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 Module Overview
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Module 5  

Early Numeracy Instruction

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o Lesson 1: How K-3 Children Learn Math
o Lesson 2: Teaching K-3 Math
o Lesson 3: Assessing and Addressing Children's Needs in Math
 Topics
o 1.0 How Children Learn Math
o 2.0 The Learning Cycle and its Implications for Teaching
o 3.0 Approaches to Teaching Math
 Activities and Assignments
o Pre-Lesson Activity
o Activity 1
o Activity 2
o Activity 3
o Assignment 13
 Checklists and Worksheets
o Phil-IRI English pre-test recording sheets
o Phil-IRI English passages
o Phil-IRI oral reading in English profile and observation checklist

 Introduction
 Learning Objectives
 Pre-Lesson Activity
 Topics
o 1.0 How Children Learn Math
o 2.0 The Learning Cycle and its Implications for Teaching
o 3.0 Approaches to Teaching Math
 Assignment
 Lesson Synthesis
 References

This courseware is made possible by the generous support of the American People
through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents
of this courseware are the sole responsibility of the Foundation for Information
Technology Education and Development (FIT-ED) and do not necessarily reflect the
views of USAID or the United States Government.
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Lesson 1
How K-3 Children Learn Math
Welcome to the first lesson of Module 5.
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  Learning Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Explain how K-3 children learn Math

2. Discuss principles of and approaches to teaching Math to K-3 children

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Pre-Lesson Activity

Read the following statements about how young children learn Math and indicate (by
ticking the relevant choice) whether you agree or disagree with each one. The statements
will help you to reflect on your beliefs about teaching and learning Math. After
completing the lesson, you might wish to review these statements to find out whether
there are changes in your beliefs and perceptions.
1. Math is a set of answers to questions.
 Agree       Disagree
2. Math is a process of investigation and exploration in which children are allowed to
actively work with materials and ideas.
 Agree       Disagree
3. Learning Math is a matter of rote learning.
 Agree       Disagree

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1.0 How Children Learn Math

I hate Math!
I don't like Math.
Math scares me!

Where do you think does this negative attitude toward Math come from? Is it because
these children are just not good at Math? Or could it be that they are not being taught
Math the right way?

To teach Math effectively, it is necessary to first understand how children learn Math.
According to Hatfield et al. (1997), there are three learning theories with implications for
teaching Math:

 Learning is action
 Learning is reaction
 Learning is process

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1.1 Learning is action

"Learning is action" comes from a cognitive constructivist view of learning — i.e., the
idea that knowledge is actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive
structures. Therefore, learning is relative to the learner's stage of cognitive development.

Click on the photo of each of these three well-known cognitive constructivist theorists to
find out more about this view of learning.

 Jerome Bruner

 Lev Vygotsky

 Jean Piaget

Jerome Bruner theorized that learning occurs through three stages of representation. To
truly understand a concept, it is necessary for learners to go through the three stages,
which are:

Iconic (image-based) Symbolic (language-

Enactive (action-based) stage
stage based) stage
Learning at this stage happens Learning at this stage
At this stage, words and
through touching, feeling, and occurs with the help of
symbols are used to
manipulating concrete objects. In images or other visuals
represent concepts. For
Math education, manipulatives representing concrete
example, in Math a
like algebra tiles, papers, and coins objects. In Math education,
number is a symbol used
are the concrete objects with which these images include
to describe how many of
actions (e.g., adding) are shapes, diagrams, and
something there are.
performed. graphs.

Lev Vygotsky theorized that cognitive development results from social interaction. He
believed that an adult or a more learned person can help in the child's cognitive
development. He proposed the zone of proximal development (ZPD) to refer to the set
of tasks that a child cannot do independently, but which he or she can learn with the help
of a more skilled person, such as a teacher or an older peer.

Can you give an example of ZPD that you have observed in your classroom?

Jean Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development. Click on each stage below to
read the description.

1
 

0-2 years old

2-7 years old
7-11 years old
(elementary years)
11 – adulthood
(high school years)

Children at this stage act on objects using their sense of touch, taste, sight, hearing, and
smell.

Children at this stage can think about things symbolically. They can use different objects
to represent something — for example, a block to represent a phone, a stick to represent a
spoon, or a playmate to represent a father or a mother.

At this stage, children can engage in logical or operational thought, which is being able to
work things out internally in one's head (rather than physically trying things out in the
real world). Children at this stage understand that something stays the same in quantity
even though its appearance changes (the law of conservation).

At this stage, children can think about abstract concepts and solve problems in a logical
and systematic way.

K-3 learners are in the pre-operations stage of cognitive development. According to

Piaget, this stage is characterized by the following:

thinking and viewing things from his or her perspective only, and not
egocentrism
understanding that there is another perspective
focusing on only one attribute, such as the number of slices but not the
centration
size of the slice
irreversible not being able to reverse a process (for example, not being able to count
thought backward)
intuitive thought manifested by asking a lot of questions like "Why?" or "How come?"
lack of not knowing that something can stay the same even though its
conservation appearance has changed
lack of class
knowing the specific but not the group to which something belongs
inclusion
transitive interference is a form of deductive reasoning that allows one
lack of to derive a relation between items that have not been explicitly
transitive compared before (with transitive interference one can infer that if item
interference B is related to item C, and item C is related to item D, then item B must
be related to item D)
Jerome Bruner theorized that learning occurs through three stages of 111represendation.
To truly understand a concept, it is necessary for learners to go through the three stages,
which are:

Enactive (action-based) stage

Learning at this stage happens through touching, feeling, and manipulating concrete
objects. In Mathematics education, manipulatives like algebra tiles, papers, and coins
are the concrete objects with which actions (e.g., adding) are performed.

Iconic (image-based) stage

Learning at this stage occurs with the help of images or other visuals representing
concrete objects. In Mathematics education, these images include shapes, diagrams, and
graphs.

Symbolic (language-based) stage

At this stage, words and symbols are used to represent concepts. For example, in
Mathematics a number is a symbol used to describe how many of something there are.

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1.2 Learning is reaction

"Learning is reaction" is a behaviorist view of learning — i.e., the idea that learning is a
change in behavior that is elicited through the provision of a stimulus and conditioned
through the use of positive or negative reinforcement.

This view of learning gave rise to programmed instruction, a method of presenting a

new topic to students in a graded sequence of controlled steps. After each step the
student's comprehension is tested by having him/her answer a question. Feedback on the
accuracy of the student's response is given immediately.

Pause and reflect:

Why do you think is immediate feedback important? List three reasons.

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1.3 Learning is process

How do you process information as a learner? If you were given a reading assignment
now, would you read the overview or summary first? Or would you start from the very
beginning and read it page by page?

Different learners process information — i.e., encode, store, and retrieve information —
in different ways. Some learners prefer learning the general idea first while others prefer
learning the specific ideas first. Knowing how your students process information will
help you decide what activity or assessment to give.

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1.3.1 Learning preferences

When you were a child, which of these two activities would you have found easier to
answer? Click on each activity sheet to see a bigger version.

If you picked the first activity sheet (the sheet on the left), then you are a field-
dependent learner. In field-dependent processing (simultaneous processing) the
learner prefers to see the whole picture, for example by looking at the summary or the
overview of a certain material. The learner prefers that stimulus materials are presented
all at once, and he/she looks for patterns to break down the whole into its respective parts
to arrive at a solution.

If you picked the second activity sheet, then you are a field- independent learner. In
field-independent processing (successive processing) the learner focuses on the parts
rather than the whole, and he/she prefers that information is presented successively, or
from one component to the next, until the whole emerges. The learning approach is
building a whole to arrive at a solution.

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Activity 1

What type of thought processing does each activity below require? Click the button
indicating your choice.

1.

fielddependent
fieldindependent
2.

fielddependent
fieldindependent
3.

field- dependent
fieldindependent
4.
 fielddependent
fieldindependent
Check your answers
1. This is a field-dependent activity because all information is provided and the learner
must pick which equations on the left equal 12, and which equations on the right equal 4.

2. This is a fieldindependent activity because there is something missing which the

learner needs to complete.

3. This is a fieldindependent activity because the learner needs to fill in the table with the
missing numbers.

4. This is a field-dependent activity because the learner is given the complete set of
numbers and asked to look for patterns.

Remember: Different types of activities cater to different types of learners. Aside from
assessing each learner and how he/she learns, you need to provide both types of activities
to the class.

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1.3.2 Learning styles

Different learners have different learning styles. According to Charlesworth & Lind
(2010), "in planning learning experiences for children, it is essential to consider
individual and culturally determined styles of learning."

View the slideshow below of different learning styles. Place your cursor on the slide and
then click on the side arrow to go to the next slide.

 Writing on the board caters to visual learning.

‹›

 Talking or lecturing caters to auditory learning.

‹›

 Giving students concrete materials to work on

enables tactile learning.
 ‹›

 Using movement caters to kinesthetic learning.

‹›

Some learners work well under time pressure (students who are in a hurry to submit their
answers) while others are more relaxed (students who work until the bell rings).

Learning styles can also be associated with demeanor such as being relaxed, serious, or
easily frustrated (Charlesworth & Lind, 2010).

Finally, some students work best alone, some work better in pairs, and some work well in
groups. This implies the need to balance individual and collaborative learning activities.

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In his theory of multiple intelligences, Howard Gardner identifies nine types of

intelligence that he says we are all capable of developing to the maximum if given the
opportunity. Teachers need to give students learning activities that address each type of
intelligence.

(Source: http://www.philipchircop.com/post/119040371223/multipl e-intelligences-howard-gardner-of-

harvard)

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So how can Math be taught using each of the nine intelligences?

Click on the link below to find out.

Teaching Math Using the 9 Intelligences
Intelligence Activity/Instruction
Verbal-Linguistic Describe the shape of this object.
Logical-
Sort the objects according to their shape.
Mathematical
Bodily-Kinesthetic Get the pieces posted on the board and form the shape _____.
Interpersonal Get a partner and draw objects that have the shape of ____.
Look around the classroom/your house and draw objects that have the
Intrapersonal
following shapes.
Musical Sing the song of shapes.
Spatial-Visual Draw an object that has the shape of a _________.
Naturalist What shapes do you see in the living things around you?
What are the best shapes to use to make a house? Why do you want to
Existential
have a house in this kind of shape?

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Activity 2

Choose a Math topic and formulate an activity or instruction that corresponds to each
type of intelligence.

Intelligence Activity/Instruction
Verbal-Linguistic  
Logical-Mathematical  
Bodily-Kinesthetic  
Interpersonal  
Intrapersonal  
Musical  
Spatial-Visual  
Naturalist  
Existential  

Be ready to share your ideas at your next LAC session.

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2.0 The Learning Cycle and its Implications for Teaching

Based on the perspectives of how children learn presented in the first section,
educationists have proposed a learning cycle that views learning as a process of going
through the stages of awareness, exploration, inquiry, and utilization. Bredekamp &
Rosegrant (1992) adapted the learning cycle to include what teachers need to do at each
stage (click on the tab below).

Teaching and Learning Cycle

Table 1. The Teaching and Learning Cycle
  What children do What teachers do
 Create the environment
 Provide opportunities by
 Experience
introducing new objects, events,
 Acquire an interest
people
 Recognize broad
 Invite interest by posing a
Awareness parameters
problem or question
 Attend
 Respond to child's interest or
 Perceive
shared experience
 Show interest, enthusiasm

 Observe  Facilitate
 Explore materials  Support and enhance exploration
 Collect information  Provide opportunities for active
 Discover exploration
 Create  Extend play
 Figure out components  Describe the child's activity
Exploration
 Construct own  Ask open-ended questions (e.g.,
understanding "What else could you do?")
 Apply own rules  Respect the child's thinking and
 Create personal meaning rule systems
 Represent own meaning  Allow for constructive error

Inquiry  Examine  Help children refine

   What children do What teachers do
 Investigate understanding
 Propose explanations  Guide children, focus attention
 Focus  Ask more focused questions (e.g.,
 Compare own thinking "What else works like this?"
with that of others "What happens if ___?")
 Generalize  Provide information when
 Relate to prior learning requested (e.g., "How do you
 Adjust to conventional spell ___?")
rule systems  Help children make connections

 Use the learning in many

ways; learning becomes
functional  Create vehicles for application in
 Represent learning in the real world
various ways  Help children apply learning to
Utilization  Apply learning to new new situations
situations  Provide meaningful situations in
 Formulate new which to use learning
hypotheses and repeat
cycle

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3.0 Approaches to Teaching Math

If children learn Math in different ways, then it is necessary to apply different methods
and approaches to help them acquire skills and understand concepts effectively.

In this lesson, we will discuss the following methods and approaches to teaching Math:

 Problem-solving
 Situated learning
 Inquiry-based approach

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3.1 Problem-solving

Problem-solving involves reasoning and proof, communication, drawing connections,

and representation (Charlesworth & Lind, 2010).

Consider this problem:

Your Nanay asked you to buy two cans of corned beef from the store. One can is 36
pesos. If she gave you 100 pesos, will that be enough? Will you get change?

Do you think this is a meaningful problem? Do you think your students will be eager and
enthusiastic to solve the problem? If you were to edit the problem, what would you
change?

According to Skinner (1990, p.1; quoted in Charlesworth & Lind, 2010), "A problem is a
question which engages someone in searching for a solution." A problem should:
  Be meaningful to the learner such that he/she would want to solve it with
curiosity and eagerness
 Relate to and include the learner's own experiences

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Consider these two problems and how Mark solves each of them.

Ana has 10 pesos. Paco has 7 pesos. How much do they have altogether?

Mark notes the key words “How much do they have altogether?” and concludes that this
is an addition problem. He adds 10 pesos and 7 pesos and gets the answer: 17 pesos.

Ana and Paco want to buy a chocolate bar that costs 18 pesos. Ana has 6 pesos and
Paco has 8 pesos. Altogether, do they have enough money to buy the chocolate bar?

Mark take notes of the key word “altogether” and concludes again that this is an addition
problem. He adds 6 pesos and 8 pesos and gets the answer: 14 pesos.

The first problem is an example of a routine problem. It has a predictable pattern and
Mark was able to solve it correctly even without reading and understanding the whole
problem.

The second problem is an example of a non-routine problem. Mark needs to read it

carefully before attempting to answer the problem.

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It is important to give students a strong foundation by teaching them the basics of

counting, whole number operations, and the like, and to teach them to make sense of
problems before attempting to answer them. They should be taught how to think and how
to organize their thinking.

There are four essential steps in problem-solving. Click on each step below to find out
what they are.

 Step 1
 Step 2
 Step 3
 Step 4

Step 1: Evaluate the problem and identify what is being asked.

Step 1: Evaluate the problem and identify what is being asked.
Step 2: Think about and plan how to answer the problem.
Step 1: Evaluate the problem and identify what is being asked.
Step 2: Think about and plan how to answer the problem.
Step 3: Answer the problem using the correct strategies.
Step 1: Evaluate the problem and identify what is being asked.
Step 2: Think about and plan how to answer the problem.
Step 3: Answer the problem using the correct strategies.
Step 4: Evaluate whether your answer is correct.

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It is important to give children different kinds of problems to solve, and to allow them to
use different problem-solving strategies.

Click on the tab below to find out the different kinds of problems that your students
should become familiar with.
Kinds of Problems

 1. Problems that have extra information or which lack information

Anna paid 20 pesos for two packs of candy. Each pack has 5 candies. How many
candies did Anna buy?

In this problem, what is the extra information?

Anna paid 20 pesos for the packs of candy she bought. Each pack has 5 candies.
How many candies did Anna buy?

Will you be able to answer the problem? Why or why not?

 2. Problems that need estimation or which do not have clear right or wrong
answers

Rocky has 150 pesos. He would like to buy a toy car that costs 65 pesos and a toy
truck that costs 75 pesos. Does he have enough money to buy the toys?

The answer should be yes or no based on an estimation.

 3. Problems that are applied in everyday life (such as when shopping, cooking,
and the like)
 4. Problems that are about your students
 5. Problems that require more than one step and allow the students to use logic or
reasoning and test ideas
 6. Problems that will require your students to make their own problems
 7. Problems that will require your students to provide data

Your class of 27 students will celebrate family day next month. Decide the food
and prizes for the games, estimate the cost, and calculate each student's share.

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It is also necessary to enable your students to develop their own solutions.

According to Charlesworth & Lind (2010), children go through "self-generated

questions" when answering problems. This is an example of heuristics, or practical
strategies for solving a problem. Eventually, children will learn other approaches and
strategies.

Other examples of heuristics

Problem-solving strategies and approaches

 Patterning the problem to a similar problem learned before

  Illustrating the problem by drawing a picture
 Identifying the given and the unknown, answering the problem in reverse

 Act out the problem

 Make a drawing or a diagram
 Look for patterns
 Construct a table
 Account systematically for all possibilities
 Guess and check
 Work backward
 Identify wanted, given, and needed information
 Turn a word problem into an equation or number sentence
 Solve a simpler or similar problem
 Change your point of view

(Reys et al., 2001, in Charlesworth & Lind, 2010)

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Don't expect your students to learn the different problem-solving strategies right away.
These will be introduced gradually and developed throughout their elementary grades.

And don't forget to let your students explain their solutions or the process they used in
solving a problem. This enables them to better understand what they did and how they
did it. It also allows you to assess whether the students understood the process used.

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3.2 Situated learning

Ms. Santos set up a makeshift sari-sari store inside the classroom. She arranged different
items, such as corned beef, milk, crackers, chocolate, tetra pack of juice, shampoo, soap,
and toothpaste. Every item has a price. She instructs the students to choose two items to
buy from the store, and figure out the amount they need to pay and the change they will
get if they pay with certain amounts of money.

Do you think children will actively participate in this activity? Do you think learning will
occur in this activity?

This is an example of situated learning, an instructional approach developed by Jean

Lave and Etienne Wenger based on the idea (derived from the work of Dewey, Vygotsky,
and others) that learning occurs through active participation in a real or authentic activity,
context, and culture. Social interaction is a critical component of situated learning — i.e.,
learners become involved in a "community of practice" which embodies certain beliefs
and behaviors to be acquired. This contrasts with most classroom learning activities
which involve knowledge that is abstract and out of context.

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Activity 3
Click yes if the learning activity is an example of situated learning; click no if otherwise.

1. Mr. Santos asked the students to read their textbooks and answer the exercises on
pages 3-20.
 Yes       No
2. Students play the role of passengers in a jeepney who need to pay the correct fare to
the jeepney driver and calculate change for different amounts paid.
 Yes       No
3. Teacher Lani discussed and showed how to add numbers with regrouping.
 Yes       No
4. Teacher Rose gave the students chocolates and asked them how they will divide the
chocolates among themselves.
 Yes       No
Check your answers
The activities described in #2 and #4 are examples of situated learning.

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3.3 Inquiry-based approach

Read the two scenarios below (click on each clipboard). Which scenario do you think
shows an inquiry-based teaching and learning experience?

Scenario 1
Scenario 1

The teacher defines multiplication to the students, and then shows a multiplication
sentence. She presents the following problem to the class:

Ms. Anna teaches four classes. In one of her classes, the students are seated in four rows.
Each row has six students. How many students does she have in that class?

Scenario 2
Scenario 2

The teacher presents a problem:

Ms. Anna teaches four classes. In one of her classes, the students are seated in four lines.
Each row has six students. How many students does she have in that class?

The teacher then asks the students to answer the question using cubes. She lets the
students in each group discuss how they are going to solve the problem.

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In inquiry-based lessons, the teacher guides students as they actively explore a topic and
discover on their own the answer to an open-ended question.

Instead of lecturing or demonstrating what should be learned, the teacher constructs a

learning environment and designs learning tasks for students to explore the target Math
concept/s and discover the answers for themselves (Strategies for Teaching Elementary
Mathematics, 2008).
The characteristics of inquiry-based learning are shown below (adapted from Strategies
for Teaching Elementary Mathematics, 2008). Click on each characteristic to read the
description.

Process-oriented
Process-oriented
Inquiry-based learning is focused on the process used to arrive at the answer, not the
answer itself. It is through the process of figuring out the answer that the student
constructs meaning and internalizes concepts.
Balance
Balance
There is a balance between content and procedure, since Math involves particular ways
of thinking and not just specific content.
Investigation
Investigation
The students explore and investigate concepts and processes that are embedded in a
problem, which is dictated by the content or by the students' questions.
Collaboration
Collaborative learning
Students work in pairs or small groups, followed by a whole-class discussion towards the
end of the lesson. Thus, students learn to articulate their thinking, brainstorm, and build
upon and test ideas as they work toward a solution.
Multiple methods and strategies
Multiple methods and strategies
Different problem-solving methods and strategies to arrive at conclusions are allowed,
since there is usually more than one strategy for solving a problem and different children
know different strategies.
Teacher as guide
Teacher as guide
Instead of giving the students the answer directly, the teacher uses questions and prompts
to help students to visualize the problem and arrive at the correct conclusion through their
own problem-solving strategies, and understand the concepts involved. This means that
the teacher should understand the concepts very well, and know various ways of solving
the problem.
Questioning and monitoring
Questioning and monitoring
The teacher goes around and listens in on the students' discussion as they work on the
problem, in order to assess the students' understanding and to identify possible
misconceptions.
Adaptive teaching
Adaptive teaching
The teacher needs to constantly reflect on the students' responses and their observations,
and adapt the lesson accordingly.
Reallife applications
Real-life applications
The problem that students are asked to explore are articulated such that there is clearly a
real-life, meaningful application.
Using Math tools
Using Math tools
Students are given Math tools, such as rods and blocks, to help them visualize the
problem and bridge the gap between concrete and abstract thinking. Using these tools
also helps in explaining problem-solving strategies.
Communicating
Communicating
Students identify and formulate problems for investigation, express their ideas, and work
through the problems by visualizing and explaining. They also present their work to each
other and provide constructive feedback to the work of their peers.
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3.4 Materials for teaching Math

Selecting the right materials is an important step in planning your students' learning
experience.

Different types of learning materials are appropriate for different stages of cognitive
development, as this table by Charlesworth & Lind (2010) shows.

Periods of How concepts are acquired

development Naturalistic Informal Structured
Real objects
Real objects
Objects and
Sensorimotor Objects and pictures  
pictures
Pictures
Pictures
Real objects Real objects
Real objects
Objects and pictures Objects and pictures
Objects and
Cutouts Cutouts
Pre-operations pictures
Pictures Pictures
Cutouts
Calculators and Calculators and
Pictures
computers computers
Real objects
Real objects
Real objects Objects and pictures
Objects and pictures
Objects and Cutouts
Cutouts
Transitional pictures Pictures
Pictures
Cutouts Paper and pencil
Calculators and
Pictures Calculators and
computers
computers
Real objects Real objects
Real objects Objects and pictures Objects and pictures
Objects and Cutouts Cutouts
Concrete
pictures Pictures Pictures
Operations
Cutouts Paper and pencil Paper and pencil
Pictures Calculators and Calculators and
computers computers

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Materials that can be used to teach Math are all around us —

What other objects do you use to teach Math?

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Assignment 13

Reflect on the way you teach Math or observe a Math class in your grade level. Answer
the following questions based on your reflection or observations:

 1. What approach or method did you or the teacher you observed use in teaching
Math? How effective is this method for the particular set of learners being taught?

 2. What learning materials did you or the teacher you observed use? How appropriate
are these learning materials for the Math concept, and for the particular set of learners
being taught?

 3. If given the opportunity to redo the lesson, how else would you teach the same
topic to the same class?

Be ready to share your answers at your next LAC session.

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References

Bredekamp, S. & Rosegrant, T. (Eds.). (1992). Reaching potentials: Appropriate curriculum and
assessment for young children (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young
Children.

Charlesworth, R. & Lind, K. (2010). Math and science for young children (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.

Crombie, S. (n.d.). What is inquiry-based learning? Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=u84ZsS6niPc

Hatfield, M.M., Edwards, N.T. & Bitter, G.C. (1997). Mathematics methods for elementary and middle
school teachers. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Ma, X. (2009). Learning and teaching mathematics. Retrieved from

http://www.education.com/reference/article/learning-and-teachingmathematics/.

Pappas, C. Instructional design models and theories: The discovery learning model Retrieved from
https://elearningindustry.com/discovery-learning-model.

Strategies for Teaching Elementary Mathematics. (2008). Inquiry teaching: Models of instruction [Blog
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