Adversarial Search

Adversarial search is a search, where we examine the problem which arises when
we try to plan ahead of the world and other agents are planning against us.

o In previous topics, we have studied the search strategies which are only
associated with a single agent that aims to find the solution which often
expressed in the form of a sequence of actions.
o But, there might be some situations where more than one agent is searching for
the solution in the same search space, and this situation usually occurs in game
playing.
o The environment with more than one agent is termed as multi-agent
environment, in which each agent is an opponent of other agent and playing
against each other. Each agent needs to consider the action of other agent and
effect of that action on their performance.
o So, Searches in which two or more players with conflicting goals are trying
to explore the same search space for the solution, are called adversarial
searches, often known as Games.
o Games are modeled as a Search problem and heuristic evaluation function, and
these are the two main factors which help to model and solve games in AI.

Types of Games in AI:

Deterministic Chance Moves

Perfect information Chess, Checkers, go, Othello Backgammon, monopoly

Imperfect information Battleships, blind, tic-tac-toe Bridge, poker, scrabble, nuclear war

o Perfect information: A game with the perfect information is that in which agents
can look into the complete board. Agents have all the information about the
game, and they can see each other moves also. Examples are Chess, Checkers,
Go, etc.
o Imperfect information: If in a game agents do not have all information about
the game and not aware with what's going on, such type of games are called the
 game with imperfect information, such as tic-tac-toe, Battleship, blind, Bridge,
etc.
o Deterministic games: Deterministic games are those games which follow a strict
pattern and set of rules for the games, and there is no randomness associated
with them. Examples are chess, Checkers, Go, tic-tac-toe, etc.
o Non-deterministic games: Non-deterministic are those games which have
various unpredictable events and has a factor of chance or luck. This factor of
chance or luck is introduced by either dice or cards. These are random, and each
action response is not fixed. Such games are also called as stochastic games.
Example: Backgammon, Monopoly, Poker, etc.

Note: In this topic, we will discuss deterministic games, fully observable environment, zero-
sum, and where each agent acts alternatively.

Zero-Sum Game
o Zero-sum games are adversarial search which involves pure competition.
o In Zero-sum game each agent's gain or loss of utility is exactly balanced by the
losses or gains of utility of another agent.
o One player of the game try to maximize one single value, while other player tries
to minimize it.
o Each move by one player in the game is called as ply.
o Chess and tic-tac-toe are examples of a Zero-sum game.

Zero-sum game: Embedded thinking

The Zero-sum game involved embedded thinking in which one agent or player is trying
to figure out:

o What to do.
o How to decide the move
o Needs to think about his opponent as well
o The opponent also thinks what to do
Each of the players is trying to find out the response of his opponent to their actions.
This requires embedded thinking or backward reasoning to solve the game problems in
AI.

Formalization of the problem:

A game can be defined as a type of search in AI which can be formalized of the
following elements:

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o Initial state: It specifies how the game is set up at the start.

o Player(s): It specifies which player has moved in the state space.
o Action(s): It returns the set of legal moves in state space.
o Result(s, a): It is the transition model, which specifies the result of moves in the
state space.
o Terminal-Test(s): Terminal test is true if the game is over, else it is false at any
case. The state where the game ends is called terminal states.
o Utility(s, p): A utility function gives the final numeric value for a game that ends
in terminal states s for player p. It is also called payoff function. For Chess, the
outcomes are a win, loss, or draw and its payoff values are +1, 0, ½. And for tic-
tac-toe, utility values are +1, -1, and 0.

Game tree:
A game tree is a tree where nodes of the tree are the game states and Edges of the tree
are the moves by players. Game tree involves initial state, actions function, and result
Function.

Example: Tic-Tac-Toe game tree:

The following figure is showing part of the game-tree for tic-tac-toe game. Following
are some key points of the game:

o There are two players MAX and MIN.

o Players have an alternate turn and start with MAX.
 o MAX maximizes the result of the game tree
o MIN minimizes the result.

Example Explanation:

o From the initial state, MAX has 9 possible moves as he starts first. MAX place x
and MIN place o, and both player plays alternatively until we reach a leaf node
where one player has three in a row or all squares are filled.
o Both players will compute each node, minimax, the minimax value which is the
best achievable utility against an optimal adversary.
o Suppose both the players are well aware of the tic-tac-toe and playing the best
play. Each player is doing his best to prevent another one from winning. MIN is
acting against Max in the game.
 o So in the game tree, we have a layer of Max, a layer of MIN, and each layer is
called as Ply. Max place x, then MIN puts o to prevent Max from winning, and
this game continues until the terminal node.
o In this either MIN wins, MAX wins, or it's a draw. This game-tree is the whole
search space of possibilities that MIN and MAX are playing tic-tac-toe and taking
turns alternately.

Hence adversarial Search for the minimax procedure works as follows:

o It aims to find the optimal strategy for MAX to win the game.
o It follows the approach of Depth-first search.
o In the game tree, optimal leaf node could appear at any depth of the tree.
o Propagate the minimax values up to the tree until the terminal node discovered.

In a given game tree, the optimal strategy can be determined from the minimax value of
each node, which can be written as MINIMAX(n). MAX prefer to move to a state of
maximum value and MIN prefer to move to a state of minimum value then:

Mini-Max Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence

o Mini-max algorithm is a recursive or backtracking algorithm which is used in
decision-making and game theory. It provides an optimal move for the player
assuming that opponent is also playing optimally.
o Mini-Max algorithm uses recursion to search through the game-tree.
o Min-Max algorithm is mostly used for game playing in AI. Such as Chess,
Checkers, tic-tac-toe, go, and various tow-players game. This Algorithm
computes the minimax decision for the current state.
 o In this algorithm two players play the game, one is called MAX and other is called
MIN.
o Both the players fight it as the opponent player gets the minimum benefit while
they get the maximum benefit.
o Both Players of the game are opponent of each other, where MAX will select the
maximized value and MIN will select the minimized value.
o The minimax algorithm performs a depth-first search algorithm for the
exploration of the complete game tree.
o The minimax algorithm proceeds all the way down to the terminal node of the
tree, then backtrack the tree as the recursion.

Pseudo-code for MinMax Algorithm:

1. function minimax(node, depth, maximizingPlayer) is
2. if depth ==0 or node is a terminal node then
3. return static evaluation of node
4.
5. if MaximizingPlayer then // for Maximizer Player
6. maxEva= -infinity
7. for each child of node do
8. eva= minimax(child, depth-1, false)
9. maxEva= max(maxEva,eva) //gives Maximum of the values
10. return maxEva
11.
12. else // for Minimizer player
13. minEva= +infinity
14. for each child of node do
15. eva= minimax(child, depth-1, true)
16. minEva= min(minEva, eva) //gives minimum of the values
17. return minEva

Initial call:

Minimax(node, 3, true)
Working of Min-Max Algorithm:
o The working of the minimax algorithm can be easily described using an example.
Below we have taken an example of game-tree which is representing the two-
player game.
o In this example, there are two players one is called Maximizer and other is called
Minimizer.
o Maximizer will try to get the Maximum possible score, and Minimizer will try to
get the minimum possible score.
o This algorithm applies DFS, so in this game-tree, we have to go all the way
through the leaves to reach the terminal nodes.
o At the terminal node, the terminal values are given so we will compare those
value and backtrack the tree until the initial state occurs. Following are the main
steps involved in solving the two-player game tree:

Step-1: In the first step, the algorithm generates the entire game-tree and apply the
utility function to get the utility values for the terminal states. In the below tree diagram,
let's take A is the initial state of the tree. Suppose maximizer takes first turn which has
worst-case initial value =- infinity, and minimizer will take next turn which has worst-
case initial value = +infinity.

Step 2: Now, first we find the utilities value for the Maximizer, its initial value is -∞, so
we will compare each value in terminal state with initial value of Maximizer and
determines the higher nodes values. It will find the maximum among the all.
 o For node D max(-1,- -∞) => max(-1,4)= 4
o For Node E max(2, -∞) => max(2, 6)= 6
o For Node F max(-3, -∞) => max(-3,-5) = -3
o For node G max(0, -∞) = max(0, 7) = 7

Step 3: In the next step, it's a turn for minimizer, so it will compare all nodes value with
+∞, and will find the 3rd layer node values.

o For node B= min(4,6) = 4

o For node C= min (-3, 7) = -3

Step 4: Now it's a turn for Maximizer, and it will again choose the maximum of all nodes
value and find the maximum value for the root node. In this game tree, there are only 4
layers, hence we reach immediately to the root node, but in real games, there will be
more than 4 layers.

o For node A max(4, -3)= 4

That was the complete workflow of the minimax two player game.

Properties of Mini-Max algorithm:

o Complete- Min-Max algorithm is Complete. It will definitely find a solution (if
exist), in the finite search tree.
o Optimal- Min-Max algorithm is optimal if both opponents are playing optimally.
o Time complexity- As it performs DFS for the game-tree, so the time complexity
of Min-Max algorithm is O(bm), where b is branching factor of the game-tree,
and m is the maximum depth of the tree.
o Space Complexity- Space complexity of Mini-max algorithm is also similar to
DFS which is O(bm).

Limitation of the minimax Algorithm:

The main drawback of the minimax algorithm is that it gets really slow for complex
games such as Chess, go, etc. This type of games has a huge branching factor, and the
player has lots of choices to decide. This limitation of the minimax algorithm can be
improved from alpha-beta pruning which we have discussed in the next topic.
 Alpha-Beta Pruning
o Alpha-beta pruning is a modified version of the minimax algorithm. It is an
optimization technique for the minimax algorithm.
o As we have seen in the minimax search algorithm that the number of game states
it has to examine are exponential in depth of the tree. Since we cannot eliminate
the exponent, but we can cut it to half. Hence there is a technique by which
without checking each node of the game tree we can compute the correct
minimax decision, and this technique is called pruning. This involves two
threshold parameter Alpha and beta for future expansion, so it is called alpha-
beta pruning. It is also called as Alpha-Beta Algorithm.
o Alpha-beta pruning can be applied at any depth of a tree, and sometimes it not
only prune the tree leaves but also entire sub-tree.
o The two-parameter can be defined as:
a. Alpha: The best (highest-value) choice we have found so far at any point
along the path of Maximizer. The initial value of alpha is -∞.
b. Beta: The best (lowest-value) choice we have found so far at any point
along the path of Minimizer. The initial value of beta is +∞.
o The Alpha-beta pruning to a standard minimax algorithm returns the same move
as the standard algorithm does, but it removes all the nodes which are not really
affecting the final decision but making algorithm slow. Hence by pruning these
nodes, it makes the algorithm fast.

Condition for Alpha-beta pruning:

The main condition which required for alpha-beta pruning is:

1. α>=β

Key points about alpha-beta pruning:

o The Max player will only update the value of alpha.
o The Min player will only update the value of beta.
 o While backtracking the tree, the node values will be passed to upper nodes
instead of values of alpha and beta.
o We will only pass the alpha, beta values to the child nodes.

Pseudo-code for Alpha-beta Pruning:

1. function minimax(node, depth, alpha, beta, maximizingPlayer) is
2. if depth ==0 or node is a terminal node then
3. return static evaluation of node
4.
5. if MaximizingPlayer then // for Maximizer Player
6. maxEva= -infinity
7. for each child of node do
8. eva= minimax(child, depth-1, alpha, beta, False)
9. maxEva= max(maxEva, eva)
10. alpha= max(alpha, maxEva)
11. if beta<=alpha
12. break
13. return maxEva
14.
15. else // for Minimizer player
16. minEva= +infinity
17. for each child of node do
18. eva= minimax(child, depth-1, alpha, beta, true)
19. minEva= min(minEva, eva)
20. beta= min(beta, eva)
21. if beta<=alpha
22. break
23. return minEva

Working of Alpha-Beta Pruning:

Let's take an example of two-player search tree to understand the working of Alpha-
beta pruning
Step 1: At the first step the, Max player will start first move from node A where α= -∞
and β= +∞, these value of alpha and beta passed down to node B where again α= -∞
and β= +∞, and Node B passes the same value to its child D.

Step 2: At Node D, the value of α will be calculated as its turn for Max. The value of α is
compared with firstly 2 and then 3, and the max (2, 3) = 3 will be the value of α at node
D and node value will also 3.

Step 3: Now algorithm backtrack to node B, where the value of β will change as this is a
turn of Min, Now β= +∞, will compare with the available subsequent nodes value, i.e.
min (∞, 3) = 3, hence at node B now α= -∞, and β= 3.

In the next step, algorithm traverse the next successor of Node B which is node E, and
the values of α= -∞, and β= 3 will also be passed.

Step 4: At node E, Max will take its turn, and the value of alpha will change. The current
value of alpha will be compared with 5, so max (-∞, 5) = 5, hence at node E α= 5 and β=
3, where α>=β, so the right successor of E will be pruned, and algorithm will not
traverse it, and the value at node E will be 5.

Step 5: At next step, algorithm again backtrack the tree, from node B to node A. At
node A, the value of alpha will be changed the maximum available value is 3 as max (-∞,
3)= 3, and β= +∞, these two values now passes to right successor of A which is Node C.

At node C, α=3 and β= +∞, and the same values will be passed on to node F.

Step 6: At node F, again the value of α will be compared with left child which is 0, and
max(3,0)= 3, and then compared with right child which is 1, and max(3,1)= 3 still α
remains 3, but the node value of F will become 1.
Step 7: Node F returns the node value 1 to node C, at C α= 3 and β= +∞, here the value
of beta will be changed, it will compare with 1 so min (∞, 1) = 1. Now at C, α=3 and β=
1, and again it satisfies the condition α>=β, so the next child of C which is G will be
pruned, and the algorithm will not compute the entire sub-tree G.

Step 8: C now returns the value of 1 to A here the best value for A is max (3, 1) = 3.
Following is the final game tree which is the showing the nodes which are computed
and nodes which has never computed. Hence the optimal value for the maximizer is 3
for this example.

Move Ordering in Alpha-Beta pruning:

The effectiveness of alpha-beta pruning is highly dependent on the order in which each
node is examined. Move order is an important aspect of alpha-beta pruning.

It can be of two types:

 o Worst ordering: In some cases, alpha-beta pruning algorithm does not prune
any of the leaves of the tree, and works exactly as minimax algorithm. In this case,
it also consumes more time because of alpha-beta factors, such a move of
pruning is called worst ordering. In this case, the best move occurs on the right
side of the tree. The time complexity for such an order is O(b m).
o Ideal ordering: The ideal ordering for alpha-beta pruning occurs when lots of
pruning happens in the tree, and best moves occur at the left side of the tree. We
apply DFS hence it first search left of the tree and go deep twice as minimax
algorithm in the same amount of time. Complexity in ideal ordering is O(bm/2).

Rules to find good ordering:

Following are some rules to find good ordering in alpha-beta pruning:

o Occur the best move from the shallowest node.

o Order the nodes in the tree such that the best nodes are checked first.
o Use domain knowledge while finding the best move. Ex: for Chess, try order:
captures first, then threats, then forward moves, backward moves.
o We can bookkeep the states, as there is a possibility that states may repeat.

Water Jug problem using BFS

You are given an m liter jug and a n liter jug. Both the jugs are initially empty. The jugs
don’t have markings to allow measuring smaller quantities. You have to use the jugs to
measure d liters of water where d is less than n.
(X, Y) corresponds to a state where X refers to the amount of water in Jug1 and Y refers
to the amount of water in Jug2
Determine the path from the initial state (xi, yi) to the final state (xf, yf), where (xi, yi) is
(0, 0) which indicates both Jugs are initially empty and (xf, yf) indicates a state which
could be (0, d) or (d, 0).
The operations you can perform are:
1. Empty a Jug, (X, Y)->(0, Y) Empty Jug 1
2. Fill a Jug, (0, 0)->(X, 0) Fill Jug 1
3. Pour water from one jug to the other until one of the jugs is either empty or full, (X,
Y) -> (X-d, Y+d)
Examples:
Input : 4 3 2
Output : {( 0,0),(0,3),(4,0),(4,3),(3,0),(1,3),(3,3),(4,2),(0,2)}

We have discussed the optimal solution in The Two Water Jug Puzzle. In this post,
a BFS based solution is discussed.
Here, we keep exploring all the different valid cases of the states of water in the jug
simultaneously until and unless we reach the required target water.
As provided in the problem statement, at any given state we can do either of the
following operations:
1. Fill a jug
2. Empty a jug
3. Transfer water from one jug to another until either of them gets completely filled or
empty.
Examples:
Input: X = 4, Y = 3, Z = 2
Output: {(0, 0), (0, 3), (3, 0), (3, 3), (4, 2), (0, 2)}
Explanation:
Step 1:- First we will fill the 4 litre jug completely with water.
Step 2:- Then optimal approach would be to empty water from 4-
litre jug into 3-litre (leaving 1L water in 4L jug and 3L completely
full). Hence we got 1L water.
Step 3:- Now, Empty water from 3L.
Step 4:- Pour the water from 4L jug into 3L jug Now 4L container
is completely empty and 1L water in present in 3L litre jug.
Step 5:- Fill the 4L jug with water completely again.
Step 6:- On transfering water from 4L jug to 3L jug, we will get
2L water in 4L jug which was our required quantity.
Input: X = 3, Y = 5, Z = 4

Output: 6

Explanation:
Step 1:- First we will fill the 5-litres jug to its maximum
capacity.
Step 2:- Then optimal approach would be to transfer 3-litres from
5-litres jug to 3-litres jugs.
Step 3:- Now, Empty the 3-litres jug.
Step 4:- Transfer 2L from 5L jug to 3-L jug.
Step 5:- Now, Fill 5-litres jug to its maximum capacity.
 Step 6:- On Pouring water from 5L jug to 3L jug until it’s full we
will get 4L water in 5-litre jug which was our required quantity.

Running of the algorithm:

We start at an initial state in the queue where both the jugs are empty. We then continue
to explore all the possible intermediate states derived from the current jug state using the
operations provided.
We also, maintain a visited matrix of states so that we avoid revisiting the same state of
jugs again and again.

Cases Jug 1 Jug 2 Is Valid

Case 1 Fill it Empty it

Case 2 Empty it Fill it

Case 3 Fill it Fill it Redundant case

Already visited (Initial

Case 4 Empty it Empty it State)

Case 5 Unchanged Fill it

Case 6 Fill it Unchanged

Case 7 Unchanged Empty

Case 8 Empty Unchanged

Transfer water from

Case 9 this Transfer water into this

Case Transfer water from

10 Transfer water into this this
From the table above, we can observe that the state where both the jugs are filled is
redundant as we won’t be able to continue ahead / do anything with this state in any
possible way.
So, we proceed, keeping in mind all the valid state cases (as shown in the table above)
and we do a BFS on them.
In the BFS, we firstly skip the states which was already visited or if the amount of water
in either of the jugs exceeded the jug quantity.
If we continue further, then we firstly mark the current state as visited and check if in this
state, if we have obtained the target quantity of water in either of the jugs, we can empty
the other jug and return the current state’s entire path.
But, if we have not yet found the target quantity, we then derive the intermediate states
from the current state of jugs i.e. we derive the valid cases, mentioned in the table above
(go through the code once if you have some confusion).
We keep repeating all the above steps until we have found our target or there are no more
states left to proceed with.
Implementation:

// Java program for water jug problem

// using BFS

// Code by: Sparsh_CBS

import java.util.*;

class Pair {

int j1, j2;

List<Pair> path;

Pair(int j1, int j2)

this.j1 = j1;

this.j2 = j2;
 path = new ArrayList<>();

Pair(int j1, int j2, List<Pair> _path)

this.j1 = j1;

this.j2 = j2;

path = new ArrayList<>();

path.addAll(_path);

path.add(new Pair(this.j1, this.j2));

public class GFG {

public static void main(String[] args)

throws java.lang.Exception

int jug1 = 4;

int jug2 = 3;

int target = 2;

getPathIfPossible(jug1, jug2, target);

}
private static void

getPathIfPossible(int jug1, int jug2, int target)

boolean[][] visited

= new boolean[jug1 + 1][jug2 + 1];

Queue<Pair> queue = new LinkedList<>();

// Initial State: Both Jugs are empty so,

// initialise j1 j2 as 0 and put it in the path list

Pair initialState = new Pair(0, 0);

initialState.path.add(new Pair(0, 0));

queue.offer(initialState);

while (!queue.isEmpty()) {

Pair curr = queue.poll();

// Skip already visited states and overflowing

// water states

if (curr.j1 > jug1 || curr.j2 > jug2

|| visited[curr.j1][curr.j2])

continue;
// mark current jugs state as visited

visited[curr.j1][curr.j2] = true;

// Check if current state has already reached

// the target amount of water or not

if (curr.j1 == target || curr.j2 == target) {

if (curr.j1 == target) {

// If in our current state, jug1 holds

// the required amount of water, then we

// empty the jug2 and push it into our

// path.

curr.path.add(new Pair(curr.j1, 0));

else {

// else, If in our current state, jug2

// holds the required amount of water,

// then we empty the jug1 and push it

// into our path.

curr.path.add(new Pair(0, curr.j2));

}
 int n = curr.path.size();

System.out.println(

"Path of states of jugs followed is :");

for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)

System.out.println(

curr.path.get(i).j1 + " , "

+ curr.path.get(i).j2);

return;

// If we have not yet found the target, then we

// have three cases left I. Fill the jug and

// Empty the other II. Fill the jug and let the

// other remain untouched III. Empty the jug and

// let the other remain untouched

// IV. Transfer amounts from one jug to another

// Please refer to the table attached above to

// understand the cases that we are taking into

// consideration
// Now,

// I. Fill the jug and Empty the other

queue.offer(new Pair(jug1, 0, curr.path));

queue.offer(new Pair(0, jug2, curr.path));

// II. Fill the jug and let the other remain

// untouched

queue.offer(new Pair(jug1, curr.j2, curr.path));

queue.offer(new Pair(curr.j1, jug2, curr.path));

// III. Empty the jug and let the other remain

// untouched

queue.offer(new Pair(0, curr.j2, curr.path));

queue.offer(new Pair(curr.j1, 0, curr.path));

// IV. Transfer water from one to another until

// one jug becomes empty or until one jug

// becomes full in this process

 // Transferring water form jug1 to jug2

int emptyJug = jug2 - curr.j2;

int amountTransferred

= Math.min(curr.j1, emptyJug);

int j2 = curr.j2 + amountTransferred;

int j1 = curr.j1 - amountTransferred;

queue.offer(new Pair(j1, j2, curr.path));

// Tranferring water form jug2 to jug1

emptyJug = jug1 - curr.j1;

amountTransferred = Math.min(curr.j2, emptyJug);

j2 = curr.j2 - amountTransferred;

j1 = curr.j1 + amountTransferred;

queue.offer(new Pair(j1, j2, curr.path));

System.out.println("Not Possible to obtain target");

Output
Path of states of jugs followed is :
0 , 0
0 , 3
3 , 0
3 , 3
4 , 2
0 , 2
Time Complexity: O(n*m).
Space Complexity: O(n*m). Where n and m are the quantity of jug1 and jug2,
respectively.