CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study

Women play a crucial role in every nation’s economic activities and also provide economic

support to their respective families. In Nigeria, women involvement in agricultural activities

before the oil boom of the early 1970s contributed to their economic wellbeing as well as

that of the country at large (Adepelumi, 2007; Edozien, 2008). However, the discovery of oil

and the subsequent neglect of agricultural activities which hitherto was dominated by women led

to mass unemployment and tremendous outbreak of hunger. This is because the production of

crude oil and its allied services led to the demand for professionals and skilled labour in

the oil industry, and due to low educational level of most women in the country as at then, they

could not secure jobs in such industries, and so they became redundant (Adepelumi, 2007).

Women contribution to the country’s economy through agricultural micro-enterprises before

the advent of crude oil was noticeable because agriculture was the major foreign

exchange earner which also employed over 60% of the labour force (May, 2007). Again, due to

ineffective policy implementation in Nigeria, fund and programs targeted at empowering women

were diverted to other uses which consequently hindered the empowerment of women.

Although women entrepreneurs have been recognized as an important source of economic

growth in many countries but their potentials have not yet been optimized in many

counties particularly the African continent. African women entrepreneurs experience gender

divide and continue to face a number of cultural challenges as a result of cultural practices

which situate women in a subordinate position to men ( Woldie & Adersua, 2004). Many

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women in Africa operate in environments where socio- cultural traditions play a large role

in determining who becomes an entrepreneur. Socio- cultural conditions in some parts of

countries hinder women from starting and running their own businesses as traditional

women roles are still highly regarded (Woldie & Adersua, 2004).

The attitude towards women entrepreneurs can be regarded as a traditional African

attitude which also weak women’s initiation into business in Nigeria. While women’s

experiences can be more or less similar in African and Western countries, women entrepreneurs

in African face unique societal issues. Consequently, it is important to explore the nature of

women entrepreneurship within the Nigerian context.

Studies have shown that women engage in entrepreneurial activities partly because of low level

of employment and also the need to evade socio - cultural ideology which prevent women

from working. Entrepreneurial activities make women more independent and allow them

effectively balance their role as wives and mothers (Woldie & Adersua, 2004; Lincoln, 2012).

Consequently, developing women’s entrepreneurial capacity would go a long way in harnessing

their ability to identify and capitalise on entrepreneurial opportunities within their environment

and also empower them economically and socially (Shane, 2003).

In transition environments, women contribution is said to span across various economic

spheres, extending to the wider process of social transformation (Welter et al., 2006 ). Women

own and operate around one- third of all businesses in the formal sector, and they represent the

majority of businesses in the informal sector (Bardasi et al., 2007; Aderemi et al., 2008).

Previous studies concentrated efforts on the importance of women entrepreneurship, gender

issues in entrepreneurship and contribution of women entrepreneurship to economic growth and

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development. Studies in this group are (Agbalajobi, 2007; Suleiman & Muktar, 2004). However,

the impact of culture on women entrepreneurship has not been given considerate attention

especially as it affects women in Niger state being the part of north. While most women are

allowed to carry out various business activities in other part of the country (Southern, Eastern

and western) the story line is not same in the north particularly in Niger state.

In view of the above, this study attempts to examine the effect of culture on women

entrepreneurial activities in Minna metropolis and also to find ways to reduce the impact of such

cultural practice and cultivate an enduring entrepreneurship mindset among the women in

Minna metropolis.

1.2 Statement of Problem

The importance of capacity building and skill development among the people of a society cannot

be overemphasized. A nation cannot attain development if she neglects or refuses to put an

impressive commitment on her human capital development. Capacity building is therefore,

salient to the development of individual and the nation at large.

Female are quite industrious and can contribute to the socio-economic development of

themselves and their immediate society where they carry out business activities. However,

majority of them are unable to cross the ladder from being owners of micro enterprises of the

informal sector to a stronger formal enterprise owner and export oriented category. More so, as

majority of them operate with little or no formal education and technical knowhow, expansion

becomes very difficult. Even those who have the capacity and wherewithal to carry out viable

business activities find it difficult to operate owning to the culture that prevent women from

taking active part in trading activities.

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Other studies considered various opportunities that can be harnessed to create entrepreneurial

activities as well as sources of fund that can be used to finance women entrepreneurial activities.

Studies in this class are (Shane 2003; & Stevensun, 2004).

On the basis of the forgoing, researchers particularly in Minna have not considered the impact of

culture on women entrepreneurial activities. This however, create a gap with this study intends to

fill. It is therefore, the thrust of this research work to examine the effect of culture on women

entrepreneurial activities in Minna metropolis.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to access the effects of culture on women entrepreneurial

activities in Minna metropolis. Other specific objectives include:

i. To find out the effect of the cultural Status on Women Entrepreneurial activities in Minna

metropolis.

ii. To identify the nature of cultural practice in Minna as it affect entrepreneurial activities at

large.

iii. To identify ways through which some aspects of culture which affect women can be

mitigated.

1.4 Research Questions

In order to achieve the objective of this study the following questions have been posed by the

researcher.

i. What are the cultural factors that hindered women entrepreneurship?

ii. What is the general cultural practice in Minna?

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 iii. Can aspect of culture which affects women entrepreneurship be changed?

1.5 Research Hypothesis

For the purpose of this study, the following hypotheses have been formulated to be tasted by

researcher.

Hₒ: Culture does not have a significant effect on women entrepreneurial activities in Minna

metropolis.

Hɪ: Culture has a significant effect on women entrepreneurial activities in Minna metropolis.

Hₒ: It not possible for some aspects of cultural practices which affect women entrepreneurial

activities to be altered.

Hɪ: It possible for some aspects of cultural practices which affect women entrepreneurial

activities to be altered.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This study focuses on the effects of culture on women entrepreneurial activities in Minna

metropolis. Minna metropolis is chosen as the study area because women entrepreneurial

activities are still below far compared to other states in the southern, western and the eastern

parts of the country. To this end, findings of this research will be applicable to women in Minna.

However, women from other states may also benefit from the findings of this study, but findings

will have to be tine tuned to suit their respective purposes.

1.8 Significance of the Study

Identifying the cultural factor(s) that affect women entrepreneurial activities and characteristics

of women entrepreneur in Minna Niger state is crucial owing to the role entrepreneurial activities

by women play in poverty reduction. Acquiring knowledge that can be used to improve

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entrepreneurship development among women is an important research issue in Minna. However,

it is expected that this study will further aid policy makers and women entrepreneurial training

programs to tincture existing culture which puts women on their rightful positions with respect to

entrepreneurial activities. It will also identify the cultural challenges confronting women

entrepreneurs in Minna with a view to formulating policies and recommendations on how to

solve the challenges, while contributing to the growing literature on entrepreneurship in Minna

Niger state.

1.9 Description of the Study Area

According to Ministry of Information and Culture (2004), Niger state was created on 3 rd

February 1976 out of the defunct north western state of Nigeria and lies between latitude 8 0 and

110 311 North and longitudes 30 201 and 70 41 East. The state covers a total area of about 58,462.6

sqkilometers and shares boundaries with Kwara state in the south, Federal Capital Territory and

Kaduna State falls in to East, Kebbi State in the north and Benin Republic, an international

boundary, in the west. Table below shows the Niger state geographical location in middle belt

region of Nigeria.

Minna also lies on latitude 9037 North and Longitude 6033’ East on a geographical base of

undifferentiated basement complex of mainly queiss and magnetite. The town enjoys a climate

typical of middle belt zone.

Historically, Minna is basically a Gwari city and it got its name from a ritual performed by the

Gwari founders to observe the beginning of a new year. Minna is a capital of Niger state, one of

the Nigeria’s 36 federal states, with indigenes engaged mainly in farming activities. It became a

civil service town based in 1991. Today, few industries have started to emerge, quite a number of

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banks have equally spread their tentacles to Minna. Minna accommodates about 65%

commercial activities in the states.

Economically, Minna is blessed with abundant industrial and agricultural resources which are

potential raw materials for mining and agro-allied industries.Root crops like yam, cassava and

sorghum can be grown in the surrounding regions of the city. The city is recognized as one of the

largest producers of yam which is staple food for most Nigerians. Rice is produced in large

quantities in Minna as well.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The norms and rules defining social relationships among different groups in society,

which place some in positions of dominance over others and differentiate the choices

available to them including in relation to access to and control over resources have been

termed “structures of constraint” (Folbre, 2003). Gender specific structures of constraint refer

to the social norms, values and practices which define inequalities between women and men in

societies, generally allocating different roles and responsibilities and assigning a lower value to

those aptitudes, capabilities and activities conventionally associated with women. Gender

specific norms typically include the assignment of responsibility for reproductive work

within the family to women and the primary wage earning responsibility to men. This chapter

will discuss:

 The concept of culture

 The concept of entrepreneurship

 Entrepreneurial characteristics and skills

 Women entrepreneurship

 Women entrepreneurs and gender factor

 Women entrepreneurs and cultural beliefs

 Characteristics of women entrepreneurs

 Reasons why women choose entrepreneurship

 Barriers to female entrepreneurs

 Feminism theory

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  Resource based theory

2.2 The Concept of Culture

Shinnar, Giacomin, and Janssen (2012), defines culture as “a collective programming of the

mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people” they assert that

cultures exhibit an unequal distribution of power, strong hierarchies, control mechanisms and

an emphasis to and obeying those in position of power.

Children are said to acquire a set of values and behaviours from their parents and family during

their formative years and subsequently from other social institutions in the larger society. In

essence, it could be argued that the system of human behaviour and thought is subject to certain

standards. In line with this, Hawkins et al (2004), posit that culture is acquired by man as a

member of society. Over time, this culture becomes the code of conduct, for which every

member of that society is expected to adhere to. In addition, Krakauer et al (2002) argue that

culture refers to more than merely ethnicity, but a constellation of shared meanings, values,

rituals, and modes of interacting with others that determine how people view and make sense of

the world they live in. This means that certain practices and beliefs will over time become

enduring and people will accept them as a way of life with little or no attempt to question such

values. Impliedly, the attitude and mindset of the youth (would be entrepreneurs) who are the

backbone of every developing economy are largely formed even before they get involved in

activities that could be entrepreneurial.

2.3 The Concept of Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship as a term can be explained from diverse perspectives depending on the context

of usage. However, the meaning that is generally put forward in literature is one who seeks

opportunity and takes risk with the hope of making some return on his investment. Imhonopi &

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Urim (2011) described an entrepreneur as a specialist who exploits profit opportunities using

favourable price penetration strategies and developing products and organizations to help drive

his vision. On the other hand, Adekunle & Kasumu (2005) see an entrepreneur as one who sees

an opportunity and is willing to take a risk with the objective of growing the eventual business in

a manner that adds economic value to him and the society at large.

In essence, entrepreneurship revolves around ability to identify an opportunity where most others

are unable to do same. This will require someone that is not risk averse because there is a

possibility of failure. Furthermore, Kuratko & Hodgetts (2004) argue that entrepreneurship

involves an application of energy and passion towards the creation of an enterprise which

includes willingness to take calculative risks; team work, ability to manage needed resources,

capacity to build solid business plans and most of all, the vision to recognize opportunity where

others see chaos, contradiction and confusion. Achieving all these would require some form of

formal education. Consistent with this Kuratko (2005) posits that entrepreneurship needs to be

taught by an expert to ensure the transfer of skills and knowledge.

2.4 Entrepreneurial Characteristics and Skills

Entrepreneurship development refers to the process of enhancing entrepreneurial skills and

knowledge through structured training and institution building programmes (Olushola,

2009).This therefore suggests that an entrepreneur needs to possess some skills that are very vital

to the success of his business. Although there are arguments as to whether entrepreneurs are born

or that entrepreneurship can be taught and the necessary skills developed over time, Abdullahi

(2009) believes that the psychological attributes needed by an entrepreneur could be culturally

and experientially acquired.

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Many scholars have different views as to the characteristics or skills that an entrepreneur needs

to possess. Adekunle & Kasumu (2005) argue that characterization of an entrepreneur must be

done within the multiple perspectives from which the entrepreneur is seen. They outlined the

most basic among them as; self confidence, risk bearing, result orientation, drive and energy,

Innovation and creativity, leadership, personal responsibility, punctuality and having the

capacity to scan the environment for opportunities, and taking initiative. On the other hand,

Olushola (2009) asserts that the following characteristics are fundamental; self-confidence, sense

of urgency, comprehensive awareness, realistic outlook, conceptual ability, emotional stability,

and attraction to challenges. In essence, the development and growth of an entrepreneur are

largely dependent on a set of characteristics and skills which are learnt and could be culturally

and experientially acquired. However, few from the numerous entrepreneurial characteristics as

Adekunle & Kasumu (2005) point out are:

Self Confident: Confidence is a hallmark of the entrepreneur. Not all entrepreneurs are born

with confidence, but that does not mean they are not capable of it. Many confident women and

men gain their sense of self esteem and faith in their ability to greet challenges by acting even

when they lack the confidence and then gaining strength and belief in them by seeing the results

and gaining the praise and respect of others.

High Level of Energy: Entrepreneurs are more energetic than average person, that energy may

be a critical factor given the incredible afford required to lunch a start-up company.

Locus of Control Beliefs: That is the extent to which people believe that their behaviours affect

what happens to them. Need to meet people’s needs by identifying gap in the immediate

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environment. They set goals and do all it takes to achieve these goals. They are also focused.

They compete with a self imposed and objective standard.

Desire for Responsibility: Entrepreneurs feel a deep sense of personal responsibility for the

outcome of the ventures they start. They prefer to be in control of their resources, and the

resources to achieve self determined goal.

Empirical Literature Review

2.5 Women entrepreneurship

In developing countries, as Self & Grabowski (2009) argue, cultural factor and the lack of gender

development are major problems. In developed countries, studies show that women

entrepreneurship can provide jobs for more women and contribute to economic stability and

economic development. For instance, there is an apparent high level of discrimination against

females with regard to recruitment into employment (Yesufu, 2008). Females numbering

44,462,621 constitute 46.96% of the total population of Nigeria in 2006 census. The study

stressed further that the potential labour force in Nigeria consisting of people in age group 15-64

years inclusive was 46,091,452 of which female numbered 23,675,975 which is approximately

51.4 percent. And observed, that in spite of this, males are far more than the females in respect of

total employed labour force, The male formed 62.6 percent while the females are just 37 .4

percent which was further confirmed their advantage position in the society. More also, Most

women are involved in micro small and medium scale enterprises (MSMES) which contribute

more than 97% of all enterprises, 60% of the nation’s GDP and a 97% of the total share of the

employment (Ndubusi, 2004). Therefore, entrepreneurship, not only in developing countries but

also in developed countries, can become an important mechanism to overcome cultural

challenges of women entrepreneurial activities.

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Women entrepreneurship has attracted increasing attention in recent years in light of concrete

evidence of the importance of new business creation for economic growth and development

(Langowitz & Minniti, 2007). Not only does women entrepreneurship contribute to economic

growth and employment creation, but it is increasingly recognized to also enhance the diversity

of entrepreneurship in any economic system (Jamali, 2009) and to provide avenues for female

expression and potential fulfilment (Eddleston & Powell, 2008). These benefits are rarely

leveraged in a systematic way, however, given that female entrepreneurship talent and potential

remain largely untapped in many contexts (Jamali, 2009).

Entrepreneurship plays a very important role in the economic development and it has proven to

be one of the best and effective solutions for combating unemployment in developing countries

(GEM, 2013).

More men and women in developing countries turn to self employment; hence recently women

entrepreneurship has been increasing so rapidly, women are starting their own business to take

control over their personal and professional lives. Women are emerging economic force that

policymakers cannot afford to ignore. There are, however a number of constraints to women

owned businesses that need to be addressed. In overcoming these obstacles, there are actions to

be taken by government, financial institutions and employers organizations by working closely

with women business associations. Globally, women are enhancing, directing, and changing the

face of how business is done (GEM, 2013).

Countries differ considerably in the level of entrepreneurial activity (Freytag & Thurik, 2007;

Minniti et al, 2005). Knowing the causes for such cross country differences is important for

practice as well as theory. Scholars have explained variations of entrepreneurial activity across

13
nations by economic development, the institutional environment (Lee, Peng, & Barney, 2007),

and cultural values (Freytag & Thurik, 2007; Morris).

In view of the above, national culture can be defined as a country’s shared practices and values

(House et al., 2004). Our theorizing about the effects of national culture draws on arguments

about the direct relationships between culture and entrepreneurial activity, the interaction effects

between culture and women entrepreneurship and the multi-dimensional nature of culture.

Ultimately, female business owners must be recognized for who they are, what they do, and how

significantly they impact the world’s global economy. According to GEM (2013), it is estimated

that women entrepreneurs comprise about 10% of the total entrepreneurs globally. It is also clear

that this percentage is growing every year. If prevailing trends continue, it is not unlikely that in

another five years, women will comprise 20% of the entrepreneurial force globally.

There is indeed accumulating evidence suggesting that although the rate at which women are

forming businesses has increased significantly, the rates of female entrepreneurial activity are

significantly and systematically lower than those for males (Langowitz & Minniti, 2007). In this

respect, substantial variations in entrepreneurship rates across countries participating in the

Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) in 2013 demonstrated that men are more active in

entrepreneurship in all countries as compared to women and these points out to the fact that

women’s efforts are curtailed.

2.6 Women Entrepreneurs and Gender Factor

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Entrepreneurial activities in most countries are known to be male dominated especially in the

developing countries, the ratio of women entrepreneur to men entrepreneur varies

considerably across the world. Women entrepreneur operate within gender bias among other

constraint that can constitute a threat or create opportunity for women entrepreneurs (Eren,

2012). The women entrepreneurs are often marginalized to the informal sector, however, the

ability of women entrepreneur to formalize and grow their business to create jobs and

enhance productivity is hampered where barriers exist that affect men and women entrepreneurs

differently.

Gender discrimination against the women entrepreneur is usually exhibited in ethnic practices,

for example, the Igbos of South East of Nigeria are known to be the foremost

entrepreneurial group, when compared to other major ethnic groups in Nigeria. The

entrepreneurial activities as practiced in the Igbo ethnic group of Nigeria give priority to the

male child in nurturing for entrepreneurial activities. The male child as a custom is given

entrepreneurial orientation and training right from the childhood, while the female child is

seen to provide future supportive role to their husband or family business. This is evidence

according Nworah (2011) at demise of an entrepreneur in Igbo ethnic group the practice

is usually transfer of control to the eldest male child who may even be the least competent,

this constitute a bias against women entrepreneur.

Abimbola & Agboola (2011) view gender as a force found to be capable of either impeding or

facilitating entrepreneurial activities in any society. The issue of gender factor affect women

entrepreneur positively and negatively, depending on the economy and nation.

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However, gender bias affect involvement of women in the formal sector of entrepreneurial

activities this is evidence in Malaysia where the Malay constitute 70% of the population,

however, only two (2) women entrepreneur are listed out of fourteen (14) most successful

Malay entrepreneurs making waves in Asian economy, the report indicates fewer Malay

women entrepreneur are involve in the formal economic sector, however, women

entrepreneurship activities thrive better in a conducive atmosphere.

Prejudice against women entrepreneurs is experienced much more severely in Africa and indeed

the developing countries than in developed countries due to oblivious cultural practices, religion

bigotry, discrimination and tradition of patriarchal cultures (Thebaud, 2012). Naude & Amainniti

(2012) view that gender gaps in start-up are much larger in developing economy which is

tending to be narrower in developed economy. They assert, this may be due to many women

commences business out of necessity. However, it is observe that women have started business

significantly in greater number over the past two decades, but gender inequality pronounced

when compared to the traditional labour market.

2.7 Women Entrepreneurs and Cultural Beliefs

Shinnar, Giacomin, & Janssen (2012) defines culture as “a collective programming of the

mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people, they assert that

cultures exhibit an unequal distribution of power, strong hierarchies, control mechanisms and

an emphasis to and obeying those in position of power. The effect of culture on

entrepreneurship was early emphasized by Max Weber at the beginning of the century. He

argues that Protestantism encouraged a culture that emphasized the importance of cultural

influences embedded in religion as a means for understanding the genesis of capitalism. This can

16
be seen in his famous view on individualism, achievement motivation, and legitimating of

entrepreneurial vocations, asceticism, rationality and self reliance. Culture affects the perception

and behaviour of people which would invariably affect relationship between one another. In the

Muslim world and most of the South East Asian countries, the women are expected to remain

indoor according to Hugo, except in extreme cases, and need to be completely covered by Hijab

if they venture out, this practices is due to religious beliefs. This practice have negative tendency

for the women entrepreneurs, the practice confines the few that venture into entrepreneurship to

the informal sector of the economy.

Culture can be examined in two ways: at the psychological level which focuses on the

internalized norms, attitudes and behaviour of individuals from a particular culture and the

institutional level which focuses on the culture embodied in institutions such as government,

education, economic institutions and business firms. In developing countries, societal structures

have facilitated the transmission of conservative socio-cultural values and fuelled in part socio-

inhibitions through traditions surrounded in policy, legal environment and institutional support

mechanisms (Madichie, 2009). For example, in Africa the male child is preferred over the female

child. The female is groomed for early marital roles while the male child is sent to school to be

educated. It is often preferred to educate the male child since they are seen as the economic

protector or breadwinner for the immediate and extended family (Ndemo & Maina, 2007).

Rauf & Mitra (2013) view that business growth depends mainly on entrepreneurial perception

of business and these perceptions are shaped by social beliefs, values, cultural restrictions

and religious values. In Northern Nigeria, the Hausa / Fulani Ethnic groups who are the

majority Ethnic groups in Nigeria, constitute 33% of Nigeria’s estimated 150 million

populations, Hausa / Fulani women entrepreneurs can only be found in the informal sector

17
of the economy this is due mainly to cultural and religious practices. Shinnar, Giacomin &

Janssen (2012) observed that empirical evidence indicates that in spite of growth in women

entrepreneurship, the male entrepreneurs are still almost twice the women entrepreneur due

mainly to cultural perceptions and practices. Cultural beliefs impact negatively to the promotion

and development of entrepreneurial activities in the developing economy.

Women in Africa have found it difficult to challenge the dominated role society had given them.

The acceptance of these roles, which is well pronounced all through developing countries as well

as the Sub-Saharan African societies, has helped to solidify the role of women. As Singh &

Mordi (2010) points out, 'while career opportunities for women have changed family role models

have not'. Women still have to sacrifice their career ambitions on the altar of marriage while the

man decides whether the woman progresses with her entrepreneurial ambition. The reverse is

rarely the case that a man gives up his career for the woman. Many female entrepreneurs are also

immensely challenged by the processes of taking care of children their husbands and relations.

Governments in developing countries have shown little interest in trying to understand, enact and

implement legislation against inhibitive socio-cultural values that adversely impact the

advancement of female entrepreneurs. The impact of these on womenfolk as Sigh et al (2010)

points out include the lack of equal representation of females at the top echelons of industry,

poor self- image, the loss of confidence, the lack of a requisite skill set and sometimes social

exclusion. All these traits or tendencies are fatalistic to a female entrepreneur's development. It is

important to note that there is a gradual but significant shift away from these trends as countries

become more democratic; gender inequalities appear to have lessened (Singh & Mordi, 2010).

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2.8 Characteristics of Women Entrepreneurs

Much of the literature seeks to identify common characteristics of female entrepreneurs and their

businesses (Bird & Sapp, 2004). Generally, women owned businesses are smaller, less

profitable, less established, located in more crowded industries, have lower wages associated

with them, and grow at slower rates than male owned businesses (Bird & Sapp, 2004). Female

entrepreneurs are often heavily concentrated in the retail and service industries (Allen et al.,

2007) Some authors attribute this trend to women lacking technical skills and having

predominantly moderate arts educations (Bruni et al., 2004). However, Bird & Sapp (2004)

attributes this industry trend to increased participation in the workforce in general, a growing

trend among firms to contract out services, and flexible working hours. Ndemo & Maina (2007)

noted the female entrepreneurs are described as having less autonomy in decision making, less

experience, lower earnings, than male entrepreneurs. Much of the literature suggests that women

and men have different levels of human and social capital, which influences their entrepreneurial

styles (Bird & Sapp, 2004; Coughlin, 2002, Ndemo & Maina, 2007).

A review of the literature by Bennett & Dann (2000) reveals three main personality

characteristics of an entrepreneur: internal locus of control, achievement and risk taking. The

internal locus of control is deemed necessary for the entrepreneur to take the risk of establishing

a new venture. Individuals who do not have a high belief in their own ability to control a

situation are unlikely to expose themselves to the risks associated with a start up. The need for

achievement is linked to the internal locus of control characteristic. Individuals who believe their

actions will result in personal achievement have a strong internal belief. Risk taking as the third

psychological characteristic, whether it is financial, social or psychological it is an integral part

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of the entrepreneurial process, indeed it is the balance between the potential profit of the venture

and the cost process.

There are arguments in the literature as to whether psychological characteristics are defining

qualities of an entrepreneur. An entrepreneur is not necessarily created at birth; however their

individual traits are critical to how such a person reacts to a given situation. For example, the

trait of risk-taking will influence whether a person takes up an opportunity to start their own

business depending on the perceived risk. Therefore psychological characteristics as well as

situational variables have an explanatory role for an entrepreneur’s behaviour (Malaza, 2010).

Lebakeng (2008) contend that some of the more popular demographic factors include: family

birth order, gender, work experience, education and an entrepreneurial family. However, other

demographic traits that have been studied by entrepreneurship researchers include; marital status,

education level of parents and social economic status. While characteristics of both male and

female entrepreneurs are generally very similar, in some respect female entrepreneurs posses

very different motivation, business skill levels and occupational suitable backgrounds than

their male counterparts (Hisrich & Peters, 1995).

2.9 Reasons why Women Choose Entrepreneurship

Women often have different motivations for becoming entrepreneurs than men (Ndemo &

Maina, 2007). Push and pull factors or opportunity and necessity factors, are delineated when

describing women’s motivations for becoming entrepreneurs. Necessity or push factors, include

being unhappy with a present job, lack of income, lack of opportunity, discrimination, or need

for flexibility, while opportunity or pull factors, consist of independence, personal challenge, self

fulfilment, a desire for wealth, identification of a perceived business opportunity and social

20
status (Allen et al., 2007; Birley, 1989 & Mattis, 2004). Necessity entrepreneurship is more

common among women than among men (Allen et al., 2007).

Many female owned businesses are an extension of their household duties or family

responsibilities, such as hair stylist, personal trainer, retail, or household products, or are an

attempt to balance home and work (Coughlin, 2002). While most of the literature attributes

female entrepreneur’s motivations to push factors. Orhan & Scott (2001) indicates that female

entrepreneurs are well trained, well prepared, and are motivated by pull factors. They identify

several types of female entrepreneurs based on their motivations, indicating a wide range of

motivations within women as a group and highlighting the importance of not generalizing to all

types of women. An entrepreneurial family background is a strong influence on female

entrepreneurship (Mattis, 2004).

2.10 Barriers to Female Entrepreneurs

Several studies have indicated that the emergence of female entrepreneurs in a society depends to

a great extent on the challenges they encounter towards entrepreneurial development. These

challenges are often underpinned by the cultural, religious, psychological and economic

environment in a society (Kitching & Waldie, 2004). According to Yusuf (2013), women

entrepreneurs are confronted with two key challenges gender and cultural beliefs. Agboola

(2011) viewed gender and cultural beliefs among other factors that influences people’s

willingness and ability to venture into entrepreneurial activities, they continued that within

the cultural context, there are sub culture like regional, ethnicity and religious that shapes

individual’s perception and value system. In order to understand the barriers that slow down

21
female entrepreneurs, there is a need to understand the cultural context relevant to the female

entrepreneur. However, few from numerous barriers to female entrepreneurs are:

Cultural Values: Cultural values or tradition is one of the entrepreneurial challenges women

entrepreneurs face in the field of entrepreneurial activities. This challenge is more profound on

women entrepreneurs in Africa where the cultural value entails that the man/husband be the

bread winner (Agboola, 2011). A woman exhibiting her entrepreneurial prowess is presumed as

wanting to take over the leadership role of the husband. This challenge also surfaces in families

where the husband/father is an entrepreneur. The male children are usually groomed on running

the family business and carrying on after the demise of the father while the female children are

usually left out of this entrepreneurial grooming process. For women to overcome this

entrepreneurial challenge they must be prepared to breakthrough this limiting tradition and must

stick to what they believe in.

The Nigerian culture still hampers active participation of women in entrepreneurial activities.

The perception that women entrepreneur may be too aggressive and would result to the

abandonment of their household duties seem to leave the average woman involved in soft and

menial business activities considered to just keep her busy. The level of orientation to ease out

this crude perception has taken a gradual dimension owing especially to harsh economic realities

confronting husbands and society in general whereby every hand is expected to be on deck for

survival.

Societal Discrimination: Another challenge women face in business is societal discrimination.

Most people still live with the mentality that certain businesses or tasks are better handled by

men. People ignorantly believed women are not fit in certain activities such as auto mechanic,

22
commercial bus driver, plumber, mason or welder. More also, people often assume women are

generally incompetent in certain fields of life. Therefore, they would rather deal with a business

man than a woman. The reason is because it’s believed that the men are born to do it.

Lack of Investor Confident: Capital rising is another challenge women entrepreneurs face

when starting a business. Investors naturally give less consideration to business women and one

can’t really pinpoint the reason for this. It’s easier for business man to raise capital than a woman

except such a woman has proved her competence and credibility over time. According to

Agboola (2011), women entrepreneurs generally find it difficult to raise capital or obtain a bank

loan because investors and bankers would rather risk their venture capital with male

entrepreneurs than females. Olatunla (2008) identified that the ratio of application approval for

loan in the micro finance banks between men and women is 65:35 percent respectively. The

imbalance has been attributed to lack of sound written proposal/business plan and feasibility

study. Other factors include the high interest charge and collateral security.

Balancing Business and Family: Balancing business and family is another challenge women

entrepreneurs face in business arena. Women naturally are the backbone of the family, they lay

the building blocks on which the family foundation is built. So often times, women entrepreneurs

usually find themselves torn between commitment to the family and business.

Entrepreneurial Attitude: Akpa (2007) opined that an average entrepreneur is rugged and

aggressive. These are common attributes of men. Men tend to focus on performance of the job

while women focus on being inclusive and relational. However, success is not gender friendly, a

woman entrepreneur that want to be successful most adopt some level of these attributes

in addition to their natural innate attributes.

23
Cultural Restrictions: The Nigerian culture still hampers active participation of women in

entrepreneurial activities. The perception that women entrepreneur may be too aggressive and

would result to the abandonment of their household duties seem to leave the average woman

involved in soft and menial business activities considered to just keep her busy. The level of

orientation to ease out this crude perception has taken a gradual dimension owing especially to

harsh economic realities confronting husbands and society in general whereby every hand is

expected to be on deck for survival.

Technology: Expensive technology, non availability, and required skills to develop local

technologies have left the women entrepreneurs to acquire cheap, inefficient and

ineffective techniques and machines for production. This approach has left most products from

developing countries unattractive to consumers in developed markets.

Theoretical Framework

2.11 Feminism Theory

According to feminism theory, women should be equal to their men counterpart politically,

economically and socially (Offen, 1988). Feminism has gone ahead to form the core of the

feminist theory, and by extension the core of studies on gender equality in entrepreneurship

(Kutanis & Bayraktaroglu, 2003). Although feminist theory can be subcategorized into various

theories; cultural feminism, ecofeminism, individualist or libertarian feminism, material

feminism, moderate feminism and gender feminism, radical feminism, amazon feminism and

separatists theories. An understanding of three differing feminist perspectives, namely liberal,

social feminism and cultural feminism, can enhance our appreciation of the issues and challenges

of female entrepreneurship (Calixte et al., 2005). Each of these paradigms takes a critical

approach to the status quo, but suggests different measures to foster female entrepreneurship.

24
Cultural Feminism

The cultural feminism theory believes that there are fundamental personality differences between

men and women. The feminist theory recognizes subordination, inequality and oppression of

women and acknowledges the educational, industry experience, networking relationships and

access to capital deprivation of women in the society (Appelbaum, Audet & Miller, 2003;

Cron, Bruton & Slocum, 2006), which evidently affect women’s entrepreneurial success, as is

reflected in the Nigerian small and medium enterprise sector where most women

entrepreneurial activities are dusted under the micro and informal sectors, most of which

are seen purely for subsistence purposes (UNCTAD, 2014).

Liberal Feminism

Liberal feminism is rooted in European liberal philosophy that gives primacy to the rational

individual in society. The core belief is that each and every person can develop and contribute to

society so long as opportunities to do so are available and accessible. When a problem exists, the

state should remove it. Education is viewed as one of the key opportunities that must be

accessible to all. Liberal feminism postulates that women can rationalize and solve problems as

effectively as men, but are at a disadvantage because of their lack of experience, lack of

management training, as well as the presence of discrimination, for example in terms of

financing. Accordingly, one can attribute gender differences to the fact that women have not

been able to develop their full potential, these differences should disappear when women are

given access to the same opportunities as men (Fisher et al., 1993).

25
Social Feminism

In contrast, social feminism draws on a different, but equally established, tradition of

collectivism, in which the individual is viewed as acting within and influenced by economic and

social structures (Calixte et al., 2005). Both gender and work are considered social constructions

that are collectively maintained, renewed, and occasionally challenged. There are no simple

solutions because power differences tend to maintain the existing inequalities that exist in the

social structures (Clement & Myles, 2001). The woman is burdened with the “double day” of

paid labour and unpaid domestic labour. Her male partner often claims rest privileges because of

his full-time employment that contributes more revenue to the household. Many women who

desire to work outside the home compromise by pursuing part-time employment and accepting a

more gradual pace of career development. With respect to entrepreneurship, women are

constrained to small, often micro-businesses, preferring flexibility by working part-time and

possibly at home. Social feminists argue that the situation will remain unchanged until the

domestic work of women is recognized through some type of monetary consideration and there

is an equitable sharing of household responsibilities between men and women.

Other discussions of social feminism (Fisher et al., 1993) emphasize that women develop

different skills, understandings, and outlooks on life inasmuch as young girls go through a

different socialisation process than that experienced by young boys. Males and females follow

different paths to acquire distinctive skills, thus giving rise to gender-specific entrepreneurial

behaviours. Hence, women find motivation in tasks they like to perform, rather than in the

financial motives that often characterize male-controlled enterprises. For instance, if the female

entrepreneur elects not to pursue a rapid growth strategy, it is not because she is handicapped in

any way from doing so, but rather because she places less value on expansion of her enterprise.

26
2.12 Resource Based Theory

Conner (1992), Rumelt (1987) established the importance of entrepreneurship in the resource-

based framework. The resource-based theory of an economy lies primarily in the effective

application of all tangible and intangible resources a country may have at its disposal that gives it

a competitive edge and fosters the growth of said economy (Mwailu & Mercer, 1983;

Wernerfelt, 1984, Rumelt, 1984 & Penrose, 1959). Women make up 49% of Nigeria’s 172.6

million populations (World Bank Data, 2013), following the resource-based theory, this large

percentage of the population, if well managed is capable of transforming the Nigerian economy

through entrepreneurship. It is imperative for a growing economy to effectively maximize every

resource it has, in order to create sustainable development. It is argued that a common

measurement of the resource-based theory and entrepreneurship is resources i.e. effectively

maximizing all available resources.

It is however, observed that these large groups of females are culturally not given an opportunity

to start and grow enterprises because of their “gender” as highlighted in the feminist theory. It is

important to note that this is as a result of the “gender” characteristics of the Nigerian

environment, and not because of the “sex” of this population. The difference between terms, sex

and gender as applies to the feminist theory is, while sex is a biological variable given with birth,

gender is socially constructed. As such a born female in another society or culture may be

expected to be the breadwinner of the family thus assuming the position of the “male”, while in

another society, the female is expected to sit at home and mother the children.

The theory underpinning this study is liberal feminism. Liberal feminism discuses how sex and

gender are intimately related to socialization. It sees women as disadvantaged relative to men

27
due to overt discrimination and to systemic factors which deprive them of vital resources

required for business and economic decisions such as; finance, education and experience (Fisher,

Reuber & Dyke, 1993). This theory works towards an egalitarian society which would uphold

the right of each individual to fulfil their potential (Kutanis & Bayraktaroglu, 2003). Liberal

feminism advocates that social and economic reform can only be possible if women are given the

opportunities and status as their men counterpart to participate in economic developmental

issues.

The treatment of liberal theory is conventional in terms of established feminist theory, evoking

the idea that men’s and women’s ways of exposure to the world challenges are essentially the

same. The main task of feminist research and policies is to allow women’s estate to reach a state

of similarity with men’s via the removal of overt or systemic forms of discrimination mainly

directed against women. Liberal feminism somehow supports the nineteenth-century feminists,

and ‘new’ feminism, which argued that equality between male and female gender could not be

achieved by mere legislation but by the conscious effort of the government to ensure that

women-based challenges are reduced. The reason for this is because women’s social needs

differ from that of men in many ways due to their biological and psychological differences. In an

attempt to reduce women’s burden and improve the living condition of millions of women in the

world, the liberal feminists are advocating for women’s welfare, education and health reforms.

This notwithstanding, women are still seen as inferior to men and this has compounded the

challenges they face in business.

28
 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction

This chapter explains the research design, population, sample size, sampling techniques, methods

of data collection and data analysis that will be used in this study.

3.2 Research Design

This study employs survey research design where first hand data and information were collected

for the purpose of this research. This enabled the study to have direct examination of the

phenomenon in order to establish the relationship between culture and women entrepreneurial

activities in Minna metropolis.

3.3 Population of the Study

The population of the study includes all registered Small and Medium Scale Enterprises in

Minna. To this end, there are one hundred and fifty three (153) SMEs that are currently

registered with Corporate Affair Commission (CAC). Therefore, the population of the study

consists of all the one hundred and fifty three (153) registered SMEs in Minna.

3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Technique

As stated earlier, the population of the study is one hundred and fifty three (153), it will be

difficult to study the entire population due to certain economic and social factors that may limit

access to the required information. To get the required sample size, the study employs Schult’s

equation to carefully determine the sample size. The sample was put at 5% degree of freedom.

The equation is stated as follows:

29
 n= N

1+ N (e)2

Where n = sample size

N= Total population size

1 is constant

e = the assume error margin is taken as 5% (0.05)

n= N

1 + N (e)2

Where N=153

e = (0.05)2

= 0.0025

n= 153

1 + 153 (0.0025)

n = 153

1 + 0.3825

n = _153_

1.3825

n = 111

30
The sample size for this study, therefore consist of one hundred and eleven (111) registered

SMEs operators in Minna. To pick these sample size from the population, the study employed

stratified random sampling technique so as to accommodate and give fair representation to

different genders in the population.

3.5 Sources and Methods of Data Collection

The study employed primary method of data collection to generate required data for the study.

3.5.1 Primary Sources

Primary method of data collection was used to generate first hand information from the

respondents which was used to establish the relationship among the studied variables. Sources

through data were generated includes:

i. Questionnaire

ii. Direct observation

iii. interview

Questionnaire: The study used questionnaire to generate information from the respondents on

the bases of the research objectives. The questionnaire was structured in a way that is self

administered with various alternative options, ranging from Strongly agree, Agree, Can’t decide,

Strongly disagree and Disagree.

All copies of the questionnaire were administered to all the sampled registered SMEs operators.

One hundred and eleven (111) copies of the questionnaire were administered, out of which one

hundred and one (101) were duly filled and return.

31
Observation: The researcher also used his familiarity with some of the SMEs operators to

generate information via observation to fully understanding the nature and practice of SMEs

operators.

Interview: In order to make up the poorly filled and unreturned questionnaire, the study also

employed interview technique particularly for SMEs operators that found it difficult to properly

fill the questionnaire.

3.6 Method of Data Analysis

Data generated for this study were analyzed through a number of statistical tools.

Firstly, descriptive statistics was used to describe the phenomenon associated with data. Also,

correlation and regression analysis were employed to establish the relationship between culture

and women entrepreneurial activities in Minna metropolis. The data was analyzed at 5%

confidence interval using relevant statistical packages for social sciences (SPSS) version 20.

32
 CHAPTERFOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter analyses and presents the data obtained from the survey on the effect of cultural

practice on women entrepreneurial activities in Minna metropolis. This chapter builds

empirically on the previous studies as found in the literature review. One hundred and eleven

(111) copies of questionnaires were administered to registered SMEs in Minna metropolis; one

hundred and one (101) were retrieved. The hypotheses were tested using correlation and

regression analysis to ascertain the relationship between the variables.

4.2 Descriptive Analysis: Demographic Profile

Descriptive statistics quantitatively define the general features of respondents. It provides an

over view on which other analysis can be built on.

Figure 4.1: Distribution of Respondents by Gender

Source: Generated by the Author, from Field Survey (2015)

Figure 4.1 presents the gender distribution of respondents. It shows that 39 respondents

representing 38.6 % are male while 62 respondents representing 61% are females.

33
Figure 4.2: Distribution of Respondents by Age

Source: Generated by the Author, from Field Survey (2015)

Figure 4.2 shows that 22 of the respondents representing 21.8% are within the age of 18-29, 34

of the respondents representing 33.7% are within the age of 30-39, 39 of the respondents

representing 38.6% are within the age of 40-49, while 6 of the respondents representing 5.9% are

within the age of 50 and above. This indicates that majority of the respondents are within the age

bracket of 30-39 and 40-49.

Figure 4.3: Distribution of Respondents by Marital Status

Source: Generated by the Author, from Field Survey (2015)

34
 Figure 4.3 shows that 76 of the respondents representing 75.2% are married, 23 of the

respondents representing 22.8% are single, 1 of the respondents representing 1.0% is divorced,

while 1 of the respondents representing 1.0% is widowed. This indicates that majority of the

respondent are married.

Figure 4.4: Distribution of Respondents by Academic Qualification

Source: Generated by the Author, from Field Survey (2015)

Figure 4.4 reveals the academic qualification of the respondents where 21 of the respondents

representing 20.8% were SSCE holders, 51 of the respondents representing 50.5% were NCE

holders, 11 of the respondents representing 10.9% were HND holders, 18 of the respondents

representing 17.8% were B.SC/B.TECH holders.

35
Table 4.1: Correlation Analysis
Correlations
CULSOL CULPRA CULSTA
Pearson Correlation 1 -.343** .115
CULSOL Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .251
N 101 101 101
Pearson Correlation -.343** 1 -.340**
CULPRA Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000
N 101 101 101
Pearson Correlation .115 -.340** 1
CULSTA Sig. (2-tailed) .251 .000
N 101 101 101
Source: Generated by the Author, from Field Survey(2015)

Table 4.1 above is correlation analysis result that shows the strength of relationship between

cultural solution, cultural practice, and cultural status. There is a negative relationship between

cultural solution and cultural practice and cultural status at (r=-0.343, and -0.340 respectively)

and significant at p<0.01. The negative relationship shows that an increase in cultural practice of

women in SMEs will lead to a decline in cultural solution by 34%. Also, the negative

relationship shows that an increase in cultural status of women in SMEs will lead to a decline in

cultural solution by 34%.

Table 4.2: Regression Analysis

Regression analysis was carried out using the below model.

X= a + β + е

X = a + β1 + β 2 + e

Where:

X = Dependent variable

a = constant term

β1 = CULPRA

36
β2 = CULSTA

e = Error term (0.05)

Model

Constant 39.593

CULPRA -0.344

(0.034)**

CULSTA -0.002

(0.017)***

R .343

R2 .118

F 6.545**

Source: Generated by the Author, from Field Survey (2015)

Note: ***, **,* denotes significance at 1%, 5% and 10% respectively. Value of the t-statistics

are indicated in parenthesis

Table 4.2 Shows the result of regression analysis which also reveal the relationship between the

variables at r-34.3% significant at P<.05. The r square is .118 which indicates 11.8% of the

extent of relationship between the variables.

The F-ratio, which is the variance between groups, is small (6.545) which indicate that there is

less variability between the groups but is significant at P<.05. Thus the null hypotheses can be

rejected.

4.3: Test of Hypothesis

Earlier formulated in chapter one of this study were tested using the correlation and multiple

regressions analysis to establish whether there is a relationship between cultural practice and

women entrepreneurship at 95% confidence level.

37
Hypothesis1.

Hₒ: Culture does not have a significant effect on women entrepreneurial activities in Minna

metropolis.

The regression coefficient of 0.343 is statistically significant at p<.05. This shows that there is

indeed a relationship between culture and women entrepreneurial activities in Minna. Based on

the empirical evidence, the null hypothesis is rejected while the alternative hypothesis which

states “Culture has a significant effect on women entrepreneurial activities in Minna metropolis”

is accepted.

Hypothesis2.

Hₒ: It not possible for some aspects of cultural practices which affect women

entrepreneurial activities to be altered.

The regression coefficient of 0.343 is statistically significant at p<.05. This shows that there is

indeed a relationship between cultural practice in Minna and cultural solution. Based on the

empirical evidence, the null hypothesis is rejected while the alternative hypothesis which states

“It possible for some aspects of cultural practices which affect women entrepreneurial activities

to be altered” is accepted.

38
 CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter summarises the finding that emerged from the study, which investigated the effect

of culture on women entrepreneurial activities in Minna metropolis. The basis of which

conclusions were drowned and recommendations made.

5.2 Summary of Finding

The study investigates the effect of culture on women entrepreneurial activities in Minna

metropolis. This is due to the fact that while, women who engage in entrepreneurial activities

contributes meaningfully towards their self economic wellbeing, there exists a number of cultural

practice that prevent women from engaging in entrepreneurial activities. Relevant literatures

were reviewed conceptually and theoretically to have fully understanding of the subject matter.

Findings from the study show that women in Niger state have a number of cultural huddles to

contend with if they chose to engage in entrepreneurial activities.

5.3 Conclusion of the Study

In view of the findings of this study the following conclusions are drawn

It is good for women to have basic understanding of their culture but can be successful

entrepreneur through careful adoption of cultural practice system.

Women entrepreneurs in Minna are negatively affected by some cultural practice.

Women who want to engage in business have not fully understanding of some cultural huddles

that need to be manipulated in order to overcome the challenges.

39
5.4 Recommendations

Driven by the findings in this research, for women entrepreneurship in Minna to be relevant,

focused, and productive enough and play the crucial roles it is expected to in relation to

contributing to the growth and development of economy of Niger and Nigeria at large they have

to transcend cultural practice into entrepreneurial practice.

The government (local, state and federal) as the policy maker should create an enabling

environment that supports women involvement in entrepreneurial participation by building

atmosphere that is entrepreneurial friendly.

Furthermore, women should be entrepreneurial in everything they do and put in place the

cultural factors that influence entrepreneurial activities such as traditional norms and beliefs.

Furthermore, the cultural barriers which affect women entrepreneurial activities could be

mitigated through intensive enlightenment campaigns using women groups, traditional

institutions. Direct financial support from government to willing women entrepreneurs through

corporative societies, banks and other financial institution will break cultural barriers hindering

women entrepreneurial activities in Minna.

Finally, supports from the husbands of married women in allowing their wives to engage in

business venture will also help in right direction and government should strengthen policies that

support women entrepreneurial activities.

5.5 Frontier for Further Study

The findings of this study suggest areas for future research. This study was carried out on women

in Minna to investigate the effect of the cultural Status on Women Entrepreneurial activities,

40
identify the nature of cultural practice in Minna as it affect entrepreneurial activities at large and

identify ways through which some aspects of culture which affect women can be mitigated.

However, further studies in this area should concentrate on other cultural practices that may

affect women entrepreneurial development that are not captured in this study.

APPENDIX

Appendix A: Geographical Map of the Study Area

41
 3I20 3I10 5I00 6I00 7I00 7I50

1 0I1 0
1 0I1 0

1 0I2 0
1 0I2 0

Legend

1 0I3 0
1 0I3 0

3I20 3I10 5I00 6I00 7I00 7I50

Appendix B: Correlation Analysis

Correlations
CULSO CULPR CULST
L A A
Pearson
1 -.343** .115
CULSO Correlation
L Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .251
N 101 101 101
Pearson
-.343** 1 -.340**
CULPR Correlation
A Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000
N 101 101 101
Pearson
.115 -.340** 1
CULST Correlation
A Sig. (2-tailed) .251 .000
N 101 101 101
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Appendix C: Regression Analysis

42
 Model Summary

Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of the

Square Estimate

1 .343 a
.118 .100 4.79400

a. Predictors: (Constant), CULSTA, CULPRA

ANOVAa

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Regression 300.847 2 150.424 6.545 .002b

1 Residual 2252.281 98 22.982

Total 2553.129 100

a. Dependent Variable: CULSOL
b. Predictors: (Constant), CULSTA, CULPRA

Coefficientsa

Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized t Sig.

Coefficients

B Std. Error Beta

(Constant) 39.593 8.685 4.559 .000

1 CULPRA -.889 .261 -.344 -3.408 .001

CULSTA -.002 .126 -.002 -.017 .986

a. Dependent Variable: CULSOL

43
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