Introduction

Language is the most important tool of communication invented by human

civilization. Language helps us share our thoughts, and understand others. It’s hard
to overestimate the importance of language for our lives. Every time we speak, we
do it with a particular purpose. Sometimes we want to deliver a message, or
express our feelings. We use language to ask for help, or just to say a joke.

Generally, there are five main functions of language, which are informational
function, aesthetic function, expressive, phatic, and directive functions. Any
language is determined by a number of factors, such as a social background,
attitudes and origin of people. Language is always related to situation it is used
within. Every person has a certain social background, and this is what determines
one’s language.

Roman Jakobson’s (1960) linguistic model outlines six major functions of

language which are:

1.The Referential Function

Jakobson states that the context is generally used to describe the “referent
ambiguous nomenclature.” As for the referential function of language, it is clear
that the function relates to what is being discussed. Similarly, the referential
function is associated with the truth value of propositions.

2.The Conative Function

The conative function can be described as a set of three functions including the
expression (symptom), representation (symbol) and appeal (signal). Its main aim is
to influence the behavior and attitudes of other people. It also involves commands
and requests which are more common on the receiver’s end. It is more concerned
with giving the conceptual meaning rather than connotative meaning.
3.The Emotive Function

The emotive function of language is mainly concerned with how language is

employed to describe people’s feelings and emotions. The most obvious instances
are the use of swear words and exclamations. The author or writer expresses his or
her feelings and the function can give a clear image of the writer’s personality. In
simple words, it can evoke certain feelings by the user. An example is, I spend a
memorable vacation.

4.The Poetic Function

The poetic function, also known as the aesthetic function is concerned with the
use of language as a linguistic artifact. The aesthetic function of language, as
argued by Geoffery Leech (1974), tends to explain the conceptual meaning than
the affective meaning. Any art that is valued as an actual art is associated with this
function. Similarly, any object that is valued for its beauty rather than its
usefulness fits this function. Jakobson shows that the cultural norms determine the
dominance of the aesthetic function.

5.The Metalingual Function

The metalingual function of language is associated with the code in its

potential form. It occurs when the verbal code is developed implicitly as a central
theme. This occurs when two different languages or codes are used within a
language. In other words, when a language is employed to describe another
language.

6.The Phatic Function

This function keeps open communication lines and good social relationships.
Apparently, this function is deemed fit for normal talks. For example you meet a
friend accidentally in a certain place, you start talking about something that is
unimportant just to keep the communication going like, how are you? How is your
family? How are you? And so on.

According to Geoffery Leech (1974), there are five main functions of

language. We mentioned all these five functions at the beginning. Now, let’s take a
closer look at each one of them.

1.The informational function can be considered most important, since it helps us

deliver messages, describe things, and give our listener new information. Actually,
message is a word that describes this function best. The informational function is
also related to such terms as a truth and a value.

2.The next function of language is the expressive function. We need such

function every time we want to express our feelings. There are words that are used
to express attitudes and feelings, which don’t deliver any particular information.
Obvious examples of such words are swear words, as well as various exclamations.
This function of language is used not to deliver a message, but to express feelings
and impressions. Due to the expressive function of language, we can understand
the personality of a speaker, and his or her emotions. While the informational
function can be illustrated on the example of an encyclopedia article, the
expressive function is used in literature and poetry. Every time we say a phrase like
“I love this movie so much”, we don’t give a listener any particular information
about the subject of this sentence, except our feelings about it.

3.The directive function of language is used to induce certain actions or

reactions. The example of such a function is a command. Another example of this
function is a request. Here affective and situational meanings of a phrase are more
important than a general meaning, which makes this function somewhat similar to
the expressive function. The directive function is a function of social control and
interpersonal interaction. Another feature of this function is that the reaction of a
listener is even more important than a thought expressed by a speaker, since this
reaction determines whether such a phrase achieved the target or not.

Every time we ask someone to bring us something, it’s a directional use of

language. We motivate somebody and influence his or her behavior in a certain
way. Sometimes directive sentences may express more than one function. For
example, if we say “I’m hungry”, it means both information about us, and a request
for food. This sentence also expresses our feelings, so this example represents
three functions of language in one short sentence.

4. Another function of language is the aesthetic function. According to Leech

(1974), this function doesn’t have any particular purpose. Here words and
sentences are considered as linguistic artifacts. This function serves neither as a
request nor as a message. The aesthetic function helps us use words as a tool of a
poetic art, and as certain signs. Here the beauty of chosen words and phrases is
more important than usefulness of this information. For the sake of such a function,
we use different adjectives, such as “gorgeous”, “elegant”, “stunning”, and so on.
According to Jacobson (1933), who studied this function of language more than
anyone else, the aesthetic function depends not only on structure, but on cultural
norms as well. He also gives an example of such influence, comparing poems of
Karel Macha, and diaries, as examples of aesthetic functions applied by different
generations.

5.The fifth function of language is the phatic function. The only purpose of such a
function is to maintain social relationships, and to begin, or continue the
conversation. A well-known example from British culture is a small talk about the
weather. Such a kind of talk doesn’t provide us with any necessary information. It
even doesn’t express our feelings, but it helps us to interact with people. Every
time we meet somebody on the street, we can talk about the weather, or work, or
children, it doesn’t matter. The real reason for such a talk is not our interest, but
simply our desire to talk. Of course, such conversations may also contain some
interesting information, but it’s not necessary

Halliday’s Functions of Language

Halliday (1975:43) identifies seven functions that language has for children in
their early years. Children are motivated to acquire language because it serves
certain purposes or functions for them. They are:

 1. Instrumental: Language used to fulfill a need on the part of the speaker.

2. Regulatory: Language used to influence the behaviour of others. Concerned

with persuading / commanding / requesting other people to do things you want.

3. Interactional: Language used to develop social relationships and ease

the process of interaction. Concerned with the phatic dimension of talk.

4. Personal: Language used to express the personal preferences and identity of the

speaker. Sometimes referred to as the ‘Here I am!’ function announcing oneself to
the world.

 5.Representational: Language used to exchange information. Concerned with

relaying or requestinginformation.

6. Heuristic: Language used to learn and explore the environment. Child uses

language to learn; this may be questions and answers, or the kind of running
commentary that frequently accompanies children’s play.

 7. Imaginative: Language used to explore the imagination. May also accompany

play as children create imaginary worlds, or may arise from storytelling.

Finch’s Functions of Language.

Finch (1997) mentions seven functions of language, they are:

Physiological Function

Language is employed for psychological purposes, that is, people use it to

convey their feelings and emotions. If you are a sports fan watching your favorite
sport on television you may well feel the overwhelming urge at certain exciting
moments in the match to shout instructions to the players: Go on, do not mess
about, for God's sake shoot! (Finch, 1997: 23).

Phatic Function

Generally speaking, people use language for social purposes other than
conveying information or expressing feelings. The technical term for this is phatic
communion. The word 'phatic' comes from Greek and means 'utterance'; it's the
same root from which people get 'emphatic'. So Literally this is speech for its own
sake (Johnson, 1958: 163).

Recording Function

People use language in order to record things that they wish to remember. It
might be a short-term record, as in a shopping list or a list of things to do, or a
long-term record, as in a diary or history of some kind. It's the most official use of
language; bureaucracies thrive on exact records and modern commercial life would
be impossible without up-to-date and accurate files. Indeed, it's probably the most
significant function behind the development of language from being simply an oral
medium to becoming a written one (Harris, 1988:9).

Identifying Function

Language is used not only for the purpose of recording things, but also used to
identify, with consideration precision, an intense array of objects and events,
without which it would be very difficult to make sense of the world around us.
Learning the names of things allows people to refer quickly and accurately to
them; it gives us power over them. In some cultures, the special name of god is
sacred and not allowed to be spoken except by sacrifices because that name is
strongly powerful and could be used for evil purposes. This is the origin of many
taboo words. The Bible warns against using God's name 'in vain', or
indiscriminately, and a special value is attached throughout the New Testament to
the name of Jesus (Joyce, 1960:16).

Reasoning Function

All of individuals have a running commentary going on in our heads during

their waking hours. For most of the time they are not aware of it; like breathing, it's
automatic.

Communicating Function

This is probably the function that most people would select first as the principle
purpose of language. And clearly it is an extremely important function. But as one
has just seen, the relationship between language and meaning can be problematic.

Pleasure Function

There are various kinds of pleasure which people derive from language. At the
simplest level there is the sheer enjoyment of sound itself and the melody of
certain combinations of sounds.

2. Language Universals

The notion of Linguistic Universals appeared in 1961 at the Congress of

Linguists in New York where J. Greenburg, J. Jenkins and I. Osgood proposed a
Memorandum on Language/Linguistic Universals". They defined it as follows:
"A Linguistic Universal is a certain feature specific to all languages of the world
or the language perse."

A linguistic universal is a pattern that occurs systematically across natural

languages, potentially true for all of them. For example, All languages have
nouns and verbs, or If a language is spoken, it has consonants and vowels, basic
word order, subjects and objects. 

The Universals of Language Characteristics that apply to all known

languages, everywhere, at any one time, are called universal traits. The exact
number of such traits will vary according to the classifying system used, but
here we shall discuss five major ones:

1.Language is human: no species besides homo sapiens appear to use the

communication system of language in the same way that human beings do.
Belonging only to human beings, language is therefore species specific. Children
(with the exceptions of isolated feral children and of the physically impaired) do
acquire language. To be human is, above all, to speak.

2.Language is spoken: All languages, whether they are now or were ever written,
were and are first spoken. Children learn to speak long before they are able to
write; and children do not need to be formally taught to speak, as they usually do to
write. Furthermore, all adult language users speak more often, and speak many
more utterances, than they ever write.

3.Language changes in various ways:   all languages change in various ways, and
any language is in a constant, slow, not always steady process of alteration.
Constructions are dropped or added, old patterns combined in new ways, new
words coined from old parts. This form of change is chronological or historical:
change over time. –In addition to changing over time, all languages show variation
over space. At any particular time, many different versions of the same language
will be spoken in different regions by different types of people. These variations
are collectively known as dialects. ( It is important to note here, however, that a
dialect is not a debased or less worthy form of a language; it is just a variant form.)

4.Language is systematic: every language in the world regulates itself, fits its
units and unit groups together in predictable ways, and produces systematically
intelligible sounds and sentences. No language’s systems are more ‘primitive’ or
more ‘advanced’ than any other’s -- which is to say, there is no correlation between
the technological complexity of a culture and the complexity of its language. So-
called primitive societies (those with a relatively low level of technology)
frequently have language systems far more complicated than the languages of more
technologically advanced societies. All languages are complex but regular at all
levels, from sound to form to sentence.

5.Language is symbolic in various ways: words have no inherent, innate, or

divinely decreed meanings. Words merely stand for, represent, or symbolize
meaning. The creature we call a ‘whale’ is not so named because ‘whale’ has some
innate connection with large, aquatic mammals, but because a majority of English
speakers use that name. Other language speakers use other names: la baleine
(French), der Walfisch (German), la ballena (Spanish). All of these different terms
are symbols for the creature itself, for the referent-- that is, the figure (or idea or
action) to which a word refers.

Approaches to Language Universals

There are two major approaches to language universals proposed by Noam

Chomsky and Harold Joseph.

1- Chomskyan approach N. Chomsky in his theory claims that since every human
being has the language ability innately so that s/he can acquire the large amount of
knowledge by hearing just a part of it without enough experience, there is and has
to be some genetic determinacy that makes the phenomenon possible. And he
claims that : "our intuitions are due in part to language principles.". The term
'universals' allows of many different interpretations, several of which have been
used within linguistics. At the most superficial level, but still not without interest,
it reminds us that all human languages exploit the same vocabulary of elements:
consonants, and vowels, nouns, verbs, and clauses and so on. There is some
variation from language to language: all languages have consonants only some
have fricatives (such as "f" and "v" in English.); all of them use nouns and verbs,
only some of them have articles, adjectives, or classifiers and
complementizers…….. Linguistic theory must then provide a means for describing
all of these in the form of a universal inventory of a possible elements: the
inventory is universal in the sense that it is rich enough to allow for the universe of
languages, not that each language exploits all the possibilities. From the
explanation above it is easily understood that Chomsky is talking about the
universals that are common to all human beings in the initial state of the language
in the human mind. His main ideas of these universals are: He takes universal
grammar to be ' a study of the biologically necessary. These are genetically
determined properties that are, in Chomsky's words, 'characteristic of the human
species.' As the basic statements making up the theory of grammar or universal
grammar, Chomskyan linguistic universals thus express claims about biologically
necessary properties of human language.

2- Greenbergian Approach Different from Chomsky's Universal Grammar

according to J. Greenberg the term "language universals" refers to the general
principles that govern all the spoken languages around the world. Greenberg in his
study examined the grammar of thirty languages from different language families
and different parts of the world and has found out that there are some rules which
govern the way languages work. These can be classified in different terms such as
morphologic universals, syntactic universals, semantic universals etc. The
language universals proposed by Greenberg in this respect serve a different point
of view from Chomsky's.
Classification of universals

The universals may be classified according to various principles.

First, we must make a basic distinction between absolute universals and

statistical universals.

Absolute universals refer to properties found in all languages.

-All languages have vowels and consonants.

-All languages have pronouns.

Statistical universals reflect important trends that are found in a predominant part
of the languages of the world, but not necessarily in all.

-Subjects tend strongly to precede objects

An implicational universal applies to languages with a particular feature that is

always accompanied by another feature.

-If a language has property A, then it also has property B, but not necessarily the
other way round.

-If a language has voiced fricatives like [v] and [z] (property A), it also has
unvoiced fricatives like [f] and [s] (property B)

 Common Linguistic Universals

1. Wherever humans exist, language exists.

2. There are no "primitive" languages - all languages are equally complex and
equally capable of expressing any idea in the universe. The vocabulary of any
language can be expanded to include new words for new concepts.

3. All languages change through time.

4. The relationship between the sounds and meanings of spoken languages and
between the gestures (signs) and meanings of sign languages are for the most part
arbitrary.

5.All human languages utilize a finite set of discrete sounds (or gestures) that are
combined to form meaningful elements or words, which themselves form an
infinite set of possible sentences

6.All grammars contain rules for the formation of words and sentences of a similar
kind.

7. Every spoken language includes discrete sound segments like p, n, or a, which

can be defined by a finite set of sound properties or features. Every spoken
language has a class of vowels and a class of consonants.

8. Similar grammatical categories (for example, noun, verb) are found in all
languages.

9. There are semantic universals, such as "male" or "female," "animate" or

"human," found in every language in the world.

10. Every language has a way of referring to past time, forming questions, issuing
commands, and so on.

11. Any normal child, born anywhere in the world, of any racial, geographical,
social, or economic heritage, is capable learning any language to which he or she is
exposed. The differences we find among languages cannot be due to biological
reasons.

Furthemore, Classification of Language Universals These are different binary

classifications of language universals made by Chomsky and Greenberg
(Comrie ,1981).

1- Formal And Substantive Universal Substantive universals are grammatical

categories like noun or verb and grammatical functions such as subject or object –
you might know these as the basic building blocks of grammar. Formal universals
are then the rules that we use to form meaningful syllables, phrases, sentences.

2- Implicational And Non-implicational Universals An implicational universal

applies to languages with a particular feature that is always accompanied by
another feature, such as If a language has trial grammatical number, it also has dual
grammatical number, while non-implicational universals just state the existence (or
non-existence) of one particular feature. Implicational universals take the
following form: if a given language has property X, then it will also have property
Y. An example would be: if a given language has voiced obstruents, then it will
also have voiceless obstruents(Carr,2008:185).

3- Absolute Universals and Tendencies: Absolute Universals refers to properties

found in all languages. All languages have vowels, consonants and pronouns. They
apply to every known language and are quite few in number.

• Statistical , often called tendencies reflect important trends that are found in a
predominant part of the languages of the world, but not necessarily in all.

e.g, Subjects tend strongly to precede objects.

4- Semantic, Syntactic and Phonological Universals

• Semantic universals are the ones that govern the composition of the vocabulary of
world's languages. e.g. body part terms, animal names and verbs of sensory
perception are of this kind. It is important to keep in mind that the semantic
universals deal with less marked, basic terms in language. For example it deals
with the existence of blue rather than the turquoise etc.

• Phonological universals deal with the phonology of the languages. For example:

- All languages have syllables ending in a vowel (open syllables), but not
necessarily syllables ending in a consonant (closed syllables).

- All languages have syllables with an initial consonant, but not necessarily
syllables without an initial consonant.

- All languages that allow VC, also allow CVC and V, as well as the universal CV.

• Syntactic and morphological universals as will be exemplified in the section

below.

Some of Greenberg's Syntactic Universals

-If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing
noun, then the adjective likewise follows the noun.

-If a language has discontinuous affixes, it always has either prefixing or suffixing
or both.

-If both derivation and inflection follow the root, or they both precede the root, the
derivation is always between the root and the inflection.

-If a language has inflection, it always has derivation.

-If either the subject or object noun agrees with the verb in gender, then the
adjective always agrees with the noun in gender.

-No language has a trial number unless it has a dual. No language has a dual unless
it has a plural.

-All languages have pronominal categories involving at least three persons and two
numbers.

-If there are any gender distinctions in the plural of the pronoun, there are some
gender distinctions in the singular also.