This document provides an overview of ancient and medieval mathematics in China and India. It discusses early Chinese number systems using oracle bones and texts like the Nine Chapters on Mathematical Art. Key topics covered include calculations, geometry, solving equations, and transmission of ideas between China and India. Chinese mathematicians developed methods for solving systems of linear equations and the Chinese remainder problem. Their work influenced later Indian and Islamic mathematicians.
This document provides an overview of ancient and medieval mathematics in China and India. It discusses early Chinese number systems using oracle bones and texts like the Nine Chapters on Mathematical Art. Key topics covered include calculations, geometry, solving equations, and transmission of ideas between China and India. Chinese mathematicians developed methods for solving systems of linear equations and the Chinese remainder problem. Their work influenced later Indian and Islamic mathematicians.
This document provides an overview of ancient and medieval mathematics in China and India. It discusses early Chinese number systems using oracle bones and texts like the Nine Chapters on Mathematical Art. Key topics covered include calculations, geometry, solving equations, and transmission of ideas between China and India. Chinese mathematicians developed methods for solving systems of linear equations and the Chinese remainder problem. Their work influenced later Indian and Islamic mathematicians.
This document provides an overview of ancient and medieval mathematics in China and India. It discusses early Chinese number systems using oracle bones and texts like the Nine Chapters on Mathematical Art. Key topics covered include calculations, geometry, solving equations, and transmission of ideas between China and India. Chinese mathematicians developed methods for solving systems of linear equations and the Chinese remainder problem. Their work influenced later Indian and Islamic mathematicians.
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
Download as docx, pdf, or txt
You are on page 1of 25
Ancient and Medieval China
● The Chinese of the Shang dynasty
1. Intro used a multiplicative system of ● Oracle Bones writing numbers, based on powers of - The bones are the source of our 10 knowledge of early Chinese ● red rods for positive numbers and number systems black ones for negative numbers ● Book of Numbers and Computation ● Examples can be seen in Suan - earliest extant text of Chinese mathematics shushu - consists of problems and their Roots solutions ● discussed in detail in chapter 4 of the ● Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon Nine Chapters, is the determination and the Circular Paths of Heaven of square and cube roots. and Nine Chapters on the 3. Geometry Mathematical Art Areas and Volume - played a part in the education of ● The Nine Chapters also gives the the civil service at the time correct formula for the volume of a ● Liu Hui pyramid. - Nine Chapters on the ● four separate formulas by which the Mathematical Art commentary; n calculation of area could be made: added a tenth chapter, now 1. The rule is: Half of the known as the Sea Island circumference and half of the Mathematical Manual diameter are multiplied together to ● Li Chunfeng give the area. - Ten Mathematical Classics which 2. Another rule is: The circumference includes Arithmetical Classic of and the diameter are multiplied the Gnomon, the Nine Chapters, together, then the result is divided by Liu Hui’s Sea Island 4. Mathematical Manual, the 3. Another rule is: The diameter is Mathematical Classic of Master multiplied by itself. Multiply the result Sun (fourth century ce), and the by 3 and then divide by 4. Mathematical Classic of Zhang 4. Another rule is: The circumference Qiujuan (late fifth century ce) is multiplied by itself. Then divide the result by 12. ● these mathematical texts studied by ● Liu Hui assumed that, eventually, the candidates for the civil service were collections of problems with methods polygons will in fact “exhaust” the of solution circle. 2. Calculations ● He called this intersection the ● Chinese used a base-10 system of “double box-lid when he inscribed a numbers second cylinder in the cube Number Symbols and Fractions Pythagorean Theorem and Surveying ● Zhao Shuang’s commentary on the ● Chapter 8 of the Nine Chapters Arithmetical Classic of the Gnomon describes a second method of and Liu Hui’s commentary on solving systems of linear equations chapter 9 of the Nine Chapters Qin Jiushao and Polynomial Equations contain an argument for the theorem. ● square and cube root procedures of ● chapter 9 of the Nine Chapters the Nine Chapters to higher roots by contains many problems involving using the array of numbers known right triangles. today as the Pascal triangle and extended and improved the method ● Haidao suanjing (Sea Island into one usable for solving Mathematical Manual) polynomial equations of any degree - This is where the addendum on more complicated problems of ● Shushu jiuzhang (Mathematical surveying Treatise in Nine Sections) - collection of nine problems with solutions, derivations, illustrations, and commentary - shows how to find the distance The Work of Li Ye, Yang Hui, and Zhu and height of a sea island Shijie - Liu Hui called his method the ● Li Ye method of double differences, because two differences are used - wrote two major mathematical in the solution procedure. works, the Ceyuan haijing (Sea 4. Solving Equations Mirror of Circle Measurements) in Systems of Linear Equations 1248 and the Yigu yanduan (Old Mathematics in Expanded ● The Nine Chapters contained both Sections) algorithms for solving systems - Ceyuan haijing dealt with the properties of circles inscribed in ● The first method, used chiefly for right triangles solving problems we would translate - Yigu yanduan similarly dealt with into systems of two equations in two geometric problems on squares, unknowns, is called the method of circles, rectangles, and surplus and deficiency and is found trapezoids in chapter 7 ● Yang Hui ● today called the method of “double - Xiangjie jiushang suanfa (A false position,” begins with the Detailed Analysis of the “guessing” of possible solutions and Arithmetical Rules in the Nine concludes by adjusting the guess to Sections) of 1261 and the get the correct solution. Its use collection known as Yang Hui showed that the Chinese understood suanfa (Yang Hui’s Methods of the concept of a linear relationship. Computation) of 1275 - Suanfa contains material on quadratic equations ● Zhu Shijie ● Islamic mathematicians used a - Suanxue Qimeng (Introduction to technique related to Horner’s method Mathematical Studies) in 1299 to solve polynomial equations and the Sijuan yujian (Precious numerically Mirror of the Four Elements) in ● Europeans eventually discovered a 1303. - Zhu applied this elimination method of solving the Chinese technique remainder problem fully equivalent to 5. Indeterminate Analysis Qin’s method ● Calendrical problems apparently led ● Mateo Ricci and one of his Chinese the Chinese mathematicians to the students, Xu Guangqi (1562–1633), question of solving systems of translated the first six books of indeterminate linear equations Euclid’s Elements into Chinese in Chinese Remainder Problem 1607 ● The earliest example in Chinese Ancient and Medieval India mathematics of this procedure for 1. Calculations solving systems of linear - Indians used a base-10 system congruences is in the Sunzi suanjing The Decimal Place Value System (Mathematical Classic of Master ● Our modern decimal place value Sun) system is usually referred to as the Hindu-Arabic system Qin Jiushao and the Ta-yen Rule ● Our modern decimal place value ● It was Qin Jiushao who first system is usually referred to as the published a general method for Hindu-Arabic system solving systems of linear ● the true origins of the system in India congruences in his Mathematical come from the Chinese counting Treatise in Nine Sections board ● Qin there described what he called ● rather than just have them on the the ta-yen rule for solving counting board, they were forced to simultaneous linear congruences use a symbol, the dot and later the 6. Transmission to and from China circle, to represent the blank column ● Chinese system influenced the of the counting board. Indian development of our modern Arithmetic Algorithms decimal place value system ● Aryabhata ● Indian mathematicians used a - Presented the methods of technique involving the Euclidean calculating square and cube algorithm to solve simultaneous roots. congruences ● Brahmagupta - a gave many details of arithmetic calculation in his major work, the 6. Trigonometry Brahmasphut.asiddhanta ● the needs of Indian astronomy (Correct Astronomical led to Indian improvements in this System of Brahma) field - he present the standard Construction og Sine Tables arithmetical rules for ● Paitamahasiddhanta calculating with fractions - dealing with astronomy - he gave the rules for and its associated operations on positive and mathematics negative numbers, as well - contains a table of “half- as zero chords” 2. Geometry ● Sine ● Sulbasutras - represent the length of the - appendices to the Vedas Indian half-chord which give rules for Approximation Techniques constructing altars. ● Indian mathematicians developed 3. Equation Solving methods of approximation ● Aryabhatya, provided what ● Brahmagupta had developed a amounts to the quadratic formula somewhat more accurate in a special case interpolation scheme using the 4. Indeterminate Analysis second-order differences Linear Congruences Power Series ● Indian mathematicians originated ● Determination of longitude could a method for solving linear also be accomplished using congruences trigonometry ● We accompany Brahmagupta’s ● the more accurate the Sine description of his method of values, the more accurately one kuttaka or “pulverizer” could determine one’s location Pell Equation 7. Transmission ● India learned trigonometry (and also some astronomy) from Greek sources Islamic scholars learned Indian trigonometry when 5. Combinatorics Indian works were brought to ● a sixth-century work by Baghdad in the eighth century Varahamihira deals with a larger ● our decimal place value system value traveled from India through Islam ● Mahavira gave an explicit to western Europe algorithm for calculating the number of combinations in the Mathematics of Islam nineth century 1. Decimal Arithmetic ● Bhaskara gave many other - When numbers had to be written, calculations using this basic a ciphered system was used in formula and also calculated that which the letters of the Arabic the number of permutations of a alphabet denoted numbers. set of order n was n!. - The earliest available arithmetic algebraic solution of quadratic text that deals with the Hindu equations should be based on numbers is the Kitab al-jam‘wal the work of Euclid rather than on tafriq bi h.isab al-Hind (Book on the ancient traditions Addition and Subtraction after the The Algebra of Thabit ibn Qurra and Method of the Indians) by Abu Kamil Muhammad ibn Musa al- ● Thabit noted explicitly that the Khwarizmi geometric procedure of ● al-Khwarizmi ElementsII–6 is completely - introduced nine characters to analogous to the procedure of designate the first nine numbers “the algebraists” - described the algorithms of ● Abu Kamil followed his addition, subtraction, discussion of the various forms of multiplication, division, halving, quadratic equations by a doubling, and determining square treatment of various algebraic root rules and then a large selection - al-Samaw’al in his Treatise on of problems. Arithmetic of 1172, showed that ● Abu Kamil’s algebr was written he fully understood decimal without symbols fractions in the context of Al-Karaji, al-Samaw’al, and the Algebra approximation of Polynomials 2. Algebra ● The process of relating arithmetic The Algebra of al-Khwarizmi and ibn to algebra, begun by al- Turk Khwarizmi and Abu Kamil ● The Condensed Book on the continued in the Islamic world Calculation of al-Jabr and al- with the work of Abu Bakr al- Muqabala Karaji (d. 1019) and al-Samaw’al - written about 825 by al- over the next two centuries Khwarizmi ● al-Karaji - a book that ultimately had - al-Fakhi (The Marvelous) even more influence than “the determination of his arithmetical work unknowns starting from - al-jabr can be translated knowns.” as “restoring” and refers to - In division, however, he the operation of only used monomials as “transposing” divisors, partly because he - The word al-muq¯abala was unable to incorporate can be translated as rules for negative numbers “comparing” and refers to into his theory and partly the reduction of a positive because of his verbal term by subtracting equal means of expression. amounts from both sides - He developed an algorithm of the equation for calculating square ● the Islamic mathematicians had roots of polynomials; it decided that the necessary was only applicable in geometric foundations to the limited circumstances. - more successful in number in terms of combinations of r continuing the work of Abu − 1 things. Kamil in applying Combinatorics and Number Theory arithmetic operations to ● amicable numbers irrational quantities - a pair of numbers each of ● al-Samaw’al which equaled the sum of - introduced negative the proper divisors of the coefficients other. - expressed his rules for ● IBN QURRA’S THEOREM For n > dealing with these 1, let pn = 3 . 2n − 1, qn = 9 . 22n−1 coefficients quite clearly in − 1. If pn−1, pn, and qn are prime, his algebra text Al-B¯ahir then a = 2npn−1pn and b = 2nqn are fi’l-h.is¯ab (The Shining amicable Book of Calculation) Ibn al-Banna and the Combinatorial Omar Khayyam and the Solution of Formulas Cubic Equations ● The author began with a known ● first systematically classified and result for a small value and used then proceeded to solve all types it to build up step-by-step to of cubic equations by this general higher values. method 4. Geometry ● On the Division of a Quadrant of Practical Geometry a Circle, in which he proposed to ● The earliest extant Arabic divide a quadrant ABCD at a geometry is due to al-Khwarizmi point G such that, with - His text is an elementary perpendiculars drawn to two compilation of rules for diameters mensuration such as might Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi and Cubic be needed by surveyors, Equations containing no axioms or ● he improved Al-khayyami’s proofs methods - To determine the volume ● he began by classifying the cubic of the frustum of a equations into several groups pyramid, calculate the ● his method of solution was the height to the top of the same as al-Khayyam’s completed pyramid by ● the determination of the using similar triangles, intersection point of two then to subtract the appropriately chosen conic volume of the upper sections. pyramid from that of the lower. 3. Combinatorics - They were always Counting Combinations interested in practical ● Ah.mad al-Ab’dari ibn Mun’im applications, in particular discussed the calculation of the in how artisans could number of combinations of r things create interesting from a set of n by looking at this geometrical patterns; they became proficient in doing theoretical constructions ● Early in Islamic trigonometry, that could easily be both the chord and the sine were translated into real-life used concurrently, but eventually constructions. the sine won out. Geometrical Cnstructions Trigonometric Tables ● Abu Kamil showed, using ● The key to getting accurate algebra, how to construct an tables was, as we have seen equilateral pentagon in a given earlier, a method for determining square, each of whose sides is the chord equal to 10. ● Abu al-Wafa first calculated the ● Abu al-Wafa’ also gave a Sines by the application of the construction of a pentagon with a halfangle formula and the sum special condition, the condition formula (as in Ptolemy’s being that the compass was a Almagest). “rusty compass,' ' one with a fixed Spherical Geometry opening. ● The major goal of trigonometry in Parallel Postulate Islam was to solve astronomical ● ibn al-Haytham problems, and these mostly - (Commentary on the required the solution of spherical Premises of Euclid’s triangles. Elements) Al-Tusi and the Systematization of - he attempted to Triginometry reformulate Euclid’s theory ● He presented several proofs of of parallels the spherical law of sines, giving - redefining the concept of attributions to earlier Islamic parallel lines mathematicians, and, again with ● Al-Khayyami attributions, several proofs of the - he began with the principle law of tangents that two convergent 6. Transmission straight lines intersect, and ● The work of Abu Kamil also it is impossible for them to became available in Europe, diverge in the direction of chiefly through the inclusion of convergence numerous problems from his Incommensurables work in Leonardo of Pisa’s Liber ● Abbaci 5. Trigonometry ● The only manuscript that we ● To determine the appropriate know of containing ibn al- direction at one’s own location Haytham’s work on the volume of required an extensive knowledge a paraboloid of revolution was of the solution of such triangles acquired by the library of the on the sphere of the earth. The India Office in England in the solution of both plane and nineteenth century. spherical triangles was also ● The sine theorem and the important in the determination of theorem of the four quantities, the correct time for prayers. along with some of their Trigonometric Functions corollaries, appeared in Spain, in the work of Abu Muhammad Jabir bar H. iyya, a work that ibn AflahalIshb¯il¯i (early twelfth also contained the Islamic century). rules for solving quadratic equations. Mathematics in Medieval Europe ● Gerard of Cremona 1. Intro - credited with the ● Despite the lack of mathematical translation of more than 80 activity, the early Middle Ages work had inherited from antiquity the - new translation of Euclid’s notion that the quadrivium— Elements from the Arabic arithmetic, geometry, music, and of Thabit ibn Qurra and the astronomy first translation of ● Despite the limited mathematical Ptolemy’s Almagest from sources available to Europeans the Arabic in 1175 at the turn of the millennium, ● By the end of the twelfth century, scholars did know that there was then, many of the major works of an ancient tradition in Greek mathematics and a few mathematics due to the Greeks, Islamic works were available to but it was virtually inaccessible to Latin-reading scholars in Europe. them at the time 2. Geometry and Trigonometry ● Among the earliest of the ● Euclid’s Elements was translated translating teams were John of into Latin early in the twelfth Seville and Domingo Gundisalvo, century who were active in the first half of Abraham bar Hiyya’s Treatise of the twelfth century Mensuration ● Adelard of Bath ● he took over the Islamic tradition - responsible for the first of translation from the Arabic ● proof, absorbed from the Greeks, of Euclid’s Elements.’ and gave geometric justifications - translated the of methods for solving the astronomical tables of al- algebraic problems he included Khwarizmi in 1126 as part of his geometrical discussions. ● Robert of Chester ● Abraham’s work was the first in - translated the Algebra of Europe to give the Islamic al-Khwarizmi in 1145, thus procedures for solving such introducing to Europe the equations. algebraic algorithms for ● Abraham’s most original solving quadratic contribution, however, is found in equations. his section on measurements in ● Plato of Tivoli circles. He began by giving the - translated from the standard rules for finding the Hebrew the Liber circumference and area of a embadorum (Book of circle Areas) by the Spanish- Practical Geometries Jewish scholar Abraham ● Abraham’s Hebrew text was one earthly triangles is further of the earliest of many practical demonstrated by two fourteenth- geometrical works to appear in century trigonometry works medieval Europe. ● Richard of Wallingford ● Hugh’s methods of measurement - Quadripartitum, a four-part involved the use of the alidade, work on the fundamentals an altitude-sighting device of trigonometry attached to the astrolabe, which - revised and shortened this enabled one to measure the ratio work in another treatise of height to distance of an object entitled De Sectore. sighted - to teach the methods ● These two twelfth-century Latin required for the solution of geometries give us an idea of the problems in spherical state of geometrical knowledge in trigonometry, which in turn northern Europe of the time. was required for ● The Perfection of Any Art astronomy - intends to show, then, the - chief source of the practical aspects of one of Quadripartitum was the the quadrivial subjects, Almagest of Ptolemy namely, geometry. ● Levi ben Gerson Leonardo of Pisa’s Practica Geometriae - roughly contemporaneous ● related to the work of Abraham with the Quadripartitum bar H. iyya than to the Artis - It formed part of an cuiuslibet consummatio or the astronomical treatise that work of Hugh of St. Victor in turn formed part of a ● Leonardo began with a listing of major philosophical work, various definitions, axioms, and Sefer Milh.amot Adonai theorems of Euclid, including (Wars of the Lord) especially the propositions of - based chiefly on Ptolemy, Book II Levi generally used Sines ● Leonardo also calculated areas rather than chords of segments and sectors of circle - he gave detailed by a table of arcs and chords. procedures for solving ● demonstrated how to use the plane triangles chord table to calculate arcs to - He first presented the chords in circles of radius other standard methods for than 21. solving right triangles and ● Leonardo used the table of then proceeded to general chords only to calculate areas of triangles. circular sectors and segments. - the methods were ● he calculated the lengths of the available in other Islamic sides and diagonals of a regular trigonometries pentagon inscribed in a circle - The methods Levi Trigonometry presented were used only ● trigonometry in the medieval for solving astronomical period was not used to measure triangles, never for solving problems, container problems, earthly ones. the Chinese remainder problem, 3. Combinatorics and, at the end, various forms of ● The earliest Jewish source on problems solvable by use of this topic seems to be the quadratic equations mystical work Sefer Yetsirah - Leonardo demonstrated his (Book of Creation), how to complete command of the calculate the number of algebra of his Islamic combinations of letters taken two predecessors as he showed how at a time to solve equations that reduce The Work of Abraham ibn Ezra ultimately to quadratic equations. ● an astrological text that ibn Ezra - resenting tenth-century Islamic discussed the number of possible mathematics and ignoring the conjunctions of the seven advances of the eleventh and “planets” (including the sun and twelfth centuries. the moon) - provide Europe’s first Levi ben Gerson and Induction comprehensive introduction to ● Maasei Hoshev (The Art of the Islamic mathematics Calculator) Liber Quadratorum - a first theoretical part in ● by Leonardo which every theorem ● a book on number theory, in receives a detailed proof, which Leonardo discussed the and a second “applied” solving in rational numbers of part in which explicit various equations involving instructions are given for squares performing various types ● the practical material in the Liber of calculation. abbaci and the Practica - most important aspects of geometriae was picked up by Levi’s work are the Italian surveyors and masters of combinatorial theorems computation (maestri d’abbaco), 4. Medieval Algebra who were influential in the next Leonardo of Pisa’s Liber Abbaci several centuries in bringing a - Liber abbaci, or Book of renewed sense of mathematics Calculation into Italy - The sources for the Liber abbaci Jordanus de Nemore were largely in the Islamic world ● His writings include several works - contained the rules for computing on arithmetic, geometry, with the new Hindu-Arabic astronomy, mechanics, and numerals, numerous problems of algebra various sorts in such practical ● he worked to create a Latin topics as calculation of profits, version of the quadrivium, based currency conversions, and upon a theoretical work on measurement, supplemented by arithmetic the now standard topics of ● Jordanus’s Arithmetica current algebra texts such as - based on a Euclidean mixture problems, motion model, with definitions, axioms, postulates, his De proportionibus propositions, and careful proportionum (On the proofs. Ratios of Ratios) - dealt with such topics - noted explicitly that one found in Euclid as ratio can also compound ratios and proportion, prime and by multiplying the composite numbers, the antecedents and then Euclidean algorithm, and multiplying the the geometrical algebra consequents propositions of Elements, Velocity Book II. ● Bradwardine in his Tractatus de ● De numeris datis (On Given continuo (Treatise on the Numbers) Continuum) (c. 1330) defined the - analytic work on algebra, “grade” of motion as “that part of based on but differing in the matter of motion susceptible spirit from the Islamic to ‘more’ and ‘less.” algebras that had made ● Heytesbury gave a careful their way into Europe by definition of instantaneous the early thirteenth century velocity for a body whose motion - algebraic rather than is not uniform geometric ● Oresme constructed what he 5. Mathematics of Kinematics called a configuration, a ● By early in the fourteenth century, geometrical figure consisting of however, certain other aspects of all the perpendicular lines drawn mathematics began to develop in over the base line the universities of Oxford and - the base line represented Paris out of attempts to clarify time, while the certain remarks in Aristotle’s perpendiculars physical treatises represented the velocities Study of Ratios at each instant ● A basic postulate of medieval Mathematics around the World physics was that F must be 1. Mathematics at the turn of the greater than R for motion to be Fourteenth Century produced. Common Ideas of Mathematics ● Thomas Bradwardine ● Practical geometry, that is, the - 1328 Tractatus de measure of fields, the proportionibus velocitatum determination of unknown in motibus (Treatise on the distances and heights, the Proportions of Velocities in calculation of volumes, and so Movements), proposed a on, was performed by much the solution to this dilemma same techniques in the four ● Nicole Oresme societies studied. - undertook a very detailed ● it was in the world of Islam that study of ratios in his the heritage of classical Greek Algorismus proportionum geometry was preserved and (Algorithm of Ratios) and studied and in which further the various algebraic procedures advances were made. involved in the solution, they ● the beginning of the fourteenth studied cubic equations as well. century saw only the bare ● Islamic mathematicians beginnings of a renewed interest developed a solution method in Euclid and other Greek involving conic sections and geometers, stimulated by the gained some understanding of appearance of a mass of the relationship of the roots to the translations of this material in the coefficients of these equations. twelfth and thirteenth centuries. ● The Pascal triangle also ● Related to geometry is the appeared in Islamic mathematics subject of trigonometry, in connection both with the developed in the Hellenic world binomial theorem and with the as a part of the study of study of combinatorics astronomy. ● Islamic mathematicians who dealt ● By the year 1300, trigonometry with these two aspects of the was in active use in India, Islam, Pascal triangle also developed and Europe, generally for the proof techniques closely same purpose of studying the resembling our modern proof by heavens. induction. Such techniques were ● It appears that only China was further worked out in Europe by lacking trigonometry, even Levi ben Gerson though Indian scholars had By the turn of the fourteenth introduced the elements of the century: subject in their visits in the eighth ● Algebraic techniques were only century beginning their appearance in ● It is probable that trigonometry Europe was simply not useful to the ● Jordanus de Nemore introduced Chinese in their own a form of symbolism in his astronomical and calendrical algebraic work, something calculations. missing entirely in Islamic algebra ● the Chinese were the first to but also present, in different develop techniques in algebra forms, in India and China. that were later used elsewhere ● European algebra of this time ● the techniques Indians developed period, like its Islamic for solving the quadratic counterpart, did not consider indeterminate equations known negative numbers at all. India today as the Pell equations and China, however, were very ● The Indian mathematicians were fluent in the use of negative also familiar with the standard quantities in calculations techniques of solving quadratic ● the Indians beginning in the equations fourteenth century did begin to ● Not only did Islamic consider infinitesimally small mathematicians study the quantities as they worked out quadratic equation in great detail, their own ideas related to giving geometric justifications for calculus. Possible Transmission of Ideas backgrounds against which the ● It appears that the level of achievements took place mathematics in China, India, the ● In China there was essentially Islamic world, and Europe was only one “university,” and this comparable at the turn of the was a bureaucratic subdivision of fourteenth century. the imperial administration. ● We have already seen how Chinese education was devoted trigonometry moved from Greece to memorization and commentary to India to Islam and back to on the ancient classics Europe, with each culture ● In India, there was no central modifying the material to meet its government over the entire own requirements subcontinent, and thus no central ● the decimal place value system, system of education. the ideas with its beginnings in China or evidently never spread out of India (or perhaps on the border southwestern India nor did they between them) moved to develop into any general theories Baghdad in the eighth century ● Islamic mathematics suffered a and then to Europe (via both Italy period of decline after the and Spain) in the eleventh and thirteenth century, and significant twelfth centuries. ideas of earlier time periods were ● The first tabulation of the tangent lost. even when mathematics was function was in China in the early being highly developed in Islam, eighth century, where Yi Xing the areas of mathematics more developed this idea probably with advanced than basic arithmetic the aid of Indian computations of were classified as “foreign the sine sciences,” in contrast to the ● angent tables were brought to “religious sciences,” including Europe early in the twelfth religious law and speculative century with the translation of an theology. edited version of al-Khwarizmi’s 2. Mathematics in America, Africa, astronomical tables, the tangent and the Pacific function is not found in the early ● There were mathematical ideas European trigonometry works. in the world in civilizations ● Pascal Triangle appears in Islam different from the four major in the early eleventh century and medieval societies already then in China perhaps in the considered. Unfortunately, most middle of that century. of the other civilizations were Why did Modern Mathematics develop nonliterate, so written in Europe? (rather than in the Islamic documentation is not available world or India or China) ● any description of the ● Because the technical mathematics of these societies achievements of these four necessarily comes from artifacts civilizations around 1300 were or from the descriptions of comparable, many scholars have ethnologists sought for the answer in the The Mayans religious and cultural ● Mayans had a priestly class who knots, and the spaces between studied mathematics and the knots all contribute to the astronomy and kept the calendar meaning of the recorded data ● The records of the priests were ● Every quipu has a main cord, written down and preserved on thicker than the others, to which bark paper or carved into stone are attached other cords, called monuments. pendant cords, to which may be ● the Spanish conquerors attached further cords, called destroyed most of the documents subsidiary cords they found ● Data is recorded on the cords ● because modern-day Mayans (other than the main cord) by a cannot read the ancient system of knots. hieroglyphics, it has been a long ● Zeros are generally represented and tedious process to decipher by a particularly wide space the few documents that remain, The North American Indians in particular, the Dresden codex ● These people had no category in ● Mayan numeration system was a their lives called “mathematics.” mixed system, like the ● The mathematical ideas were Babylonian. It was a place value simply part of what they needed system with base 20 on one to conduct their lives, to farm, to level, but for the representation of build, to worship. numbers less than twenty, it was ● This mathematics of a group of a grouping system with base 5. people, used on a regular basis, ● For calendrical purposes, the is what today is often called Mayans modified their “ethnomathematics,” the study of numeration system slightly, using which allows us to see the the third place from the bottom to importance of mathematical ideas represent 360s, rather than 400s to various such groups. ● The most important use of ● Other North American Indians computation for the Mayan built carefully aligned structures priests appears to have been for and even entire urban areas, thus calendrical computations. displaying a knowledge of The Incas astronomy and geometry. ● The Incas did not have a written Sub-Saharan Africa language but did possess a ● One major ancient structure that logical numbering system of is only now being studied in detail recording in the knots and cords is Great Zimbabwe, a massive of what are called quipus stone complex 17 miles south of ● The messages were encoded on Nyanda, Zimbabwe, which was the quipus and sent to their probably built in the twelfth destination by a series of runners century. ● A quipu is a collection of colored ● It is evident that the empire that knotted cords, in which the built this complex required colors, the placement of the mathematics to deal with the cords, the knots on the individual administrative and engineering cords, the placement of the requirements of the construction as well as with the trade, taxes, ● Group theory is also convenient and calendars required to keep in analyzing the kin relationships the empire functioning in Malekula ● Because the influence of Islam ● In the Marshall Islands, stick penetrated to much of west charts are an element of the Africa, and because an Islamic navigation tradition. university was in existence in ● Manipulations on the tika then Timbuktu from the fourteenth enable the answers to typical century at least until 1600, calendrical questions to be found scholars of that region were ● This brief trip through the world of probably exposed to some of the ethnomathematics shows us that mathematics of Islam two of the central ideas of ● One mathematical idea that mathematics, logical thought and appears in the Bushoong culture pattern analysis, occur in in Zaire and in the Tshokwe societies around the world. culture of northeastern Angola is the graph theoretical idea of Algebra in the Renaissance tracing out certain figures in a 1. The Italian Abacists continuous curve without lifting ● The Italian abacists of the one’s finger from the sand. fourteenth century were ● Another mathematical idea that instrumental in teaching the occurs in many African cultures is merchants the “new” Hindu- that of a geometric pattern, as Arabic decimal place value used in cloth weaving or system and the algorithms for decorative metal work. using it ● Mathematical games and puzzles ● The old counting board system occur in Africa required accountants to carry around not only a board but also a bag of counters, while the new system required only pen and The South Pacific paper and could be used ● we find the idea of tracing figures anywhere. continuously in the sand also in ● Using a counting board required Malekula in the Republic of that preliminary steps in the Vanuatu calculation be eliminated as one ● The Malekulans devised standard worked toward the final answer. algorithms for tracing their quite With the new system, all the complicated figures using steps were available for checking symmetry operations on a few when the calculation was basic drawings. finished. ● one can analyze the Malekulan Algebraic Symbolism and Techniques figures using some of the ● Recall that Islamic algebra was language of modern-day group entirely rhetorical. There were no theory symbols for the unknown or its powers nor for the operations performed on these quantities. ● Early in the fifteenth century, France: Nicole Chuquet however, some of the abacists ● Triparty in 1484 began to substitute abbreviations - he composed this because for unknowns. Ex. cosa (thing), his community has a censo (square), cubo (cube) growing need for practical ● Near the end of the fifteenth mathematics century, Luca Pacioli introduced - first part: concerned with the abbreviations p and m to arithmetic represent plus and minus (pi`u - part two: applied the rule and meno). to the calculation of square ● Antonio de’ Mazzingh roots of numbers that are - expert in devising clever not perfect squares algebraic techniques for - third part: showed how to solving complex problems. manipulate with Higher-Degree Equations polynomials and how to ● The third major innovation of the solve various types of Italian abacists was the extension equations of Islamic quadratic equation– ● Innovations in equation-solving solving techniques to higher- techniques: degree equations. - he generalized al- ● Maestro Dardi of Pisa Khwarizmi’s rules to - extended this list to 198 equations of any degree types of equations of that are of quadratic type degree up to four, some of - he noted that a particular which involved in the system of two equations in radicals three unknowns has ● Piero della Francesca multiple solutions - extended these rules to - consider negative fifthand sixth-degree solutions to equations equations in his own Trattato d’abaco Germany: Christoff Rudolff, Michael ● Luca Pacioli Stifel, and Johannes Scheubel - Summa de arithmetica, ● Christoff Rudolff geometrica, proportioni et - wrote his Coss, the first proportionalita, contained comprehensive German not only practical algebra, in Vienna in the arithmetic but also much of early 1520s. the algebra already - the book began with the discussed, the first basics of the place value published treatment of system for integers, giving doubleentry bookkeeping, the algorithms for and a section on practical calculation as well as a geometry short multiplication table 2. Algebra in France, Germany, England, and Portugal - introduced in his Coss the the German symbols for modern symbol √ for square powers of the unknown root - Recorde created the - The second half of modern symbol for Rudolff’s Coss was equality devoted to the solving of - he modified and extended algebraic equations the German symbolization ● Michael Stiffel of powers of the unknown - Stifel used the same to powers as high as the symbols as Rudolff for the 80th powers of the unknowns, - he gave in poetic form the but he was more various rules of operation consistent in using the Portugal: Pedro Nunes correspondence between ● Libro de Algebra in 1532 these letters and the - he used Italian integral “exponents” abbreviations for the - did not accept negative various powers of the roots to equations, he was unknown the first to compress the - he dealt with the three standard forms of procedures for combining the quadratic equation into algebraic expressions, for the single form x2 = bx + solving equations, and for c, where b and c were dealing with radicals and either both positive or of proportions opposite parity ● influenced by his reading of the - Stifel’s work was also the work of Pacioli. first European work both to 3. The Solution of the Cubic present the Pascal triangle Equation of binomial coefficients ● Scipione del Ferro and to make use of the - discovered an algebraic table for finding roots method of solving the cubic equation x^3 + cx = d. ● Johannes Scheubel - displayed the triangle in ● Niccolo Tartaglia of Brescia his De numeris et diversis - discovered the solution to rationibus of 1545 with the a form of the cubic, x^3 + standard instructions for bx^2 = d calculating its entries Gerolamo Cardano and the Ars Magna England: Robert Recorde ● Cardano published his most ● The Whetstone of Witte important mathematical work, the - the major source of the Ars magna, sive de regulis first English algebra algebraicis (The Great Art, or On - based on the German the Rules of Algebra), chiefly sources and even used devoted to the solution of cubic and quartic equations after finding out that Tartaglia was not ● attempted to identify the Greek the first one to discover the analysis with the new algebra, equation and who tried to display this new ● Tartaglia, of course, was furious algebra with “clearness and when Cardano’s work appeared. simplicity” He felt he had been cheated of ● The Analytic Art the rewards of his labor, even - reformulated the study of though Cardano did mention that algebra by replacing the Tartaglia was one of the original search for solutions to discoverers of the method,he had equations by the detailed another public contest, this time study of the structure of with Ferrari, but was defeated these equations, thus ● the formula providing the solution developing the earliest to the cubic equation is known as consciously articulated Cardano’s formula theory of equations. ● “WRITTEN IN FIVE YEARS, ● For Viete, problematic analysis ` MAY IT LAST AS MANY became zetetic analysis, the THOUSANDS.” procedure by which one Rafael Bombelli and Complex Numbers transforms a problem into an ● Algebra equation linking the unknown and - began the book with the various knowns elementary material and ● theorematic analysis became gradually worked up to the poristic analysis, the procedure solving of cubic and exploring the truth of a theorem quartic equations by appropriate symbolic manipulation 4. Viète, Algebraic Symbolism, and ● exegeticsis the art of Analysis transforming the equation found ● As part of the general revival of by zetetics to find a value for the knowledge of classical antiquity, unknown. there developed a great interest ● Five Books of Zetetics in retrieving all of the Greek - e used his symbolic mathematical works to be found. methods of calculation to ` deal with a large number ● Federigo Commandino of algebraic problems - prepared Latin translations drawn from a variety of of virtually all of the known sources works of Archimedes, - dealt with products of Apollonius, Pappus, unknowns as well as Aristarchus, Autolycus, various ` powers Heron, and others Viete’s Theory of Equation ● Most Greek mathematics texts ● Two Treatises on the Recognition were models of synthetic and Emendation of Equations reasoning - central work in Viete’s Francois Viete and The Analytic Art theory of equations - Viete did not consider - since unity is a part of a multitude negative or complex roots of units (that is, a “number”), then to equations, he did deal unity must itself be a number to ` some extent with the - Any quantity, including the unit, relationship of the roots to can be divided “continuously. the coefficients ● Stevin did distinguish between - Viete considered these pairs of numbers that are theorems “elegant and commensurable (have a common beautiful” and a “crown” of measure) and incommensurable his work. (do not have a common 5. Simon Stevin and Decimal measure) Fractions Mathematical Methods in the ● creation of a well-thought-out Renaissance notation for decimal fractions ● John Dee ● played a fundamental role in - write a preface to the changing the basic concepts of translation of Euclid “number” and in erasing the - he gave detailed Aristotelian distinction between descriptions of some 30 number and magnitude different fields that need ● Works: De Thiende (The Art of mathematics and the Tenths) and l’Arithm´etique relationships among them - work containing both - began his preface by arithmetic and algebra, noting that “of both published in 1585 Mathematical things are - defining thiende as two principal kinds; namely arithmetic based on Number, and Magnitude.” geometric progression by - divided the applications of tens, using the Hindu- geometry into two classes: Arabic numerals, and by “vulgar” geometry, which calling a whole number a includes the various commencement with the sciences of measurement notation such as stereometry, the ● he began ’l’Arithm´etique with two measure of solids, and definitions: geography, the study of 1. Arithmetic is the science of the methods for creating numbers. maps; and the “methodical 2. Number is that which explains the arts,” “which, declining quantity of each thing from the purity, simplicity, ● UNITY IS A NUMBER and immateriality of our - The Greeks had rejected this principal science of notion. To them, unity was not a magnitudes, do yet number, but only the generator of nevertheless use the great number, as the point was the aid, direction, and method generator of a line. of the said principal science.” 1. Perspective ● According to Dee, “Perspective is ● An alternate method of finding an Art Mathematical which latitude was by observation of the demonstrates the manner and sun. properties of all radiations direct, ● it is not surprising that seamen broken and reflected.” often used methods of The Creation of a Mathematical Theory “guesstimation” rather than of Perspective mathematical astronomy ● It was only in the Renaissance Mapmaking in the Renaissance that painters began in earnest to ● Dee called the making of these attempt to give visual depth to maps Geography their works. ● Ptolemy made two different ● Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446) choices of projection in the world was the first Italian artist to make maps he described in his a serious study of the geometry Geography of perspective, but Leon Battista 3. Astronomy and Trigonometry Alberti (1404–1472) wrote the ● the purpose of astronomy is to first text on the subject, the Della predict the motions of the Pittura of 1435 heavenly bodies as well as to Durer and the Teaching of Perspective determine their sizes and ● Treatise on Mensuration with the distances Compass and Ruler in Lines, Regiomontanus Planes, and Whole Bodies ● Johannes Muller - earliest geometric text - made a new translation of written in German Ptolemy’s Almagest The Conic Sections - able to solve all of the ● Durer had such trouble drawing standard problems of the ellipse was that he had trigonometry using just the probably never seen Apollonius’s sine text on the conic sections Nicolaus Copernicus and the ● Johannes Kepler Heliocentric System - he realized that all the ● came to the conclusion that it conic sections were really was impossible to patch up the part of the same family of earth-centered approach any curves longer. 2. Navigation and Geography Tycho Brahe - Two related aspects of ● Prutenic tables mathematics discussed by Dee ● tracked nova and extremely important to the world of the sixteenth century Johannes Kepler and Elliptical Orbits were geography and navigation ● he was able to discover the three Problems of Navigation laws of planetary motion, today ● The major question of navigation known as Kepler’s laws on the seas was the ● the invention of logarithms greatly determination of the ship’s simplified Kepler’s calculations latitude and longitude at any 4. Logarithms given time. ● Scot John Napier (1550–1617) ● made careful studies of Viete’s and the Swiss Jobst Burgi (1552– work ¨ 1632) came up with the idea of ● Oughtred felt that mathematical producing an extensive table that problems should be translated would allow one to multiply any into symbolic equations and then desired numbers together (not solved by the methods of algebra just powers of 2) by performing ● Harriot took over from Viete the additions. idea of using vowels for ` The Idea of Logarithm unknowns and consonants for ● Napier knowns The Use of Logarithms Albert Girard and the Fundamental ● “by shortening the labors, Theorem of Algebra doubled the life of the ● first to note the geometric astronomer.” - Pierre-Simon de meaning of a negative solution to Laplace an equation 5. Kinematics 2. Analytic Geometry ● Statics is an art mathematical ● Both Fermat’sIntroduction and which demonstrates the causes Descartes’ Geometry present the of heaviness and lightness of all same basic techniques of relating things and of motions and algebra and geometry, the properties to heaviness and techniques whose further lightness belonging development culminated in the ● Galileo Galilei modern subject of analytic - responsible in large geometry measure for reformulating Fermat and the Introduction to Plane the laws of motion and Solid Loci ● Pappus, Apollonius, Viete Algebra, Geometry, and Probability in Descartes the Seventeenth Century ● more concerned with ● In the early seventeenth century, demonstrating this relationship the pace of mathematical through the geometric development began to construction of solutions to accelerate. algebraic equations ● Viete’s analysis was applied ` to ● further how to solve equations of geometry and reformulated into degree higher than the fourth by the new subject of analytic intersecting a circle with a curve geometry constructed by one of his machines
1. The Theory of Equation Descartes versus Fermat
● Algebraic methods for solving ● Fermat gave a very clear cubic and quartic equations were statement that an equation in two discovered in Italy in the variables determines a curve. He sixteenth century and improved always started with the equation on somewhat by Viete and then described the curve William Oughtred and Thomas Harriot ● Descartes - Given a geometric - he proposed to unify the description of a curve, he was various methods able to come up with the - Desargues’ work was not equation. well received, partly ● Descartes and Fermat because he invented and emphasized the two different used so many new aspects of the relationship technical terms that few between equations and curves. could follow it and partly The Work of Jan de Witt because mathematicians ● he composed the Elementa were just beginning to curvarum linearum (Elements of appreciate Descartes’ Curves) in which he treated the analytic unification of subject of conic sections from geometry and were not both a synthetic and an analytic ready to consider a new point of view synthetic version 3. Elementary Probability ● The modern theory of probability Beginnings of Calculus is usually considered to begin ● Isaac Newton and Gottfried with the correspondence of Leibniz, created the machinery of Pascal and Fermat in 1654, calculus, the foundation of partially in response to the modern mathematical analysis gambling questions de Mer´ e and the source of application to raised ´ to Pascal an increasing number of other Blaise Pascal, Probability, and the disciplines. Pascal Triangle ● Did Fermat invent Calculus? - Pascal dealt with a game - The answer must be that of chance Fermat did not realize the - arithmetical triangle inverse relationship Christian Huygens and the Earliest between the two problems, Probability Text partly because he did not 4. Number Theory understand that the two ● Fermat, involved in the basic operations of the beginnings of analytic geometry calculus, what we call the and probability, also made derivative and the integral, contributions to number theory each determine new ● The method of infinite descent functions to which one can demonstrates the nonexistence again apply these of positive integers having certain operations properties by showing that the 1. Tangents and Extrema assumption that one integer has 2. Area and Volumes such a property implies that a ● Kepler’s use of “very thin” disks smaller one has the same or very small triangles illustrate property. what came to be called the 5. Projective Geometry method of infinitesimals. Galileo, ● Girard Desargues in contrast, used the method of indivisibles 3. Rectification of Curves and the ● invention of the differential and Fundamental Theorem integral calculus by reading ● Did Barrow Invent the Calculus? Descartes’ Geometry and the - The answer must be no. works of Pascal that included the Barrow presented all of his differential triangle. work in a classic geometric ● he introduced dx as an arbitrary form. It does not appear finite line segment that he was aware of the ● discussed how to determine fundamental nature of the maxima and minima two theorems presented in ● the text. 3. First Calculus Texts Newton and Leibniz ● they developed general concepts Analysis in the Eighteenth Century —for Newton the fluxion and ● The driving force in the continued fluent, for Leibniz the differential development of calculus in the and integral—that were related to eighteenth century was the desire the two basic problems of to solve physical problems calculus, extrema and area. ● The major figure in the ● They developed notations and development of analysis in the algorithms eighteenth century was the most ● they understood and applied the prolific mathematician in history, inverse relationship of their two Leonhard Euler. concepts ● Maclaurin wrote his text partly to 1. Isaac Newton answer the criticisms of George ● Newton was especially struck by Berkeley regarding the the analogy between the infinite foundations of calculus decimals of arithmetic and the ● attempt by Joseph Louis infinite degree “polynomials” that Lagrange to eliminate all we call power series reference to infinitesimal ● Series were of fundamental quantities or even to limits and to importance to Newton’s calculus base the calculus on the notion of ● the basic ideas of calculus had to a power series do with motion 1. Different Equations ● The fluxion x˙ of a quantity x 2. The Calculus of Several Variables dependent on time (called the 3. Calculus Texts fluent) was the speed with which 4. The Foundation of Calculus x increased via its generating motion. ● Newton found maxima and Probability and Statistics in the minima by setting the relevant Eighteenth Century fluxion equal to zero 1. Theoretical Probability ● when he began to compose the 2. Statistical Inference Principia, he decided to write his 3. Applications of Probability text in the form of a synthetic geometric treatise. Algebra and Number Theory in the 2. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Eighteenth Century 1. Algebra Texts 1. Differential Geometry 2. Advances in the Theory of 2. Non-Euclidean Geometry Equations 3. Projective Geometry 3. Number Theory 4. Graph Theory and the Four-Color 4. Mathematics in the Americas Problem 5. Geometry in N Dimensions Geometry in the Eighteenth Century 6. The Foundations of Geometry 1. Clairaut and the Elements of Geometry Aspects of the Twentieth Century and 2. The Parallel Postulate Beyond 3. Analytic and Differential Geometry ● theory of infinite set bcontinued to 4. The Beginnings of Topology cause problems early in the 5. The French Revolution and twentieths. The key to solving Mathematics Education these problems turned out to be a ● The only schools that provided a new axiom for set theory, the mathematical and scientific axiom of choice, an axiom that education were the military was in fact used implicitly for schools, one of whose major many years until it was explicitly functions was to produce military stated by Ernst Zermelo in 1904 engineers. ● Kurt Godel established his ● Incompleteness Theorems, to the effect that any theory in which the Algebra and Number Theory in the arithmetic of natural numbers Nineteenth Century could be expressed had true 1. Number Theory results that could not be proved 2. Solving Algebraic Equations from the axioms of that theory. 3. Symbolic Algebra ● both point-set topology and 4. Matrices and Systems of Linear combinatorial topology, subjects Equations barely begun in the previous 5. Group and Fields century but destined to become one of the “growth” areas in Analysis in the Nineteenth Century mathematics in the twentieth 1. Rigor in Analysis century 2. The Arithmetization of Analysis ● The subsequent algebraization of 3. Complex Analysis topology is part of the third 4. Vector Analysis aspect of twentieth-century ● Statistics also exploded in Probability and Statistics in the importance especially with the Nineteenth Century development of techniques for 1. The Method of Least Squares and designing experiments and Probability Distributions testing hypotheses 2. Statistics and the Social Sciences ● the use of these techniques in 3. Statistical Graphs numerous situations only became possible with the development of electronic computers in the Geometry in the Nineteenth Century second half of the century. ● 1. Set Theory 2. Topology 3. New Ideas in Algebra ● Leonard Eugene Dickson (1874– 1954) developed a new set of axioms for a field 4. Statistical Revolution 5. Computers and Application ● Babbage’s Difference Engine and Analytical Engine ● 6. Old Questions Answered ● Kummer’s idea enabled Fermat’s Last Theorem to be proved for many prime exponents p