Chapter 3: Transformer

3. 1 Introduction
3.2 Types & Construction of Transformers
3.3 The ideal transformer
 Power in an ideal transformer
 Impedance transformation through a transformer
 Analysis of circuits containing ideal transformers
3.4 Theory of operation of real single-phase transformer
 the voltage ratio across a transformer
 the magnetization current in a real transformer
 the current ratio across a transformer and the dot
convention
3.5 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
1
 Chapter 3: Transformer
3. 6 The per-unit system of measurements
3.7 Transformer voltage regulation and efficiency
Transformer phasor diagram
Transformer efficiency
3.8 Transformers ratings

2
3.1 Introduction
A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at one
voltage level to ac electric power at another voltage level through
the action of a magnetic field.
Q. Why transformers are important to modern life?

Fig 3.1 High voltage reduces the required amount of transmission current required.
3
3.2 Types & Construction of Transformer
i. Core Form : a simple rectangular laminated piece of steel with
the transformer windings wrapped around two sides of the
rectangle ( Fig 3.2 a)
ip(t) is(t)
+ +

vp(t) Np Ns vs(t)

- -
(a) (b)

Fig3.2 (a) core-form transformer construction

(b) Shell-form transformer construction
ii. Shell Form: a three legged laminated core with the windings
wrapped around the center ( Fig 3.2b) 4
3.2 Types & Construction of Transformer…
ii. Shell-form…
 The primary & secondary windings are wrapped one on top
of the other with the LV winding innermost, for 2 reasons:
 it simplifies the problem of insulating the HV winding
from the core
It results in much less leakage flux
Types of Transformers:
i. Unit transformers-usually located at the output of a
generator. Its function is to step-up the voltage level so
that transmission of power is possible.
ii. Substation transformers-located at main distribution or
secondary level transmission substations. Its function is to
lower the voltage levels for distribution 1st level purposes.
5
 Types of Transformers:
iii. Distribution Transformers- located at small distribution
substation. It lowers the voltage levels for 2nd level distribution
purposes.
iv. Special purpose Transformers- E.g. potential Transformer (PT) ,
current Transformer(CT)

6
 3.3 The Ideal Transformer
Definition: Is a lossless device with an input winding and an output
winding.

(a) (b)
Fig3.3 ( a) sketch of ideal transformer ( b) schematic symbol of a transformer
 The relationship between the primary and secondary voltage is
as follows:
(3.1)

7
 3.3 The Ideal Transformer…
 The relationship between primary and secondary current is

(3.2)

 Note that both equations (3.1) & (3.2) gives a constant ratio,
hence the transformer only changes ONLY the magnitude
value of current and voltage. Phase angles are not affected.
 The dot convention in schematic diagram for transformers has
the following relationship:
i. If the primary voltage is +ve at the dotted end of the winding w.r.t the
undotted end, then the secondary voltage will be +ve at the dotted end also.
Voltage polarities are the same w.r.t the dots on each side of the core.
ii. If the primary current of the transformer flows into the dotted end of the
primary winding, the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of the
secondary winding. 8
 Power in ideal transformer
 The power supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit:
(3.3)
 The power supplied by the transformer secondary circuit to its
loads is given by:
(3.4)
 Furthermore, for an ideal transformer
Q. How does power going into the primary circuit compare to the
power coming out?

Also, and
so

 Output Power = Input power

9
Impedance transformation through a transformer
 The impedance of a device or an element is defined as the ratio
of the phasor voltage across it to the phasor current flowing
through it:
(3.5)

 One of the interesting properties of a transformer is that it

change the apparent impedance of an element.

Fig 3.4 ( a) Definition of impedance ( b) impedance scaling through a transformer

10
Impedance transformation through a transformer…
Consider Fig 2.4 (b) , the impedance of the load is
(3.6)

 The apparent impedance of the primary circuit of the

transformer is
(3.7)

since
Eqn. ( 3.7) becomes, i.e., the apparent impedance of the primary is

Q. Where do we use this properties of transformer? 11

Analysis of circuit containing ideal transformers
Example 3.1
A generator rated at 480V, 60 Hz is connected a transmission line
with an impedance of 0.18+j0.24Ω. At the end of the transmission
line there is a load of 4+j3Ω
a) If the power system is exactly as described in Fig 3.5(a), what
will the voltage at the load be? What will the transmission line
losses be?
b) Suppose a 1:10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator
end of the transmission line and a 10:1 step-down transformer
is placed at the load end of the line (Fig 3.5(b)). What will the
load voltage be now? What will the transmission line losses be
now?

12
Analysis of circuit containing ideal transformers…
Example 3.1…continued

Fig 3.5 The power system of Example 2.1 (a) Without transformer
(b) With transformers at the ends of the transmission line. 13
Analysis of circuit containing ideal transformers…
Example 3.1…continued
Solution:
(a) Fig 3.5 (a) shows the power system without transformers. Here

Thus , the load voltage is

And the line losses are

14
Analysis of circuit containing ideal transformers…
Example 3.1…continued
(b) To analyze this system, it is necessary to convert it to a common
voltage level. This is done in two steps ( for this example):
i. Eliminate transformer T2 by referring the load over to the
transmission line’s voltage level.
ii. Eliminate transformer T1 by referring the transmission line’s
elements and the equivalent load at the transmission line’s
voltage over to the source side.
 The value of the load’s impedance when reflected to the
transmission system’s voltage is

15
Analysis of circuit containing ideal transformers…
Example 3.1…continued
 The total impedance @ the transmission line voltage level is now

The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Fig3.6 (a)

Fig 3.6 (a) System with the load referred to the transmission voltage level
16
Analysis of circuit containing ideal transformers…
Example 3.1…continued
 The total impedance @ the transmission line level (Zline+Z’load
) is now reflected across T1 to the source’s voltage level:

The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Fig 3.6(b).

17
Analysis of circuit containing ideal transformers…
Example 3.1…continued
 The generator’s current is

 Knowing the current IG, we can now work back and find Iline and
Iload. Working back through T1, we get

 Working back through T2 gives

18
Analysis of circuit containing ideal transformers…
Example 3.1…continued
 The load voltage is given by

 And the line losses are

Conclusion
 Raising the transmission voltage of the power system reduced
transmission losses by a factor of nearly 90!
 Also, the voltage at the load dropped much less in the system
with transformers compared to the system without transformers.
19
3.4 Theory of operation of real single-phase transformer
 Ideal transformers may never exist due to the fact that
there are losses associated to the operation of transformers.
To understand the operation of a real transformers, refer to Fig
3.7(a).

Fig 3.7 (a) Sketch of a real transformer with no load attached to its secondary
20
3.4 Theory of operation of real single-phase transformer
 The basis of transformer operation can be derived from
Faraday’s law:
𝒅𝝀
(3.8) 𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 =
𝒅𝒕

where 𝝀- is the sum of flux passing through each turn in the coil
added over all the turns of the coil:
𝑵

𝝀= 𝝓𝒊
𝒊=𝟏

Fig 3.7 (b) The hysteresis curve of the transformer 21

3.4 Theory of operation of real single-phase transformer
NB: The total flux linkage through a coil is not just 𝑵𝝓 ,as the flux
linkage depends on the position of the turn within the coil.
 Thus, define an average flux per turn in a coil. If the total flux
linkage in all the turns of the coils is 𝝀 and if there are N turns,
then the average flux per turn is given by
𝝀
(3.9) 𝝓=
𝑵

Hence, Faraday’s Law can be written as

(3.10) 𝒅𝝓
𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅 =𝑵
𝒅𝒕

22
The voltage ratio across a transformer
 If the voltage source 𝒗𝑷 (𝒕) is applied ,how will the transformer
react to this applied voltage? ( Refer eqn.(3.10))
The average flux present in the primary winding of the
transformer becomes
𝟏
(3.11) 𝝓= 𝒗𝑷 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑵𝑷

Q. What effect does this flux ( eqn.(3.11)) have on the secondary

coil of the transformer?

For an ideal transformer, we assume that 100% of flux would travel

to the secondary windings. However, in reality, there are flux
which does not reach the secondary coil, in this case the flux
leaks out of the transformer core into the surrounding.

23
The voltage ratio across a transformer

Fig 3.8 Mutual and leakage fluxes in a transformer core

24
The voltage ratio across a transformer
Thus,
(3.12) 𝝓𝑷 = 𝝓𝑴 + 𝝓𝑳𝑷
where
𝝓𝑷 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙
𝝓𝑴 = 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒉 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 & 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒏𝒐𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒔
𝝓𝑳𝑷 = 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙
There is a similar division of flux in the secondary winding, i.e.,
(3.13)
 Faraday’s law for the primary circuit can be re-expressed as
(3.14) 𝒅𝝓𝑷 𝒅𝝓𝑴 𝒅𝝓𝑳𝑷
𝒗𝑷 𝒕 = 𝑵𝑷 = 𝑵𝑷 + 𝑵𝑷
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
⇒ 𝒗𝑷 = 𝒆𝑷 +𝒆𝑳𝑷 (𝒕)

25
The voltage ratio across a transformer
Similarly, the voltage on the secondary coil of the transformer is
𝒅𝝓𝒔 𝒅𝝓𝑴 𝒅𝝓𝑳𝒔
(3.15) 𝒗𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑵𝒔 = 𝑵𝒔 + 𝑵𝒔
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
⇒ 𝒗𝒔 = 𝒆𝒔 +𝒆𝑳𝒔 (𝒕)
 The primary voltage due to the mutual flux is given by ( refer
eqn.(2.14))
𝒅𝝓𝑴
(3.16) 𝒆𝒑 𝒕 = 𝑵𝑷
𝒅𝒕
And the secondary voltage due to the mutual flux is given
(3.17) 𝒅𝝓𝑴
𝒆𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑵𝑺
𝒅𝒕
𝒆𝒑 (𝒕) 𝒅𝝓𝑴 𝒆𝒔 (𝒕)
From eqn.(2.16) & (2.17) , we get 𝑵𝑷 = 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑵𝑺
Therefore,
(3.18) 𝒆𝒑 (𝒕) 𝑵𝑷
⇒ = =𝒂
𝒆𝒔 (𝒕) 𝑵𝑺
26
The voltage ratio across a transformer
 In a well-designed transformer 𝝓𝑴 ≫ 𝝓𝑳𝑷 and 𝝓𝑴 ≫ 𝝓𝑳𝑺 , the
ratio of the total voltage on the primary of a transformer to total
voltage on the secondary of a transformer is approximately
(3.19) 𝒗𝑷 (𝒕) 𝑵𝑷
= =𝒂
𝒗𝑺 (𝒕) 𝑵𝑺

NB: the smaller the leakage fluxes of the transformer are, the
closer the total transformer voltage ratio approximates that of
the ideal transformer discussed in section 3.3

27
The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
 Although the output of the transformer is open circuit,
there will still be current flow in the primary windings. The
current components may be divided into 2 components:
i. Magnetization current, 𝒊𝑴– current required to produce flux
in the core.
ii. Core-loss current, 𝒊 – current required to compensate
𝒉+𝒆
hysteresis and eddy current losses.
 Ignoring for the moment the effects of leakage flux, we see that
the average flux in the core is given by
(3.20) 𝟏
𝝓= 𝒗𝑷 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑵𝑷
 If the primary voltage is given by the expression 𝒗𝑷 𝒕 = 𝑽𝑴 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 𝑽
, then the resulting flux must be
(3.21) 𝟏 𝑽𝑴
𝝓= 𝑽𝑴 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕𝒅𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 𝑾𝒃 28
𝑵𝑷 𝝎𝑵𝑷
The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
𝝓(𝒕) & 𝒗𝑷 (𝒕) 𝝓(𝒕) 𝝓(𝒕)
𝒗𝑷 (𝒕)

t 𝓕

𝑽𝑴
𝝓 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕
𝝎𝑵𝑷 𝒊𝒎

𝒕
Fig 3.9 The magnetization current caused by the flux in the transformer core. 29
The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
Notice the following points about the magnetization current:
1. The magnetization current in the transformer is not sinusoidal.
The higher frequency components in the magnetization current
are due to magnetic saturation in the transformer core.
2. Once the peak flux reaches the saturation point in the core,
a small increase in peak flux requires a very large increase in
the peak magnetization current.
3. The fundamental component of the magnetization current
lags the voltage applied to the core by 90°.
4. The higher-frequency components in the magnetization current
can be quite large compared to the fundamental component.
In general, the further a transformer core is driven into
saturation, the larger the harmonic components will become .

30
The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
 The other component of the no-load current in the transformer
is the current required to supply power to make up the
hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core. ( This is the core
-loss current)
𝒅𝝓
 Assume that the flux in the core is sinusoidal. Since, 𝒊𝒆 ∝
𝒅𝒕
 The eddy currents are largest when the flux in the core is

passing through 0 Wb.

Therefore, the core-loss current is greatest as the flux passes

through zero.
31
The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
 The total current required to make up for core losses is shown
in Fig 3.10

𝒊𝒉+𝒆 𝝓

Fig 3.10 The core-loss current in a transformer

32
The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
Note the following points about the core-loss current:
1. The core-loss current is nonlinear because of the nonlinear
effects of hysteresis.

2. The fundamental component of the core-loss current is in phase

with the voltage applied to the core .

 The total no-load current in the core is called the excitation

current of the transformer. i.e., 𝒊𝒆𝒙 = 𝒊𝒎 + 𝒊𝒉+𝒆

33
The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
 The total excitation current in a typical transformer core is shown
in Fig 3.11. 𝒊
𝒆𝒙

𝒗𝑷 (𝒕)

Fig 3.11 total excitation current in a transformer

34
The current ratio on a transformer & the dot convention
Suppose now a load is connected to the secondary of the
transformer. The resulting circuit is shown in Fig 3.12

Fig 2.12 a real transformer with a load connected to its secondary

 From Fig 3.12, the net mmf on the core must be

(3.22) 𝓕𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑵𝑷 𝒊𝑷 − 𝑵𝑺 𝒊𝑺
35
The current ratio on a transformer & the dot convention
 Also from magnetic circuit concept we have
(3.23) 𝓕𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑵𝑷 𝒊𝑷 − 𝑵𝑺 𝒊𝑺 = 𝝓𝓡
Because the reluctance of a well designed transformer core is very
small (nearly zero) until the core is saturated , the relationship
between the primary and secondary currents is approximately
(3.24) 𝓕𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑵𝑷 𝒊𝑷 − 𝑵𝑺 𝒊𝑺 ≈ 𝟎

Therefore,
(3.25) 𝑵𝑷 𝒊𝑷 ≈ 𝑵𝑺 𝒊𝑺 or
(3.26) 𝒊𝑷 ≈ 𝑵𝑺 = 𝟏
𝒊𝑺 𝑵𝑷 𝒂
Fig 3.13 magnetization curve of an ideal transformer

It is this fact that the mmf in the core is nearly zero which gives the
dot convention the meaning in section 3.3. 36
The current ratio on a transformer & the dot convention

Q. What assumptions are required to convert a real transformer

into the ideal transformer described previously? ( section 3.3)
A. They are as follows:
1. The core must have no hysteresis or eddy currents.
2. The magnetization curve must have the shape shown in
Fig 3.13. Notice that for an unsaturated core the net mmf
𝓕𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝟎 → 𝑵𝑷 𝒊𝑷 = 𝑵𝑺 𝒊𝑺
3. The leakage flux in the core must be zero, implying that all the
flux in the core couples both windings.
4.The resistance of the transformer windings must be zero.

37
3.5 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
 For real transformer, there are several losses that has to be taken
into account in order to accurately model the transformer,
namely:
i. Copper (I2R) Losses – resistive heating losses in the primary
and secondary windings of the transformer.
ii. Eddy current Losses – resistive heating losses in the core of
the transformer.
iii. Hysteresis Losses – these are associated with the
rearrangement of the magnetic domains in the core during
each half-cycle.
iv. Leakage fluxes

38
Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
 The Exact equivalent circuit will take into account all the major
imperfections in real transformer.
i. Copper Losses
 They are modeled by placing a resistor 𝑹𝑷 in the primary circuit
and a resistor 𝑹𝑺 in the secondary circuit.
ii. Leakage Flux
 The leakage flux in the primary & secondary windings produces a
voltage given by (section 2.4)
𝒅𝝓𝑳𝑷 𝒅𝝓𝑳𝑺
𝒆𝑳𝑷 (𝒕) = 𝑵𝑷 𝒆𝑳𝑺 (𝒕) = 𝑵𝑺
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 Since much of the leakage flux path is through air, and since air
has a constant reluctance much higher than the core reluctance ,
we get eqn.(3.27)
39
Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
(3.27) 𝝓𝑳𝑷 = (𝑷𝑵𝑷 )𝒊𝑷 and 𝝓𝑳𝑺 = (𝑷𝑵𝑺 )𝒊𝑺
where
𝑷 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉
𝑵𝑷 = 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒔
𝑵𝑺 = 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒔
Thus,
𝒅 𝟐
𝒅𝒊𝑷
𝒆𝑳𝑷 (𝒕) = 𝑵𝑷 (𝑷𝑵𝑷 )𝒊𝑷 = (𝑵𝑷 ) 𝑷
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
(3.28) 𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝑺
𝟐
𝒆𝑳𝑺 𝒕 = 𝑵𝑺 𝑷𝑵𝑺 𝒊𝑺 = (𝑵𝑺 ) 𝑷
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The constants in eqn.(2.28) can be lumped together. Then,
(3.29) 𝒆 (𝒕) = 𝑳 𝒅𝒊𝑷 & 𝒆 (𝒕) = 𝑳 𝒅𝒊𝑺
𝑳𝑷 𝑷 𝑳𝑺 𝑺
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Where 𝑳𝑷 = 𝑷𝑵𝑷 𝟐 is the self-inductance of the primary coil and

𝑳𝑺 = 𝑷𝑵𝑺 𝟐 is the self-inductance of the secondary coil. 40
Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
 Therefore, the leakage element may be modeled as an
inductance connected together in series with the primary and
secondary circuit respectively.
Q. What is the physical meaning of inductance of a coil?
iii. Core excitation effects
Q. How can the core excitation effects be modeled ?
 The magnetization current 𝒊𝒎 is a current proportional (in the
unsaturated region) to the voltage applied to the core and
lagging the applied voltage by 𝟗𝟎𝟎
 modeled by a reactance 𝑿𝒎 connected across the
primary voltage source.
 The core loss current 𝒊𝒉+𝒆 is a current proportional to the voltage
applied to the core that is in phase with the applied voltage.
modeled as a resistance 𝑹𝑪 across the primary voltage source.
41
Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer
The resulting equivalent circuit :

Fig 3.14 The model of a real transformer

 To analyze practical circuits containing transformers, it is normally
necessary to convert the entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a
single voltage level.
 the equivalent circuit must be referred either to its primary side or
secondary side as in problem solution(Fig 3.15).
42
Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer

(a)

Fig 3.15 (a) the transformer model referred to its primary voltage level 43
(b) The transformer model referred to its secondary voltage level
Approximate Equivalent Circuits of a Transformer
 The transformer models shown in Fig 3.15 are more complex
than necessary in order to get good results in practical
engineering applications.
 The excitation branch has a very small current compared to
the load current of the transformers. And it cause negligible
voltage drop in Rp and Xp.
The excitation branch is simply moved to the front of the
transformer ( refer Fig 3.16)

44
3.7 Transformer Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
 Because a real transformer has series impedances within it, the
output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the
input voltage remains constant.
• To conveniently compare transformers in this respect, a
quantity called voltage regulation (VR) defined by
𝑽𝑺,𝒏𝒍 − 𝑽𝑺,𝒇𝒍
(3.30) 𝑽𝑹 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝑺,𝒇𝒍

• Since at no load,𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝑷 𝒂, the voltage regulation can also be

expressed as
(3.31) 𝑽𝑷 𝒂 − 𝑽𝑺,𝒇𝒍
𝑽𝑹 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝑺,𝒇𝒍
• Usually it is a good practice to have as small a VR as possible.
For an ideal transformer, VR=0 percent.
45
3.7 Transformer Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
Q. How can the voltage regulation of a transformer be determined?
Transformer Phasor diagram
To determine the voltage regulation of a transformer, it is necessary
to understand the voltage drops within it.
Consider the simplified transformer equivalent circuit referred to
the secondary side (see Fig 3.15(b))
• The effects of the excitation branch on transformer VR can be
ignored, so only the series impedances need be considered.
•The VR regulation of a transformer depends both on the
magnitude of these series impedances and on the phase angle
of the current flowing through the transformer.

46
3.7 Transformer Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
The easiest way to determine the effect of the impedances and the
current phase angles on the transformer VR is to examine a phasor
diagram, a sketch of the phasor voltages and currents in the
transformer.
 By applying KVL to the equivalent circuit in Fig 3.15(b),
(3.32) 𝑽𝑷
= 𝑽𝑺 + 𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑰𝑺 +𝒋𝑿𝒆𝒒 𝑰𝑺
𝒂

θ VS jXeqIS
IS ReqIS
Fig 3.17 Phasor diagram of a transformer operating at a
lagging power factor.
• For a transformer operating at a lagging power factor , VR>0.
47
3.7 Transformer Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
𝑽𝑷
𝒂

𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑰𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝑿𝒆𝒒 𝑰𝑺 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝜽

𝜽 𝑽𝑺 𝜽
𝒋𝑿𝒆𝒒 𝑰𝑺
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑰𝑺
𝑰𝑺
𝑽𝑷
≈ 𝑽𝑺 + 𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑰𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 +𝑿𝒆𝒒 𝑰𝑺 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒂

Fig 3.18 Derivation of the approximate equation for 𝑽𝑷 𝒂 .

Transformer Efficiency
Transformers are also compared and judged on their efficiency. The
Efficiency of a device is defined as
(3.33) 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜼= 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒊𝒏 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 + 𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
48
3.7 Transformer Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
Eqn.(3.33) applies to motors and generators as well as
transformers.
Types of losses incurred in a transformer :
• Copper I2R losses
• Hysteresis losses
Core losses
• Eddy current losses
 Therefore, for a transformer , efficiency may be calculated using
the following:
𝑽𝑺 𝑰𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
(2.34) 𝜼= 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝑪𝒖 + 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 + 𝑽𝑺 𝑰𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽

49
3.7 Transformer Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
Example 3.2
A 20-kVA 8000/480-V distribution transformer has the following
resistances and reactances:
𝑹𝑷 = 𝟑𝟐𝜴 𝑹𝑺 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝛀
𝑿𝑷 = 𝟒𝟓𝜴 𝑿𝑺 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝛀
𝑹𝑪 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝜴 𝑿𝑴 = 𝟑𝟎𝒌𝛀
The excitation branch impedances are given referred to the HV side
of the transformer.
(a) Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the HV
side.
(b) Assume that this transformer is supplying rated load at 480V
and 0.8PF lagging. What is this transformer’s input voltage?
What is its voltage regulation?
(c) What is the transformer’s efficiency under the conditions of
part(b)?
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3.7 Transformer Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
Example 3.2…continued
(a) The turn ratio , a=8000/480=16.67.
Thus, the secondary impedances referred to the primary side are
𝑹′𝑺 = 𝒂𝟐 𝑹𝑺 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝜴 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟗𝛀
𝑿′𝑺 = 𝒂𝟐 𝑿𝑺 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝟐
𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝜴 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟕𝛀
The resulting equivalent circuit is

51
3.7 Transformer Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
Example 3.2…continued
(b) To simplify the calculation, use the simplified equivalent circuit
referred to the primary side of the transformer:
The secondary current is
𝟐𝟎𝒌𝑽𝑨
𝑰𝑺 = < −𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝟎 𝑨 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 < −𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝟎 𝑨
𝟒𝟖𝟎𝑽
The secondary current referred to the primary side is
𝑰𝑺 𝟒𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 < −𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝟎 𝑨
𝑰′𝑺 = = = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟎 < −𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝟎 𝑨
𝒂 𝟏𝟔. 𝟔𝟕
Therefore, the primary voltage on the transformer is
𝑽𝑷 = 𝑽′𝑺 + (𝑹𝑬𝑸 + 𝒋𝑿𝑬𝑸 )𝑰′𝑺
𝑽𝑷 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 < 𝟎𝟎 𝑽 + 𝟒𝟓. 𝟗 + 𝒋𝟔𝟏. 𝟕 𝟐. 𝟓𝟎 < −𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝟎 𝑨 = 𝟖𝟏𝟖𝟓 < 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟎 𝑽

The Voltage regulation (VR) of the transformer under these

condition is 𝟖𝟏𝟖𝟓 − 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝑹 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟏%
𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 52
3.7 Transformer Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
Example 3.2…continued
(c) Under the conditions of part (b) , the transformer’s output
power , copper losses and core losses are:
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑺 ∗ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟐𝟎𝒌𝑽𝑨 𝟎. 𝟖 = 𝟏𝟔𝒌𝑾
𝑷𝑪𝒖 = (𝑰′𝑺 )𝟐 𝑹𝑬𝑸 = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝟐 𝟒𝟓. 𝟗 = 𝟐𝟖𝟕𝑾

(𝑽𝑷 )𝟐 𝟖𝟏𝟖𝟓𝟐
𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 = = = 𝟐𝟔𝟖𝑾
𝑹𝑪 𝟐𝟓𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎

Hence , the efficiency becomes

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜼= ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 + 𝑷𝑪𝒖 + 𝑷𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒆
𝟏𝟔, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
= ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟏𝟔, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐𝟖𝟕 + 𝟐𝟔𝟖
= 𝟗𝟔. 𝟔%
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3.7 Transformer Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
Example 3.3
A single-phase power system is shown in Fig 3.19. The power
source feeds a 100-kVA 14/2.4-kV transformer through a feeder
impedance of 40.0+j150Ω. The transformer’s equivalent series
impedance referred to its low-voltage side is 0.12+j0.5Ω. The load
on the transformer is 90kW at 0.80PF lagging and 2300V.

Fig 3.19 Circuit of Example 3.3

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3.7 Transformer Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
Example 3.3…continued
(a) What is the voltage at the power source of the system?
(b) What is the voltage regulation of the transformer?
(c) How efficient is the overall power system?
Solution:
To solve this problem , we need first to refer the circuit to the low-
voltage side. The feeder’s impedance referred to LV is
𝟐
𝟐. 𝟒𝒌𝑽
𝒁′𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 = (𝟒𝟎𝜴 + 𝒋𝟏𝟓𝟎𝛀) = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 + 𝐣𝟒. 𝟒𝟏 𝛀
𝟏𝟒𝒌𝑽

The secondary current 𝑰𝑺 is given by

𝟗𝟎𝒌𝑾
𝑰𝑺 = = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟗𝟏𝑨
(𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟎𝑽)(𝟎. 𝟖𝟎)
𝑰𝑺 = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟗𝟏 < −𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝟎 𝑨
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3.7 Transformer Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
Example 3.3…continued
(a) The voltage at the power source of this system ( referred to the
secondary side) is
𝑽′𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝑽𝑺 + 𝑰𝑺 𝒁′𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 + 𝑰𝑺 𝒁𝑬𝑸
= 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟎 < 𝟎𝟎 𝑽 + 𝟒𝟖. 𝟗𝟏 < −𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝟎 𝑨 𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 + 𝒋𝟒. 𝟏𝟏𝜴
+(𝟒𝟖. 𝟗𝟏 < −𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝟎 )(𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 + 𝒋𝟎. 𝟓𝜴)
= 𝟐𝟒𝟔𝟕 < 𝟑. 𝟓𝟎 𝑽
Thus, the voltage at the power source is
𝟏𝟒𝒌𝑽
𝑽𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝟎
= (𝟐𝟒𝟔𝟕 < 𝟑. 𝟓 𝑽) = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟒 < 𝟑. 𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑽
𝟐. 𝟒𝒌𝑽
(b) To find the VR of the transformer, we must first find the voltage
at the primary side of the transformer ( referred to the
secondary side) under full load conditions:
𝑽′𝑷 = 𝑽𝑺 + 𝑰𝑺 𝒁𝑬𝑸
𝑽′𝑷 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟎 < 𝟎𝟎 𝑽 + 𝟒𝟔. 𝟎𝟑 < −𝟑𝟏. 𝟖𝟎 𝑨 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 + 𝒋𝟎. 𝟓𝜴
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3.7 Transformer Voltage Regulation & Efficiency
Example 3.3…continued
(b) 𝑽′𝑷 = 𝟐𝟑𝟏𝟕 < 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟎 𝑽
𝟐𝟑𝟏𝟕 − 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟎
Thus, the VR of the transformer is 𝑽𝑹 =
𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒%

(c) The overall efficiency of the power system will be the ratio of
the output power to the input power. The output power
supplied to the load is 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟗𝟎𝒌𝑾 . The input power supplied
by the source is
𝑷𝑰𝑵 = 𝑽′𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑰𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟐𝟒𝟔𝟕𝑽 𝟒𝟔. 𝟎𝟑𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟑𝟓. 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟔𝟖𝒌𝑾

Therefore, the efficiency of the power system is

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝟗𝟎𝒌𝑾
𝜼= 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟏%
𝑷𝑰𝑵 𝟗𝟐. 𝟔𝟖𝒌𝑾

57
 3.8 Transformers ratings
Transformers have the following major ratings:
1. Apparent power; The apparent power rating sets (together with the
voltage rating) the current through the windings
2. Voltage; used to protect the winding insulation from breakdown;
3. Current;
4. Frequency.

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