Anatomy and Physiology - Summary of Systems
Anatomy and Physiology - Summary of Systems
Anatomy and Physiology - Summary of Systems
1. ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
Common type of PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
DEMENTIA in the elderly
SYSTEM (PNS)
Affects both neuronal
perikaryon and synapses NERVES: bundles of
within the cerebrum nerve fiber
CAUSE: accumulation of GANGLIA: group of cell
tau protein forming bodies outside the CNS;
plaques along perikaryon found in the PNS
and axon hillock regions NERVE ENDINGS
2. MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
Myelin sheaths
surrounding axons are
damaged by an
AUTOIMMUNE
MECHANISM that
interferes with the activity
of affected neurons
3. HYDROCEPHALUS
Decrease in the absorption
of CSF or a blockage of
outflow from the ventricles
during fetal or post-natal
development
ETMOLOGY: (GREEK)
“HYDRO” WATER
“KEPHALE” HEAD
Characterized with
progressive enlargement
Nodes of Ranvier/ Nodal Several bundles of nerve fibers
Peripheral Nervous
Gaps can be found
are enclosed by epineurium,
System between adjacent which is also made up of dense
Schwann cells on an axon, connective tissue
which renew the action
LECTURE#3 GANGLIA
potential and produce
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS salutatory conduction
Aggregations of nerve cell bodies
which causes the nerve
SYSTEM (PNS) outside the CNS
impulses to jump and
Ovoid structures encapsulated
MAIN COMPONENTS: move rapidly from one
with dense connective tissue and
node to another anode.
NERVES: bundles of nerve fiber associated with nerves
GANGLIA: group of cell bodies b. UNMYELINATED NERVE FIBERS 2 TYPES:
outside the CNS; found in the
Glial cells do not form the multiple A. SENSORY GANGLIA
PNS
wrapping of a myelin sheath
NERVE ENDINGS Also known as CRANIO-SPINAL
Without the thick myelin sheath
GANGLIA
NERVE FIBERS Nodes of Ranvier are not seen
Receive afferent impulses that go
along the unmyelinated nerve
Analogous to the tracts in the to the CNS
fibers
CNS Associated with both cranial and
Contain axons enclosed within COVERING OF NERVES spinal nerves
sheaths of glial cells specialized The nerve cells of these ganglia
In all peripheral nerves, both are pseudounipolar and relay
to facilitate axonal function
myelinated and unmyelinated are information from the ganglion’s
Sheathed by Schwann cells or
protected and strengthened by nerve endings to the gray matter
neurolemmocytes
connective tissue investments of the spinal cord via synapses
a. MYELINATED NERVE The loose connective tissue that with local neurons
FIBERS encloses the individual nerve
fibers is called endoneurium B. AUTONOMIC GANGLIA
Axons that are engulfed The nerve fibers are grouped into
along their length by a ETYMOLOGY: (GREEK)
bundles or fascicles called “AUTOS”- SELF
series of differentiating perineurium which is made up of
neurolemmocytes “NOMOS”- LAW
dense connective tissue
Effect the activity of smooth FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION brain where the sensation
muscle, the secretion of some OF THE PNS is perceived.
glands, heart rate, and many Proprioceptor senses.
other involuntary activities by Sensory (afferent) division o Originate in muscles and
which the body maintains a o Nerve fibers that carry joints. Impulses sent to the
constant internal environment information to the central brain enable perception of
(HOMEOSTASIS) nervous system the position of the body
Consist of both sympathetic and Motor (efferent) division and its parts in space
parasympathetic ganglia o Nerve fibers that carry maintaining posture and
Oval-shaped structures with large impulses away from the balance
numbers of large and oval central nervous system Special senses.
nucleus o Two subdivisions o These are sight, hearing,
Lipofuchsin granules are more Somatic nervous balance, smell and taste
frequent in these ganglia system = voluntary Autonomic afferent nerves.
Surrounded by layer of cells Autonomic o Originates in internal
called satellite cells nervous system = organs, glands and tissues,
The nerve cells are multipolar involuntary e.g. baroreceptors
type involved in the control of
SENSORY RECEPTORS blood
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AXON pressure ,chemoreceptors
Specialized endings of sensory involved in the control of
AND DENDRITE neurons - respiration and smell
o respond to different stimuli
AXON DENDRITE
NUMBER Usually Abundant (changes) inside and CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORY
LENGTH ONE SHORTER outside the body. RECEPTORS categorized by:
NISSL LONGE PRESENT Somatic, cutaneous or
GRANULES R common senses. Type of stimulus
COLLATERAL ABSEN NUMEROU o These originate from the Mechanoreceptors
S/ T S
skin- pain, touch, heat and Thermoreceptors
BRANCHES
FEW cold. Photoreceptors
SPINES/ PRESENT When stimulated, Chemoreceptors
GEMMULES ABSEN o an impulse is generated Nociceptors
T and transmitted by the Location in the body
sensory nerves to the Exteroceptors
Interoceptors SPINAL NERVES o Smooth muscle regulation
Proprioceptors o Heart and blood pressure
Structure There is a 31 pair of spinal nerves at the regulation
Non-encapsulated or level of each vertebrae. o Regulation of glands
Encapsulated nerve o Digestive system
CRANIAL NERVE regulation
endings
Lamellar or Bulbous Twelve pairs of cranial nerves are Somatic reflexes
corpuscles associated with the brain o Activation of skeletal
Muscle spindles muscles
Tendon organs THE REFLEX ARC
Joint kinesthetic receptors
Reflex
STRUCTURE OF A NERVE o rapid, predictable, and
involuntary responses to
Endoneurium surrounds each stimuli
fiber Reflex arc
Groups of fibers are bound into o direct route from a sensory
fascicles neuron, to an interneuron,
Fascicles are bound together by to an effector
epineurium
CLASSIFICATION OF NERVES
Mixed nerves
o both sensory and motor
fibers
Afferent (sensory) nerves
o carry impulses toward the
CNS
Efferent (motor) nerves
o carry impulses away from TYPES OF REFLEXES AND
the CNS
REGULATION
Autonomic reflexes
Effects Cause by Hormone
The Endocrine System
Changes in plasma membrane
Second messenger system of the permeability or electrical state
body Synthesis of proteins, such as
Uses chemical enzymes
messages(hormones) that are Activation on inactivation of
released into blood enzymes
Stimulation of mitosis
Hormones control several major
processes Mechanisms of Hormone Action
Reproduction
The Chemistry of Hormone
Hormones affect only certain
Growth and development Amino acid-based hormones tissues or organs (target cells or
Mobilization of body defenses -Proteins organs)
Maintenance of much of -Peptides Target cells must have specific
homeostatis -Amines protein receptors
Regulation of metabolism Steroids – made from cholesterol Hormone binding influences the
Protaglandins – made from highly working of the cells
HORMONE OVERVIEW
active lipids
Effects Caused by Hormones
Hormones are produced by
Mechanism of Hormone Action
specialized cells Changes in plasma membrane
Cells secretes hormones into Hormones affect only certain permeability or electrical state
extracellular fluids tissues or organs (target cells or Synthesis of proteins, such as
Blood transfers hormones to organs) enzymes
target sites Target cells must have specific Activation or inactivation of
These hormones regulate the protein receptors enzymes
activity of other cells Hormone binding influences the Stimulation of mitosis
working of the cells
1. Hormone binds to a
membrane receptor
2. Hormone does not enter the
cell
3. Sets off a series of reactions
that activates an enzyme
4. Catalyzes a reaction that
produces a second
messenger molecule
5. .Oversees additional
intracellular changes to
promote a specific response
Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine
Glands
Pituitary Gland
Size of a grape
Hangs by a stalk from the
hypothalamus
Protected by the sphenoid bone
Has two functional lobes
Anterior pituitary –
glandular tissue
Posterior pituitary –
nervous tissue
Oxytocin
Calcitonin
Decreases blood calcium levels
by causing its deposition on bone
Sex hormones
-Produced in the inner layer of
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex the adrenal cortex
Mineralocorticoids (mainly -Androgens (male) and some
aldosterone) estrogen (female)
-Produced in outer adrenal cortex
-Regulate mineral content in
blood, water, and electrolyte
balance
-Target organ is the kidney
-Production stimulated by renin
and aldosterone
-Production inhibited by atrial
natriuretic peptide
Adrenal Glands
Hormones of the Adrenal
Two glands
Cortex – outer glandular region in Medulla
three layers Produces two similar hormones
Medulla – inner neural tissue (catecholamines):
region -Epinephrine
Sits on top of the kidneys -Norepinephrine
These hormones prepare the
body to deal with short-term
stress
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
Glucocorticoids (including
cortisone and cortisol)
-Produced in the middle layer of
the adrenal cortex
-Promote normal cell metabolism
-Help resist long-term stressors
-Released in response to
increased blood levels of ACTH
Insulin – allows glucose to cross
plasma membranes into cells
from beta cells
Glucagon – allows glucose to
enter the blood from alpha cells
These hormones are antagonists
that maintain blood sugar
homeostasis
Pancreatic Islets
The pancreas is a mixed gland
The islets of the pancreas
produce hormones:
Sugar -May have other as-yet-un- Hormones of the Testes
substantiated functions Interstitial cells of testes are
Thymus hormone-producing
Located posterior to the sternum Produce several androgens
Largest in infants and children Testosterone is the most
Produces thymosin important androgen
-Matures some types of white -Responsible for adult male
blood cells secondary sex characteristics
-Important in developing the -Promotes growth and maturation
immune system of male reproductive system
Hormones of the Ovaries -Required for sperm cell product
Estrogens Ion
-Produced by Graafian follicles or
the placenta
-Stimulates the development of
secondary female characteristics
Pineal Gland -Matures female reproductive
organs
Found on the third ventricle of the
-Helps prepare the uterus to
brain
receive a fertilized egg
Secretes melatonin
-Helps maintain pregnancy
-Helps establish the body’s wake
Prepares the breasts to produce
milk
Hormones of the Ovaries
Progesterone
-Produced by the corpus luteum
-Acts with estrogen to bring about
the menstrual cycle
-Helps in the implantation of an
embryo in the uterus
Other Hormone-Producing
Tissues and Organs
Parts of the small intestine
Parts of the stomach
Kidneys
Heart
Many other areas have scattered
endocrine cells Effect of Growth Hormone
Developmental Aspects of the
Greatest production occurs
Endocrine System
during childhood
Most endocrine organs operate -Lack of GH = pituitary dwarfism
smoothly until old age -Excess = gigantism
-Menopause is brought about by
lack of efficiency of the ovaries
-Problems associated with
reduced estrogen are common
-Growth hormone production
declines with age
-Many endocrine glands
decrease output with age
Feet, hands, and face become
“heavy” in appearance
Addison’s disease
ACTH accumulates
causing stimulation of
melanocytes (bronze skin
color).
Without cortisol, there is
no mobilization of glucose
under stress; can be life-
threatening.
Hyposecretion of
aldosterone-most serious,
causes hyperkalemia (low
Abnormalities of The Thyroid
blood potassium) leading
Cretinism- abnormal thyroid
to cardiac arrest
development; short, stocky body
type. Severe hypothyroidism
causes mental retardation
Cushing’s syndrome
Myxedema - Hypothyroidism in Hypersecretion of the
adults-lethargy, weight gain, loss adrenal cortex hormone,
of hair. cortisol is primary problem.
Grave’s disease- Results in Diabetes
hyperthyroidism; causes mellitus from increased
exophthalmic goiter-edema blood glucose;
behind eyes causes bulging; Subcutaneous fat
hyperactivity, arrythmias. deposited in midsection;
Acromegaly High blood pressure
Excess production of GH; the
growth plates of bone have
closed so no increased growth in
height.