1 Methods of Research 1

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH AND RESEARCH

PROCESS

1.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Outline the steps of research process.
b. Differentiate between a research idea and research statement.
c. Appreciate the importance of research in our daily life.
d. Write research problem.

1.1 Introduction
Hello! First of all , my congratulations for reaching this far in your academic studies.
But , your academic peat would not be complete if you will not hurdle research. By passing a
proposal, defending it, and finally coming up with a publishable research article is the true mark
of your acumen. But don’t worry because this module will guide you in your research endeavor.
Sit back and relax, straighten your chair, prepare your pen and notebook for we are about to
engage in an activity only few dare to engage. Be open minded, inquisitive, and most of all, be
a problem-solver and critical thinker .

Review Questions:
Before we continue with the discussion, answer the following the questions. Write
your answer in a separate sheet of paper.
1. Why is it important that you understand the basics of conducting research?
2. What makes a question researchable?
3. In your opinion, how is a typical research paper organized?

1.2 Topics
1.2.1 Definition and Purpose of Research
Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular
topic (Goundar, 2019). It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems
through objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of
hidden truths. Here, knowledge means information about matters. The information might be
collected from different sources like experience, human beings, books, journals, nature, etc. A
research can lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge. Only through research is it
possible to make progress in a field. Research is done with the help of study, experiment,
observation, analysis, comparison and reasoning. Research is in fact ubiquitous. More precisely,
research seeks predictions of events and explanations, relationships and theories for them.

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer

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questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as
far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.

• Controlled - in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of
control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set
up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the
relationship.
• Rigorous - you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find
answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor
varies markedly between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.
• Systematic - this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow
a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.
• Valid and verifiable - this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of
your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
• Empirical - this means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence
gathered from information collected from real life experiences or observations.
• Critical - critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to
a research inquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from
drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand
critical scrutiny.

1.2.2 Research Process

Research methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a part
of the research methodology. The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research
methods. Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods
but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and
explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so
that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.
Why a research study has been undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, what
data have been collected, what particular method has been adopted, why a particular technique
of analyzing data has been used, and a host of similar other questions are usually answered
when we talk of research methodology concerning a research problem or study (Vagle, 2018).

From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be classified as: descriptive,

correlational, explanatory and exploratory. Descriptive research attempts to describe
systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or program, or provides information
about , say, living condition of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue.
Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/
interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation. Explanatory research attempts to
clarify why and how there is a relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or
 1 Methods of Research 3

phenomenon. Meanwhile, exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is

known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility
study/pilot study). In practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories.

From the process adopted to find answer to research questions – the two approaches are:
Structured approach and Unstructured approach. The structured approach to inquiry is usually
classified as quantitative research. Here everything that forms the research process- objectives,
design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined. It is
more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying
the variation. e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a
particular attitude? On the other hand, the unstructured approach to inquiry is usually
classified as qualitative research. This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research
process. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without
quantifying it. The main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or
attitude. e.g., description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an
account of different opinions different people have about an issue, description of working
condition in a particular industry. Both approaches have their place in research. Both have
their strengths and weaknesses. In many studies you have to combine both qualitative and
quantitative approaches. For example, suppose you have to find the types of cuisine /
accommodation available in a city and the extent of their popularity. Types of cuisine is the
qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails description of the culture and
cuisine. The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the
number of people who visit restaurant serving such cuisine and calculating the other indicators
that reflect the extent of popularity.

1.2.3 Understanding Research Ethics

Ethics focuses on the disciplines that study standards of conduct, such as philosophy,
theology, law, psychology, or sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist" is someone who
studies ethical standards in medicine. One may also define ethics as a method, procedure, or
perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and issues. For
instance, in considering a complex issue like global warming, one may take an economic,
ecological, political, or ethical perspective on the problem. While an economist might examine
the cost and benefits of various policies related to global warming, an environmental ethicist
could examine the ethical values and principles at stake.
When conducting research on human subjects, ethics is observed to minimize harms and
risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special
precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of
research fairly.

Research ethics also concerns the responsibility of researchers to be honest and respectful
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to all individuals who are affected by their research studies or their reports of the studies’ results.
An informed consent is secured before involving a person in the study. The general concept of
informed consent is that human participants should be given complete information about the
research and their roles in it before agreeing to participate.

1.2.4 Research Problem

A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved,
a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory,
or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation.
In some social science disciplines the research problem is typically posed in the form of a
question. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad
proposition, or present a value question. Usually a research problem has identifiable research
variables.

A variable is a characteristic or feature that varies, or changes within a study. The

opposite of variable is constant: something that doesn't change. In experimental research, an
investigator manipulates one variable and measures the effect of that manipulation on another
variable. The variable that the researcher manipulates is called the independent, or grouping
variable. The indepen-dent variable is the variable that is different between the groups
compared: all the members of one group will have the same level of the independent variable,
a second group will have a different level of that same variable, and the same for a 3rd or 4th
group, if present.

For example, let's take a study in which the investigators want to determine how often
an exercise must be done to increase strength. Stop for a minute and think about how they might
organize a study so they could figure this out. There are usually several possible studies that
could be done to address a question. These investigators decided to compare 3 groups, one
group participate in a set of specific exercises 4 times per week; a second group would do the
same exercises, but only twice per week, and a control group would participate in stretching
exercises that would have no impact on strength. The variable that differs between these 3
groups that are compared is an Independent Variable. This particular independent variable has
3 LEVELS of the SINGLE independent variable - in this example: type of exercise.

Some non-experimental studies also have independent variables, but they may not be
determined or manipulated by the investigators. For example, a study may compare test
performance between men and women; so gender would be the independent variable.
However, since investigators didn't determine or specify which individuals would be men and
which would be women, it is not considered to be an active independent variable. Because
gender does define the variable used for comparison, it is still an independent variable, even
though it has lost some of its power.
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The outcome variable measured in each subject, which may be influenced by

manipulation of the independent variable is termed the dependent variable. In experimental
studies, where the independent variables are imposed and manipulated, the dependent
variable is the variable thought to be changed or influenced by the independent variable.

For example, in a study entitled Effects of a new tooth paste (YummyTooth) on incidence
of caries in 1st grade children. The intervention group was given YummyTooth toothpaste,
while the control group was given an identical toothpaste that did not contain the secret
ingredient in YummyTooth. Subjects were observed brushing their teeth 3x per day with the
assigned toothpaste (by teacher or parent). 6 months later, dental appointments were scheduled,
and the number of dental caries present in each child was reported. In this study, the toothpaste
was the independent variable; it was different between the two groups: one level was the
YummyTooth toothpaste itself, and the second level (a control group) was the identical non-
YummyTooth toothpaste (a placebo).

The outcome measure (dependent variable) - that "depended" upon the type of
toothpaste, was the number of dental caries.
Source: Basics of Research for the Health Professions by Linda L. Wright & David A. Lake

Gill and Johnson (1991) suggest the following in their characteristics of a good research topic:
1. Access - will you be able to obtain the data required for the research?
2. Achievability - can the work be completed in the allocated time?
3. Symmetry of potential outcomes - will the research be of value regardless of the outcome?
4. Student capability - Students should choose topics that play to their strengths.
5. Value and scope of the research - both students and supervisors are much more likely to
be highly motivated if the outcome of the study is valuable to others.

Activity
List down at least five research problems following the criteria of a good research topic.
Identify the variables (Independent and Dependent) of the study. The first one is done for
you.
1. First year college students learning modalities and attitude towards shifting to online
learning modalities.
Learning modalities—Independent variable
Attitude towards Online modalities—Dependent variable
2. _______________________________________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________________________________
4. _______________________________________________________________________
5. _______________________________________________________________________
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1.2.1 Parts of Research Proposal

Before you start work on your research proposal, find out whether you’re required to
produce the document in a specific format. In many cases, you will be given a general outline
and a guide as to how many pages to produce. Make sure you familiarize yourself with
structures, rules and regulations before you begin your work.

The basic purposes of all research proposals are to convince the reader that: (a)the
research project has clear objectives; (b)the research project is worth doing (it is significant /
important in some sense and will make an original contribution to knowledge /understanding
in the field) (c)the proposed methods are suitable and feasible; (d)there is a well thought
through plan for achieving the research objectives in the available timeframe. Note that it is not
enough to simply describe previous works, your project, and your methods.

All research proposals should contain the following information as outlined by

Universiteit van Pretoria. (n.d.):

Title
This should be short and explanatory.

Introduction
The introduction is the part of the paper that provides readers with the background
information for the research reported in the paper. Its purpose is to establish a framework for
the research, so that readers can understand how it is related to other research.
In an introduction, you should
1. create reader interest in the topic,
2. lay the broad foundation for the problem that leads to the study,
3. place the study within the larger context of the scholarly literature, and
4. reach out to a specific audience.

Statement of the Problem

The first step in research is pinpointing the topic of interest. Researchers usually start out
with vague idea of some problem and then slowly try to refine this idea into a concise statement.
They review studies relevant to this topic to further illuminate the problem and refine research
question. A strong problem statement is one supported by a thorough review of relevant study
results and a strong rationale or justification for performing the study. How will this study
advance the field of interest?
Hypotheses
A research question poses a relationship between two or more variables but phrases the
relationship as a question; a hypothesis represents a declarative statement of the relations
between two or more variables.
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Questions are relevant to normative or census type research (How many of them are
there? Is there a relationship between them?). They are most often used in qualitative inquiry,
although their use in quantitative inquiry is becoming more prominent. Hypotheses are relevant
to theoretical research and are typically used only in quantitative inquiry. When a writer states
hypotheses, the reader is entitled to have an exposition of the theory that lead to them (and of
the assumptions underlying the theory). Just as conclusions must be grounded in the data,
hypotheses must be grounded in the theoretical framework.

In general, the null hypothesis is used if theory/literature does not suggest a

hypothesized relationship between the variables under investigation; the alternative is generally
reserved for situations in which theory/research suggests a relationship or directional interplay.

Theoretical Framework
Theories, theoretical frameworks, and lines of inquiry may be differently handled in
quantitative and qualitative endeavors.
1. “In quantitative studies, one uses theory deductively and places it toward the
beginning of the plan for a study. The objective is to test or verify theory. One thus begins the
study advancing a theory, collects data to test it, and reflects on whether the theory was
confirmed or disconfirmed by the results in the study. The theory becomes a framework for the
entire study, an organizing model for the research questions or hypotheses for the data
collection procedure”

2. In qualitative inquiry, the use of theory and of a line of inquiry depends on the nature
of the investigation. In studies aiming at “grounded theory,” for example, theory and theoretical
tenets emerge from findings. Much qualitative inquiry, however, also aims to test or verify
theory, hence in these cases the theoretical framework, as in quantitative efforts, should be
identified and discussed early on.

Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework illustrates what you expect to find through your research. It
defines the relevant variables for your study and maps out how they might relate to each other.
You should construct a conceptual framework before you begin collecting data. It is often
represented in a visual format.

Significance of the Study

Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the area
under investigation. Note that such refinements, revisions, or extensions may have either
substantive, theoretical, or methodological significance. Think pragmatically (i.e., cash
value).
 1 Methods of Research 8

Most studies have two potential audiences: practitioners and professional peers.
Statements relating the research to both groups are in order.
When thinking about the significance of your study, ask yourself the following questions.
1. What will results mean to the theoretical framework that framed the study?
2. What suggestions for subsequent research arise from the findings?
3. What will the results mean to the practicing educator?
4. Will results influence programs, methods, and/or interventions?
5. Will results contribute to the solution of educational problems?
6. Will results influence educational policy decisions?
7. What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?
8. How will results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will come
about?

Scope and Delimitation

A limitation identifies potential weaknesses of the study. Think about your analysis, the
nature of self-report, your instruments, the sample. Think about threats to internal validity that
may have been impossible to avoid or minimize—explain.
A delimitation addresses how a study will be narrowed in scope, that is, how it is bounded.
This is the place to explain the things that you are not doing and why you have chosen
not to do them—the literature you will not review (and why not), the population you are not
studying (and why not), the methodological procedures you will not use (and why you will not
use them). Limit your delimitations to the things that a reader might reasonably expect you to
do but that you, for clearly explained reasons, have decided not to do.

Definition of Terms
The first chapter of the proposal includes definitions of important terms. For example,
“cooperative learning” has a variety of definitions. Which one pertains to the particular study?
“Looping” may be a term that is not familiar to all. A definition would help the reader
understand just what the study concerns.

Review of Related Literature

The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research
problem. It should establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is
knowledgeable about the area.

The literature review accomplishes several important things.

1. It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the study
being reported.
2. It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic, filling in
gaps and extending prior studies.
 1 Methods of Research 9

3. It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as a

benchmark for comparing the results of a study with other findings.
4. It “frames” the problem earlier identified.

In a proposal, the literature review is generally brief and to the point. Be judicious in your
choice of exemplars—the literature selected should be pertinent and relevant. Select and
reference only the more appropriate citations. Make key points clearly and succinctly.

Research Design
Which type of research is better depends on the study itself. The research approach needs
to be appropriate for the specific question. While some people prefer one type of research to
another, really the better method is the one that will address the problem—and sometimes both
methods are needed in the same study. The question determines which type(s) of research
design is required.

Research Locale
The research locale provides information as to where the study will be conducted. It
should also an explanation as to why the specific locale was chosen.

Instrumentation
Which type of research is better depends on the study itself. The research approach needs
to be appropriate for the specific question. While some people prefer one type of research to
another, really the better method is the one that will address the problem—and sometimes both
methods are needed in the same study. The question determines which type(s) of research
design is required.
Outline the instruments you propose to use (surveys, scales, interview protocols,
observation grids).Include an appendix with a copy of the instruments to be used or the
interview protocol to be followed. Also include sample items in the description of the
instrument.

Validation of Instrument
The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that of validity—the extent to which
the interpretations of the results of the study follow from the study itself and the extent to which
results may be generalized to other situations with other people. If instruments have previously
been used, identify previous studies and findings related to reliability and validity. If
instruments have not previously been used, outline procedures you will follow to develop and
test their reliability and validity. In the latter case, a pilot study is nearly essential.

Sampling Procedure
In this part, describe how you will determine the number of participants in your study.
Also, describe how individual participants will be determined.
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1 Methods of Research

Data Gathering Procedure

Describe clearly how you will gather the data needed in the conduct of your study. If
you will use questionnaire as an instrument in gathering data, will it be self-administered or
interviewer administered? How do you intend to distribute your questionnaire (e.g. by hand,
through the post or via the internet)?

Statistical Treatment of Data

Outline the instruments you propose to use (surveys, scales, interview protocols,
observation grids). Specify the procedures you will use, and label them accurately (e.g.,
ANOVA, MANCOVA, HLM, ethnography, case study, grounded theory). If coding procedures
are to be used, describe in reasonable detail. If you triangulated, carefully explain how you went
about it. Communicate your precise intentions and reasons for these intentions to the reader.
This helps you and the reader evaluate the choices you made and procedures you followed.

References
Follow APA guidelines regarding use of references in text and in the reference list. Only
references cited in the text are included in the reference list

Prescribe Thesis Format of College of Education

Chapter Quantitative - Mixed Method Qualitative Method
CHAPTER 1 PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
Introduction Introduction
Statement of the Problem Problem Statement
Hypothesis Theoretical Framework
Theoretical Framework Significance of the Study
Conceptual Framework Scope and Delimitation
Significance of the Study Definition of Terms
Scope and Delimitation
Definition of Terms
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
AND STUDIES AND STUDIES
Related Literature Related Literature
Related Studies Related Studies
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY METHODOLOGY
Research Design Research Design
Research Locale Research Locale
Instrumentation Instrumentation
Validation of Instrument Validation of Instrument
Sampling Procedure Sampling Procedure
Ethical Consideration Ethical Consideration
Data Gathering Procedure Data Gathering Procedure
Data Analysis Data Analysis
References References
 1 Methods of Research 11

Name: ______________________________________________ Date: ___________________

Year and Section: _____________________________________________________________
Multiple Choice: Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.

1. Which are parts of the research cycle?

A. Design research B. Review the literature C. Analyse data D. All of the above
2. Which of the following lists presents the sections of a research report in the correct order?
A. Title page, Abstract, Title, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, Conclusion,
Appendices, References.
B. Title page, Abstract, Title, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, Conclusion,
References, Appendices.
C. Title page, Abstract, Title, Introduction, Method, Results, Conclusion, Discussion,
References, Appendices.
D. Title page, Title, Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, Conclusion,
References, Appendices.
3. Why are ethical issues important in research?
A. They will help me pass the assignment.
B. They indicate what the researcher ought to do and how they should treat people.
C. They help the researcher write up their research.
D. They indicate that all people are very sensitive.
4. What is meant by ‘informed consent’? Please indicate the best answer
A. Telling people who you are and what you are studying.
B. The ethics committee is informed about the research.
C. Participants are given a clear indication what the research is about and what their
involvement would entail.
D. Participants are informed about the findings of the research at the end of the project.
5. Which is NOT a feature of a research proposal?
A. A short literature review
B. A discussion of the findings
C. A section on how the data is to be analysed
D. A section discussing proposed data collection method
6. A research proposal
A. Contains a discussion as to the degree to which your findings were valid and reliable
B. Is always presented as a written document
C. Acts as a guide to your research and indicates clearly what you intend to do
D. Is not that important – your ideas are sure to change and it isn’t assessed anyway
 1 Methods of Research 12

7. A condition or characteristic that can take on different values or categories is called

______________.
A. a constant B. a variable
C. a cause-and-effect relationship D. a descriptive relationship
8. A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is called a(n):
A. categorical variable B. dependent variable
C. independent variable D. intervening variable
9. Ideally, the research participant's identity is not known to the researcher. Which of the
following should be taken into consideration when conducting research?
A. Anonymity B. Confidentiality C. Deception D. Desensitizing
10. In general, when selecting factors for a study, you want to be sure of which of these?
A. They have been investigated before B. They are available to investigate
C. They are not of interest to you D. They do not lead to another question

Group Task (Write your answers in a separate sheet of paper.)

1. Present Research Problem.
2. Write the Chapter 1 of your research proposal.

1.3 References
Abadiano, M. (2016). Research in Daily Life 1: Qualitative Research Method. PH: Cronica
Bookhaus.
Besnik, D. (December 2015). What Is Ethics in Research & Why Is It Important?. Retrieved
from https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/whatis/index.cfm.
Creswell, J. W. (2014) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods
Approaches 4th Ed. SAGE Publication, Inc. (Module: Chapters 1,2,3).
Dawson, C (2007) A Practical Guide to Research Methods: A user-friendly manuals for
mastering research techniques and projects 3rd Ed. How To Books Spring Hill House,
Spring Hill Road Begbroke, Oxford.
Gill, J., & Johnson, P. (1991). Research methods for managers, London, Paul
Chapman. Anderson S (1981) Positivism kontra hermeneutik Uddevalla: Korpen p82 also
Gummesson E (1991/2000) Qualitative Methods in Management Research London:
Sage.
Goundar, S. (2019). Chapter 3 - Research Methodology and Research Method. Published and
available in the Research Gate at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
333015026.
Goundar, S. (2019). Chapter 3 - Research Methodology and Research Method. Published and
available in the Research Gate at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
333015026.
Li, W., Liping, P. & Khan, Q. (2018). Research methods in education. India: Sage Publications
India Pvt Ltd.Lin, L. & Spector, J.M. (2018). The Sciences of Learning and Instructional
Design. New York: Taylor and Francis publishing.
 1 Methods of Research 13

Mukherji, P. & Albon, D. (2018). Research methods in early childhood: An introductory

guide. 3rd Edition. London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Wright, L. & Lake, D. (n.d.). Basics of Research for the Health Professions. Retrieved July 30,
2020 from http://www.pt.armstrong.edu/wright/hlpr/text/3.1.variables
Universiteit van Pretoria. (n.d.). Retrieved from repository.up.ac.za>handle

1.4 Acknowledgement
The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were taken
from the references cited above.