DISASTER RESILIENT STRUCTURES

(SEMESTER -7, B.ARCH)

2022-2023.

SUBMITTED BY_
NAME - SNEHA DEY
CLASS - 7TH SEMESTER, B.ARCH
ROLL N0 - 10
COLLEGE - G.C.A.P, AZARA
 INTRODUCTION
● FLOOD IS OVERFLOW OF EXCESS
WATER THAT SUBMERGES LAND
AND INFLOW OF TIDE ONTO
LAND.
● MOST FREQUENT AND
DEADLIEST OCCURS WHEN THE
GEOMORPHIC EQUILIBRIUM IN
THE RIVER SYSTEM IS
DISTURBED BECAUSE OF-
1. INTRINSIC THRESHOLD
2. EXTRINSIC THRESHOLD
1. FLOOD

FLOOD MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES:

● HARD ENGINEERING (STRUCTURAL)
CAUSES OF FLOOD:
1. EMBANKMENTS DAMS & RESERVOIRS
1. NATURAL HEAVY RAINS
2. CHANNEL IMPROVEMENT
2. MELTING OF ICE DURING
3. DRAINAGE IMPROVEMENT
VOLCANO ERUPTION
4. DIVERSION OF FLOOD RIVERS
3. UNDERSEA EARTHQUAKE
● SOFT ENGINEERING (NON-STRUCTURAL)
4. MARINE LANDSLIP
1. FLOOD PLAIN ZONING
5. MAN-MADE BANK EROSION
2. FLOOD PREPAREDNESS
6. BREACH OF
3. FLOOD FORECASTING
DAM/BARRAGE/EMBANKMENT
4. AFFORESTATION
MELTWATER
5. PUBLIC RELIEF
7. VOLCANIC ASH & OTHER DEBRIS
 BUILDING RESILIENT STRUCTURES FOR FLOOD: FLOOD RESILIENT CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES:
1.1 SITE PLANNING
1.2 DEEP FOUNDATIONS
1. THE RISING DAMPNESS IN THE
1. SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS CAN BECOME
BUILDING WILL BECOME LESS
UNSTABLE DUE TO THE DISPLACEMENT
PROBLEMATIC IF THE LAND IS
OF SOIL DURING FLOODS.
SLOPED AWAY FROM THE
2. THE FOUNDATION OF A
BUILDING.
FLOOD-RESISTANT HOUSE MUST BE DEEP
2. TO GUARANTEE THAT THE
TO STOP THE MOVEMENT OF THE
RAINFALL DRAINS AWAY FROM
SUB-STRATA AND ULTIMATELY STOP A
THE STRUCTURE, THE GROUND
FOUNDATION FAILURE.
SHOULD SLOPE AWAY FROM IT.
3. PILES OR COLUMNS ARE EMPLOYED TO
3. CLOSE TO THE EXTERNAL
LIFT THE STRUCTURE ABOVE THE
WALLS, ALL DIRT AND LOOSE
PRESCRIBED FLOOD LEVEL. SUCH
1. FLOOD

EARTH SHOULD BE REMOVED.

ELEVATED DEVELOPMENT HELPS IN
4. THE PLINTH HEIGHT SHOULD BE
PREVENTING FLOOD WATER FROM
KEPT TO A MINIMUM OF 450 MM.
ENTERING THE BUILDING.
1.4 LOFTS AND BALCONIES
1.3 PLINTH PROTECTION
TAKING ADVANTAGE OF THE
● THE SOIL NEAR THE FOUNDATION
SLOPING ROOF IN
MAY BE REMOVED BY THE RECEDING
SINGLE-STORIED HOMES,
FLOODWATER.
A LOFT MAY BE CONVERTED INTO A
1. PLINTH PROTECTION IS TYPICALLY
SHORT-TERM FLOOD REFUGE ROOM
DONE BY LAYING A 75–100 MM LAYER
IN SUCH HOMES.
OF PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE ALONG

FIRST FLOOR BALCONIES.

THE CASE OF HOUSES WITH
TRAPPED PEOPLE IS EASIER IN
UNDERWATER,
FLOOR OF A BUILDING IS
WHEN THE ENTIRE GROUND
THEY CAN BE USED TO HOUSE
THE BUILDING'S BORDER.
VALUABLES, PERSONS, AND
2. THE PLINTH MUST BE PROTECTED TO
ANIMALS UNTIL THE RAINS CEASE.
PREVENT/REDUCE WATER
IF BUILDING A STAIRCASE TO
PENETRATION BY CAPILLARY ACTION
ACCESS IT IS NOT FEASIBLE, A
FROM REACHING THE PLINTH WALL
LADDER SIMILAR TO THE ONE IN

RESCUING
AND IN TURN REACHING THE FLOOR
TRADITIONAL KERALA HOUSES
LEVEL.
CAN BE USED.
1.5 POSITIONING OF STAIRCASE 1.6 LOCATION OF WATER TANK 1.7 PROTECTING ELECTRICAL SERVICES
1. THE STAIRCASE PLAYS A CHIEF ROLE IN 1. A RESIDENCE IN A FLOOD-PRONE 1. THE POWER SUPPLY WILL BE DISCONNECTED DURING THE
HOUSES IN FLOOD-PRONE AREAS. AREA SHOULD HAVE ITS WATER FLOODS TO AVOID DAMAGES.
2. THE INTERNAL STAIRCASE MAY NOT BE TANK ELEVATED AS HIGH AS 2. IT IS PROBLEMATIC TO RESTORE POWER EVEN AFTER THE FLOODS
EFFECTIVE AS AN ESCAPE ROUTE IF POSSIBLE SO THAT WATER IS WHEN THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM GETS DAMAGED. IN NEW
FLOOD WATER ENTERS THE HOME TO A AVAILABLE EVEN IF THE POWER BUILDINGS,
SIGNIFICANT HEIGHT BECAUSE THE SUPPLY IS CUT OFF. 3. THE DISTRIBUTION BOARD (DB BOX) OF THE ELECTRICAL
INTERIOR DOORS REMAIN LOCKED UNTIL 2. IT CAN BE LOCATED ON A TERRACE SUPPLY CAN BE RAISED ABOVE THE MAXIMUM FLOOD LEVEL
THE WATER DRAINS COMPLETELY. OR ABOVE THE HEADROOM. ALTHOUGH ELECTRICITY BOARD ENGINEERS WANT IT CLOSE TO
3. IN SUCH INSTANCES, THE RESCUE SQUAD 3. IF IT IS AN UNDERGROUND SUMP, THE GROUND FOR INSPECTION AND READING.
CAN BOARD INDIVIDUALS TO SAFETY VIA IT SHOULD BE ELEVATED AS HIGH
AN EXTERIOR STAIRWAY. AS POSSIBLE SO THAT THE
4. THE STAIRCASE SHOULD BE WIDE FLOODWATER DOES NOT ENTER THE
ENOUGH TO TAKE EVERYTHING TO THE TANK. (THE
FIRST FLOOR, IN CASE OF INUNDATION RAINWATER
OF THE GROUND FLOOR. CAN BE
HARVESTED
ON THE
ROOF/OR AT A
HIGH LEVEL (During floods, a solar panel with an inverter will make sure that at least the lights and
TO ENSURE mobile phones can be made functional).
CONTINUOUS
WATER 1.8 SEWAGE SYSTEM
SUPPLY TO THE MIXING UP OF SEWAGE AND THE FLOODWATER WILL NOT
THE HOUSE).
HAPPEN IF THE SEWAGE IS RAISED ABOVE THE FLOOD LEVEL OF THE
REGION. PROVIDING A NON-RETURN VALVE ALSO ENSURES THAT THE
SEWAGE DOES NOT BACK UP INTO THE TOILETS.
 1. INTRODUCTION: 2. HOW HIGH WINDS DAMAGE BUILDINGS 3. CATASTROPHIC FAILURES
● THE VULNERABILITY OF A HUMAN CONTRARY TO POPULAR BELIEF, FEW HOUSES 3.1 FOUNDATIONS
SETTLEMENT TO A CYCLONE IS ARE BLOWN OVER. INSTEAD, THEY ARE PULLED ● THE UPLIFT FORCES FROM CYCLONE WINDS CAN
DETERMINED BY ITS SITING, THE APART BY WINDS MOVING SWIFTLY AROUND SOMETIMES PULL BUILDINGS COMPLETELY OUT OF
PROBABILITY THAT A CYCLONE WILL AND OVER THE BUILDING. THE GROUND.
OCCUR, AND THE DEGREE TO WHICH A) THIS LOWERS THE PRESSURE ON THE ● IN CONTRAST TO DESIGNING FOR GRAVITY LOADS,
ITS STRUCTURES CAN BE DAMAGED BY OUTSIDE AND CREATES SUCTION ON THE THE LIGHTER THE BUILDING THE LARGER (OR
IT. WALLS AND ROOF, EFFECTIVELY CAUSING HEAVIER) THE FOUNDATION NEEDS TO BE IN
● BUILDINGS ARE CONSIDERED THE EQUIVALENT OF AN EXPLOSION. CYCLONE RESISTANT DESIGN.
VULNERABLE IF THEY CANNOT B) WHETHER OR NOT A BUILDING WILL BE ● IGNORING THIS PRECEPT HAS LED TO SOME
WITHSTAND THE FORCES OF HIGH ABLE TO RESIST THE EFFECTS OF WIND IS DRAMATIC FAILURE OF LONG-SPAN, STEEL-FRAMED
WINDS. DEPENDENT NOT SO MUCH UPON THE WAREHOUSES.
2. CYCLONE

● GENERALLY THOSE MOST VULNERABLE MATERIALS THAT ARE USED BUT THE
TO CYCLONES ARE LIGHTWEIGHT MANNER IN WHICH THEY ARE USED. 3.2 STEEL FRAMES
STRUCTURES WITH WOOD FRAMES, C) IT IS A COMMON BELIEF THAT HEAVIER ● A COMMON MISCONCEPTION IS THAT THE LOSS OF
ESPECIALLY OLDER BUILDINGS WHERE BUILDINGS, SUCH AS THOSE MADE OF CLADDING RELIEVES THE LOADS FROM BUILDING
WOOD HAS DETERIORATED AND CONCRETE BLOCK, ARE SAFER. FRAMEWORKS.
WEAKENED THE WALLS. D) WHILE IT IS TRUE THAT A WELL-BUILT AND ● THERE ARE SEVERAL CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE THE
● HOUSES MADE OF UNREINFORCED OR PROPERLY-ENGINEERED MASONRY HOUSE OPPOSITE IS THE CASE AND WHERE THE WIND
POORLY-CONSTRUCTED CONCRETE OFFERS A BETTER MARGIN OF SAFETY LOADS ON THE STRUCTURAL FRAME INCREASES
BLOCK ARE ALSO VULNERABLE. THAN OTHER TYPES OF BUILDINGS, SAFE SUBSTANTIALLY WITH THE LOSS OF CLADDING.
HOUSING CAN BE AND HAS BEEN ● USUALLY THE WEAKNESS IN STEEL FRAMES IS IN
PROVIDED BY A VARIETY OF OTHER THE CONNECTIONS.
MATERIALS INCLUDING WOOD AND MANY ● THUS ECONOMISING ON MINOR ITEMS (BOLTS)
OTHERS. HAS LED TO THE OVERALL FAILURE OF THE MAJOR
ITEMS (COLUMNS, BEAMS AND RAFTERS).
 3.3 MASONRY HOUSES 4. COMPONENT FAILURES
4.4 WINDOWS AND DOORS
● THESE ARE USUALLY REGARDED AS BEING
4.1 ROOF SHEETING ● AFTER ROOF SHEETING, THESE ARE
SAFE IN CYCLONES.
● THIS IS PERHAPS THE COMMONEST AREA OF THE COMPONENTS MOST
● THERE ARE COUNTLESS EXAMPLES WHERE THE
FAILURE IN CYCLONES. FREQUENTLY DAMAGED IN CYCLONES.
LOSS OF ROOFS HAS TRIGGERED THE TOTAL
● THE CAUSES ARE USUALLY INADEQUATE ● OF COURSE, GLASS WOULD ALWAYS
DESTRUCTION OF UNREINFORCED MASONRY
FASTENING DEVICES, INADEQUATE SHEET BE VULNERABLE TO FLYING OBJECTS.
WALLS.
THICKNESS AND INSUFFICIENT FREQUENCIES ● THE OTHER AREA OF VULNERABILITY
OF FASTENERS IN THE KNOWN AREAS OF FOR WINDOWS AND DOORS IS THE
3.4 TIMBER HOUSES
GREATER WIND SUCTION. HARDWARE - LATCHES, BOLTS AND
● THE KEY TO SAFE CONSTRUCTION OF TIMBER
HINGES.
HOUSES IS THE CONNECTION DETAILS.
● THE INHERENT VULNERABILITY OF 4.2 ROOF TILES
2. CYCLONE

● THESE WERE THOUGHT TO HAVE LOW 4.5 WALLS

LIGHT-WEIGHT TIMBER HOUSES COUPLED
VULNERABILITY IN STORMS BUT PAST ● IT IS NOT UNCOMMON FOR
WITH POOR CONNECTIONS IS A DANGEROUS
CYCLONES HAVE EXPOSED THE PROBLEM OF UNREINFORCED MASONRY TO FAIL IN
COMBINATION WHICH HAS OFTEN LED TO
UNSATISFACTORY INSTALLATION PRACTICES. SEVERE CYCLONES.
DISASTER.
● CANTILEVERED PARAPETS ARE MOST
4.3 RAFTERS AT RISK. BUT SO ARE WALLS BRACED
3.5 REINFORCED CONCRETE FRAMES
● RAFTERS OF PARTICULAR INTEREST IN RECENT BY RING BEAMS AND COLUMNS HAVE
● THE DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE
CYCLONES WAS THE LONGITUDINAL SPLITTING REMAINED SAFE.
FRAMES IS USUALLY CONTROLLED BY THE
SEISMIC HAZARD. OF RAFTERS WITH THE TOP HALVES
DISAPPEARING AND LEAVING THE BOTTOM
● IN COUNTRIES WHERE THIS IS NOT AN ISSUE
HALVES IN PLACE.
CARE STILL NEEDS TO BE EXERCISED TO
● THE SPLITTING WOULD PROPAGATE FROM
ENSURE THAT THE CONCRETE FRAMES CAN
HOLES DRILLED HORIZONTALLY THROUGH THE
ACCOMMODATE THE WIND FORCES. RAFTERS TO RECEIVE HOLDING-DOWN STRAPS.
 5. DAMAGING EFFECTS OF CYCLONE ON HOUSES

2. CYCLONE

5.1 DUE TO THE HIGH WIND PRESSURE AND 5.3 LIGHT WEIGHT VERANDAH ROOFS ARE MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO 5.2 ROOFING MATERIALS NOT ANCHORED CAN BE
IMPROPER CONNECTION OF THE HOUSE TO THE DAMAGE DUE TO HIGH WIND SPEED BLOWN AWAY. .
FOOTINGS IT CAN BE BLOWN AWAY.
6. SITE CONSIDERATIONS:
● IN HILLY REGIONS,
CONSTRUCTION ALONG RIDGES
SHOULD BE AVOIDED SINCE THEY
EXPERIENCE AN ACCENTUATION
OF WIND VELOCITY

THE AREA BEHIND A MOUND OR A HILLOCK SHOULD BE PREFERRED TO

PROVIDE FOR NATURAL SHIELDING. SIMILARLY A ROW OF TREES PLANTED
UPWIND WILL ACT AS A SHIELD. THE INFLUENCE OF SUCH A SHIELD WILL BE
OVER A LIMITED DISTANCE, ONLY FOR 8 – 10 TIMES THE HEIGHT OF THE
TREES.
5.4 WHEN CYCLONES ARE ACCOMPANIED WITH HEAVY ● IN HILLY REGIONS, CONSTRUCTION ALONG
RAIN FOR A LONG DURATION, THE BUILDINGS CAN BE RIDGES SHOULD BE AVOIDED SINCE THEY ● A TREE BROKEN CLOSE TO THE
DAMAGED DUE TO FLOODING ALSO. BUILDING EXPERIENCE AN ACCENTUATION OF WIND HOUSE MAY DAMAGE THE HOUSE
CONTENTS ARE SPOILED DUE TO RAIN WHEN ROOFING VELOCITY. THOUGH SOME TIMES IN LONG ALSO HENCE DISTANCE OF TREE
SHEETS FLY AWAY. . NARROW VALLEYS WIND MAY GAIN HIGH SPEED FROM THE HOUSE MAY BE KEPT 1.5
ALONG VALLEY TIMES THE HEIGHT OF THE TREE.
 ROOFS : ● OVERHANGS, PATIOS AND VERANDAHS EXPERIENCE HIGH WIND
● LIGHTWEIGHT FLAT ROOFS ARE EASILY BLOWN OFF IN HIGH WINDS. PRESSURES AND SHOULD BE KEPT SHORT AND SMALL
IN ORDER TO LESSEN THE EFFECT OF THE UPLIFTING FORCES ON THE
ROOF, THE ROOF PITCH SHOULD NOT BE LESS THAN 22º.
● HIP ROOFS ARE BEST, THEY HAVE BEEN FOUND TO BE MORE CYCLONE
RESISTANT THAN GABLE ROOFS.
2. CYCLONE

HIP ROOF HIGH GABLE ROOF FLAT ROOF

• AVOID LARGE OVERHANGS AS HIGH WIND FORCE BUILD UP UNDER THEM.

6. GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS • OVERHANGS SHOULD NOT BE MORE THAN 18 INCHES AT VERGES OR EAVES.
● 1. AVOID A LOW PITCHED ROOF, USE A HIP ROOF OR A HIGH • BUILD VERANDAH AND PATIO ROOFS AS SEPARATE STRUCTURES RATHER
PITCHED GABLE ROOF. THAN EXTENSIONS OF THE MAIN BUILDING.
● 2. AVOID OVERHANGING ROOFS. IF OVERHANGS OR CANOPIES ARE • THEY MAY BLOW OFF WITHOUT DAMAGING THE REST OF THE HOUSE.
DESIRED, THEY SHOULD BE BRACED BY TIES HELD TO THE MAIN
STRUCTURES.
● 3. AVOID OPENINGS WHICH CANNOT BE SECURELY CLOSED DURING
A CYCLONE. WHERE OPENINGS ARE ALREADY IN EXISTENCE,
CYCLONE SHUTTERS SHOULD BE PROVIDED.

● IF THE ROOF SHEETING IS TOO THIN

OR THERE ARE TOO FEW FITTINGS, THE
NAILS OR SCREWS MAY TEAR
THROUGH THE SHEET.
HIPPED ROOF
 INTRODUCTION: THESE CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDE: CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES:
► A SLOPE GREATER THAN 15 PERCENT.
► THE TERM LANDSLIDE REFERS TO THE
DOWNWARD MOVEMENT OF MASSES OF ROCK ► LANDSLIDE ACTIVITY OR MOVEMENT ► GEOLOGICAL WEAK MATERIAL:
AND SOIL. OCCURRED DURING THE LAST 10,000 YEARS WEAKNESS IN THE COMPOSITION AND
► STREAM OR WAVE ACTIVITY WHICH HAS STRUCTURE OF ROCK OR SOIL MAY ALSO
► LANDSLIDES ARE CAUSED BY ONE OR A CAUSE LANDSLIDES.
CAUSED EROSION, UNDERCUT A BANK OR CUT
COMBINATION OF THE FOLLOWING FACTORS:
INTO A BANK TO CAUSE THE SURROUNDING
1. CHANGE IN SLOPE GRADIENT, ► EROSION: EROSION OF SLOPE TOE DUE
LAND TO BE UNSTABLE.
2. INCREASING THE LOAD THE LAND MUST BEAR, TO CUTTING DOWN OF VEGETATION,
3. SHOCKS AND VIBRATIONS, ► THE PRESENCE OR POTENTIAL FOR SNOW CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS MIGHT
3. LANDSLIDES

4. CHANGE IN WATER CONTENT, AVALANCHES. INCREASE THE VULNERABILITY OF THE

5. GROUND WATER MOVEMENT, ► THE PRESENCE OF AN ALLUVIAL FAN WHICH TERRAIN TO SLIDE DOWN.
6. FROST ACTION, INDICATES VULNERABILITY TO THE FLOW OF ► INTENSE RAINFALL: STORMS THAT
7. WEATHERING OF SHOCKS, DEBRIS OR SEDIMENTS.
PRODUCE INTENSE RAINFALL FOR
8. REMOVAL OR, CHANGING THE TYPE OF
► THE PRESENCE OF IMPERMEABLE SOILS, SUCH PERIODS AS SHORT AS SEVERAL HOURS
VEGETATION COVERING SLOPES.
AS SILT OR CLAY, WHICH ARE MIXED WITH OR HAVE A MORE MODERATE INTENSITY
► LANDSLIDE HAZARD AREAS OCCUR WHERE THE GRANULAR SOILS SUCH AS SAND AND GRAVEL. LASTING SEVERAL DAYS HAVE
LAND HAS CERTAIN CHARACTERISTICS WHICH TRIGGERED ABUNDANT LANDSLIDES.
CONTRIBUTE TO THE RISK OF THE DOWNHILL HEAVY MELTING OF SNOW IN THE HILLY
MOVEMENT OF MATERIAL. TERRAINS ALSO RESULTS IN LANDSLIDE.

► ► HUMAN EXCAVATION OF SLOPE AND ITS

TOE, LOADING OF SLOPE/TOE, DRAW
DOWN IN RESERVOIR, MINING,
DEFORESTATION, IRRIGATION,
VIBRATION/BLAST
► EARTHQUAKE SHAKING HAS TRIGGERED
LANDSLIDES IN MANY DIFFERENT
TOPOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC SETTINGS.
ROCK FALLS, SOIL SLIDES AND
ROCKSLIDES ROM STEEP SLOPES
INVOLVING RELATIVELY THIN OR
SHALLOW DIS-AGGREGATED SOILS OR
ROCK,
 EFFECTS OF LANDSLIDES: ADVERSE EFFECTS: DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE:
► THE MOST COMMON ELEMENTS AT RISK
ARE THE SETTLEMENTS BUILT ON THE
STEEP SLOPES, BUILT AT THE TOE AND
THOSE BUILT AT THE MOUTH OF THE
STREAMS EMERGING FROM THE
MOUNTAIN VALLEY.
► ALL THOSE BUILDINGS CONSTRUCTED
WITHOUT APPROPRIATE FOUNDATION
3. LANDSLIDES

FOR A GIVEN SOIL AND IN SLOPPY

AREAS ARE ALSO AT RISK.
► ROADS, COMMUNICATION LINES ARE
VULNERABLE.
SOME MAJOR LANDSLIDES IN INDIA

RETAINING WALLS CAN BE BUILT TO STOP

LAND FROM SLIPPING (THESE WALLS ARE
COMMONLY SEEN ALONG ROADS IN HILL
STATIONS). THESE ARE CONSTRUCTED TO
PREVENT SMALLER SIZED AND SECONDARY
LANDSLIDES THAT OFTEN OCCUR ALONG THE
POSSIBLE RISK REDUCTION MEASURES: TOE PORTION OF THE LARGER LANDSLIDES.

► HAZARD MAPPING LOCATES AREAS PRONE TO SLOPE FAILURES.

THIS WILL HELP TO AVOID BUILDING SETTLEMENTS IN SUCH AREAS.
THESE MAPS WILL ALSO SERVE AS A TOOL FOR MITIGATION PLANNING.
LAND USE PRACTICES SUCH AS -
► AREAS COVERED BY DEGRADED NATURAL VEGETATION IN UPPER SLOPES ARE TO BE AFFORESTED WITH
SUITABLE SPECIES.
► ANY DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITY INITIATED IN THE AREA SHOULD BE TAKEN UP ONLY AFTER A DETAILED
STUDY OF THE REGION HAS BEEN CARRIED OUT.
► IN CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS, IRRIGATION CANALS ETC. PROPER CARE IS TO BE TAKEN TO AVOID
BLOCKAGE OF NATURAL DRAINAGE
► TOTAL AVOIDANCE OF SETTLEMENT IN THE RISK ZONE SHOULD BE MADE MANDATORY.
► RELOCATE SETTLEMENTS AND INFRASTRUCTURE THAT FALL IN THE POSSIBLE PATH OF THE LANDSLIDE
► NO CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS IN AREAS BEYOND A CERTAIN DEGREE OF SLOPE
4. EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT
CONSTRUCTION
DETAIL
DISASTER RESISTANT STRUCTURES
1. SEISMIC DESIGN PHILOSOPHY FOR 3. CONSTRUCTION DETAIL: FOUNDATION
BUILDINGS
• IT IS KNOWN, A FOUNDATION IS THE SUPPORTING
a) UNDER MINOR BUT FREQUENT PART OF A STRUCTURE THAT TRANSMITS THE LOADS
FROM THE STRUCTURE TO THE FOUNDATION SOILS.
SHAKING, THE MAIN MEMBER OF THE
BUILDING THAT CARRIES VERTICAL AND • IT IS NECESSARY TO REDUCE THE CONNECTIONS OF
HORIZONTAL FORCES SHOULD NOT BE FOUNDATIONS WITH THE SOIL – THE SOURCE OF
DAMAGED; HOWEVER, BUILDING PARTS SEISMIC EFFECTS;
THAT DO NOT CARRY LOAD MAY SUSTAIN
REPAIRABLE DAMAGE. • SIDE FACES OF THE FOUNDATIONS IN CONTACT WITH
THE SOILS ACCUMULATE (CONTRIBUTE TO AN
INCREASE IN THE VALUE) HORIZONTAL SEISMIC
b) UNDER MODERATE BUT OCCASIONAL
EFFECTS ON THE FOUNDATION, LEADING TO ITS
SHAKING, THE MAIN MEMBERS MAY DISPLACEMENT. IN THIS CONNECTION, IT IS
SUSTAIN REPAIRABLE DAMAGE, WHILE ADVISABLE TO LEAVE AN AIR GAP TO REDUCE THESE
THE OTHER PARTS OF THE BUILDING MAY EFFECTS;
BE DAMAGED SUCH THAT THEY MAY EVEN
HAVE TO BE REPLACED AFTER THE • REDUCING FRICTION BETWEEN THE BASE OF THE
EARTHQUAKE. FOUNDATION AND THE SOIL REDUCES THE
TRANSMISSION OF HORIZONTAL SEISMIC EFFECTS
ON THE FOUNDATION AND EXCEEDING THE FRICTION
c) UNDER STRONG BUT RARE SHAKING, RESISTANCE CONTRIBUTES TO THE SLIPPAGE OF THE
THE MAIN MEMBERS MAY SUSTAIN SEISMIC WAVE UNDER THE FOUNDATION;
SEVERE (EVEN IRREPARABLE) DAMAGE,
BUT THE BUILDINGS SHOULD NOT • PROTECTION OF THE FOUNDATION BY A TRENCH IS
COLLAPSE. EFFECTIVE AND DEPENDS ON THE DEPTH, SIZE AND
LOCATION OF THE TRENCH CLOSER TO THE BUILDING,
2. REMEDIAL MEASURES FROM WAVELENGTH, AND TYPE OF FOUNDATION.
TO MINIMISE THE
LOSSES DUE TO • DUE TO SEISMIC LOADING, FOUNDATIONS CAN
EXPERIENCE A BEARING CAPACITY REDUCTION AND
EARTHQUAKES SETTLEMENT INCREASE.
a) BUILDING PLANNING
b) FOUNDATION • TWO SOURCES OF LOADING MUST BE TAKEN INTO
CONSIDERATION: INERTIAL LOADING CAUSED BY THE
c) PROVISION OF BAND LATERAL FORCES IMPOSED ON THE STRUCTURE, AND
d) ARCHES AND DOMES KINEMATIC LOADING CAUSED BY THE GROUND
e) STAIRCASES MOVEMENTS DEVELOPED DURING THE EARTHQUAKE
 CONSTRUCTION DETAIL: SOIL STABILISATION
• LOOSE FINE SAND, SOFT SILT, BLACK COTTON SOIL AND EXPENSIVE CLAYS SHOULD BE AVOIDED
FOR A FOUNDATION. IF UNAVOIDABLE, THE BUILDING SHALL REST EITHER ON A RIGID RAFT
FOUNDATION.
• THE FOLLOWING MEASURES ARE TAKEN TO IMPROVE THE SOIL FOR LIGHT CONSTRUCTION –
SAND PILLING AND SOIL STABILISATION.

• SOIL STABILISATION IS DONE IN THE FOLLOWING MANNER:

Vibrocompaction Dynamic Compaction
• EXCAVATION AND REPLACEMENT TECHNIQUE: THIS TECHNIQUE INVOLVES THE
EXCAVATION OF POTENTIALLY LIQUEFIABLE SOILS. THIS SOIL MAY THEN BE RECOMPACTED
AS AN ENGINEERED FILL TO A HIGHER DENSITY SO THAT THE SOIL WILL HAVE LESS
POTENTIAL TO LIQUEFY. EXCAVATION AND REPLACEMENT MAY BE A COST-EFFECTIVE
SOLUTION FOR SUFFICIENTLY SHALLOW DEPOSITS.

• DENSIFICATION TECHNIQUES: DENSIFICATION CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED USING A VARIETY

OF TECHNIQUES THAT ARE AIMED AT INCREASING THE DENSITY OF SOIL, THEREBY
RESULTING IN IMPROVED STIFFNESS, STRENGTH, AND LIQUEFACTION RESISTANCE. SOME
Blast Densification Compact Grouting
OF THE PROCESSES INCLUDE VIBROCOMPACTION, DYNAMIC COMPACTION, BLAST
DENSIFICATION AND COMPACTION GROUTING.

• REINFORCEMENT TECHNIQUES: IN SOME CASES, IT IS POSSIBLE TO IMPROVE THE

STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS OF AN EXISTING SOIL DEPOSIT BY INSTALLING DISCRETE
INCLUSIONS THAT REINFORCE THE SOIL. THESE INCLUSIONS MAY CONSIST OF
STRUCTURAL MATERIALS, SUCH AS STEEL, CONCRETE, OR TIMBER, AND GEOMATERIALS
SUCH AS DENSIFIED GRAVEL. VIBRO STONE COLUMNS AND COMPACTION PILES ARE
Vibro stone Permeation Jet grouting
GENERALLY USED AS REINFORCEMENT TO IMPROVE SOILS PRONE TO LIQUEFACTION. columns grouting

• GROUTING AND MIXING TECHNIQUE: GROUTING AND MIXING TECHNIQUES IMPROVE

THE SHEAR RESISTANCE OF THE SOILS BY INJECTION OF PARTICULATE MATTER, RESINS, OR
CHEMICALS INTO THE VOIDS. COMMON APPLICATIONS ARE PERMEATION GROUTING, JET
GROUTING AND DEEP SOIL MIXING.

Deep Soil Mixing Drainage of Soil

Construction Detail: RETAINING WALLS
WALL TYPE INVERT LEVEL SERVICIBILITY LIMIT STAE ULTIMATE LIMIT STAE

Wall movement should not be so excessive as to cause a

1 No requirement collapse of the building. (e.g.: 150 mm for regular timber
framed construction)
Wall movement should not be so excessive as to cause loss of
2-3 No significant movement structural integrity or prevent means of safe egress (e.g.: 50
mm for regular timber framed construction)
Wall movement should not be so excessive as to cause loss of
2-3 No significant movement structural integrity or prevent means of safe egress (e.g.: 100
mm for regular timber framed construction)

Wall movement should not be so excessive as to cause loss of

2-3
Minor movement (< 25 mm) structural integrity or prevent means of safe egress (e.g. less
than 100 mm for normal timber framed construction)

There should be a low risk of collapse of the wall. Wall

Minimal visual impairment (<
 2-3 deformations should not impede egress from the building.
H/50) 
(e.g. less than 100 mm from vertical for typical cases) 

There should be a low risk of the collapse of the wall. Wall

deformations should not be so excessive as to damage
1-3 No requirement 
services or prevent use of the driveway (e.g. less than 150 mm
from vertical for typical cases)

1 No requirement  There should be low risk of collapse of the wall 

CONSTRUCTION DETAIL: PLINTH
THE PLINTH LEVEL CAN BE UNDERSTOOD AS THE LEVEL THAT LIES BETWEEN THE NATURAL
GROUND LEVEL AND THE FINISHED FLOOR LEVEL OF THE BUILDING. THE PLINTH HEIGHT Plinth beams increase the shear force
REFERS TO THE HEIGHT OF THE PLINTH LEVEL FROM THE NATURAL GROUND LEVEL. MOSTLY, demand in ground-storey columns.
THE PLINTH HEIGHT OF 300MM TO 450MM IS ADOPTED FROM THE NATURAL GROUND LEVEL. ON Building with plinth beams provided at
THE OTHER HAND, A MINIMUM PLINTH HEIGHT OF 150MM IS ADOPTED FROM THE ROAD LEVEL. 1.5m from the base shows higher shear
SUCH PLINTH HEIGHT IS PROVIDED TO PREVENT THE INGRESS OF MOISTURE AND DAMPNESS force demand. Base shear decreases
INTO THE SUPERSTRUCTURE. with a decrease in the distance between
the base and the plinth beam.
THE MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE PLINTH LEVEL CAN BE LISTED AS FOLLOWS: Building with a plinth beam at 1.5m
A. IT PROTECTS THE STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AS WELL AS THE BUILDING AS A WHOLE FROM THE height shows better results than other
SEEPAGE OF MOISTURE. buildings. As the distance between the
B. IT ACTS AS A MEDIUM TO TRANSFER THE LOAD COMING FROM THE SUPERSTRUCTURE TO THE column base and the plinth beam
FOUNDATION UNDERNEATH. decreases storey displacements
C. IT INCREASES THE AESTHETIC APPEARANCE OF THE BUILDING. increase.
D. IT ALSO SERVES AS A RETAINING WALL AND RETAINS BACKFILL SOIL.
E. IT REDUCES THE RISK OF DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT OF THE FOUNDATION.
 CONSTRUCTION DETAIL: FLOORING WALLS OPENINGS:
VERTICAL REINFORCEMENTS IN WALLS: OPENINGS WITHIN THE WALLS DESTABILIZE THE WALL SYSTEM. IN
AN EARTHQUAKE, DIAGONAL CRACKS OFTEN OCCUR, STARTING AT
• EVEN IF HORIZONTAL BANDS ARE PROVIDED, MASONRY
BUILDINGS ARE WEAKENED BY THE OPENINGS IN THE THE WINDOW EDGES.
WALLS. 1. WALL WITH A LOT OF WINDOWS AND DOORS NEAR EACH
• DURING EARTHQUAKE SHAKING, THE MASONRY WALLS
GET GROUPED INTO 3 SUB-UNITS, NAMELY OTHER COLLAPSED EARLY.
1. SPANDREL MASONRY, 2. WINDOWS SHOULD BE KEPT AT THE SAME LEVEL.
2. WALL PIER MASONRY AND
3. SILL MASONRY. 3. THE OVERALL WIDTH OF ALL OPENINGS IN THE WALL MUST
• WHEN THE GROUND SHAKES, THE INERTIA FORCE CAUSES NOT GO BEYOND THE ONE-THIRD LENGTH OF THE WALL.
THE SMALL-SIZED MASONRY WALL PIERS TO DISCONNECT
FROM THE MASONRY ABOVE AND BELOW. 4. DOORS MUST NOT BE POSITIONED AT THE END OF THE WALL.
• THESE MASONRY SUB-UNITS ROCK BACK AND FORTH, THEY SHOULD BE PROVIDED AT A DISTANCE OF AT LEAST 400
DEVELOPING CONTACT ONLY T OPPOSITE DIAGONALS. THE
ROCKING OF A MASONRY PIER CAN CRUSH THE MASONRY TO 500 MM FROM THE CROSS WALL.
IN THE CORNER. 5. CLEAR WIDTH IN BETWEEN TWO OPENINGS MUST NOT BE LESS
• ROCKING IS POSSIBLE WHEN MASONRY PIERS ARE
SLENDER, AND WHEN THE WEIGHT OF THE STRUCTURE THAN 600 MM.
ABOVE IS SMALL. 6. DOORS MUST BE OPENED TOWARDS THE OUTSIDE. OPPOSITE
• OTHERWISE THE PIERS ARE MORE LIKELY TO DEVELOP
DIAGONAL (X-TYPE) SHEAR CRACKING. THIS IS THE MOST THE ENTRANCE DOOR, THERE SHOULD BE A LARGE WINDOW OR
COMMON TYPE OF FAILURE IN MASONRY BUILDINGS. ANOTHER DOOR, WHICH ACTS AS AN EMERGENCY EXIT.
• DURING STRONG EARTHQUAKE SHAKING, THE BUILDING
MAY SLIDE JUST UNDER THE ROOF, BELOW THE LINTEL 7. IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT THE PART BELOW THE WINDOW BE
BAND OR AT THE SILL LEVEL. BUILT AS A LIGHT FLEXIBLE STRUCTURE, FOR INSTANCE FROM

• EMBEDDING VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT BARS IN THE WOODEN PANELS OR WATTLE AND DAUB.
EDGES OF THE WALL PIERS AND ANCHORING THEM IN
THE FOUNDATION AT THE BOTTOM AND IN THE ROOF
BAND AT THE TOP FORCES THE SLENDER MASONRY
PIERS TO UNDERGO BENDING INSTEAD OF ROCKING.

• FURTHER, THE VERTICAL BARS ALSO HELP PROTECT THE

WALL FROM SLIDING AS WELL AS FROM COLLAPSING IN
THE WEAK DIRECTION.
CONSTRUCTION DETAIL: ROOFS, TERRACES AND PARAPETS
ROOFS: PARAPET:
• THE ROOF SHOULD BE BUILT AS LIGHT AS POSSIBLE. • MASONRY PARAPET WALLS CAN COLLAPSE QUICKLY, SO IT IS BETTER TO BUILD
ROOFS WITH TILES OR STONE PLATES ARE NOT PARAPETS WITH BRICKS UP TO 300 MM FOLLOWED BY IRON RAILINGS.
RECOMMENDED, AS THEY ARE HEAVY AND IN CASE OF AN
EARTHQUAKE THE TILES OR PLATES MIGHT FALL INTO THE • FOR MAKING R.C. BANDS, THE MINIMUM THICKNESS SHOULD BE 75 MM, AND A
HOUSE. MINIMUM OF TWO BARS OF 8 MM DIAMETER SHOULD BE PROVIDED. THEY NEED TO
• FOR EARTHQUAKE -0 RESISTANT HOUSES, A PYRAMIDAL BE CONNECTED WITH STEEL STIRRUPS OF 6 MM DIAMETER AT 150 MM SPACING.
ROOF WITH 4 INCLINED PLANES, WHICH REST ON A VERTICAL AND DIAGONAL BANDS MIGHT BE PROVIDED IF THE WALL SIZE IS BIG.
HORIZONTAL RING BEAM IS THE BEST SOLUTION.
• IN SLOPING ROOFING SYSTEMS WITH LONGER SPANS
HIGHER THAN 6 M, USE TRUSSES RATHER THAN RAFTERS.
• STRUCTURES WITH A FOUR-SIDED SLOPING ROOFING
SYSTEM ARE MORE POWERFUL THAN THOSE WITH A
TWO-SIDED SLOPING SYSTEM, CONSIDERING THAT GABLE
WALLS COLLAPSE EARLY.

TERRACES AND CHAJJAS:

• LIMIT CHAJJAS OR TERRACE PROJECTIONS TO 0.9 - 1 M. FOR BIGGER PROJECTIONS,
ALWAYS USE COLUMNS AND BEAMS FOR THEIR SUPPORT IN EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT
BUILDINGS.
• ORNAMENTATION INVOLVING LARGE CORNICES, VERTICAL OR HORIZONTAL
CANTILEVER PROJECTIONS, FACIA STONES AND THE LIKE ARE DANGEROUS AND
UNDESIRABLE FROM A SEISMIC VIEWPOINT.
• WHERE ORNAMENTATION IS INSISTED UPON, IT MUST BE REINFORCED WITH STEEL,
WHICH SHOULD BE PROPERLY EMBEDDED OR TIED INTO THE MAIN STRUCTURE OF
THE BUILDING.
CONSTRUCTION DETAIL: STAIRCASES
• THE STAIRCASES IN THE STRUCTURE MAY BE BUILT-IN STAIRCASE:
VULNERABLE IF NOT DETAILED PROPERLY. WHEN
ATTACHED RIGIDLY TO THE FLOORS, THE FLIGHTS OF • WHEN STAIRS ARE BUILT MONOLITHICALLY WITH FLOORS THEY CAN
THE STAIRCASE ACT LIKE BRACES AND CAUSE DAMAGE. BE PROTECTED AGAINST DAMAGE BY PROVIDING RIGID WALLS AT
• THERE ARE 3 TYPES OF STAIRCASE CONSTRUCTION: THEIR STAIR OPENING. AN ARRANGEMENT IN WHICH THE STAIRCASE
• SEPARATED STAIRCASE IS ENCLOSED BY TWO WALLS.
• BUILT–IN STAIRCASE
• STAIRCASE WITH SLIDING JOINT.
SEPARATED STAIRCASE:

• ONE END OF THE STAIRCASE RESTS ON A WALL AND

THE OTHER END IS CARRIED BY COLUMNS AND
BEAMS WHICH HAVE NO CONNECTION WITH THE
FLOORS.

• THE SUPPORTING MEMBERS, COLUMNS, OR WALLS

ARE ISOLATED FROM THE SURROUNDING FLOORS
BY MEANS OF SEPARATION OR CRUMBLE SECTIONS.
A TYPICAL EXAMPLE IS SHOWN IN THE FIGURE.

STAIRCASE WITH SLIDING JOINTS:

• IN CASE IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO PROVIDE RIGID WALLS AROUND

STAIR OPENINGS FOR BUILT-IN STAIRCASES OR TO CONSTRUCT
SEPARATED STAIRCASES, THE STAIRCASE SHOULD HAVE SLIDING
JOINTS SO THAT THEY WILL NOT ACT AS DIAGONAL BRACING.
 WHAT ARE SEISMOLOGICAL
SEISMOGRAPH:
5. SEISMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. INSTRUMENTS?
SEISMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS •A SEISMOGRAPH IS AN INSTRUMENT USED TO DETECT AND
ARE INSTRUMENTS USED TO RECORD THE RECORD EARTHQUAKES. GENERALLY, IT CONSISTS OF A
MOTION OF THE GROUND DURING AN MASS ATTACHED TO A FIXED BASE.
EARTHQUAKE. •DURING AN EARTHQUAKE, THE BASE MOVES AND THE MASS
THEY ARE INSTALLED IN THE GROUND DOES NOT. THE MOTION OF THE BASE WITH RESPECT TO
THROUGHOUT THE WORLD AND OPERATED AS THE MASS IS COMMONLY TRANSFORMED INTO AN
PART OF A SEISMOGRAPHIC NETWORK. ELECTRICAL VOLTAGE.
THE EARLIEST "SEISMOSCOPE" WAS INVENTED BY •THE ELECTRICAL VOLTAGE IS RECORDED ON PAPER,
THE CHINESE PHILOSOPHER CHANG HENG IN MAGNETIC TAPE, OR ANOTHER RECORDING MEDIUM.
A.D. 132. •THIS RECORD IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE MOTION OF THE
SEISMOMETER MASS RELATIVE TO THE EARTH, BUT IT CAN
WHO IS A SEISMOLOGIST?
BE MATHEMATICALLY CONVERTED TO A RECORD OF THE
SEISMOLOGISTS STUDY EARTHQUAKES BY ABSOLUTE MOTION OF THE GROUND.
LOOKING AT THE DAMAGE THAT WAS CAUSED •SEISMOGRAPH GENERALLY REFERS TO THE SEISMOMETER
AND BY USING SEISMOMETERS. AND ITS RECORDING DEVICE AS A SINGLE UNIT.
A SEISMOMETER IS AN INSTRUMENT THAT
RECORDS THE SHAKING OF THE EARTH'S
SURFACE CAUSED BY SEISMIC WAVES. THE TERM
SEISMOGRAPH USUALLY REFERS TO THE SEISMOMETER:
COMBINED SEISMOMETER AND RECORDING
•A SEISMOMETER IS AN INSTRUMENT THAT
DEVICE.
RESPONDS TO GROUND NOISES AND SHAKING
SUCH AS CAUSED BY EARTHQUAKES, VOLCANIC
ERUPTIONS, AND EXPLOSIONS.
•THEY ARE USUALLY COMBINED WITH A TIMING
DEVICE AND A RECORDING DEVICE TO FORM A
SEISMOGRAPH. THE OUTPUT OF SUCH A DEVICE
SEISMOGRAPH FORMERLY RECORDED ON PAPER OR FILM, NOW
RECORDED AND PROCESSED DIGITALLY IS A
SEISMOGRAM. SUCH DATA IS USED TO LOCATE
AND CHARACTERIZE EARTHQUAKES, AND TO
STUDY THE EARTH'S INTERNAL STRUCTURE.

CHARLES F. RICHTER
5. SEISMOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.

TELE-SEISMOMETER
•TELE-SEISMOMETERS THE MODERN STRONG MOTION SEISMOMETER FIBER OPTIC CABLE SEISMOMETER
BROADBAND SEISMOGRAPH CAN RECORD A •A NEW TECHNIQUE FOR DETECTING EARTHQUAKES HAS
VERY BROAD RANGE OF FREQUENCIES. IT ANOTHER TYPE OF SEISMOMETER IS A BEEN FOUND, USING FIBER OPTIC CABLES.
CONSISTS OF A SMALL "PROOF MASS", DIGITAL STRONG-MOTION SEISMOMETER, •IN 2016 A TEAM OF METEOROLOGISTS RUNNING
CONFINED BY ELECTRICAL FORCES, DRIVEN OR ACCELEROGRAPH. FREQUENCY METROLOGY EXPERIMENTS IN ENGLAND
BY SOPHISTICATED ELECTRONICS. AS THE THE DATA FROM SUCH AN INSTRUMENT IS OBSERVED NOISE WITH A WAVE-FORM RESEMBLING THE
EARTH MOVES, THE ELECTRONICS ATTEMPT ESSENTIAL TO UNDERSTAND HOW AN SEISMIC WAVES GENERATED BY EARTHQUAKES.
TO HOLD THE MASS STEADY THROUGH A EARTHQUAKE AFFECTS MANMADE •THIS WAS FOUND TO MATCH SEISMOLOGICAL
FEEDBACK CIRCUIT. THE AMOUNT OF FORCE STRUCTURES, THROUGH EARTHQUAKE OBSERVATIONS OF AN MW 6.0 EARTHQUAKE IN ITALY,
NECESSARY TO ACHIEVE THIS IS THEN ENGINEERING. ~1400 KM AWAY.
RECORDED. THE RECORDINGS OF SUCH INSTRUMENTS •FURTHER EXPERIMENTS IN ENGLAND, ITALY, AND WITH A
ARE CRUCIAL FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF SUBMARINE FIBER OPTIC CABLE TO MALTA DETECTED
SEISMIC HAZARD, THROUGH ENGINEERING ADDITIONAL EARTHQUAKES, INCLUDING ONE 4,100 KM
SEISMOLOGY. AWAY, AND AN ML3.4 EARTHQUAKE 89 KM AWAY FROM THE
CABLE.

TELE-SEISMOMETER READING
 WHY DO CRACKS OCCUR ON WALLS? TYPES OF WALL CRACKS DAMAGES CAUSED BY WALL CRACKS:
1. CONTRACTION AND EXPANSION: THE WALL CRACKS CAUSED BY FOUNDATION 1. A WALL CRACK(S) THAT SPANS BOTH THE
6. REPORT ON WALL CRACKS: MATERIALS (PAINT, PLASTER) THAT MAKE
UP YOUR WALL CONTRACT AND EXPAND
MOVEMENT CAN APPEAR ON BOTH INTERIOR
AND EXTERIOR WALLS. THE TYPES OF WALL
WALL AND THE CEILING OR FLOOR. FOR
EXAMPLE, A WALL CRACK THAT GOES ACROSS
BECAUSE OF FLUCTUATIONS IN HUMIDITY CRACKS INCLUDE: THE CEILING AND THEN DOWN THE WALL.
LEVELS AND TEMPERATURE CHANGES. THIS ● VERTICAL WALL CRACKS THIS IS A SURE SIGN OF SERIOUS
IS USUALLY A PROBLEM IF THE WALL IS ● HORIZONTAL WALL CRACKS STRUCTURAL DAMAGE.
WITHIN A ROOM THAT IS PERIODICALLY ● STAIR STEP CRACKS IN BRICK 2. ANY HORIZONTAL WALL CRACK THAT RUNS
AIR-CONDITIONED OR IT FACES THE ● BOWED WALL WITH CRACKS THE LENGTH OF A WALL. IF THE WALL IS ALSO
AFTERNOON SUN QUITE A BIT. THE ● CRACKS IN STUCCO BASEMENT WALL BOWED, IT’S EVEN MORE SERIOUS.
MOVEMENT OF CONTRACTION AND CRACKS 3. STAIR STEP CRACKS IN MASONRY. THESE
EXPANSION CAN CAUSE HAIRLINE CRACKS ● A CRACK CAUSED BY A WALL THAT’S CRACKS MIGHT BE ON THE INTERIOR OR
TO APPEAR. SEPARATING FROM THE CEILING OR EXTERIOR WALLS OF THE HOUSE.
2. LOW QUALITY PAINT: INFERIOR QUALITY FLOOR! 4. MOLDINGS ARE CRACKED OR OUT OF PLACE.
PAINT RESULTS IN POOR PAINT ADHESION THIS HAPPENS BECAUSE WALL AND THE
ON YOUR WALL, WHICH LEADS TO CRACKS CEILING AND FLOOR AREN’T MOVING IN
OVER TIME. IN ADDITION, USING SYNC. IF THERE’S A WALL CRACK THAT RUNS
DIFFERENT PAINTS FOR EACH PAINT COAT FROM THE CORNER OF EITHER A DOOR OR A
CAN ALSO CAUSE CRACKS ON THE WALL. WINDOW UP TOWARD THE CEILING.
THERE’S NO WAY AROUND IT, KEEPING OUR SOMETIMES, ONE MIGHT GET HAIRLINE
PAINT CONSISTENT AND USE A CRACKS IN THIS AREA THAT USUALLY AREN’T
HIGH-QUALITY PRODUCT. ANYTHING TO WORRY ABOUT.
3. IMPATIENCE DURING PLASTERWORK: 5. HOWEVER, LARGER CRACKS IN THESE AREAS
SOMETIMES, PATIENCE IS THE BEST WAY TO STAIR STEP CRACKS IN BRICK ARE AN INDICATION OF STRUCTURAL
GO. NOT LETTING CEMENT PLASTER VERTICAL WALL CRACKS
DAMAGE. YOU HAVE A WALL CRACK CAUSED
COMPLETELY DRY BEFORE APPLYING PAINT BY A GAP BETWEEN EITHER THE WALL AND
IS ACTUALLY QUITE A COMMON FACTOR THE CEILING, OR THE WALL AND THE FLOOR.
ATTRIBUTED TO CRACKS. THIS IS CAUSED BY SIGNIFICANT
4. POOR PAINT JOB: MISTAKES LIKE MOVEMENT IN THE FOUNDATION
MISSING OUT LAYERS, OR NOT LETTING
PREVIOUS LAYERS COMPLETELY DRY CAN
HAMPER YOUR OVERALL EFFORTS.

BOWED WALL WITH

CRACKS
HORIZONTAL WALL CRACKS
 PICTURES OF FIRST FLOOR, GCAP AZARA.
6. REPORT ON WALL CRACKS:
 PICTURES OF FIRST FLOOR, GCAP AZARA.
6. REPORT ON WALL CRACKS:
THANKYOU.