Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities

Vol. 1, No. 4, 2015, pp. 400-414

http://www.aiscience.org/journal/jssh

Flash Flood Hazard in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

Yonas Tadesse Alemu*

Dire Dawa University, Department of Geography & Environmental Studies, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

Abstract
Dire Dawa, the second largest city of Ethiopia, has been suffering from disastrous floods in its history. The 2006 flooding was
unprecedented aftermath caused severe impacts on human lives and property. This study aimed in identifying flood causative
factors and the resulting socio-economic impacts. The results of the daily rainfall data analysis shows that, during the last
decades, the highest values of rainfall intensity (Ip) have been increasing in the Dechatu catchment. The increase in rainfall
intensity in the Dechatu catchment is constant since 1970. The mean peak rainfall intensity, Ipm (mm/24h), calculated from
averaging the annual highest values (Ip) recorded in the study meteo-stations shows a marked increase in the Dechatu
catchment. This result explains rainfall intensity is one of the factors for increased generation of flash floods in the city of Dire
Dawa. One of the major causes for the high magnitude flood that hit the city in August 6, 2006 was the high intensity of rain
that fell in the upland areas in the previous day. Similarly land-use change in the catchment particularly shrinking of natural
forest in the upland has aggravated flood incidences. The results of land use change between 1985 and 2006 showed expansion
of urbanized area from 39% to 56.33% and farmlands from 11.04% to 12.77%. On the contrary shrub lands decreased from
17.77% to 3.96% and woodland from 0.37% to 0.23%. Such Expansions of urbanized area and farmlands on the expenses of
woodland and shrub land areas has a direct correlation with the potential for surface runoff generation. In the 2006 flood
impacts in Dire Dawa, the socio-economic sector was severely affected and caused deaths of 256 people, 244 missing and
more than 9956 people displaced and damage of properties for 882 small scale traders and 123 licensed traders was estimated
to be 17146493 ET. Birr. It had also an enormous impact on the economic foundation of the city due to the expenditure for
rehabilitation and reconstruction. The recurrent expenditure of the city increased by 43% for reconstruction and rehabilitation
whereas the capital expenditure was kept static or even decreased. Overall direct and indirect damages of floods on agricultural;
trade and infrastructural sectors of the city was estimated to be about 97,368,634.36 ET Birr. Therefore, enactment of land-use
policy is important for future disaster mitigation. Moreover, promoting early warning system in the city is important to
evacuate people before flood disaster occur.

Keywords
Dire Dawa, Flash Floods, Dechatu River, Flood Impacts, Rainfall Intensity, Land-Use Change

Received: May 4, 2015 / Accepted: June 3, 2015 / Published online: July 23, 2015
@ 2015 The Authors. Published by American Institute of Science. This Open Access article is under the CC BY-NC license.
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/

economic damages resulting from flooding are on the rise.

1. Introduction All water related disaster events increased between 1980 and
the end of the twentieth century. The estimated water-related
During recent years, records of loss of life and damage
economic losses globally show an increasing trend. The trend
caused by floods worldwide show a steady rising trend.
had a trough during the period 2001 to 2003, and then
While being beneficial to the flood plains and their
increased sharply until 2006 (WMO &GWP, 2005; Adikari
productivity, floods do have great damage potential and
and Yoshitani, 2009).
affect ever-increasing number of people. On a global scale,
there is evidence that the number of people affected and Large-scale disasters have significant humanitarian, social,

* Corresponding author
E-mail address: [email protected]
 Journal of Social Science and Humanities Vol. 1, No. 4, 2015, pp. 400-414 401

security, political, and economic implications. Disasters leave floods. For instance in the year 2006 altogether, the floods
large numbers of people ill, disabled, widowed, orphaned, have killed 620 people and affected more than 128,000
displaced, or suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder people. Thousands have lost their property and means of
(ADB, 2004). livelihood in the same flooding disaster (UNCEF, 2006). In
In Africa floods are among the most devastating natural Ethiopia flood disasters and the damage it cause on
hazards, whereas flash floods are among the greatest hazards properties and human lives have an increasing trend (see Fig.
arising from tropical cyclones and severe storms. Floods and 1.1).
flash floods cause loss of life, damage to property, and
promote the spread of diseases such as malaria, dengue fever,
and cholera. From 1900 to 2006, floods in Africa killed
nearly 20 000 people and affected nearly 40 million more,
and caused damage estimated at about US$4 billion (ICSU-
Africa, 2007). Water related disasters increased more than
four folds in Africa ( Adikari et al.,2008). According to World
Bank (2003), in most developing countries flood disasters
still claim tens of thousands of lives each year and destroy
livelihoods in an instant.
Ethiopia’s topographic characteristics has made the country Fig. 1.1. Flood disaster events in Ethiopia (adapted from EM-DAT).
pretty vulnerable to floods and resulting destruction and loss
to life, economic, livelihoods, infrastructure, services and The increasing flood damages in many parts of Ethiopia over
health system (DPPC, 2007). years in general and the serious damages occurred recently in
Dire Dawa in particular should remind us the urgent need in
Several factors could be mention as causes of flooding by
change of paradigm in order to reduce the human
different writers. Deforestation can impact hydrological
vulnerability and to guarantee sustainable development.
processes, leading to localized declines in rainfall, and more
rapid runoff of precipitation, causing flooding and soil Dire Dawa, which was established in 1910 and located at the
erosion, a common phenomenon in most parts of Ethiopia foot hills of eastern Harerge highlands, has been repeatedly
(Dagnachew et al., 2003). On the other hand, the high hit by powerful flood disasters. Flooding at different time
infiltration rates under natural forests serve to reduce surface destroyed homes, public institutions, market places with their
runoff and flood response. Certain types of plantation forests properties, infrastructures, crops in the field, livestock, etc. In
may also serve to increase infiltration rates through providing Dire Dawa, flood in August 1981 which killed about 80
preferential flow pathways down both live and dead root people was previously considered the worst in the town’s
channels. From the theoretical considerations it would be history. However, the unprecedented August 6, 2006 flooding
expected that interception of rainfall by forests would reduce was worst of all cases; it surpassed all flood disasters that
floods by removing the proportion of the storm rainfall and occurred in the past in loss of human life, and property
by allowing the build-up of the soil moisture deficits (Calder, damages.
1999). Owing to the recently witnessed unprecedented damage
According to Dagnachewet al. (2003), Land-use change due caused on one hand and the lesser amount of concrete actions
to the expansion of urban areas also affects the ground to mitigate the flood hazards on the other, things continued
infiltration rate which in turn gives the way flooding to occur. unchanged, we can say, other developmental efforts would
Land-cover change has one of the causes of flooding bear no fruits, this is because, floods could destroy them all, as
phenomenon of the Awash basin, which resulted in millions we have experienced.
worth of resources lost nearly every main rainy season. Low In such a situation it is important to consider major factors
level vegetative cover could also affect infiltration and could that contributed most in the past flood hazard calamities. It
lead to reduced groundwater levels and the base flow of has of paramount importance to take notice of these factors to
streams. It is obvious that land-cover can affect both the arrive at a wise and comprehensive solution towards
degree of infiltration and increases runoff following rainfall mitigating the challenge (that is flooding) which is
events (Dagnachewet al., 2003). unpredictable.
Sometimes as a result of the extended and widespread heavy In Dire Dawa, recently the city administration has given due
rainfall since the beginning of the rainy season, many areas attention to mitigate the challenges of flooding and the
in the country have experienced devastating damages of disaster it causes. However, still more has to be done because
402 Yonas Tadesse Alemu: Flash Flood Hazard in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

the recently occurred (2010) flooding witnessed that flood total area of about 66,017ha of which the south and south-
disaster is still so severe and requires rigorous research to eastern part of the city which is characterized by a chain of
identify the root causes of the problem and generate policy mountains and upland covering 45%; low lying flat land
relevant recommendations. Studies in this regard are not accounting for 40% of the land area; and the remaining 15%
sufficient to give adequate information of the impacts of is covered by gorges, valley and River terraces (MoWR
flood disasters in the economic, social and infrastructural Ethiopia, 2006).
aspects of the city. Therefore, the objectives of this study
were to: 2.1.2. Population
The total population of Dire Dawa city is estimated to be
1. Identify and assess the major flood-triggering factors and
400,000 people (IDP, 2006). According to the 1994
vulnerability of the community to flood hazards;
Central Statistical Agency census result, Dire Dawa city
2. Generate maps of urban flood inundation by using data had a total population of 252,000 during the census period
from peak runoff events; and in the year 2005; the population of the city has
3. Carry out a socio – economic impact survey and examine reached 389,851 which exceeded the census period
the extent of the disaster in individual and public property. population by 137,851. More than half of this increase is
due to migrants from nearby rural areas and other part of
Ethiopia. Since Dire Dawa is one of the industrial and
2. Materials and Methods business cities in Ethiopia, people from rural areas
perceived that job can easily be secured in the city. The
2.1. General Description of the Study Area
increment within a decade accounts for more than half of
2.1.1. Location the size of the 1994 population, which is tremendous in
Dire Dawa city is located between 9027’N and 9049’N latitude magnitude. On the other hand, the average annual growth
and 41038`Eand 42019`E longitude, and in the eastern rate of the population was 4% for the region during the
marginal catchment of Awash basin (Fig.2. 1). East Hararge years 1995-2000. The growth rate declined to 3.8% for the
Administrative zone of Oromiya Regional State borders it in years between 2000 and 2005 and expected to further go
the south and southeast and Shinele zone of Somalia down to 3.5% for the years between 2005 and 2010 (IDP,
Regional State in the north, east and west. Dire Dawa has a 2006).

Fig. 2.1. Location map of Dire Dawa Administration.

 Journal of Social Science and Humanities Vol. 1, No. 4, 2015, pp. 400-414 403

2.1.3. Climate The main data sources for this data encompass a topo map
Because of its tropical location Dire Dawa is experiencing with scale 1:50,000, land sat multispectral scanner satellite
high temperature throughout the year with minor seasonal image (MSS image) from 1975, Land sat TM of 30m × 30m
variations. Temperature progressively increases northward resolution satellite image form 1985 and Spot 5m x 5m
from somewhat temperate type along the mountain side of satellite image from 2006 (Yonas et al., 2013).
the city in its southern most point. Climatic data, rainfall on a daily basis for the study area was
The seasonal rainfall has a bimodal distribution with peak in obtained from National meteorological Agency by taking in
April and August. The two rainy seasons are spring and to account the following four metrological stations which all
summer locally called 'Belg' and ‘Kiremt’ respectively, are located within and around the catchment. These include
separated by a short dry spell in June. The mean annual Dire Dawa, Haramaya, Dengego, kersa and Kulubi stations.
rainfall is about 730mm. The mean annual average air (ii) Socio-Economic Data
temperature is 29c0 and June is the warmest month of the
In order to analyze the socio-economic impacts of flooding,
year while December and January are the coldest. Dire Dawa
flood damages on social, economic and infrastructure sector
enjoy a sunny climate with mean annual daily value of bright
has been collected from Disaster Prevention & Preparedness
sunshine equal to 8hours (IDP 2006).
Bureau (DPPB), Dire Dawa Agriculture and Rural
2.1.4. Soil Development Office.In addition population data of affected
The major soil types of Dire Dawa exhibit a general Kebeles1 collected from kebele administration. This study has
relationship with altitude, climate and vegetation. Shallow also employed primary data sources. Focus group discussion,
and infertile soil is being the characteristics of the mountains. interview with key informants and direct observation in the
This is due to the fact that the mountains experienced serious field, are the most intensively used methods for primary data
forest degradation and resulting soil erosion. While fertile collection.
soils are the major properties of river terraces and flat plains 2.2.2. Data Analysis
of the study area. Generally, the soils of the valley are
(i) Meteorological data analysis
developed on recent alluvial sediments derived from the
adjacent mountain ranges. Lithosols and Vertisols are Extreme rainfall data for the meteorological stations in the
generally dominating soil types in the area. Texturally these study area have been systematically arranged for the main
soils are characterized as clay loam sandy clay soils (MoWR and minor rainy seasons (KiremtandBelg). According to
Ethiopia, 2006). World Meteorological Organization (2009), extreme rainfall
is greater than or equals to one (1) mm of rainfall. Then trend
Soil erosion in the Dechatu catchment is a major problem
analysis of the daily rainfall data has been carried out for
that the top soil is experienced severe degradation. There is
theMeteorological stations in the study area.
severe degradation of forestland mainly due to expansion of
farmlands in the upland area of Dechatu catchment; the (ii) Land use analysis
magnitude of soil erosion is very serious in the area. Land use/cover change of Dechatu catchment was analyzed
According to MoWR, 2006, the Soil Conservation Research using multi-temporal satelliteimages: 1975 MSS image, 1985
Project that has been carried out at national level estimated Land sat TM image and 2006 spot image. Satelliteimages
an average soil loss of 42t/ha/yr in cultivated fields and the were geometrically corrected by using ground-truth point’s
maximum of 300-400 t/ha/yr in highly erodible and andenhanced using linear stretch technique. The
intensively cultivated fields like eastern harargehighlands, classification of land use/cover was done first by
where the study area is located. unsupervised classification and after fieldwork supervised
image classification which is a widely used classification
2.2. Data Source and Methods of Analysis
technique was applied. From six major land use/cover types
2.2.1. Data and Sources (Open Wood land, Shrub land, cultivated land, Bareland,
Based on the nature and type of data, the data required for Sand deposit and Built up area), 180 ground truth points were
this study are categorized as physical and socio-economic collected from the field. Each point was marked with GPS
data. Physical data includes climatic and land use related data. which was later integrated with the image. Half of this data
Data about social, economic and infrastructural sectors are was used as input for supervised image classification and the
categorized as socio-economic data. remaining for accuracy assessment.Finally the extent of land

(i) Physical Data 1

Kebele is the smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia.
404 Yonas Tadesse Alemu: Flash Flood Hazard in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

use/cover change was computed by using change detection 3.5).

statistics technique inENVI.4.2 software (Yonas et al., 2013). An increase in rainfall intensity, in association with other
(iii) Inundation analysis: factors such as land-use change, increased population
As no runoff data are available for Dechatu River, The Curve settlement along the river bank in the downstream area have
contributed to raise the risk level of flash floods in the town
Number (CN) Method has been used to derive flood
discharges from the rainfall excess. The SCS-CN method was of Dire Dawa to the point that floods caused severe socio-
selected as it is adapted for daily rainfall data and related to economic impacts in the town and rural kebeles. In the very
recent years of course the local administrations have
catchment characteristics such as soil and land-use.
constructed gabion and high flood retaining walls that have
The runoff curve Number (also called a curve Number or contained the last floods occurred in 2010 with discharges
simply CN) is an empirical parameter used in hydrology for around 1000 m3s-1 preventing the town from further
predicting direct runoff or infiltration from rainfall excess. inundation.However, the boulders drawn by the runoff from
The runoff curve number was developed from an empirical the upland area have collided with the wall and damaged its
analysis of runoff from small catchments and hill slope plots, part in 2010 flooding. This tells us more structural measures
like Dechatu Catchment. It is an efficient method of have to be taken in the upland areas where flood water
determining the approximate amount of direct runoff from a sourced in order to reduce the velocity and volume of the
rainfall event in a particular area. water draining downstream.
To analyze the inundation area of Dechatu River, this study On the basis of the rainfall data of the meteo-stations located
has been utilized Arc GIS 9.2 software package and within or close to the Dechatu River catchment, recoded the
Hydrologic Engineering Center-River Analysis System day before the devastating flood of 6 August 2006, that
(HEC-RAS). Then accurate topographic survey of the river ranged from 100 to 150 mm in 24 hours, a rainfall intensity
cross-section was conducted at selected representative points of 100 mm/24h was taken as a reference value capable to set
across the Detchatu River using Total station. In addition, a conditions for a flash flood (Table 3.1).The mean peak
survey of river bed roughness to calculate Manning's n value rainfall intensity, Ipm (mm/24h), calculated from averaging
have been conducted which finally exported to HEC-RAS so the annual highest values (Ip) recorded in the study meteo-
as to make inundation analysis. Then the TIN of the stations shows a marked increase in the Dechatu catchment.
catchment was produced from DEM of the catchment by This result is considered as one main factor responsible for
using the 3D Analyst extension of Arc GIS. the increase in the frequency of high flash floods in the town
Arc GIS data was imported to HEC-RAS on GIS format and of Dire Dawa.
cross section filtering was performed by taking a number of The results of climate data analysis have been similarly
points to trim on cross sections. Flow data for boundary expressed by focus group discussants. The focus group
condition and initial condition such as flow hydrograph and discussion revealed that rainy season’s duration is shortened
slope has been defined. Finally, flow simulation was and rain falls with its highest intensity for short duration.
performed and the result is exported to GIS to process the According to the discussants, as the result of change in the
inundation map. duration of rainy season they are forced to abandoned crops
(iv)Socio-economic Impact Analysis that require water for longer time during their growing period.
Flood impact on the socio-economic and infrastructure sector As it has been indicated in Fig.3.1; 3.2; 3.3; and 3.4, summer
has been analyzed by using both the ECLAC result and rainfall intensity in all upland meteo-stations has showed an
descriptive method of analysis. In addition, tables, Figures increasing trend, and this is the season when most
that show the disaster impact has been employed in the devastating floods occurred in Dire Dawa.
analysis.
Table 3.1. Rainfall intensity measured in the Dechatu Catchment.

Date Dire Dawa Kersa Alemaya Kulubi

3. Result and Discussion Aug 1, 2006 0 0 0 0

3.1. Rainfall Trend in the Dechatu Aug 2, 2006 0 0 0 0

Catchment Aug 3, 2006 4.3 7.9 18.9 26.7
Aug 4, 2006 10.2 0 24.5 4.7
The daily rainfall data analysis shows that, during the last
Aug 5, 2006 36.9 159 118 100.5
decades, the highest values of rainfall intensity (Ip) have been
Aug 6,2006 1 0 7.3 0
increasing in the Dechatu catchment. The increase in rainfall
intensity in the Dechatu catchment is constant since 1970(Fig.
 Journal of Social Science and Humanities Vol. 1, No. 4, 2015, pp. 400-414 405

use/cover map that produced from 1975 Land Sat Mss and
2006 Spot satellite images. In doing so the change detection
statistics method was implemented.
The change detection statistics of the area coverage of the six
land use/cover classes of Dechatu catchment was cross-
tabulated using ENVI 4.2 software package.ENVI 4.2 display
change detection statistics result in three Ways (Number of
Pixel, percentage and in area terms). For the sake of easy and
Fig. 3.1. Summer daily average rainfall, Kersa station. better explanation this study implements the percentage
option.
The change detection statistics of the catchment was done by
considering the 1975 Land use map as initial state map and
2006 land use/cover map as final state map (See Fig.3.6,
3.7& 3.8) and the change observed in each land use/cover
class is summarized in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 clearly states that, the most positive change
117.18 %, 98.32%, 59.68 and 67.87% is observed in the
expansion of built-up areas, bare land, sand deposit and
cultivated land respectively in the catchment. A number of
Fig. 3.2. Summer daily average rainfall, Haramaya station. factors have been identified as major causes for the highest
change in the above two land use classes. Among these
factors rapid urbanization, expansion of agricultural lands
and deforestation are the major one.

Fig. 3.3. Summer daily average rainfall, Dengego station.

Fig. 3.5. Daily average rainfall for all stations.

In contrary to built up area (urban area) and cultivated land,

the most negative change is observed in shrub land cover (-
64.84%) and open wood land coverage (-72.96%). This left
some of the mountainous part of the catchment devoid of
vegetation (Fig. 3.9) which in turn reduce the infiltration
Fig. 3.4. Summer daily average rainfall, Kulubi station. capacity of the catchment and increase the volume of runoff
produced by the catchment. Furthermore, sand deposit area
3.2. Land Use/Cover Change Analysis has also expanded by 59.68% with these ten years and this in
Land use/cover change as one of the most prominent turn has been responsible for rising of the river bed causing
component in the hydrological processes of a given area it is Dechatu River to burst its bank.
important to evaluate the changes that undergone in a given 3.3. Inundation Analysis
catchment so as to understand the hydrological behaviour of
the catchment. Accordingly, the major land use/cover Since no runoff data are available for Dechatu River, The
changes that observed in Dechatu catchment between the Curve Number (CN) Method has been used to derive flood
year 1975 and 2006 was studied based on the thematic land discharges from the rainfall excess. Therefore, before the
406 Yonas Tadesse Alemu: Flash Flood Hazard in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

inundation analysis have been performed peak discharge, covered by 1m inundation depth; 30% of the total inundated
main input for the analysis, has to be derived by using curve area is covered by 2m inundation depth. Generally, about
Number (CN) method. Accordingly, peak discharge was 86% of the total inundated area is covered by 2m or less than
calculated and 1400m3/s was found from the rainfall excess. 2m inundation depth. Since all of the houses in the inundated
With this discharge amount areas of inundated was analyzed. area are one storey houses, this depth of inundation is very
Based on the result of the inundation map (Fig. 3.10), the big to damage houses; damage property and cause human
casualty.
analysis shows that about 55% of the total inundation area is

Fig. 3.6. Land use/cover map of Dechatu catchment for the year 1975.

Fig. 3.7. Land use/cover map of Dechatu catchment for the year1985.
 Journal of Social Science and Humanities Vol. 1, No. 4, 2015, pp. 400-414 407

Fig. 3.8. Land use/cover map of Dechatu catchment for the year 2006.

Table 3.2. Land use/cover of Dechatu catchment change detection statistical summary.

Percentage (%) 1975 Land Use/cover

Built-up Open wood Row Total Class total
Percentage (%) Shrub land Bare land Sand deposit Cultivated land
area land
Unclassified 0.562 0.875 1.059 1.716 0.000 1.027 0.757 100.0
Cultivated land 15.97 43.281 41.083 55.000 29.726 63.214 99.22 100.0
Built-up area 44.61 9.993 4.880 2.306 22.877 2.579 99.11 100.0
2006 and Shrub land 28.44 24.245 13.921 5.443 32.466 9.811 99.21 100.0
Use/cover Bare land 4.452 18.456 37.043 7.085 12.192 17.722 99.12 100.0
Open wood land 0.234 1.833 1.407 28.303 0.822 5.247 99.78 100.0
Sand deposit 5.717 1.318 0.605 0.148 1.918 0.401 99.35 100.0
Class total 100.0 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.000 0.000 0.00
Class change 55.38 75.755 62.957 71.697 98.082 36.786 0.000 0.00
Image difference 117.18 -64.84 98.32 -72.96 59.68 67.87 0.00 0.00

The inundation depth of 4 to 6m is about 4.6% of the total Table 3.3. Inundation area of Dechatu River.
inundation area which is less significant in terms of its area
Percentage of total
coverage. As it is shown in Fig. 3.10; large residential areas Inundation Depth Inundated Area(m2)
Inundated Area
are inundated by about 1 to 2meter inundation depth which 1m 544400 55.9%
implies that flood inflicted severe damages on property and 2m 291600 30%
3m 92800 9.52%
human life on this inundated areas. Though the total 4m 25600 2.63%
inundated area is about 1km2 of the total area of the city, due 5m to 6m 20400 2.1%
to dense settlements within the flooding zone human
vulnerability and property damage to the disaster was high. 3.4. Socio-Economic Impact of Flooding in
More than 3m inundation depth is located within the river Dire Dawa
channel where the River passes through narrow hill before it Introduction: In the analysis data of affected population,
reaches the city. The details of inundation results are shown damaged houses, Infrastructural damages, damages on
in Table 3.3. agricultural sector, trading sector and data on environmental
The inundation of residential areas; business centre by the damages were considered. In addition, the study tried to
river has inflicted considerable damages on the economy; focus the socio-economic damages on the 2006 floods. This
infrastructure; and left with large number of human casualty. is due to the fact that the 2006 flood is the most disastrous
408 Yonas Tadesse Alemu: Flash Flood Hazard in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

flood damages on the socio-economic sectors in the flooding economic sector are separated as direct and indirect damages.
history of the city. Moreover, flood damages in the socio-

Fig. 3.9. Pictures around Harla and Ijaneni area, Dire Dawa Adiminstration(Source: Own picture during field survey).

Fig. 3.10. Inundation map of Dechatu River.

 Journal of Social Science and Humanities Vol. 1, No. 4, 2015, pp. 400-414 409

3.4.1. Direct Damage B. Flood damages on market places

The amounts of damages caused directly by flood related Unemployment in the city of Dire Dawa is estimated to be
factors are categorized under direct damages. Direct damages 16.7% (MWUD of Ethiopia, 2008). In order to alleviate this
during the 2006 flooding in Dire Dawa includes human serious problem of the city of Dire Dawa, the government
casualty; property damages (both private and public widely introduced micro-enterprise aimed to establish a
property); damages on infrastructure which restricts sustainable saving and credit scheme to the poor and build
communication, and damage on power sector which prevents the capacity of the poor by giving necessary credit and
use of electricity for production and light. Moreover, direct technical support. Micro-enterprises have created job
damages on the economic sector such as, agricultural and opportunity for large number of people especially for young
trade and industry were also so severe during the 2006 groups (most of which are women) and helped them to live
flooding year. The results of all the direct and indirect better life. However, flood disaster like the 2006 flooding
damages caused by the 2006 flooding are summarized in the ravaged the properties of these small scale traders and
following tables. affected about 882 people.

A. Flood affected population Floods which devastate properties with a total amount
6,697,992 Birr of these small scale traders resulted in loss of
Flood disaster damaged portions of the city located along
own business or job, and income and forced them to seek
either sides of the Dechaturiver channel. Of the total nine
others support. The 882 people once running their own
kebeles, the most severely affected kebeles were four
business and supporting themselves and their families’ now
(Kebele09, 06,05and 03) with the total population of
lost everything. Flood has taken all their properties and
117,315 (Table 3.4).
exposed them for suffering. This disaster impact on one hand
Most of the flood affected people were poor people who used has impoverished individuals whose vision was for better
to live in flood prone areas. There are at least15 000 dwellers prospects.
living in high-risk flooding areas in the city of Dire Dawa
Similarly, flood disaster in 2006 has inflicted severe damages
(UN-HABITAT, 2008). Poor people build houses made from
on licensed traders’ property (Table; 3.5). 123 individuals in
inappropriate materials in flood-prone areas. Poor living
three flood affected kebeles have lost an estimated amount of
condition makes this people most vulnerable to flood disaster.
10,448,501Ethiopian birr saleable commodities. If we
Table 3.4. Flood affected population and affected kebeles in 2006 in Dire roughly calculate the loss to the affected 123 people, each
Dawa. trader by an average has lost about 85,525 Ethiopian Birr.
Affected This is very big loss from the point of view of the
Dead missing population of Affected Kebeles
Kebeles contribution of these people to the growth of the city’s
03 134 176 26363 business sector. A striking fact is that the number of people in
05 39 - 30662
each family (5 people for each household in Dire Dawa)
06 83 68 29492
supported by each trader is large. These numbers of people
09 30798
Total 256 244 117315 are therefore indirectly victims of the flood disaster.
Table 3.5. Estimated Economic losses of individuals who are licensed
Moreover, as shown on Table 3.4, the 2006 flood also
traders in the city of Dire Dawa (Source: Federal Multi-Agency Assessment
affected all age groups in the affected areas of the city. This Mission, 2006).
is mainly due to the fact that the flood occurred in the middle
of the night while people were in deep sleep. The residential Affected Estimated Loss
No. Kebeles
traders (Birr)
areas which were hit by the ravaged flood in the middle of
1 Kebele 05 93 8,742,100
the night in August, 2006 had experienced the disastrous 2 Kebele 09 15 1,527,342
flood that left many fatalities and missing people. This shows 3 Kebele 03 7 74,000
us the city has no flood early warning system that alert the 4 Kebele 02 1 14,360
people to evacuate before floods occurred and cause 4 House Cart Association 7 90,700
disastrous damage like the 2006 flooding. Due to poor early Total 123 10,448,501

warning systems, limited preparedness and weak rescue The destructive flood that ravaged business centres of both
capacity in the city, the impact of flood hazards can be very small scale micro-enterprise and licensed traders have left
big that it kills large number of people and causes severe about 1005 people without business and wait for handouts
damages on property in every flooding year. and rehabilitation from government and/or non-governmental
organizations. The flood damages in different economic
410 Yonas Tadesse Alemu: Flash Flood Hazard in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

sectors of the city have also its own contribution in Since Dire Dawa is located in a strategic position connecting
increasing the poverty rate of the city. Because of their Djibouti and central parts of Ethiopia, the road damage
poverty they were rendered more vulnerable to the flood, created considerable indirect impact by delaying goods that
which in turn deepened their impoverishment. should be transported to the neighbouring Djibouti and to the
The 2006 flood also appears to be having a long term indirect centre of the country.
impact in the economy of Dire Dawa Administration due to Table 3.6. Summary of flood affected infrastructure sector in
the divergence of the government budget to reconstruction Dire Dawa in 2006.
and rehabilitation. Due to flood disaster the city’s recurrent Cost of
No. Infrastructure
expenditure for relief and reconstruction purpose was rose up. damage
The capital budget which is used for developmental activity The rehabilitation of partially damaged Dechatu
1 3,000,000.00
main bridge,
such as infrastructural development was partly diverted to Taiwan Irish crossingthat joins Taiwan with
recurrent expenditure. This implies floods have negatively 2 900,000.00
Number-one area.
impacted on the city’s economic development. Halfkat Irish crossing which connects Halfkat
3 500,000.00
and Vera pasta areas
In 2005/06 budget year due to sharp rose up of recurrent 4 Dechatu retaining wall in two parts (60m) 400,000.00
expenditure for flood affected people rehabilitation and 5 Kefira guide wall about 120m has been destroyed 950,000.00
reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, capital expenditure About 100m retaining wall along Goro River in
6 930,000.00
for the city was static. Due to flood disaster the city recurrent GTZ settlement area
expenditure increased by 43%, if there was not flood it was 7 Road damaged and covered by silt 517,100.00
only increased by 16%. The public sectors loss a total of 8 Electric poles and lines 500,000.00
53.88 million Birr, 29.55 million Birr in emergency relief and 9 Telephone poles and lines 6,098.36
the remaining 24.33 million Birr was estimated increase in Total 7,703,198.36
recurrent expenditure for reconstruction (DPPB, 2006). If
Source: Federal Multi-Agency Assessment Mission, 2006.
there was no flood this amount of capital used for
development of the public sectors.
C. Flood affected Housing and Infrastructure in Dire Dawa
Floods at different time have inflicted severe impacts on the
housing and infrastructure sectors. For instance flooding in
2006 has impacted severe damages in infrastructure (see Fig.
3.11, 3.12, 3.13, 3.14) and housing. In the housing section, a
total of 2685 houses were totally or partially damaged and as
a result total population of 9,956 has been displaced. Most of Fig. 3.11. Flood damage on potable water pipe lines.
these damaged houses were found within the flooding plain.
To further worsen the disaster in the area, more than 55% of
the damaged houses were made of poor materials such as
mud and wood, which were not in a position to resist the
force of the flood.
In the infrastructure sector the total direct damages inflicted
on energy; water and sanitation; and transport and
communication sector in the 2006 flood is estimated about Fig. 3.12. Water level around Kezira main Bridge & Damages on gabion.

7,703,198.36 (Table 3.6). As a result of major damages on

power and telecommunication transmission lines and water
sector, affected areas of the city were suffered from shortage
of potable water; absences of electricity and
telecommunication services until the structures were
maintained.
Moreover, due to the damage of main road that connects the
city with other regions including the capital city and some
roads within the city, transportation to the city and from the
Fig. 3.13. Damages on Sediment Storage Dams(SSDs).
city was interrupted until the damaged roads maintained.
 Journal of Social Science and Humanities Vol. 1, No. 4, 2015, pp. 400-414 411

money. As per Dire Dawa Investment Office Assessment

Report in Federal Multi-Agency Assessment Mission (2006),
10 investors have lost 13,162,981 Birr due to property
damage by flood.
This has a negative implication on the city’s future
development in the investment sector on one hand and also it
affects the investor’s interest to invest their capital in the city
on the other hand. Moreover, the shopping centre which was
Fig. 3.14. Flood Damage on Hafkat ford and Damage on Railway Bridge.
constructed within the flood plain with a cost of 1,998,700.00
Source: All the pictures source is DDAC, Rural Development Office, Flood Birr is totally damaged by the 2006 flood. This was the big
Impact Assessment Report, May 3, 2010.
mistake committed by the city administration at the then
D. Flood disaster on Agriculture; Trade and Industry period investing such huge sum of money for construction of
building in a vulnerable place without considering protection.
Floods in 2006 affected the agriculture sector seriously that it
damaged standing crops, drowned domestic animals and 3.4.2. Indirect Damage
damaged irrigation facilities. Floods in Dire Dawa usually Indirect damage from floods includes the long term effects on
occur at the vegetative growth stage of major food crops
the economy of disrupted businesses, interrupted savings and
(mostly in August). Crop fields in the low-lying areas of the
expenditure patterns and psychological damage to
watershed can be washed away by the flash flood that
households and the work force. These effects were clearly
descends down from the upland. In rural places more than demonstrated by the Survey, which showed the unbearable
1,827 households (10,809 persons) were affected by the same impact of being displaced, resulted in waiting handouts
flood in 17 kebeles. The flood in rural areas left 21 livestock
and/or remittances from family elsewhere. For instance, in
dead, 6 houses washed away, 257.6 hectares of farm lands
2006 flood, 9,956 people were displaced, of which 40% of
with crops, and rural infrastructures were damaged. The total
households lost their business or jobs (as suggested by the
damages in the rural infrastructure sector were estimated Survey) resulting in the family having to survive on
1,738,630.00 Eth. Birr. The rural infrastructural damages in remittances from elsewhere or from handouts of the Dire
the 2006 flooding have been summarized in table 3.7 below.
Dawa Administration or other aiding organizations.
Table 3.7. Rural infrastructure damage. In agricultural sector the indirect loss include the amount of
No Description Unit Total Damage income foregone which farmers expect from the sale of by-
1. Infrastructure damaged product production of their animals (cows) and also the
Soil bund Km 224.2 amount of money they expend until the next cropping season
Stone bund Km 62.3 for the purchase of food crops. Farmers usually consume at
Stone check dam M3 8600
home part of their product which they produce on their plots
Water harvesting ponds No 2
of land; the amount farmers expend for the purchase of farm
Cut off drain Km 43.85
2 Damage on farms Ha 230.64 tools which was damaged by floods; and government
Sorghum Ha 203.36 subsidies for the purchase of seeds are included in the
Maize Ha 25.9 indirect impact, which accounts the loss of 1738632 Birr
Haricot bean Ha 0.75 (Federal Multi-Agency Assessment Mission, 2006). This is
Sesame Ha 0.63
the amount incurred for reconstruction of SWC structures,
3 Fruits and Vegetables Ha 17.21
purchase of seeds and farm tools. The field survey reveals
Fruit Ha 15
Vegetables Ha 2.21 that the amount incurred for indirect damage is beyond the
4 Cash crops Ha 9.72 cost mentioned above however; due to poor recordings of
5 Different farm tools Ha 399 data it is difficult to portray the exact Figures of damages.
6 Livestock killed No 21 Cost of demolition and the removal of debris brought by the
7 Water Schemes No 10 flood is also another indirect cost incurred by the city
8 Small scale irrigation schemes No 5
administration.
9 Houses No 6

Source: Federal Multi-Agency Assessment Mission, 2006

Generally, due to shortage of data availability and poor data
recording practices the indirect impact assessment is not deep
In the trade sector in addition to traders lost their properties as expected, however, the overall socio-economic impact in
shown in table 3.5, investors involved in coffee processing, the 2006 flooding compared to other flooding periods is
dairy product processing industries also lost huge sum of exceptional high and severely affected both the rural and
412 Yonas Tadesse Alemu: Flash Flood Hazard in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

urban socio-economic sectors. From the records the last four Ethiopia lacks a comprehensive land use policy other than
flood events occurred during 1981, 1994, 2004 and in 2005 the water laws proclaimed in 1994. There is lack of land use
(Fig. 3.15), are the major flood disasters that caused policy in Ethiopia that prohibits farmers from using marginal
significant human casualty. Moreover, the casualties the land that are not suited for farming. Sustainable land use
flood caused have shown an increasing trend. The flood in must be planned according to the land capability
the year 2006 was exceptionally high in its magnitude and classification in order to realize the full productive potential
the damage it caused as compared to the flooding event in the of agricultural land. The current land use system results in
preceding years. Therefore, the most devastating flood in the deforestation, cultivation of steep slopes and intensification
history of Dire Dawa occurred on the 6th of August, 2006. into flood plains which exacerbate flooding with its serious
This flood is the worst of its kind which resulted in the loss impacts.
of more than 250 human lives; and property damages is also The 2006 flood impact on the socio-economic sector of Dire
more than ever before. High magnitude flood also occurred
Dawa was so severe that the extent of its impact is
in the year 2010 and inflicted an amount of 28,321,436.00 ET.
incomparable with other flood disasters occurred in the
Birrdamages on property and standing crops (Dire Dawa
flooding history of Dire Dawa city. In the infrastructural
Rural Development Bureau, 2010).This time there was no sector floods caused severe damages on roads power and
fatality due to flood was occurred at day time and people
telephone transmission lines, and blocked the city’s
were able to evacuate to a safer place.
communication to other regions in the country. In the
economic sector flooding impact was so severe that it damaged
business centres; small market places with their properties
which left property owners impoverish; damaged standing
crops; drowned cattle.
The overall impact of the 2006 flood on the socio-economic
sector of the city was exceptionally high compared to other
periods of flood impact. Loss of more than 100 million Eth.
Birr worth of property, of which individuals’ property is also
significantly high and will take many years to recover.
Moreover, the flood also appears to be having a long term
Fig. 3.15. Trends of flood affected people and fatalities in Dire Dawa city impact on the Dire Dawa Administration economy due to the
from 1981-2006 flooding periods (source: adapted from DPPC, 2006). divergence of the government budget to reconstruction and
rehabilitation.
4. Conclusions Very poor and/or absence of flood early warning system is
one of the major constraint of flood disaster mitigating effort
The increasing intensity of rainfall mainly due to climate
in the city of Dire Dawa. The 2006 severe disaster is partly
change accompanied by land use change, particularly the
caused due to lack of warning alert that could awaken the
expansion of urbanized areas and cultivation land at the
community to evacuate to safer places.
expense of wood and shrub lands are the causes of potential
generation of flash floods in the catchment. The increased The increasing trend of flooding impact on one hand
trend of sand deposition in the impact area and the particularly what has happened in the year 2006 and the
conversion of marginal wood land areas to farmlands lesser attention given particularly for non-structural measures
witnessed the increased rate of sediment transportation to indicates that floods and its massive disasters will continue to
downstream and this in turn has been responsible for rising of occur in the future and will cause even higher damages.
the river bed and also causing Dechatu River to burst its bank Generally, the 2006 flooding impact was so severe that it
and flooded the residential areas. caused unprecedented damages on the socio-economic and
Increasing population growth in the city especially as a result infrastructural sectors of the city. The severity of the
of high rate of migration; and lack of settlement space for the destruction is mainly due to
migrants has pushed them to occupy flood plain areas where High intensity of rain that fell in the upland areas of the
increasing vulnerability to flood disaster is imminent. The catchment in the 5th of August, 2006 - the flood hit the
migrants residing within the flooding zone accompanied by city in the middle of the night while people were in deep
mushrooming of informal settlements are increased flood sleep
disaster vulnerability in the city.
Absence of early warning system in the city has hardly
 Journal of Social Science and Humanities Vol. 1, No. 4, 2015, pp. 400-414 413

affected flood information transfer to the community, administration. The Integrated Watershed Management
which is one of the major causes of increased death toll minimizes soil loss through run-off and increases the ground
and property damages in the 2006 flooding. water potential through increased infiltration and rehabilitates
the degraded environment through reforestation program.
This in turn protects the potential risk of flooding in the
Recommendations downstream area.
Flood is a serious obstacle of the socio-economic
development of the city of Dire Dawa. Every year large
amount of property has been damaged by floods. One of the
Acknowledgments
major causes of flooding in the city is related to land-use The author is indebted to the referees who posed key points,
change. Therefore, Policy makers should give due stimulated discussion, and greatly improved the general
consideration to the issue and ratify land-use policy. Land- quality of the manuscript; and to the publisher, Public science
use policy that regulates the allocation of land for appropriate framework and Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities
activities is needed to minimize and avert abusive use of land (JSSH) who is willing to publish this manuscript. The author
and land based resources. Moreover, the land-use policy is also indebted to the staff of the Geography Department of
protects flood plains from being occupied by illegal settlers Dire Dawa University for their assistance during the field
which affects the morphology of the river and resulted in the work. The National Meteorological Agency of Ethiopia is
occurrence of floods. Therefore, enactment of land-use policy acknowledged for providing the rainfall data of the stations
will help to delineate the flooding zone and enables to create in Dechatu catchment.
normal relationship between the River and the community.
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