ETc for the dry bean crop example
Numerical determination of Kc
The Kc coefficient for any period of the growing season can be derived by considering that during
the initial and mid-season stages Kc is constant and equal to the Kc value of the growth stage
under consideration. During the crop development and late-season stage, Kc varies linearly
between the Kc at the end of the previous stage (Kc prev) and the Kc at the beginning of the next
stage (Kc next), which is Kc end in the case of the late-season stage:

𝑖 − ∑(𝐿𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣 )
𝐾𝑐 𝑖 = 𝐾𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣 + [ ] (𝐾𝑐 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝐾𝑐 )
𝐿𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣

where
i day number within the growing season [1.. length of the growing season], Kci crop coefficient
on day i,
Lstage length of the stage under consideration [days], (Lprev) sum of the lengths of all previous
stages [days].

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Example: Numerical determination of Kc

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