Group 1 the alkali metals

Group 2 the alkaline earth metals

From group 3 to group 12 the transition elements
Group 13 the boron family
Group 14 the carbon family
Group 15 the nitrogen family
Group 16 the chalcogens
Group 17 the halogens
Group 18 the noble gases

Metals

Common characteristics:

Metallic luster (shine)

Generally solids at room temperature
Malleable
Ductile
Conduct heat and electricity
Exist as extended planes of atoms
Combine with other metals to form alloys which have metallic characteristics
Form positive ions, e.g. Na+, Mg2+, and Al3+

Nonmetals

Common characteristics:

Rarely have metallic luster (shine)

Generally gases at room temperature
Neither malleable nor ductile
Poor conductors of heat and electricity
Usually exist as molecules in thier elemental form
Combine with other nonmetals to form covalent
Generally form negative ions, e.g. Cl-, SO42-, and N3-

The differences in the characteristics of metals and nonmetals can be explained by the
following:
Metals have relatively few electrons in their valence shells.
Metals have lower ionization energies than nonmetals.
Metals have smaller electron affinities than nonmetals.
Metals have larger atoms than nonmetals.

1) As you move across a period, metallic character decreases and nonmetallic character
increases.

2) As you move down a group, metallic character increases and nonmetallic character
decreases.

Semimetals (Metalloids)
 A class of 8 elements that have properties of both metals and nonmetals.

B Si Ge As Sb Te Po At

Common characteristics:
Generally look metallic but are brittle (not malleable or ductile)
Neither good conductors or insulators; instead they are semiconductors.

Periodic Properties of the Elements

Trends in the Periodic Table

The properties of the elements exhibit trends. These trends can be predicted using the periodic
table and can be explained and understood by analyzing the electron configurations of the
elements. Elements tend to gain or lose valence electrons to achieve stable octet formation.
Stable octets are seen in the inert gases, or noble gases, of Group XVIII of the periodic table.
In addition to this activity, there are two other important trends. First, electrons are added one
at a time moving from left to right across a period. As this happens, the electrons of the
outermost shell experience increasingly strong nuclear attraction, so the electrons become
closer to the nucleus and more tightly bound to it. Second, moving down a column in the
periodic table, the outermost electrons become less tightly bound to the nucleus. This happens
because the number of filled principal energy levels (which shield the outermost electrons
from attraction to the nucleus) increases downward within each group. These trends explain
the periodicity observed in the elemental properties of atomic radius, ionization energy,
electron affinity, and electronegativity.

Atomic Radius
The atomic radius of an element is half of the distance between the centers of two atoms of
that element that are just touching each other. Generally, the atomic radius decreases across a
period from left to right and increases down a given group. The atoms with the largest atomic
radii are located in Group I and at the bottom of groups. Moving from left to right across a
period, electrons are added one at a time to the outer energy shell. Electrons within a shell
cannot shield each other from the attraction to protons. Since the number of protons is also
increasing, the effective nuclear charge increases across a period. This causes the atomic
radius to decrease. Moving down a group in the periodic table, the number of electrons and
filled electron shells increases, but the number of valence electrons remains the same. The
outermost electrons in a group are exposed to the same effective nuclear charge, but electrons
are found farther from the nucleus as the number of filled energy shells increases. Therefore,
the atomic radii increase.

Ionization Energy
The ionization energy, or ionization potential, is the energy required to completely remove an
electron from a gaseous atom or ion. The closer and more tightly bound an electron is to the
nucleus, the more difficult it will be to remove, and the higher its ionization energy will be.
The first ionization energy is the energy required to remove one electron from the parent
atom. The second ionization energy is the energy required to remove a second valence
electron from the univalent ion to form the divalent ion, and so on. Successive ionization
energies increase. The second ionization energy is always greater than the first ionization
energy. Ionization energies increase moving from left to right across a period (decreasing
atomic radius). Ionization energy decreases moving down a group (increasing atomic radius).
Group I elements have low ionization energies because the loss of an electron forms a stable
octet.

Electron Affinity
Electron affinity reflects the ability of an atom to accept an electron. It is the energy change
that occurs when an electron is added to a gaseous atom. Atoms with stronger effective
nuclear charge have greater electron affinity. Some generalizations can be made about the
electron affinities of certain groups in the periodic table. The Group II elements, the alkaline
earths, have low electron affinity values. These elements are relatively stable because they
have filled s subshells. Group XVII elements, the halogens, have high electron affinities
because the addition of an electron to an atom results in a completely filled shell. Group
XVIII elements, noble gases, have electron affinities near zero, since each atom possesses a
stable octet and will not accept an electron readily. Elements of other groups have low
electron affinities.

Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction of an atom for the electrons in a chemical
bond. The higher the electronegativity of an atom, the greater its attraction for bonding
electrons. Electronegativity is related to ionization energy. Electrons with low ionization
energies have low electronegativities because their nuclei do not exert a strong attractive force
on electrons. Elements with high ionization energies have high electronegativities due to the
strong pull exerted on electrons by the nucleus. In a group, the electronegativity decreases as
atomic number increases, as a result of increased distance between the valence electron and
nucleus (greater atomic radius). An example of an electropositive (i.e., low electronegativity)
element is cesium; an example of a highly electronegative element is fluorine.

Atomic Radii

1) As you move down a group, atomic radius increases.

 WHY? - The number of energy levels increases as
you move down a group as the number of electrons
increases. Each subsequent energy level is further
from the nucleus than the last. Therefore, the atomic
radius increases as the group and energy levels
increase.

2) As you move across a period, atomic radius decreases.

WHY? - As you go across a period, electrons are added to the same energy
level. At the same time, protons are being added to the nucleus. The
concentration of more protons in the nucleus creates a "higher effective
nuclear charge." In other words, there is a stronger force of attraction pulling
the electrons closer to the nucleus resulting in a smaller atomic radius.

Ionic Radii

1) Anions (negative ions) are larger than their respective atoms.

WHY?

Electron-electron repulsion forces them to spread further apart.

Electrons outnumber protons; the protons cannot pull the extra electrons as
tightly toward the nucleus.

2) Cations (positive ions) are smaller than their respective atoms.

WHY?

There is less electron-electron repulsion, so they can come closer together.

Protons outnumber electrons; the protons can pull the fewer electrons toward
the nucleus more tightly.
If the electron that is lost is the only valence electron so that the electron
configuration of the cation is like that of a noble gas, then an entire energy
level is lost. In this case, the radius of the cation is much smaller than its
respective atom.

Isoelectronic ions all have exactly the same electron arrangement.

Examples:

N3- O2- F- Na+ Mg2+ Al3+

no of protons 7 8 9 11 12 13

electronic structure of ion 2, 8 2, 8 2, 8 2, 8 2, 8 2, 8

 ionic radius (nm) (0.171) 0.140 0.133 0.102 0.072 0.054

Isoeletronic particles are particles which have the same electron arrangement, for example:
Ne, 2,8 neon atom
Na+, 2,8 sodium cation
F–, 2,8 fluoride anion

First Ionization Energy

Definition: The energy required to remove the outermost (highest energy) electron from a
neutral atom in its ground state.

1) As you move down a group, first ionization energy decreases.

WHY?

Electrons are further from the nucleus and thus easier to remove the outermost
one.
"SHIELDING" - Inner electrons at lower energy levels essentially block the
protons' force of attraction toward the nucleus. It therefore becomes easier to
remove the outer electron

2) As you move across a period, first ionization energy increases.

WHY? - As you move across a period, the atomic radius decreases, that is, the atom is
smaller. The outer electrons are closer to the nucleus and more strongly attracted to the
center. Therefore, it becomes more difficult to remove the outermost electron.

Second and Higher Ionization Energies

Definition: Second Ionization Energy is the energy required to remove a second outermost
electron from a ground state atom.
Subsequent ionization energies increase greatly once an ion has reached the state like that of a
noble gas. In other words, it becomes extremely difficult to remove an electron from an atom
once it loses enough electrons to lose an entire energy level so that its valence shell is filled.
Ionization Energies (kJ/mol)
Element 1st IE 2nd IE 3rd IE 4th IE
Na 495.8 4562.4 6912 9543
Mg 737.7 1450.6 7732.6 10,540
Al 577.6 1816.6 2744.7 11,577
Electron Affinity
Definition: The energy given off when a neutral atom in the gas phase gains
an extra electron to form a negatively charged ion.
1) As you move down a group, electron affinity decreases.

2) As you move across a period, electron affinity increases.

1. Rank the following elements in order of increasing:
a) atomic size: Ba, Mg, Sr
b) first ionization energy: P, Na, Al
c) electron affinity: Br, Cl, Se
d) number of valence electrons: Bi, Ga, Sn

2. Rank the following in order of increasing radius:

a) Ca2+, K+, Ga3+
b) Br−, Sr2+, Rb+
c) Mg, Al3+, Mg2+, P, O2-

3. Select the smaller particle in each pair:

a) K+, Li+ b) Au+, Au3+
c) P3-, N3- d) Mg2+, Al3+