Transformers

• A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at

one frequency and voltage level to ac electric power at the
same frequency and another voltage level through the action
of a magnetic field. It consists of two or more coils of wire
wrapped around a common ferromagnetic core. These coils
are (usually) not directly connected. The only connection
between the coils is the common magnetic flux present within
the core.
• One of the transformer windings is connected to a source of
ac electric power, and the second (and perhaps third)
transformer winding supplies electric power to loads. The
transformer winding connected to the power source is called
the primary winding or input winding, and the winding
connected to the loads is called the secondary winding or
output winding.
• Transformers are static electromagnetic machines. They do
not have moving parts. Transformers transfer energy by
changing the level of energy. They do not convert the energy.

Figure 1

• An ideal transformer P1 = P2. However, U1(t) U2(t) and

i1(t)i2(t).
 Ideal Transformer
• A transformer has a magnetic system which has a flux
(changing with time) linking two or more windings. The aim is
to transfer the electrical energy without any electrical
connection between the two circuits (primary and secondary).
In a transformer, potential in one circuit is usually different
than that of the other circuit.
• Operating principle of a transformer can be roughly explained
as follow:
• The flux created by the current flowing through one (ie
primary winding)of the two coils of wire which is physically
wrapped around a ferromagnetic core links the other coil
(secondary) as shown in Fig.2.
• The basis of transformer operation can be derived from
Faraday’s law:
• where  is the flux linkage in the coil across which the voltage is
being induced.

• Figure 2: Sketch of a real transformer with no load attached to its

secondary.
• The flux linkage  is the sum of the flux passing through each
turn in the coil added over all the turns of the coil:

• Faraday’s law can be written as;

• Where  is average flux per turn.

 Figure 3:Power transformer with two windings

To avoid energy losses in the transformer the coils are wrapped

around a ferromagnetic core. Therefore, the flux produced in
one coil because of the current flowing through it will be
almost completely linked by the other coil.
• It is necessary to have mathematical model of a transformer if
we want to examine or analyze its behaviour. The model will
be valid for an ideal transformer. Therefore, we can list the
assumptions for an ideal transformer as;
1. No electric fields produced by coils.
2. Ideal windings has no resistances.
3. The relative permeability of the core is very high
4. No Leakage Flux, hence Leakage Flux of the two windings are
neglected.
5. Core losses are neglected.
6. Ideal core has no reluctance.
• If u1 voltage is applied to N1 winding, i1 current will flow
through it. The constructed MMF (N1.i1) forms  flux and 1
(N1) linkage flux in the core. If u1 changes with time, then i1,
 and 1 will also change with time. Hence, EMF, e11 will be
induced in N1 winding as;

• If current and hence flux increase, the induced voltage in the

coil will oppose against the current change (Lenz rule). Since
there is no leakage flux (assumption 4) and all windings of N1
coil are linked by the flux then;
• And;

• Since resistance of N1 winding is neglected (assumption 2);

• u1 = e11 Volt
• Flux,  also links N2 coil and it produces 2 linkage flux. If the
flux increases, e22 emf will be induced in N2 winding and its
direction will be as shown in Fig.3. The amplitude of this emf;
• If an external load is connected across N2 winding then e22
voltage will cause a current to flow as shown in Fig.3. If
resistance of N2 winding is neglected (assumption 2) then;
• u2 = e22 Volt
• Therefore by considering first three assumptions;

• Potential ratio will be equal to the winding ratio.

• Therefore;
• The net MMF in the core at any instant;
• F = N1.i1 – N2.i2 (A)
• From assumption 3;
• N1.i1 - N2.i2 = 0

• If there is no current in N2 winding then there will be no

current in N1 winding. Hence, i2 current causes to form i1
current.
• If we multiply both equations;
• u1.i1 = u2.i2 (W)
• Or;
• Instantaneous input power = Instantaneous output power.

• If u1 voltage is time depended and it is sinusoidal, then the

system containing the supply, transformer and load can be
represented by a diagram. Rms values of variables are used.
As shown in Fig.4, the ideal transformer can only represented
by two windings (N1, N2). Because the ferromagnetic core is
not shown in the diagram, it causes uncertainty on N1 and N2
winding’s direction.
• Notice the dots “.” on the windings of the transformer. The
dots help determine the polarity of the voltages and currents
in the core without having physically to examine its windings.
The physical significance of the dot convention is that a
current flowing into the dotted end of a winding produces a
positive magnetomotive force.

Figure 4: Ideal Transformer

• Phasor equations for the transformer can be written as;

• By rating both equations;

• (1)

• Where;
• ZL is impedance of the load circuit connected to N2 winding.
• Eq.(1) shows that an ohmmeter connected to the supply side
sees the ideal transformer and the load as an impedance. The
value of this impedance;

• Where Z’L is impedance of ZL referred to N1 winding.

• Hence, turn ratio of the transformer determines the effective
impedance seen from the supply side. This feature of
transformers can be used to obtain maximum power transfer
from a supply having ZS internal impedance.
• For maximum power transfer if ZL is complex then;

• In practice, since the energy flow direction is known, one of the

windings is primary side and the other one is secondary side.
Primary winding is connected to the energy source and secondary
winding is connected to the load circuit.
• One of the windings is usually designed for high voltage.
However, similar two windings are sometimes used for isolation
purpose.
• If the low voltage winding is in primary side then the transformer
steps up the voltage level.
• If the high voltage winding is in primary side then the transformer
steps down the voltage level.
Step up Transformer
A typical power distribution system
• Frequency, potential difference, current and power are
nominal values of a transformer. There must be no magnetic
saturation in the core at nominal voltage. Nominal current is ,
however, restricted with losses which cause high temperature
on the transformer. That is; the nominal current must be at a
level that the heat in the transformer caused by the losses
does not cause the transformer to overheat.
• That's why energy capacity of a transformer is represented by
apparent power (VA). It is important how the transformer
behaves when operates at maximum capacity.
• Working Example:
• A 60 Hz, 50 kVA and 2400/240 V transformer is operated as
step down in an energy transmission line and feeds a local
distribution system.
• a) In order to load the transformer at nominal rate what value
of load impedance must be connected to the low voltage
side?
• b) What is the value of that impedance referred to the high
voltage side?
• c) Calculate current of the high voltage winding.
a) Since the transformer is lossless, apparent power is same at
both windings.

This impedance could be resistive, reactive or combination of

them.
b) .

c) .
 Linear Equivalent Circuit of A Transformer
with Two Windings
• Although the ideal transformer is a good model to explain the
principal operation of a transformer, it is not good enough to
explain the operation of a transformer used in daily life. To obtain
more realistic model of the transformer we need to make more
realistic assumptions as:
1. Electric field produced by coils can be neglected.
2. Copper Losses in primary and secondary windings: These are
modeled as series resistors R1 and R2 for the primary and
secondary windings, respectively.
3. Flux produced by MMF of one coil can be divided into two parts;
a) Small portion of the core flux leaks outside the core and
passes through one winding only. This flux will be presented by a
leakage inductance. Both primary and secondary coils generate
leakage flux which are modeled as series inductances X1 and X2 in
the primary and secondary windings, respectively.
 b)Mutual flux linking both windings.
4. Permeability of the core is assumed as constant ( There is no
magnetic saturation)
5. Core losses are neglected.
Assumption 1 an d 5 are same as those made for the ideal
transformer.
(a)

(b)
• In Fig.(a), R1 and R2 winding resistances (assumption 2) and l1
and  l2 (assumption 3 ) have been shown. Direction of these
leakage fluxes has been shown according to the direction of i1
and i2 currents. The flux linking both windings has been
represented by m. If core reluctance is represented by Rm ;

• Hysteresis curve in Fig(b) can be drawn by considering

assumptions 4 and 5. If the core losses are zero then hysteresis
curve will not have a closed area. Since permeability is assumed
as constant, the relationship between  an i is linear. That’s why
we use the term “linear equivalent circuit”.
• Since both windings carry current, the flux linking N1 winding;

• Similarly, the linking flux for N2;

• The total flux linking in N1 and N2 windings;

• We can write the voltage equations as;

• The induced emf in both windings are;
• Leakage inductance of both windings can be expressed as:

• The emf induced in both windings because of m;

• The voltage equations can be rearranged as;

• The equivalent circuit represented by the last two voltage
equations;
• Therefore;

• The ratio of these emfs is equal to the ratio of the ideal

transformer’s terminal voltages (u1/u2).
• Since the permeability of the core is not infinity, mmf in the
core will not be zero. Therefore, this transformer cannot be
accepted as ideal transformer.
• i’m is the current flowing through N1 and responsible to
produce m mutual flux. That is; i’m is the magnetizing current
referred to primary side (N1). Therefore;

• If i’m is producing flux then it must be flowing through an

inductive circuit. Therefore; a circuit including the ideal
transformer can be drawn by the help of equations;
Therefore; MMF in the core will be zero.
• Figure. Linear equivalent circuit of the transformer
Where;
• L’m is the magnetizing inductance referred to N1.
• If we assumed that m is produced by N2 and i’’m then
L’’m would be obtained as;

• This inductance would be connected to N2 winding.

Then;

• Hence;

• L’’m is L’m magnetizing inductance referred to N2.