CO Capture in The Cement Industry: Technical Study Report Number: 2008/3 Date: July 2008

CO2 CAPTURE IN
THE CEMENT
INDUSTRY
Technical Study
Report Number: 2008/3
Date: July 2008
This document has been prepared for the Executive Committee of the IEA GHG Programme.
It is not a publication of the Operating Agent, International Energy Agency or its Secretariat.
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demonstration. The IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme is
one of these Implementing Agreements.
DISCLAIMER
This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the

IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme. The views and opinions
of the authors expressed herein do not necessarily reflect those of
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International Energy Agency, the organisations listed below, nor
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COPYRIGHT
Copyright © IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme 2008.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND CITATIONS
This report describes research sponsored by the IEA Greenhouse

Gas R&D Programme. This report was prepared by:
Mott MacDonald Ltd

Victory House
Trafalgar Place
Brighton
BN1 4FY
UK
The principal researchers were:
• Duncan Barker
• Daniel Holmes
• James Hunt
• Philip Napier-Moore
• Simon Turner
• Michael Clark (Whitehopleman)
The assistance of David Pocklington, Richard Leese and Stefania

Rosso of the British Cement Association and Jim Rushworth of
Lafarge UK in the planning and execution of the study is
gratefully acknowledged.
To ensure the quality and technical integrity of the research

undertaken by the IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEA
GHG) each study is managed by an appointed IEA GHG
manager. The report is also reviewed by independent technical
experts before its release.
The IEA GHG manager for this report: John Davison
The expert reviewers for this report:
• Rodney Allam, UK
• Adisorn Aroonwilas, University of Regina, Canada
• Dolf Gielen, IEA, France
• Volker Hoenig, VDZ, Germany
• Jim Rushworth, Lafarge, UK
• Aleksander Samarin, University of Technology, Sydney,
Australia
• Dietmar Shulz, Polysius, Germany
• Amornvadee Veawab, University of Regina, Canada
• Dennis van Puyvelde, CO2CRC, Australia
The report should be cited in literature as follows:
IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEA GHG), “CO2

Capture in the Cement Industry”, 2008/3, July 2008.
Further information or copies of the report can be obtained by

contacting the IEA GHG Programme at:
IEA Greenhouse R&D Programme, Orchard Business Centre,
Stoke Orchard, Cheltenham, Glos., GL52 7RZ, UK
Tel: +44 1242 680753 Fax: +44 1242 680758
E-mail: [email protected]
www.ieagreen.org.uk
IEA GHG OVERVIEW
Background
The cement industry is one of the world’s largest industrial sources of CO2 emissions, accounting for 1.8
Gt/y in 2005, i.e. more than 6% of global emissions from the use of fossil fuels. Over the years the
cement industry has substantially reduced emissions of CO2 per tonne of cement by improved energy
efficiency, replacing fossil fuels with wastes which can sometimes be regarded as ‘carbon neutral’ and by
increasing the use of additives in the cement product. The scope for further reductions by these means is
becoming limited but there is an increasing need to reduce CO2 emissions to avoid climate change. CO2
capture and storage (CCS) presents one of the few opportunities to make further major reductions in
emissions and the industry is currently considering the feasibility of applying this technique in order to
plan for the future. In many ways the cement industry represents a good opportunity for CCS, because
cement plants are relatively large point sources of CO2, the CO2 concentration in cement plant flue gas is
relatively high (about 25mol%, dry basis) and over 60% of total CO2 emissions from a modern cement
plant are from mineral decomposition and this CO2 cannot be avoided by use of alternative energy
sources.
IEA GHG has undertaken a study to assess the technologies that could be used to capture CO2 in cement
plants and their performances and costs. The study was undertaken for IEA GHG by Mott MacDonald.
The British Cement Association collaborated and helped to obtain input from the cement manufacture
and plant supply industries.
Study Description
Scope of the study
The scope of the study was to:
• Provide descriptions of cement plants and the global cement industry

• Review CO2 capture processes that would be suitable for cement plants
• Evaluate the performance and economics of cement plants with and without CO2 capture
• Discuss retrofitting CO2 capture and CO2 capture ready plants
• Identify information gaps and R&D needs
Study basis
The technical and economic assessments were based on a new cement plant in the UK producing 1
million tonnes/year of cement (910,000 t/y of clinker), using typical current technology: a dry feed plant
with 5 stages of pre-heating. A 3 million t/y plant in Asia using the same technology was assessed as a
sensitivity case.
The study was based on existing CO2 capture technologies, or technologies that could be developed for
use in cement plants in the near future with moderate risk. It should be recognised that further
development of technologies may significantly reduce the cost per tonne of CO2 and increase the fraction
of CO2 that can be captured.
The costs of cement production and CO2 capture were calculated assuming a 10% annual discount rate in
constant money values, a 25 year plant life, 90% load factor, a coal price of €2.51/GJ (LHV basis) and a
petroleum coke price of €2.34/GJ (3.76 and 3.51 US$/GJ respectively1). A full list of the economic
criteria used in the study is given in the main report.
1
Based on an exchange rate of 1.5 $/€
1
Results and Discussion
Cement production
Cement is composed of calcium silicates, calcium aluminates and calcium aluminoferrite. It is produced
from a mixture of raw materials, principally calcium carbonate. The raw materials are ground and
delivered to a kiln where they react at high temperature to form an intermediate ‘clinker’ which is ground
together with some gypsum to form cement, the finished product. The various clinker production
technologies are described in the main report. Historically clinker production has evolved from wet
processes in which raw materials are ground in water, through semi-wet and semi-dry processes to dry
processes, in which the raw materials are dried and ground before feeding to preheaters and a kiln. The
dry process required less energy than the wet process and thus is generally favoured where its application
is feasible. In industrialised countries rotary kilns, which can have capacities of 10,000t/d, are used.
Vertical shaft kilns are also used in plants of less than 300t/d, now mainly in India and China, but their
use is being phased out because they produce lower quality cement.
Global production of cement has grown steadily over many years, reaching about 2,500 million tonnes in
2006. The average growth rate was 5.5% per year during the period 1990 to 2006 and the average rate
accelerated to 8.7% per year since 2002. The main growth has been in Asia, and China in particular.
China now accounts for almost half of all global cement production.
CO2 capture technologies

The three main CO2 capture technologies are:
• Post combustion capture, in which CO2 is separated from flue gas.
• Pre-combustion capture, in which fuel is reacted with oxygen and steam to produce a
mixture of CO2 and H2, the CO2 is separated and the H2 is used as fuel.
• Oxy-combustion, in which fuel is burnt in oxygen instead of air, to produce a flue gas
consisting mainly of CO2.
Pre-combustion capture was not evaluated in detail in this study, mainly because it would only be able to
capture the fuel-derived CO2, not the larger quantity of CO2 from decomposition of carbonate minerals.
Post combustion capture

Post combustion capture is a downstream process which would not affect the core of the cement
production process. The main additions to the plant would be:
• A CO2 capture plant which includes a solvent scrubber and regenerator

• A compressor to increase the pressure of the CO2 product for transport by pipeline
• High efficiency FGD and De-NOx to satisfy the flue gas purity requirements of the CO2
capture process
• A plant to provide the steam required for regeneration of the CO2 capture solvent.
Cement plant flue gas has a relatively high CO2 concentration; typically about 25 mol% compared to
about 14% for a coal fired power plant. The post combustion solvent scrubbing processes that are being
developed for CO2 capture in coal fired power plants would in principle be suitable for use in cement
plants. This study is based on the use of monoethanolamine (MEA) solvent scrubbing, which is a
conservative choice. Alternative proprietary solvents with lower steam consumptions are being
developed and used, so the sensitivity of costs to a lower energy consumption solvent was assessed. Post-
combustion amine scrubbing is widely used in small plants producing up to 400t/d of CO2 for the food,
drinks and chemicals industries but scale up to around 3,000t/d would be needed for a 1 Mt/y cement
plant which included capture of the CO2 produced from an on-site steam generation plant.
Post combustion capture produces a high purity CO2 stream, typically 99.9% dry basis. In this study the
CO2 is compressed on-site to 11 MPa to enable it to be transported by pipeline to an underground storage
site. It was assumed that 85% of the CO2 would be captured, for consistency with IEA GHG’s other
2
studies but information obtained during IEA GHG’s study on post combustion capture at power plants
and other published work indicates that 95% capture should be feasible without significantly affecting
the cost per tonne of CO2 captured. The CO2 concentration in cement plant flue gas is higher than in
power plant flue gas, so similar or greater percentage CO2 capture is expected to be feasible.
A major issue for post combustion capture is the supply of low pressure steam for CO2 capture solvent
regeneration. In this study the steam is provided by a coal-fired combined heat and power (CHP) plant,
which includes high pressure steam generation and a back-pressure steam turbine. The electricity
produced by the CHP plant can satisfy all of the electricity demand of the cement and CO2 capture plants
and there is a small surplus which is exported. Coal was selected as the CHP plant fuel because most,
although not all, cement plants already use coal. The flue gases from the CHP and cement plants are
combined and fed to the CO2 capture plant.
Oxy-combustion
In an oxy-combustion plant fuel is combusted in oxygen, produced in a cryogenic air separation unit, and
some CO2-rich flue gas is recycled to control the flame temperature. The flue gas with a CO2
concentration of about 80 mol% (dry basis) is purified to 95% CO2 in a relatively simple cryogenic
separation unit during compression. Higher purities can be achieved if necessary by employing cryogenic
distillation.
Fuel is fed to two places in a modern cement plant: the precalciner, which helps to preheat the feedstock
and calcine the raw material, and the high temperature kiln where cement clinker is produced. Most of
the CO2 is normally released from the limestone raw material in the preheaters and precalciner. Four
oxy-combustion flow schemes were considered in the first phase of this study. The scheme that was
selected for more detailed study involves oxy-combustion of the precalciner but air combustion of the
kiln. This scheme minimises the possible impact of a high-CO2 atmosphere on the clinker production
processes which occur in the kiln and minimises the impact of air in-leakage, which is substantial in
some parts of a cement plant and which would have a large impact on the CO2 concentration and the
losses of CO2 during purification. Further R&D may show that cement kilns could be successfully
operated with a high CO2 atmosphere and in-leakage could be greatly reduced. If so, oxy-combustion of
the kiln as well as the precalciner could be feasible.
There is some experience of oxygen enrichment in cement plants to improve plant throughput but not for
CO2 abatement and not at high levels of enrichment. Oxy-combustion power generation pilot plants are
being built but oxy-combustion is at an earlier stage of development than post combustion capture.
Performance and costs of cement plants with CO2 capture

The estimated performances and costs of cement plants with and without CO2 capture are summarised in
Tables 1 and 2.
3
Table 1 Plant performance
Unit Base case Post Oxy-
(no capture) combustion combustion
capture
Fuel and power
Coal feed kt/y 63.3 291.6 72.1
Petroleum coke feed kt/y 32.9 32.9 27.1
Total fuel consumption (LHV basis) MW 96.8 304.0 97.8
Average power consumption MW 10.2 42.1 22.7
Average on-site power generation MW - 45.0 0.7
Average net power consumption MW 10.2 -2.9 22.0
CO2 emitted and captured
CO2 captured kt/y - 1067.7 465.0
CO2 emitted on-site kt/y 728.4 188.4 282.9
CO2 emissions avoided at the cement kt/y - 540.0 445.6
plant2 % - 74 61
CO2 associated with power import/export kt/y 42.0 -11.8 90.8
Overall net CO2 emissions kt/y 770.4 176.6 373.7
CO2 emissions avoided, including power kt/y - 593.8 396.8
import and export % - 77 52
Table 2 Costs
Unit Base case Post Oxy-
(no capture) combustion combustion
capture
Capital cost3 €M 263 558 327
Operating costs
Fuel €M/y 6.7 21.5 6.9
Power €M/y 4.0 -1.1 8.7
Other variable operating costs €M/y 6.1 10.6 6.4
Fixed operating costs €M/y 19.1 35.3 22.8
Capital charges €M/y 29.7 63.1 36.9
Total costs €M/y 65.6 129.4 81.6
Cement production cost €/t 65.6 129.4 81.6
CO2 abatement costs
Cost per tonne of cement product €/t - 63.8 16.0
Cost per tonne of CO2 captured €/t - 59.6 34.3
Cost per tonne of CO2 emissions avoided4 €/t - 107.4 40.2
2
The CO2 emissions avoided are the emissions of the base case plant without capture minus the emissions of the
plant with CO2 capture.
3
The capital costs include miscellaneous owners’ costs but exclude interest during construction, although this is
taken into account in the calculation of overall production costs.
4
The costs per tonne of CO2 emissions avoided take into account the emissions associated with imported and
exported power.
4
Post combustion capture
The CO2 emissions avoidance at the cement plant site is 74% but taking into account CO2 avoided
because of electricity exports the emissions avoidance increases to 77%. This could be increased to 93%
if the percentage capture was increased to 95%.
The cost of CO2 emissions avoidance is high at €107/t (US$161/t)1. The high concentration of CO2 in the
flue gas of a cement plant compared to that of a coal or gas fired power plant reduces the size of the
absorber tower and associated ducts, fans etc. However this is more than offset by lower economies of
scale, the need to include FGD, which is normally already included in most power plants without CO2
capture but not in most cement plants, and the relatively high costs of providing steam for solvent
regeneration from a modest-sized CHP plant.
Oxy-combustion
Oxy-combustion in just the pre-calciner avoids 61% of the CO2 produced at the cement plant. If required,
this could be increased to 66% relatively easily by re-capturing the CO2 which is emitted in a vent stream
from CO2 purification, using membranes or a small scrubber. Oxy-combustion involves a significant
increase in the on-site power consumption, mainly for oxygen production and CO2 compression and
purification. Taking into account CO2 emitted during generation of this power, the overall reduction in
CO2 emissions is 52%. If the imported power was generated in power plants with low CO2 emissions,
such as plants with CCS, the overall avoidance of CO2 emissions would be close to the on-site emissions
avoidance. Oxy-combustion of the kiln as well as the pre-calciner, combined with processing of the vent
stream, could increase the on-site CO2 avoidance to close to 100% but this would involve greater
technical uncertainties, as described earlier.
The cost of CO2 emissions avoidance is €40/t (US$60/t)1, substantially lower than the cost of post
combustion capture. Oxy-combustion is particularly suitable for cement plants because oxygen only
needs to be provided for the CO2 that originates from fuel combustion. No oxygen needs to be provided
for the CO2 from mineral decomposition, which accounts for about two thirds of the on-site emissions of
CO2 from a modern cement plant.
Comparison with CO2 capture in power generation

The costs of CO2 capture in cement plants need to be viewed in the context of the costs of CO2 abatement
in other energy sectors. IEA GHG published studies on post-combustion and oxy-combustion capture of
CO2 in power generation in 2004-20055. The costs of CO2 avoidance were €30/t CO2 for post combustion
capture and €37/t CO2 for oxy-combustion. The differences are within the limits of accuracy of the
assessments. These costs are within the range of costs quoted in the IPCC Special Report on CCS,
published in 20056, bearing in mind that the €/$ exchange rate was about 1:1 at the time when the source
data for the IPCC report were produced. Since then the costs of all types of power and process plants
have increased substantially due to higher raw materials prices, tight labour supply and market conditions
in the equipment supply industries. Fuel costs have also increased substantially and the value of the US$
has declined against the Euro. After adjusting for inflation7 the cost of post combustion capture in a coal
fired power plant is estimated by IEA GHG to be €39/t (US$58/t)1 of CO2 avoided, which is similar to
the cost of oxy-combustion at a European cement plant but less than the cost of post combustion capture.
Sensitivities
Sensitivities to technical and economic parameters are shown in Figures 1 and 2.
5
Improvement in power generation with post combustion capture of carbon dioxide, IEA GHG report PH4/33,
Nov. 2004. Oxy Combustion processes for CO2 capture from power plants, IEA GHG report 2005/9, July 2005
6
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage, 2005,
available at www.ipcc.ch
7
Capital costs of power plants in Euros are assumed to have increased by 25% between the beginning of 2004 and
the end of 2007 and the price of coal is assumed to be €2.51/GJ, in line with this study.
5
Figure 1 Post Combustion Capture Figure 2 O xy-Combustion Capture
Cost Se nsitivitie s Cost Se nsitivitie s
Base case Base case

Capital cost, -/+ 25% Capital cost, -/+ 25%
Operating cost, -/+25%
Operating cost, -/+25%
Fuel cost, -/+ 50%
Fuel cost, -/+ 50%
Power cost, +/-25%
Power cost, -/+25%
T otal op. cost, -/+25%
T otal op. cost, -/+25%
Plant life, 40 years
Plant life, 40 years
Discount rate, 8-12%
Discount rate, 8-12%
Power emissions factor
Co-location Power emissions factor
Alternative solvent Co-location
3Mt/y Asian plant 3Mt/y Asian plant
50 70 90 110 130 20 30 40 50
Cost of CO 2 avoidance , €/t Cost of CO 2 avoidance , €/t
Power emissions factor

The emissions associated with the power import/export affect the quantity of net CO2 emissions avoided.
For the base case it was assumed that the emissions were the average of electricity generated in the UK
(0.52 kg CO2/kWh). The sensitivity cases are based on emissions from a new coal fired power plant
without CO2 capture (0.745 kg CO2/kWh) and a coal fired plant with 85% CO2 capture (0.14 kg
CO2/kWh).
Alternative post combustion capture solvent

Some alternative proprietary amine solvents, for example MHI’s KS-1 solvent, have lower energy
consumptions than the MEA solvent used as the basis for this study. The sensitivity to a 25% reduction
in steam consumption is shown in Figure 1. Some developers are targeting even lower steam
consumptions. Post-combustion capture processes which are not based on amines, for example aqueous
ammonia scrubbing, also have the potential to significantly reduce the cost of capture in cement plants
but insufficient data are currently available from process developers to enable costs to be estimated.
Co-location with a power plant and use of low sulphur raw meal
Another way of reducing the net cost of steam for post-combustion capture would be to obtain it from an
adjacent power plant or another type of large industrial plant, thereby avoiding the need for an on-site
CHP plant and its associated FGD. If in addition a raw meal (i.e. raw material) with a low sulphur
content was used in the cement plant it may be possible to avoid the need for an FGD plant entirely. The
sulphur compounds in cement plant flue gas originate mainly from decomposition of minerals during
drying and preheating as most of the fuel-derived sulphur is retained in the cement product. A sensitivity
case involving supply of steam from an adjacent large power plant at a cost of €10/t (US$15/t)1 and use
of a low sulphur raw meal was assessed. The cost of CO2 avoidance is reduced by almost half to €55/t
(US$83/t)1.
Oxy-combustion cement plants could benefit from co-location with an oxy-combustion or IGCC power
plant, because there would be economies of scale in larger oxygen and CO2 compression and purification
plants. The reduction in the cost of CO2 avoidance is estimated to be approximately €6/t (US$9/t) at an
assumed oxygen cost of €30/t (US$45/t).
6
Co-location would also help to reduce the cost of transporting the CO2 to an underground store, because
pipelines have large economies of scale. The European cement plants in this study capture 0.5-1.1 Mt/y
of CO2 and the bigger Asian plants capture 1.4-3.3 Mt/y of CO2. For comparison a modern 1000 MWe
coal fired power plant operating at base load with 85% CO2 capture would capture about 6 Mt/y of CO2.
Large Asian plants

Substantially larger cement plants are being built and operated in some developing countries, particularly
in Asia. The cost of CO2 capture at a 3Mt/y cement plant in Asia was estimated to be significantly lower
because of economies of scale and the lower costs of plant construction and operation in developing
countries. The estimated cost of CO2 avoidance by oxy-combustion is €23/t (US$34/t)1 and the cost of
post combustion capture is €59/t (US$88/t)1.
Retrofit of CO2 capture

Retrofit of post combustion capture to a cement plant would be relatively straight forward, provided
sufficient space is available, as it would be a downstream addition to the plant. Oxy-combustion would
require most of the core units in the cement plant to be rebuilt, although some of the ancillary solids
handling equipment which accounts for a major proportion of the plant cost could be retained. Because
oxy-combustion is expected to have significantly lower costs of CO2 avoidance, it may be worthwhile
retrofitting oxy-combustion at the time of a major plant re-build but this was not assessed in this study.
Capture ready plants

A CO2 capture ready plant is a plant which can include CO2 capture when the necessary economic and
regulatory drivers are in place. Cement plants can be made capture ready by undertaking a design study
on capture retrofit, including sufficient space and access for the capture equipment and by identifying
reasonable routes to CO2 storage. Some additional investment could be made to make retrofit easier and
cheaper but such investment would need to take into account the effects of the time lag between
investment and financial return and the uncertainties regarding future developments in capture
technologies and whether or when capture would be retrofitted.
Expert Reviewers’ Comments

The draft study report was reviewed by various external experts, including representatives from a cement
manufacturer, a cement plant supplier, a cement industry research institute and experts on CO2 capture.
The report was generally well received by the reviewers and a substantial number of helpful comments
were received. IEA GHG is very grateful to those who contributed to the review. The issues raised by the
reviewers were discussed with the study contractor and representatives of the British Cement Association
and modifications were made to the report to address most of the reviewers’ comments.
Major Conclusions
The cement industry has made considerable strides in reducing CO2 emissions but to make further major
emission reductions CO2 capture is required. The addition of CO2 capture to new build cement plants to
significantly reduce CO2 emissions is technically feasible. Both post combustion and oxy-combustion
options can be considered although the oxy-combustion option is not technically mature enough for
deployment yet. Pre-combustion capture would be less suitable for cement plants because it would not
capture the CO2 from carbonate mineral decomposition, which account for about two thirds of the CO2
from a modern cement plant.
The estimated costs of post combustion capture at new build cements plants are €107/tonne of CO2
emissions avoided (US$161/t) for a 1 Mt/y European cement plant and €59/t (US$88/t) for a 3 Mt/y
Asian plant. Use of alternative solvents and integration with an adjacent power plant could more than
halve the costs. Oxy-combustion offers the lowest cost solution for CO2 capture at new-build cement
7
plants but further research and development is needed to address a number of technical issues to enable
this technique to be deployed. Costs are estimated to be €40/tonne (US$60/t) of CO2 avoided for a 1 Mt/y
European cement plant and €23/t (US$34/t) for a 3 Mt/y plant in Asia.
The cost of CO2 capture at a cement plant using oxy-combustion is expected to be similar to the cost of
capture at a typical coal-fired power plant. The quantity of oxygen required per tonne of CO2 captured is
about three times lower at a cement plant but the economies of scale are less favourable. The cost of post
combustion capture at a cement plant is expected to be substantially higher than at a power plant, mainly
because of lower economies of scale and the need to install FGD, DeNOx and a boiler to provide steam
for the regeneration of CO2 capture solvent.
Post combustion capture could be readily retrofitted to existing cement plants provided sufficient space is
available. Substantial rebuilding would be necessary to accommodate an oxy-combustion retrofit but this
may nevertheless be the least cost option.
Recommendations
The following studies by IEA GHG should be considered for CO2 capture at cement plants:
1 A study on assessing the capture readiness of cements plants.

2 An assessment of cement plants with novel post-combustion CO2 capture processes including
ammonia scrubbing should be undertaken when process performance and economic data become
available from licensors.
Practical R&D on oxy-combustion at cement plants is outside the scope of IEA GHG but members
should consider such work to address uncertainties identified in this study.
This study focussed on oxy-combustion in only the pre-calciner. Oxy-combustion for the whole plant
including the kiln involves more technical uncertainties but it could be pursued as a study in the future,
particularly if higher percentage capture of CO2 is required.
Further work should be undertaken to assess the benefits of integration between cement plants with CO2
capture and other large industrial plants, especially power plants. Potential barriers to co-location should
also be assessed. Some of this work could be included in the proposed study on capture readiness.
8
CO2 Capture in the Cement Industry Mott MacDonald
IEA GHG
International Energy Agency Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEA GHG)

The Orchard Business Centre
Stoke Orchard
Cheltenham
Gloucestershire, GL52 7RZ
UK
CO2 Capture in the

Cement Industry
Final Report
July 2008
Mott MacDonald
Victory House
Brighton
BN1 4FY
UK
Tel: 44 (0)1273 365000
Fax: 44 (0)1273 365100
234996/01/A - 07/07/08/
IEA GHG
CO2 Capture in the

Cement Industry
Final Report
July 2008
Issue and Revision Record

Rev Date Originators Checkers Approver Description
Duncan Barker
Duncan Barker Prem Mahi
Pete Lilley
Simon Turner
18 January Michael Clark
1 First Draft
2008 James Hunt
Philip
Daniel Holmes Napier-Moore
Michael Clark Nick Escott

15
2 February Simon Turner Duncan Barker Prem Mahi Second Draft
2008
23 May
3 Duncan Barker Simon Turner Prem Mahi Final
2008
04 July Philip
4 Duncan Barker Prem Mahi Updated Final
2008 Napier-Moore
This document has been prepared for the titled project or named part thereof and should not be relied upon or used for any
other project without an independent check being carried out as to its suitability and prior written authority of Mott
MacDonald being obtained. Mott MacDonald accepts no responsibility or liability for the consequence of this document
being used for a purpose other than the purposes for which it was commissioned. Any person using or relying on the
document for such other purpose agrees, and will by such use or reliance be taken to confirm his agreement to indemnify
Mott MacDonald for all loss or damage resulting therefrom. Mott MacDonald accepts no responsibility or liability for this
document to any party other than the person by whom it was commissioned.
To the extent that this report is based on information supplied by other parties, Mott MacDonald accepts no liability for any
loss or damage suffered by the client, whether contractual or tortious, stemming from any conclusions based on data
supplied by parties other than Mott MacDonald and used by Mott MacDonald in preparing this report.
234996/01/A - 07/07/08/
IEA GHG
List of Contents Page
Executive Summary S-1
Chapters and Appendices
1 Introduction 1-1
1.1 Background 1-1
1.2 Scope of Work 1-1
1.2.1 Cement Plant Descriptions 1-2
1.2.2 CO2 Capture Process Descriptions 1-2
1.2.3 Major Issues Affecting Application of CO2 Capture Processes in
Cement Plants 1-2
1.2.4 Detailed Assessment of Plant Cost and Performance 1-2
1.2.5 Suitability for Retrofit 1-2
1.2.6 Capture-ready Plants 1-2
1.2.7 Information Gaps and R&D needs 1-2
1.3 Approach 1-2
1.4 Structure of Report 1-3
2 Cement Plants 2-1

2.1 Introduction 2-1
2.2 The Global Cement Industry 2-1
2.2.1 Cement Nature and Properties 2-1
2.2.2 Production Trends 2-1
2.3 Global Variations in the Cement Industry 2-2
2.3.1 Introduction 2-2
2.3.2 The Cement Industry in Europe 2-3
2.3.3 The Cement Industry in the USA 2-3
2.3.4 The Cement Industry in Asia 2-4
2.4 Cement Plant Descriptions 2-6
2.4.1 Cement Manufacture Processes 2-6
2.4.2 Emissions Associated with Cement Manufacturing 2-17
2.4.3 Kiln Flue Gas Clean-up Methods 2-20
3 CO2 Capture Processes 3-1

3.2 Overview 3-1
3.3 CO2 Capture Processes Descriptions 3-2
3.3.1 Overview 3-2
3.3.2 Pre-combustion 3-3
3.3.3 Oxy-combustion 3-4
3.3.4 Post-combustion 3-6
3.4 Types of CO2 Capture Technology 3-6
3.4.1 Introduction 3-6
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IEA GHG
3.4.2 Leading CO2 Separation Technologies 3-7

3.4.3 Developing CO2 Separation and Capture Technologies 3-11
4 Evaluation of CO2 Capture at a New-Build Cement Plant 4-1

4.2 Design Basis 4-1
4.3 Assumptions 4-1
4.4 Evaluation of Post-Combustion CO2 Capture 4-3
4.4.1 Overview 4-3
4.4.2 Major Technical Issues 4-4
4.4.3 Configurations Considered 4-7
4.4.4 Chosen Configuration 4-11
4.4.5 Process Description 4-11
4.4.6 Plant Performance 4-24
4.4.7 Plant Layout 4-25
4.4.8 Operation Considerations 4-26
4.4.9 Emissions and Environmental Considerations 4-26
4.4.10 Design Risk Assessment 4-28
4.4.11 Possibilities for Alternative CO2 Absorption Technologies 4-30
4.5 Evaluation of Oxy-Combustion CO2 Capture 4-33
4.5.1 Overview 4-33
4.5.2 Major Technical Issues 4-33
4.5.3 Configurations Considered 4-36
4.5.4 Chosen Configuration 4-40
4.5.5 Process Description 4-40
4.5.6 Plant Performance 4-49
4.5.7 Plant Layout 4-50
4.5.8 Operation Considerations 4-51
4.5.9 Emissions and Environmental Considerations 4-52
4.5.10 Design Risk Assessment 4-55
5 Economic Analysis of CO2 Capture at a New-Build Cement Plant 5-1

5.2 Assumptions 5-1
5.3 Base Case: Cement Plant with no CO2 Capture 5-4
5.3.1 Base Case 5-4
5.3.2 Capital Costs 5-4
5.3.3 Operating Costs 5-6
5.4 Economic Analysis of Post-Combustion CO2 Capture 5-7
5.4.3 Cash Flow Calculations 5-12
5.4.4 Calculations of CO2 Cost 5-13
5.4.5 Sensitivities 5-14
5.5 Economic Analysis of Oxy-Combustion CO2 Capture 5-20
5.5.3 Cash Flow Calculations 5-24
5.5.4 Calculations of CO2 Cost 5-24
5.5.5 Sensitivities 5-25
ii
IEA GHG
5.6 Sensitivities of Costs to an Asian Developing Country Scenario 5-31
6 Retro-fitting Issues 6-1

6.2 Post-Combustion Capture 6-1
6.3 Oxy-Combustion Capture 6-2
7 Capture-Ready Cement Plants 7-1

8 Information Gaps and R&D Needs 8-1

9 Comparison between Post-Combustion and Oxy-Combustion for CO2 Capture at

Cement Plants 9-1
9.2 Summary 9-1
9.3 Comparison with Other Studies 9-2
9.4 Comparison between Cement Industry and Power Industry 9-4
10 Conclusions 10-1
10.1 Post-Combustion CO2 Capture 10-1
10.1.1 Technical Issues 10-1
10.1.2 Performance 10-1
10.1.3 Environmental 10-1
10.1.4 Economics 10-1
10.1.5 Retrofitting 10-2
10.1.6 Capture Ready 10-2
10.2 Oxy-Combustion CO2 Capture 10-2
10.2.1 Technical issues 10-2
10.2.2 Performance 10-3
10.2.3 Environmental 10-3
10.2.4 Economics 10-4
10.2.5 Retrofitting 10-4
10.2.6 Capture Ready 10-4
10.3 Overall 10-5
11 Acknowledgements 11-1
12 References 12-1
Appendix A Coal Specification A-1
Appendix B Petroleum Coke Specification B-1

iii
IEA GHG
Appendix C PFD and Stream Compositions for Base Case Option C-1
Appendix D PFD and Stream Compositions for Post-Combustion Option D-1
Appendix E PFD and Stream Compositions for Oxy-Combustion Option E-1
Appendix F Economic Analysis Spreadsheets F-1
Appendix G Note on Emission Factors G-1
List of Figures
Figure 2-1: World and Chinese Cement Consumption Trend 1990-2006 (Global Cement
Report, 2007) ................................................................................................................. 2-2
Figure 2-2: Simplified Cement Making Process Schematic ........................................................ 2-7
Figure 2-3: Magnification of a Clinker Nodule (Understanding Cement, 2007) ....................... 2-9
Figure 2-4: Production of Cement by the Wet Process (CEMBUREAU, 1999) ..................... 2-11
Figure 2-5: Production of Cement by the Semi-wet Process (CEMBUREAU, 1999) ........... 2-12
Figure 2-6: Production of Cement by the Dry Process (CEMBUREAU, 1999)...................... 2-13
Figure 2-7: Long Wet Rotary Kiln (Adapted from CEMBUREAU,1999).................................. 2-14
Figure 2-8: Shaft Kiln (VDI, 1984) ................................................................................................. 2-15
Figure 2-9: Grate Preheater (EC, 2001)....................................................................................... 2-16
Figure 2-10: Four Stage Suspension Preheater (EC, 2001)..................................................... 2-16
Figure 2-11: Five Stage Suspension Preheater with Precalciner (EC, 2001) ........................ 2-17
Figure 2-12: An Electrostatic Precipitator (EPA, 2007) ............................................................. 2-22
Figure 2-13: A Pulse Jet Fabric Filter (FLSmidth) ...................................................................... 2-23
Figure 3-1: CO2 Capture Processes (IPCC, 2005)....................................................................... 3-2
Figure 3-2: Pre-combustion CO2 Capture Process for Cement Manufacture (Adapted from
IPCC, 2005) ................................................................................................................... 3-3
Figure 3-3: Oxy-combustion CO2 Capture Process for Cement Manufacture (Adapted from
IPCC, 2005) ................................................................................................................... 3-4
Figure 3-4: Post-combustion CO2 Capture Process for Cement Manufacture (Adapted from
IPCC, 2005) ................................................................................................................... 3-6
Figure 3-5: Types of CO2 Capture Technology (Adapted from Gupta et al., 2003) ................ 3-7
Figure 3-6: CO2 Recovery from Flue Gas by Chemical Absorption (Wolf et al., 2006) .......... 3-7
Figure 4-1: Post-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 1 - Capture of all Flue Gases from
Cement Plant in Existing Orientation ......................................................................... 4-8
Figure 4-2: Post-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 2 - Diversion of Preheater Exit
Gases for Fuel Drying and Subsequent Capture ..................................................... 4-9
Figure 4-3: Post-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 3 - Diversion of Cooler Exhaust for
Fuel Drying with Capture of all other Flue Gases .................................................... 4-9
Figure 4-4: Post-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 4 - Dual Preheaters with Capture
of Gases only from the Precalciner .......................................................................... 4-10
Figure 4-5: MEA CO2 Capture System......................................................................................... 4-19
Figure 4-6: GateCycle Output for CHP Plant .............................................................................. 4-21
Figure 4-7: Chilled Ammonia Process Diagram.......................................................................... 4-30
Figure 4-8: Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 1 - Diversion of Preheater Exit
Gases for Fuel Drying and Subsequent Capture or Recycle ............................... 4-37
Figure 4-9: Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 2 - Capture and Recycle of all Flue
Gases from Cement Plant with Diversion of Cooler Exhaust for Fuel Drying.... 4-38
Figure 4-10: Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 3 - Capture and Recycle of all
Flue Gases from Cement Plant with Diversion of Cooler Exhaust for Fuel Drying
and a ‘Leak-free’ Raw Mill ......................................................................................... 4-38
Figure 4-11: Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 4 - Dual Preheaters with Oxy-
Combustion in the Precalciner only.......................................................................... 4-39
iv
IEA GHG
Figure 4-12: Typical Layout for 2 x 330 tpd ASUs (Air Liquide) ............................................... 4-51
List of Tables
Table S-1: Summary of Oxy-combustion and Post-combustion Cement Plants with CO2
Capture .............................................................................................................................. 3
Table S-2: Summary of Sensitivities Examined............................................................................... 4
Table 2-1: Main Cement Consumers in Europe in 2006 ............................................................. 2-3
Table 2-2: Independent Estimates of Projected Cement Capacity Expansions in India ........ 2-6
Table 2-3: Kiln Chemical Reactions (CEMBUREAU, 1999) ....................................................... 2-8
Table 2-4: Typical Composition of Cement Clinker (IEA GHG, 1999) ...................................... 2-8
Table 2-5: Dry and Wet-process CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuels (Hendriks et al., 1998) 2-19
Table 2-6: Emissions from European Cement Kilns (EC, 2001) .............................................. 2-20
Table 2-7: Common Flue Gas Clean-up Methods (Adapted from EC, 2001) ........................ 2-21
Table 2-8: UK1 Emission Limits for Dust for the Production of Cement .................................. 2-27
Table 2-9: UK1 Emission Limits for SO2 and NOx for the Production of Cement................... 2-28
Table 2-10: BAT Emission Levels (EC, 2001)............................................................................. 2-28
Table 3-1: Commercially Available CO2 Scrubbing Solvents (Gupta et al., 2003) ................ 3-10
Table 4-1: Comparison of Different Post-Combustion Configurations .................................... 4-11
Table 4-2: Electrical Demand of Post-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2 Capture ........... 4-22
Table 4-3: Performance of Cement Plant with Post-combustion CO2 capture ...................... 4-24
Table 4-4: Outputs from MEA Modelling with 95% Capture ..................................................... 4-25
Table 4-5: Estimated Footprint for CO2 Capture in a Cement Plant........................................ 4-25
Table 4-6: Preliminary Design Risk Assessment for Post-Combustion CO2 Capture Cement
Plant .............................................................................................................................. 4-28
Table 4-7: Comparison of Different Oxy-Combustion Configurations ..................................... 4-39
Table 4-8: Electrical Demand of Oxy-combustion Cement Plant with CO2 capture.............. 4-48
Table 4-9: Performance of Oxy-combustion Cement Plant with CO2 capture ....................... 4-50
Table 4-10: Preliminary Design Risk Assessment for Oxy-Combustion CO2 Capture Cement
Plant .............................................................................................................................. 4-56
Table 5-1: Capital Cost Allocation for Cement Plant with no CO2 Capture (Base Case)....... 5-5
Table 5-2: Capital Costs for Cement Plant with no CO2 Capture (Base Case) ....................... 5-6
Table 5-3: Variable Operating Costs for Cement Plant with no CO2 Capture (Base Case) .. 5-7
Table 5-4: Fixed Operating Costs for Cement Plant with no CO2 Capture (Base Case) ....... 5-7
Table 5-5: Capital Cost Allocation for Post-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2 Capture .... 5-9
Table 5-6: Capital Costs for Post-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2 Capture .................. 5-11
Table 5-7: Variable Operating Costs for Post-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2 Capture.. 5-
12
Table 5-8: Fixed Operating Costs for Post-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2 Capture .. 5-12
Table 5-9: Cost of Cement Manufacture...................................................................................... 5-13
Table 5-10: Cost of CO2 Avoidance.............................................................................................. 5-13
Table 5-11: Capital Cost Sensitivities........................................................................................... 5-14
Table 5-12: Operating Cost Sensitivities...................................................................................... 5-15
Table 5-13: Fuel Costs Sensitivity ................................................................................................ 5-15
Table 5-14: Power Costs Sensitivity ............................................................................................. 5-16
Table 5-15: Compound Operating Cost Sensitivities ................................................................. 5-16
Table 5-16: Plant Life Sensitivity................................................................................................... 5-17
Table 5-17: Discount Rate Sensitivities ....................................................................................... 5-17
Table 5-18: Emissions Factor Sensitivities.................................................................................. 5-18
Table 5-19: Sensitivities of Costs to a Low Sulphur Raw Meal and External Steam Supply
Scenario........................................................................................................................ 5-19
Table 5-20: Sensitivities of Costs to an Alternative Solvent for CO2 Absorption Scenario . 5-20
Table 5-21: Capital Cost Allocation for Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2 Capture. 5-21
Table 5-22: Capital Costs for Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2 Capture ................. 5-23
v
IEA GHG
Table 5-23: Variable Operating Costs for Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2 Capture 5-
23
Table 5-24: Fixed Operating Costs for Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2 Capture . 5-24
Table 5-25: Cost of Cement Manufacture.................................................................................... 5-24
Table 5-26: Cost of CO2 Avoidance.............................................................................................. 5-25
Table 5-27: Capital Cost Sensitivities........................................................................................... 5-26
Table 5-28: Operating Cost Sensitivities...................................................................................... 5-26
Table 5-29: Fuel Costs Sensitivity ................................................................................................ 5-27
Table 5-30: Power Costs Sensitivity ............................................................................................. 5-27
Table 5-31: Compound Operating Cost Sensitivities ................................................................. 5-28
Table 5-32: Plant Life Sensitivity................................................................................................... 5-28
Table 5-33: Discount Rate Sensitivities ....................................................................................... 5-29
Table 5-34: Emissions Factor Sensitivities.................................................................................. 5-29
Table 5-35: Sensitivities of Costs to Co-location with an Oxy-Combustion Power Plant ..... 5-30
Table 5-36: Sensitivities of Costs to an Asian Developing Country Scenario........................ 5-31
Table 9-1: Summary of Oxy-combustion and Post-combustion Cement Plants with CO2
Capture ........................................................................................................................... 9-2
Table 9-2: Conceptual Costs for Retrofitting Post-Combustion CO2 Capture Reported by
Hegerland et al. (2006)................................................................................................. 9-3
Table G-1: Derivation of Grid Emission Factor (2006 Base Data) ............................................ G-1
vi
IEA GHG
Glossary of Terms
ASU Air Separation Unit
BAT Best Available Techniques
BCA British Cement Association
BET Brunauer Emmett Teller
CAP Chilled Ammonia Process
CCS Carbon Capture and Storage
CHP Combined Heat and Power
CLC Chemical Looping Combustion
DCC Direct Contact Cooling
EC European Commission
EOR Enhanced Oil Recovery
ESA Electric Swing Adsorption
ESP Electrostatic Precipitator
ETS Emissions Trading Scheme
EU European Union
FGD Flue Gas Desulphurisation
HAZOP Hazard and Operability Study
HHV Higher Heating Value
IEA GHG International Energy Agency Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme
IGCC Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
ILC In Line Calciner
IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control
ITM Ion Transport Membrane
LHV Lower Heating Value
LP Low Pressure
MEA Monoethanolamine
NOx Oxides of Nitrogen
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
OPC Ordinary Portland Cement
ORC Organic Rankine Cycle
PCA Portland Cement Association
PCDD Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins
PCDF Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans
PGNAA Prompt Gamma Neutron Activation Analysis
PFD Process Flow Diagram
PSA Pressure Swing Adsorption
R&D Research and Development
RSP Reinforced Suspension Preheater
SCR Selective Catalytic Reduction
SLC Separate Line Calciner
SNCR Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction
SOx Oxides of sulphur
TOC Total Organic Carbon
TSA Temperature Swing Adsorption
UK United Kingdom
US Untied States
VOC Volatile Organic Compound
G-1
Job No. 234996 IEA GHG
Executive Summary
Background to Study
Cement production is an energy intensive production process, accounting for 2% of the global primary
energy consumption (Worrell et al., 2001) and between 6-7% of global industrial energy use (IEA,
2007). Its reliance on carbon intensive fuels such as coal and petroleum coke in clinker making is
responsible for substantial CO2 emissions coming directly from the combustion of fossil fuels. CO2 is
also emitted from the calcination process and from the consumption of electricity generated from fossil
fuels. Cement production accounted for 1.8 Gt/y of CO2 emissions worldwide in 2005 (IEA, 2007).
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) has been studied extensively for power plants by IEA GHG and
others and there are plans to build several commercial scale plants. However, few studies have been
undertaken on CCS in the cement industry. The IEA GHG commissioned Mott MacDonald to
undertake this study to assess the technologies that could be used for CO2 capture in cement plants,
their costs, environmental impacts and barriers to their use.
Scope of Study
The study covered both new-build cement plants with post-combustion CO2 capture and oxy-
combustion CO2 capture. The basis of the study was a 5-stage preheater with precalciner dry process
cement plant with an output of 1 Mt/y of cement located in NE Scotland, UK. Process Flow Diagrams
(PFDs) and heat and mass balance calculations for both options were developed. The plant costs and
performance were estimated and the suitability for retrofit and the option of capture-ready cement
plants was examined.
Post-Combustion CO2 Capture Cement Plant
The major technical issues identified for applying post-combustion capture at a cement plant were as
follows:
• concentration of sulphur dioxide (SOx) in flue gas
• concentration of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in flue gas
• concentration of dust in flue gas
• air in-leaks in the raw mill, preheater and kiln
• the additional power required for the compression of CO2
• the additional steam required for capture of CO2 with amine
• the flue gas cooling required for efficient capture of CO2 with amine.
All these issues can be addressed using existing technology. The main barrier to the application of
post-combustion CO2 capture at a cement plant is therefore the cost of deploying these technologies.
S-1
IEA GHG
Oxy-Combustion CO2 Capture Cement Plant
The major technical issues identified for applying oxy-combustion capture at a cement plant were as
follows:
• The elevated flame temperatures achieved by oxygen combustion which are adjusted by
recycle of the flue gas.
• The changing heat transfer characteristics in the combustion chamber due to the change of
atmosphere.
• The influence of changing the atmosphere on feed lifting in the preheater.
• The balance between achieving high temperatures for the cement process and having to
replace the kiln wall lining.
• The effect of changing the atmosphere on the thermodynamics, kinetics and equilibrium
chemistry of the clinker production process.
• Air in-leaks in the raw mill, preheater and kiln.
• The additional power required for the compression of CO2.
Many of these issues require fundamental research to prove the viability of oxy-combustion CO2
capture at a cement plant although none was identified as a “show-stopper” at the time of writing this
Report. However, at the present time, oxy-combustion capture is considered a higher technical risk
solution than post-combustion capture.
Performance and Costs
Due to the fact that the majority of CO2 emissions result within the precalciner, and due to significant
air in-leaks in other stages of the cement plant, the option of undertaking oxy-combustion in the
precalciner only was investigated in detail. In the case of post-combustion capture, CO2 capture from
all the flue gas was studied. This resulted in differing levels of CO2 capture between the two options
under consideration.
The results of the analysis are shown in Table S-1.
S-2
IEA GHG
Table S-1: Summary of Oxy-combustion and Post-combustion Cement Plants with CO2
Capture
Parameter Unit Base Case Post-Combustion Oxy-

Combustion
Inputs Coal t/y 63,317 291,633 72,061
Petroleum Coke t/y 32,876 32,876 27,091
Outputs Clinker produced t/y 910,000 910,000 910,000
Cement produced t/y 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000
CO2 captured t/y 0 1,067,734 465,014
CO2 emitted on-site t/y 728,422 188,424 282,853
Net Power Demand MWh/y 80,809 -22,734 174,562
Performance CO2 associated with t/y 42,021 -11,822 90,772
net power imports
Net quantity of CO2 t/y N/A 593,841 396,818
avoided (including net
power imports)
CO2 avoided, net of % - 77 52
power imports
Costs Total Investment Cost €M 263 558 327
Net Variable Operating €M/y 17 31 22
Costs
Fixed Operating Costs €M/y 19 35 23
Cost per tonne of CO2 €/t N/A 107.4 ii 40.2 iii
emissions avoided i
Costs per tonne of €/t 65.6 129.4 81.6
cement product (∆ = +63.7) (∆ = +16.0)
i
Cost per tonne of CO2 emissions avoided is calculated by first determining the difference between the CO2
emissions associated with the design under consideration and the base case. The additional costs incurred
(compared to the base case) to achieve this reduction are then evaluated and the result expressed as €/tCO2.
ii
Previous studies (IEA GHG, 2004) have calculated the cost of avoidance of CO2 emissions at a USCPF post-
combustion power plant using coal at 29.5 $/tCO2 (25 €/tCO2 at exchange rate of day). An updated estimate of
this cost based on 25% inflation of capital costs and capital-related operating costs is 39 €/tCO2 (Davison, 2008).
iii
Previous studies (IEA GHG, 2005) have calculated the cost of avoidance of CO2 emissions at an oxy-
combustion power plant using pulverised coal at 37 $/tCO2 (31 €/tCO2 at exchange rate of the day).
The economic impact of implementing CO2 capture can be summarised through the increase in cement
production cost, or equivalently the same impact is shown through the cost per unit of avoided CO2
emissions. The results show that the increase in the cost of producing cement is lower for the oxy-
combustion process. Correspondingly, the capture cost per tonne of CO2 emissions avoided for the
oxy-combustion plant is also considerably lower than for the post-combustion process. The main
reasons for this are the large capital costs required for the flue gas desulphurisation plant (FGD) and
the CHP plant (the chosen method of generating LP steam for the amine scrubber) required in the post-
combustion capture option. It should be noted that the costs associated with the FGD system would be
reduced if the raw material used in the cement process was low in sulphur and the fuel source used in
the CHP plant also contained low levels of sulphur.
S-3
IEA GHG
The cost of CO2 capture at cement plants is more expensive than recent reports for the power industry.
One of the principle reasons for this is the economies of scale provided at power plants but it should be
recognised that this study has adopted a conservative approach and that costs could be reduced with
more refined design strategies. Costs will also reduce as knowledge is gained from operation of
carbon capture systems at power plants. Co-location of the cement plant with a power plant offers
further scope for savings. The co-location of a post-combustion cement plant with a post-combustion
power plant would offer significant cost-saving opportunities as equipment (e.g. FGD, CO2 absorbers,
CO2 compressors) could be shared. The limit of reduction in the cost of CO2 avoidance at the cement
plant would be the cost of abatement at the power plant.
From an environmental emissions perspective it should be noted that an added advantage of applying
either post-combustion or oxy-combustion CO2 capture at cement plants is that the cement plant will
achieve emissions for dust, SOx, NOx and most other contaminants well below current cement plants.
Sensitivities
A number of sensitivities to the cases presented in Table S-1 were examined. This included an
examination of undertaking CO2 capture at a cement plant in an Asian developing country where
cement plants are generally larger and cheaper to construct. The results from this analysis are shown
in Table S-2.
Table S-2: Summary of Sensitivities Examined

Parameter Unit Asian Developing Country Scenario Low S Raw Alternative Co-location
Meal and Solvent for with Oxy-
External CO2 Combustion
Steam Absorption Power
Supply Plant
No CO2 Post- Oxy- Post- Post- Oxy-
Capture Combustion Combustion Combustion Combustion Combustion
Cement t/y 3,000,000 3,000,000 3,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000
produced
Cost per €/t n/a 64.6 20.4 51.2 105.0 33.9
tonne of CO2
avoided
(power
emissions
excluded)
Cost per €/t n/a 58.8 22.9 55.2 95.9 34.4
tonne of CO2
avoided
(power
emissions
from grid
included)
Costs per €/t 37.3 72.2 46.4 97.3 121.6 80.8
tonne of
cement
product
S-4
IEA GHG
The cost of cement production is significantly lower in the Asian scenario. This is principally due to
the economy of scale of operating a larger plant, the lower equipment costs and the cheaper labour. If
carbon capture is applied then the cost of production increases significantly (more for post-combustion
than oxy-combustion). However, it should be noted that the cost of cement production is only
comparable to the European base case when post-combustion capture is applied. This indicates that it
is more cost effective to undertake carbon capture at a cement plant in Asia than at a European plant.
The other sensitivities investigated have shown that the cost of CO2 avoidance at cement plants can be
reduced through co-location with power generation plant (including external steam supply), if a low
sulphur raw meal is used, or if more efficient solvents than MEA are used in the absorption process.
Retrofitting
With regard to retrofitting CO2 capture at an existing cement plant the following points need to be
considered:
• It is technically feasible to retrofit post-combustion capture using amine absorption to any

existing cement plant. The key constraints influencing the economic feasibility are:
o the concentration of NO2 and SOx in the flue gases
o the space requirements for the capture and compression equipment
o the availability of sufficient steam for the amine absorption and regeneration system.
• The technical solution considered in this Report is to apply oxy-combustion in the precalciner
only. The most feasible scenario for retro-fitting this solution to an existing cement plant
would be if the existing precalciner operated as a separate line calciner (SLC). SLC operation
is not currently the preferred technology within the cement industry.
• Given the significant cost differential between employing oxy-combustion and post-
combustion capture it may be more economic to undertake a major rebuild of the kiln (i.e.
from single to twin preheater towers) and undertake the oxy-combustion retrofit rather than
implementing the post-combustion option. The costs of undertaking the retrofit would need to
be assessed on a case by case basis.
Capture Ready
With regard to providing capture ready cement plant the following points need to be considered:
• A cement plant that was designed to be capture ready for post-combustion capture using amine
would need to make provision for the following:
o Leaving sufficient space for the flue gas treatment, CO2 absorption, CO2 purification
and CO2 compression equipment.
o Fuel supply capacity, grid supply capacity and land for a power plant capable of
generating the additional steam and electricity required by the capture equipment, or
else potential for over-the-fence steam purchase from neighbouring cogeneration
facilities.
S-5
IEA GHG
o Including SOx and NO2 abatement technologies within the plant or providing the space
and capability to introduce these later.
o Ability to transport (via pipe) the CO2 to a suitable storage location.
• The total land requirement estimated by this study for post-combustion capture is in the range
3.6-4.3 ha, depending on site conditions.
• It is clear that it would be beneficial if the cement plant was co-located near an existing readily
available steam supply (e.g. a power plant) that could be used when the post-combustion
capture plant was installed. There is also important potential for capturing economies of scale
through co-location with power plants, or other large emitters, also implementing CCS.
• Installation of a cement plant that is designed to be capture-ready for oxy-combustion in the

precalciner only would require twin preheater towers with separate induced draft fans
dedicated to each tower. Ideally the SLC configuration would be installed. However,
switching from a parallel precalciner combustion chamber to fully separate venting would
only require minor preheater ductwork modifications.
• Sufficient space would need to be provided for the air separation unit and CO2 purification and
compression plant and would ideally be installed adjacent to the preheater tower and kiln on
the side closest to the precalciner. This study has estimated that the space required for oxy-
combustion equipment at a 1 Mt/y cement plant would be approximately 0.5 ha.
Conclusions
Mott MacDonald have evaluated CO2 capture at cement plants and have estimated the cost and
performance of applying post-combustion and oxy-combustion capture at a 1 Mt/y plant. Post-
combustion capture has been found to be the most expensive solution but could feasibly be applied at
any cement plant as a retrofit solution. Oxy-combustion capture is a cheaper technology but more
research and development of this option is required if this option is to become viable. The cost
differential between oxy-combustion and post-combustion is such that, even if a major rebuild is
required, retrofitting oxy-combustion may still be cost-effective.
S-6
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
The International Energy Agency Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEA GHG) was established in
1991 to evaluate technologies that could be used to avoid emissions of greenhouse gases, particularly
from the use of fossil fuels. IEA GHG is an international organisation, supported by eighteen
countries worldwide, the European Commission, OPEC and twenty multi-national industrial
sponsors1.
The cement industry is one of the largest industrial sources of CO2, accounting for 1.8 Gt/y of
emissions worldwide in 2005 (IEA, 2007). It is expected that cement production, and hence CO2
emissions, will grow significantly in the future, especially in developing countries. Cement plants
emit CO2 from fuel combustion (about 40% of the total in modern plants) and decomposition of
carbonate minerals.
Modern cement plants have high efficiencies and the scope to reduce CO2 emissions by further
efficiency improvements is small. One of the few ways of greatly reducing CO2 production from
cement production is carbon capture and storage (CCS). CCS has been studied extensively for power
plants by IEA GHG and others and there are plans to build several commercial scale plants. However,
few studies have been undertaken on CCS in the cement industry.
Mott MacDonald is one of the world’s largest multi-disciplinary consultancies and has won
recognition for technical excellence in power engineering, water, transportation, building and
infrastructure. Dr Michael Clark from cement industry consultants Whitehopleman assisted Mott
MacDonald and provided expert advice on aspects associated with the cement plant.
The British Cement Association (BCA), which includes representatives of many major global cement
companies, provided data from typical modern cement plants to assist with the study. The study also
benefited from contributions from Lafarge and Polysius. Mott MacDonald encouraged this
participation in order to ensure that, as far as possible, the results were accepted by the cement
industry and their major concerns were addressed.
1.2 Scope of Work
The study assessed technologies that could be used to capture CO2 in new cement plants and retrofits
to existing modern plants. Capture in older, smaller plants was not considered. The major tasks
covered in the study are listed below.
1
The members of IEA GHG are currently Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Japan,
Korea, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, UK, USA, OPEC, The European Commission,
Alstom Power Technology, Babcock & Wilcox, BG Group, BP, CEZ Group, Chevron Corporation, ConocoPhililps, E.On,
EniTechnologie SpA, EPRI, ExxonMobil, Repsol YPF, RWE AG, Schlumberger, Shell, Statkraft, Statoil, Total and
Vattenfall.
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1.2.1 Cement Plant Descriptions
Outline descriptions of the technologies used for cement production, typical plant sizes and variations
between regions worldwide are provided. Descriptions of flue gas clean-up methods currently used in
cement plants are included.
1.2.2 CO2 Capture Process Descriptions
The leading technologies that could be used to capture CO2 in cement plants are described. This
includes post-combustion, oxy-combustion and pre-combustion. The reasons for not assessing pre-
combustion capture are also explained.
1.2.3 Major Issues Affecting Application of CO2 Capture Processes in Cement

Plants
The main technical issues which would affect the application of post-combustion CO2 capture
technology and oxy-combustion CO2 capture technology in cement plants are assessed.
1.2.4 Detailed Assessment of Plant Cost and Performance
The impacts on the performance, capital costs and operating costs of adding CO2 capture to a new-
build cement plant is assessed in detail for both the post-combustion and oxy-combustion CO2 capture
technologies.
1.2.5 Suitability for Retrofit
The suitability of each CO2 capture technology for retrofit to existing modern cement plants has been
assessed. This has taken into account estimates of the additional land area required and the need to
make modifications to the existing cement plant equipment.
1.2.6 Capture-ready Plants
During the timeframe of the study the IEA GHG published another report (IEA GHG, 2007a) which
assessed ways of making power plants ‘capture-ready’ i.e. designing them to be easily retrofitted in
future if necessary. Drawing on the results from this report, ways of making cement plants ‘capture-
ready’ have been assessed.
1.2.7 Information Gaps and R&D needs
Important information gaps have been identified and recommendations for research, development and
demonstration are made.
1.3 Approach
This report is based on the following sources of information:
• A review of published literature.
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• Meetings and discussions with IEA GHG and BCA.
• A site visit to Cauldon Cement Works.
• Process modelling undertaken by Mott MacDonald and Whitehopleman.
• Cost estimating undertaken by Mott MacDonald and Whitehopleman.
• Economic modelling undertaken by Mott MacDonald.
• Consultations with a number of cement plant equipment suppliers and CO2 capture technology
providers.
• Consultations with researchers working on related topics.
1.4 Structure of Report
The report is structured in a way that largely mirrors the Terms of Reference. The report consists of
the following sections:
• Section 2 provides background to the cement industry including details of flue gas cleaning
methods currently used at cement plants.
• Section 3 provides background on CO2 capture processes.
• Section 4 contains the technical evaluation of CO2 capture at a new-build cement plant for
both post-combustion and oxy-combustion solutions.
• Section 5 provides an analysis of the costs of providing CO2 capture.
• Section 6 describes the issues pertaining to the retro-fitting of post-combustion and oxy-
combustion CO2 capture at cement plant.
• Section 7 examines the issues associated with making cement plants ‘capture ready’ for either
post- or oxy-combustion CO2 capture.
• Section 8 identifies information gaps and further research required for the further development
of post- and oxy-combustion at cement plants.
• Section 9 summarises and compares the post-combustion and oxy-combustion solutions.
• Section 10 presents the conclusions from this study.
Appendices are attached to the Report which include various technical data used and generated as part
of the study.
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2 Cement Plants
2.1 Introduction
This section begins with a brief overview of the global cement industry including discussion on
variations between different worldwide regions. This is followed by outline descriptions of the
technologies used for cement production including descriptions of flue gas clean-up methods currently
used in cement plants.
2.2 The Global Cement Industry
2.2.1 Cement Nature and Properties
Cement is one of the most abundantly produced materials in the world due to its widespread use in
construction activities (concreting), low price and the geographic abundance of its main raw materials
(EC, 2001).
Cement is composed of calcium silicates, calcium aluminates and calcium aluminoferrite minerals. It
is produced from a mixture of raw materials, with calcium carbonate being the primary raw material
and provider of the lime necessary to combine with the silica, alumina and iron oxide in these cement
minerals. The silica, alumina and iron oxide are provided from a variety of secondary raw materials,
including alumino-silicate clays and shales, silica sand, bauxite and iron ore.
These raw materials are ground together into a fine, intimately mixed powder and delivered to a
cement kiln. In the kiln the raw materials react together during the heating process to form an
intermediate ‘clinker’, composed of the cement minerals, that is subsequently ground together with
some gypsum to form the cement finished product.
The cement product is a finely ground, non-metallic, inorganic substance with hydraulic binding
properties. Cement forms a strong hard paste which binds together sands and aggregates in mortar or
concrete when mixed with water due to the formation of calcium silicate and aluminate hydrates.
‘Portland Cement’ is the most common cement type and is composed of 95% clinker and 5% gypsum.
The gypsum is ground together with the cement clinker to control the setting of cement and allow the
mortars and concretes produced with the cement to be worked into moulds and placed around
reinforcement. International standards for cement now allow the mixture of up to 5% limestone with
this Portland Cement in Ordinary Portland Cements (OPCs).
The exact composition of cement determines its properties (sulphate resistance, alkalinity, heat of
hydration etc.) whereas its fineness is related to the development of strength and rate of setting.
2.2.2 Production Trends
World cement production has grown steadily since the 1950s, with increased production in Asia and
China in particular, accounting for the bulk of growth from the 1990s. Figure 2-1 shows that global
cement production reached an estimated 2,557 million tonnes in 2006. Cement consumption has
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grown at an average rate of 5.48% per year during the period 1990 to 2006 with this average growth
rate having accelerated to 8.73% per year since 2002.
Figure 2-1: World and Chinese Cement Consumption Trend 1990-2006 (Global Cement
Report, 2007)
3000
2500
Millions of Tonnes per Annum
2000
Rest of World
1500
China
1000
500
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
The largest cement producer, by far, is China, whose annual consumption had risen to 1,200 million
tonnes in 2006. Chinese cement consumption has risen at an average rate of 11.90% per year during
the period 1990 to 2006 with this average growth rate having accelerated to 14.17% per year in the
years 2002 to 2006.
In 2002 cement consumption in India (of 110.86 million tonnes) overtook that in the USA for the first
time to become the second largest consumer of cement in the world. Since that date Indian
consumption has grown at an average rate of 11.31% per year, compared with 1.91% in the USA,
consolidating India’s position as the second largest cement consuming country in the world. Indian
cement consumption had risen to 153 million tonnes per year in 2006 compared with 127.58 million
tonnes in the USA.
In Western Europe cement consumption has risen at an average rate of 1.45% per year during the
period 1990 to 2006, from 220 million tonnes in 1990 to 276 million tonnes in 2006. The rate of
increase in cement consumption in Europe has accelerated to 3.13% in the years 2002 to 2006.
2.3 Global Variations in the Cement Industry
2.3.1 Introduction
The continuing world cement boom, as described in the preceding section, is marked by regional
variations due to economic, technological and policy drivers coming about in the main cement
producing countries/regions of China, India, the USA, Europe and the Middle East.
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2.3.2 The Cement Industry in Europe
As discussed in section 2.2.2 growth in cement demand and consumption has been lower in Europe
than in Asia or the USA. However, four of the five top multinational cement companies are based and
have their origins in Europe. This means that the European cement industry has a truly global
presence enjoying a market share of 95% in Europe and 70% in North America.
In 2006, the European cement industry produced 314 Mt, accounting for 12.4% of global output (2.54
billion tons). Table 2-1 shows the main cement consumers in Europe in 2006. Cement production
followed construction trends closely, with new residential (26.7%) and renovation (45.2%) works
accounting for the rise in production (CEMBUREAU, 2006).
Table 2-1: Main Cement Consumers in Europe in 2006
Country Cement
Consumption
(Mt)
Spain 55.74
Italy 46.88
Turkey 41.65
Germany 28.57
France 23.87
In 1995 there were 252 installations producing cement clinker and finished cement in the European
Union and a total of 437 kilns but not all of them in operation (EC, 2001). In addition there were a
further 68 grinding plants (mills) without kilns. In recent years typical kiln size has come to be around
3,000 tonnes clinker/day (1 Mt/yr).
In 2001, about 78% of Europe’s cement production was from dry process kilns, a further 16% of
production was accounted for by semi-dry and semi-wet process kilns, with the remainder of European
production, about 6%, coming from wet process kilns (EC, 2001). The wet process kilns operating in
Europe are generally expected to be converted to dry process kiln systems when renewed, as are semi-
dry and semi-wet processes kiln systems. These technologies are more fully described in section 2.4.
Growth in cement production is forecast to increase due to prospective construction projects and
infrastructure development. Imports to the EU are also growing (6.8 million tonnes from China alone
in 2006 (CEMBUREAU, 2006)) and new sea terminals for cement are being constructed.
2.3.3 The Cement Industry in the USA
The cement industry is a relatively small but significant component of the US economy; in 2003 it had
39 companies operating 118 cement plants in 38 states. Worldwide, the United States ranked third in
cement production, behind China and India for that same year (PCA, 2003).
US cement production is widely distributed with the largest company producing over 13% of the
industry total. The top five multinational cement companies collectively produce around 53% of the
total. Foreign companies now own approximately 81% of US cement capacity, up from about 22% in
1980 (PCA, 2003). Investments during the 1980s by European companies, as well as Asian entities,
were spurred by the favourable position of the US dollar against foreign currencies.
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In 2006, US cement consumption was 127.6 million tonnes (Global Cement Report, 2007). Cement
consumption was spurred by strong performance in the construction industry as a whole; however,
individual sector growth, such as highway construction, still affects cement consumption more
heavily. Strong construction markets in the 1990s and since 2003 have maintained the average growth
rate of 2.90% in cement consumption during the period 1990 to 2006. However, in 2007 and 2008
actual cement consumption is forecast to decline due to difficulties in the US residential construction
industry arising from sub-prime lending problems and a tightening credit environment.
The cement industry has boosted efficiency by concentrating new capital investment in plants that use
the dry process of cement manufacture and by phasing out operations that rely on the more energy-
intensive wet process. In the period 1974 to 2003, the number of wet process kilns dropped from 234
to 54 (77% decline) while the number of dry process kilns was reduced from 198 to 136 as older, low
capacity kilns were replaced by higher capacity, modern, dry-process kilns. In 2003 about 81% of the
cement produced in the United States was manufactured using dry process technology (PCA, 2003).
This process of modernisation of the US cement manufacturing base has continued during the period
2003 to 2006.
The cement industry is regional in nature. As the cost of shipping cement quickly overtakes its value,
customers traditionally purchase cement from local sources. Nearly 96% of US cement is shipped to
consumers by truck (PCA, 2003). Barge and rail modes account for the remaining distribution modes.
The USA has been the largest market for imported cement throughout the period 1990 to 2006. In
2006 these are estimated to have reached a peak of 35.51 million tonnes or 28% of the total cement
consumption of 127.58 million tonnes. The four largest sources of these imports, in order of scale
were China, Canada, Thailand and Taiwan. Other large suppliers were South Korea, Mexico, Greece,
Colombia, Venezuela, Sweden and Peru. These import volumes are expected to be significantly lower
in 2007 and 2008 as cement demand contracts and domestic cement producers increase their market
share at the expense of imports.
Exports of cement seldom exceed 1% of total US production (PCA, 2003; USGS 2007a; USGS 2007b;
USGS 2007c). Like imports, exports are cyclical reaching marginally higher levels during economic
recessions when domestic markets are slack. In 2006, the United States is estimated to have exported
1.55 million tonnes of cement, mainly to neighbouring Canada and Mexico.
2.3.4 The Cement Industry in Asia
(i) China
Much of China’s development over the past few decades has depended on cement, as the country has
built numerous power plants, millions of houses and buildings and paved thousands of kilometres of
highways, all demanding enormous quantities of cement.
China’s cement industry has grown remarkably since economic reforms began in the 1970s. By 1985,
China had become the world’s leading cement producer and by 1998, the cement output was twice as
much as the next three largest producing countries combined. In 2000, per capita cement output
reached 448 kg, which is about 200 kg higher than the world average (WBCSD, 2002a). Per capita
annual cement consumption reached 812 kg in 2005 and 915 kg in 2006.
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The cement industry in China remains highly fragmented and suffers from significant overcapacity
and supply/demand imbalances. In 2005 the number of integrated cement plants had grown to 4,777
as a result of speculative expansion of production capacity. Excess supply eroded prices at a time
when energy and transportation costs were rising. As a result Chinese cement company margins were
seriously eroded and 36% of companies reported losses in 2005. Margins are reported to have
improved in 2006.
Overcapacity problems are exacerbated by the pressing need to modernise the Chinese cement
production base. 60% of capacity remains reliant on wet process or shaft kiln technology. The
estimated total number of Chinese cement plants ranges from 8,000 to 9,300, although the actual
number is uncertain due to the fragmented nature of the industry, the small size of many plants, the
fact that some plants exist illegally and data reliability issues. About 50% of these facilities are rural
township enterprises with average annual output of less than 30,000 tonnes (WBCSD, 2002a).
Historically, Chinese cement has not been of particularly high quality due to the widespread use of
vertical kilns. However, with the gradual increase in use of the advanced dry rotary kiln process it is
to be expected that cement production will become more efficient and the cement will be of better
quality.
China’s central government is aware of the challenges and has formulated several proposals to
restructure the cement industry in the 11th five year development plan. This includes the following
targets to be met by 2010:
• Total annual cement production of 1.25 billion tonnes.
• Consolidation with top 10 cement groups producing 30% of total.
• Modernisation with 250 million tonnes of shaft kiln annual cement production
capacity being eliminated and the proportion of production from modern, dry-process
cement plants rising to 70%.
The government has also taken steps to cool the economy and control the growth of fixed-asset
investment and the cement manufacturing capacity. There is evidence that the rate of capacity
expansion is slowing. However, delays in the closure of obsolete capacity continues to be a major
threat to addressing the supply/demand imbalances (Global Cement Report, 2007).
(ii) India
India, with a total consumption of 153 million tonnes in 2006, has emerged as the second largest
market for cement after China. In 2007 and 2008 India is forecast to be the fastest growing market in
the world (Global Cement Report, 2007). Spending on infrastructure, particularly on roads, ports and
airports, a surge in housing construction and expansion in corporate production facilities are
responsible for the spurt in cement consumption growth in India. In particular, the shift in cement use
patterns is accounted for by the housing sector, which is responsible for more than 50% of the total
cement demand (IBEF, 2004).
The production base of the Indian cement industry includes more than 100 integrated cement plants
and more than 25 dedicated grinding units (Global Cement Report, 2007). Installed capacity is 160
million tonnes per year and more than 300 mini-cement plants have an additional estimated capacity of
11.10 Mt per year (IBEF, 2004) although these mini-cement plants are only estimated to have
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produced 5.5 million tonnes in 2006 (Global Cement Report, 2007). 86% of production is from
modern, dry-process cement plants with capacity of more than 1 million tonnes per year.
In 2007 the Indian cement industry will approach full capacity utilisation and multiple capacity
expansion projects have been announced. Table 2-2 shows independent estimates of the projected
capacity expansions until 2011. This will lift Indian cement production capacity to 280 million tonnes
per year. All these capacity expansions will be based on modern, dry-process cement manufacturing
technology.
Table 2-2: Independent Estimates of Projected Cement Capacity Expansions in India
Year Projected
Capacity
Expansions (Mt)
2007 7
2008 16
2009 46
2010 30
2011 20
India produces various types of cement, including the most widely used Portland type. Pozzolan
Portland blended cement constitutes 52% of total cement sales, with Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
making up 39% of sales.
Major consolidation of the Indian cement industry has taken place in recent years. The Holcim
acquisition of stakes in Gujarat Ambuja Cement and Associated Cement Companies has resulted in a
group with 33 million tonnes per year capacity. The merger of Grasim and Ultratech in 2004 has
resulted in a local cement company with 28.8 million tonnes per year capacity. However, the Indian
cement industry still largely remains unconsolidated with more than 40 other players and some new
entrants. The southern region accounts for the largest share in overall production (32%) due to the
availability of limestone, followed by the north with 21% (Global Cement Report, 2007).
Over the years, demand in the east has been driven by the housing sector, whereas infrastructure and
investments in industrial projects have propelled demand in other regions. Cement and clinker exports
grew at a rate of 18.1% from 1995 to 2004 when they peaked with total exports of 10 million tonnes.
However, export volumes have declined in 2005 and 2006 as domestic cement demand has increased
and this downward trend of export is predicted to continue in 2007 and 2008.
2.4 Cement Plant Descriptions
2.4.1 Cement Manufacture Processes
(i) General Description
The process of manufacturing cement (shown in Figure 2-2) requires the following three stages:
• Raw material preparation: grinding a mixture of raw materials to make a 'raw mix'.
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• Clinker burning (Pyro-processing): heating the raw mix to a sintering temperature of

>1400ºC in a cement kiln to produce 'clinker'.
• Cement preparation: grinding the resulting clinker with gypsum and other additives to make
cement.
Figure 2-2: Simplified Cement Making Process Schematic
Raw
materials
Crusher
1
Grinder
Raw mix
2 Kiln
Clinker Gypsum/Additives
3 Grinder
Cement
The most common raw materials used for cement manufacture are limestone, marls and clay (although
others can be used). The selected materials are crushed, ground and mixed to produce a raw mix of
suitable composition and form for pyro-processing. Approximately 1.50-1.60 t of (dry) raw mix are
required to produce 1 t of clinker, due to the calcination of the limestone component of the raw mix.
The second stage in the process involves feeding the raw mix into a kiln system where it is gradually
heated. Successive chemical reactions take place as the temperature of the raw mix rises. These
reaction stages are shown in Table 2-3.
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Table 2-3: Kiln Chemical Reactions (CEMBUREAU, 1999)
Kiln temperature (ºC) Chemical reaction

20 – 900 Drying and Preheating: the release of free and chemically
bound water
850 – 950 Calcination: the release of CO2 from calcium carbonate
(limestone) and initial reactions with formation of clinker
minerals and intermediate phases
1250 – 1450 Sintering or clinkerisation: the formation of calcium
silicates and partial melting
1350 – 1200 Kiln internal cooling: crystallisation of calcium aluminate
and calcium ferrite from the partial melt
Typically, a peak temperature of 1400-1450 ºC is required to complete the reactions and produce alite,
the characteristic constituent of Portland cement. Partial melting causes the material to aggregate into
lumps or nodules known as clinker which is then cooled with air to 100-200ºC. Waste heat from the
kiln system is usually used for drying the raw materials in the raw grinding section of the production
process. A typical cement clinker consists of the compounds shown in Table 2-4.
Table 2-4: Typical Composition of Cement Clinker (IEA GHG, 1999)
Compound Chemical formula Content (%)

Min Average Max
Tricalcium silicate (Alite) 3 CaO.SiO2 45 62 75
Dicalcium silicate (Belite) 2 CaO.SiO2 5 15 35
Calcium aluminoferrite (Ferrite) 4 CaO.Al2O3.FeO3 4 8 15
Tricalcium aluminate 3 CaO.Al2O3 4 11 15
(Aluminate)
Free Calcium oxide CaO 0.1 1 4
Free Magnesium oxide MgO 0.5 1.5 4.5
Figure 2-3 shows an electron microscope image of a (polished) clinker nodule. Most of the nodule is
comprised of alite (light grey) and some clusters of belite are visible (arrowed). Aluminate and ferrite
are present but not visible at this relatively low magnification.
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Figure 2-3: Magnification of a Clinker Nodule (Understanding Cement, 2007)
The final stage in the manufacturing process involves grinding clinker with additives, such as gypsum,
limestone, granulated blast furnace slag and fly ash, to control the properties of the cement.
(ii) The Four 'Integrated Plant' Process Routes
The three manufacturing stages previously mentioned are common to four main 'integrated plant'
process routes by which cement can be produced. These process routes are distinguished by the
moisture content of the feed going into the kiln and are known as follows:
• Wet process: raw materials are ground in water to form a slurry which is either fed directly
into the kiln or first to a slurry drier.
• Semi-wet process: raw slurry is first dewatered in filter presses and the filter cake extruded
into pellets and fed either to a grate preheater or directly to a filter cake drier for raw mix
production.
• Semi-dry: dry raw mix is pelletised with water and fed into a grate preheater before the kiln
or to a long kiln equipped with chains and crosses to facilitate the heat exchange between the
kiln feed and the combustion gases.
• Dry process: raw materials are ground and dried to form a dry raw mix in the form of a
flowable powder. The dry raw mix is fed into the preheater or precalciner kiln, or more rarely
to a long dry kiln.
Each process requires a slightly modified approach and use of equipment in the first two of the three
manufacturing stages, i.e. the raw grinding and pyroprocessing stages. These differences are reviewed
in the sections below.
Historically, the clinker manufacturing process has evolved from 'wet' to 'dry' systems with the
intermediate steps of the 'semi-wet' and 'semi-dry' process routes. The first rotary kilns, introduced
around 1895, were long wet kilns (CEMBUREAU, 1999). 'Wet' kilns allowed for easier blending and
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homogenisation of raw materials. However, as technology developed it became possible to produce a

homogenous raw mix using the dry process. The 'dry' production process requires less energy and so
has lower fuel costs than the wet process and thus is generally favoured where its application is
feasible.
Wet Process
In the wet process the preparation of the raw mix is achieved by grinding the dry raw materials with
water in wash mills, or ball mills with rubber linings. The resultant slurry is mixed in slurry basins
where compressed air is introduced and the slurry is continuously stirred to produce a slurry of
consistent composition.
In the conventional wet process this thick liquid slurry, which may have water content of 30-40%, is
fed directly into the kiln where the water is evaporated in the drying zone at the kiln inlet. This drying
zone is fitted with curtains of chains which promote heat exchange between the slurry and the exhaust
gases from the combustion of fuel in the kiln passing counter-current with the slurry feed up the kiln.
After passing through the drying zone the raw material moves down the kiln through the preheating
zone to be calcined and finally burnt to clinker in the sintering zone. Conventional wet kiln
technology has a high heat consumption and produces large volumes of exhaust gases. In more
modern wet kiln systems water is driven off the raw slurry prior to entering the kiln in a slurry drier.
Slurry “thinning” chemicals may be added to allow the slurry to be pumped to the kiln with lower
water content. These more modern wet kiln systems have lower specific heat consumption compared
to conventional wet kilns.
In this process the fuel consumption is the highest (in the region of 5000 to 7000 kJ/kg of clinker) but
the power consumption is typically lower at 110-115 kWh/tonne of cement (Chemical Universe,
2007).
A simplified flow diagram of a typical wet process is shown in Figure 2-4.
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Figure 2-4: Production of Cement by the Wet Process (CEMBUREAU, 1999)
Semi-wet Process
As in the wet process the raw mix used in the semi-wet process is prepared as a slurry. Unlike the wet
process the slurry is then dried in crusher-dryer before being delivered to a preheater for preheating,
calcination and clinker formation in the rotary section of the kiln.
The fuel consumption of the semi-dry and semi-wet process is about 3500-5000 kJ/kg of clinker. The
power consumption is typically in the range 115-120 kWh/tonne of cement (Chemical Universe,
2007).
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A simplified flow diagram of a typical semi-wet process is shown in Figure 2-5.
Figure 2-5: Production of Cement by the Semi-wet Process (CEMBUREAU, 1999)
Semi-dry Process
In the semi-dry process a dry-powder raw mix is made into pellets in a nodulizing pan with the
addition of 10-13% water. The pellets are loaded onto a grate preheater which dries, preheats and
partially calcines the raw mix. The pellets then drop into the kiln for completion of the calcination and
combination into clinker.
If the semi-dry process is used kiln exhaust gases cannot be utilised in the raw mix drying and grinding
process due to their lower temperature following their prior use. This combined with high grate
preheater maintenance costs mean that the semi-dry process is no longer installed in modern cement
plants.
The fuel consumption of the semi-dry and semi-wet process is about 3500-5000 kJ/kg of clinker. The
power consumption is typically in the range 115-120 kWh/tonne of cement (Chemical Universe,
2007).
Dry process
In the dry process, the raw materials are dried in a combined drying and grinding plant to reduce the
moisture content below 1%. The materials are ground in either a ball or a roller mill with drying of the
materials being achieved by sweeping the mill with the exhaust gases from the kiln. The drying
capacity of the raw grinding system may be supplemented by auxiliary hot air generating furnaces.
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The dried, finely ground raw mix powder is then blended and homogenised in silos with the mixing
being provided by compressed air.
The blended and homogenised raw mix is then usually fed to a gas-suspension preheater ahead of a
short rotary kiln. These preheaters consist of successive heat exchanger and collection cyclone stages
arranged above one-another in series in a tower. Partial calcination of the raw mix takes place prior to
the mix entering the rotary section of the kiln.
Additionally a precalciner can be integrated between the kiln and the suspension preheater which
ensures complete calcining of the raw mix before it enters the kiln. Precalciners increase kiln capacity
and reduce energy consumption.
Fuel consumption is lowest in this process and is in the range of 2750-4000 kJ/kg of clinker. The
power consumption is in the range of 120-125 kWh/tonne of cement (Chemical Universe, 2007).
However, the most modern, dry-process cement plants can have power consumption in the range 80-
100 kWh/tonne of cement by deployment of compression grinding equipment for raw and finish
milling rather than ball mills. Production of blended cements is also widely used to reduce unit
electrical energy consumption.
A simplified flow diagram of a typical dry process cement kiln is shown in Figure 2-6.
Figure 2-6: Production of Cement by the Dry Process (CEMBUREAU, 1999)
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(iii) Key Kiln System Technologies
Rotary Kilns
In industrialised countries the ground mixture of raw materials for cement production are processed in
rotary kilns. These rotary kilns form the core element of industrial cement production. They are
refractory lined, slightly inclined rotating steel cylinders that are internally fired with fossil fuels and
designed to produce clinker through the intense heating of the raw materials. They can be fed with
slurry, crushed filter cakes, nodules or dry raw mix and are thus suitable for all process types. Raw
mix is fed into the upper, cool end of the kiln while fuels are normally fed into the lower, hot end of
the kiln. The inclination and rotation of the kiln causes the ground mixture of raw materials to move
down the kiln from inlet to outlet in counter-current with the combustion gases generated by the firing
of the fossil fuels in the lower, hot end of the kiln. In this way the ground mixture of raw materials are
progressively heated as they travel down the length of the kiln being successively dried, preheated,
calcined and combined into the cement clinker.
The first rotary kilns were long wet kilns (Figure 2-7) and all the heat consuming thermal processes
required for the manufacture of cement occurred in the kiln. To obtain the necessary heat transfer for
water evaporation, wet kilns must be of a sufficient length. The length of a long wet kiln is generally
32-35 times its diameter. The longest are 230 m long and these large units produce around 3500 t/d.
Figure 2-7: Long Wet Rotary Kiln (Adapted from CEMBUREAU,1999)
Raw mix in
Flame
Clinker to
cooler
The introduction of the dry-process led to an optimisation of the cement clinker manufacturing process
that allowed drying, preheating and calcining to take place in installations outside of the rotary kiln.
Consequently dry process kilns are shorter than otherwise comparable wet process kilns. Their length
is generally 11-20 times their diameter. Today the highest capacity dry-process cement kilns can have
capacities of 10,000 t/d.
Shaft Kilns
Now predominantly found in India and China, shaft kilns (shown in Figure 2-8) consist of a refractory-
lined, vertical cylinder 2-3 m in diameter and 8-10 m high. They are fed from the top and the raw mix
passes through a short preheating, calcining and sintering zone at the top of the kiln where it is heated
by hot combustion gasses. It is then cooled by air blown in from the base of the kiln and leaves as
clinker at the bottom. The product quality from the vertical shaft kilns is generally lower than that
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from rotary kilns and capacity is less than 300 t/d. Shaft kilns are being phased out in China as they
are incapable of producing cement with high enough strength development characteristics for high rise
construction projects.
Figure 2-8: Shaft Kiln (VDI, 1984)
Preheating and Precalcination
The introduction of the dry-process led to optimisation that allowed drying, preheating and calcining
to take place in stationary installations outside of the rotary kiln. These 'additions' to the standard
rotary kiln are discussed in more detail below.
Grate Preheater Kilns
The introduction of grate preheaters, also known as a Lepol kilns, in 1928 allowed part of the
clinkering process to proceed outside of the rotary kiln for the first time. This allowed the rotary kilns
to become shorter, reducing heat loses and increasing energy efficiency.
In a grate preheater (shown in Figure 2-9) nodules made by mixing dry raw material powder with
water in a nodulising pan (semi-dry process) or pellets made from wet slurry filter cakes in an extruder
(semi-wet process) are fed onto a moving grate that passes through two chambers: a drying chamber
and a preheating chamber. A fan draws hot exhaust gases from the rear of the kiln into the top of the
preheating chamber and through the bed of nodulised or pelletised kiln feed as it travels along the
grate through the chamber to the kiln. This preheats the material before it enters the rotary kiln. A
second fan then draws the exhaust gas from beneath the preheating chamber into the drying chamber
above the grate and through the bed of wet nodules or pellets as they travel along the grate. This dries
the nodules or pellets before they pass to the preheating chamber.
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Figure 2-9: Grate Preheater (EC, 2001)
Suspension Preheater Kilns
Suspension preheaters (Figure 2-10) were developed as an alternative to travelling grate preheaters in
the early 1950s. Preheating and partial calcination of the raw mix powder occurs in these preheaters
by heat exchange between the hot kiln exhaust gases rising up the preheater from the rotary kiln and
the raw mix powder descending the preheater. The process is thermally efficient since the suspension
of the raw mix powder in the hot gases produces a large contact surface area that allows for efficient
heat exchange between the gas and the powder.
Figure 2-10: Four Stage Suspension Preheater (EC, 2001)
The key components of these gas-suspension preheaters are the gas risers between the successive
preheater stages and the cyclones for collection of the preheated raw mix powder and passing the
preheated raw mix powder down to the next stage of the preheater. Heat exchange between the hot
exhaust gases and the raw mix powder takes place in gas risers as the raw mix is lifted by the exhaust
gases into the collection cyclones. The raw mix powder is added to the uppermost gas riser of the
preheater tower and lifted into the uppermost cyclone stage. The preheated raw mix powder and gases
are separated in the cyclone by the centrifugal motion induced by the geometry of the cyclone, with
the exhaust gases passing out of the top of the cyclone and the preheated raw mix passing out of the
bottom of the cyclone to the next lower stage of the preheater. This alternate preheating and
separation improves the heat exchange efficiency of the process. The number of these preheating
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stages in a preheater tower system varies between 2 and 6, with heat exchange and overall thermal
efficiency increasing with each additional preheater stage.
The four stage cyclone preheater was standard technology in the 1970s. At that time many plants were
built with capacities in the 1000-3000 t/d range. After passing down the preheater calcination of the
kiln feed is already about 30% complete.
Precalciners
The precalciner is an evolution of the suspension preheater developed in the 1970s. It comprises a
combustion chamber (precalciner) that is located between the suspension preheater and the kiln in
which the preheated raw mix can be almost fully calcined prior to entering the kiln (Figure 2-11). The
use of such a precalciner allows for a shorter kiln length and can reduce energy consumption by 5-10%
compared with a kiln equipped only with a suspension preheater. Approximately 60-70% of the total
fuel supply to the cement kiln is fired in the precalciner with the remainder fired in the main burner of
the rotary kiln itself.
Figure 2-11: Five Stage Suspension Preheater with Precalciner (EC, 2001)
Kiln systems with five cyclone preheater stages and precalciner are considered ‘standard’ technology
for today’s modern, dry-process plants. Typical capacities are between 3,000–5,000 t/d. In Asia there
is an increasing trend towards the installation of higher capacity cement kilns with an increasing
number of 10,000 t/d plants operating. There are plans for the installation of a 12,000 t/d cement kiln
in the USA.
2.4.2 Emissions Associated with Cement Manufacturing
(i) Carbon Dioxide Emissions
Cement production is an energy intensive production process, accounting for 2% of the global primary
energy consumption (Worrell et al., 2001) and between 6-7% of global industrial energy use (IEA,
2007). Its reliance on carbon intensive fuels such as coal and petroleum coke in clinker making is
responsible for substantial CO2 emissions coming directly from the combustion of fossil fuels. CO2 is
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also emitted from the calcination process and from the consumption of electricity generated from fossil
fuels. Cement production accounted for 1.8 Gt/y of CO2 emissions worldwide in 2005 (IEA, 2007).
It is estimated that about 5-6% of global CO2 emissions from stationary sources originate from cement
production (ECRA, 2007). Approximately half of these emissions are from the calcination process
and the other half from the combustion process (this ignores emissions attributable to mobile
equipment used in raw material mining, material and cement transportation, and plant site activities)
(Hendriks et al., 1998).
Process CO2 Emissions from Calcination
As shown in the following chemical reaction, the conversion of limestone to CaO, the primary
precursor to cement, unavoidably generates CO2 as a by-product:
CaCO3 Æ CaO + CO2
CO2 emissions from cement production depend on the ratio of clinker/cement, which varies from 0.5
to 0.95 but are estimated at about 0.5 kgCO2/kg clinker for calcination only (Worrell et al., 2001).
CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuels
The majority of fossil fuel is used during the pyro-processing step of cement production. The amount
of CO2 emitted during this step is influenced by the following factors:
• the type of production process and its efficiency
• the nature of fuel used (e.g. coal, fuel oil, natural gas etc.)
• the ratio of clinker/cement and percentage of additives.
Table 2-5 shows CO2 emissions from dry and wet-process cement production in relation to the
clinker/cement ratio and nature of fuel used.
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Table 2-5: Dry and Wet-process CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuels (Hendriks et al.,
1998)
Process emissions Process and fuel-related emissions (in kg/kg of cement produced)1
Dry process Wet process
Clinker Clinker Coal Fuel Natural Waste2 Coal Fuel Natural Waste
/cement Oil gas Oil gas
ratio
55% 0.28 0.55 0.50 0.47 0.36 0.67 0.59 0.53 0.36
75% 0.38 0.72 0.66 0.61 0.47 0.88 0.77 0.69 0.47
95% 0.49 0.89 0.81 0.75 0.57 1.09 0.95 0.90 0.57
1
Emissions from electricity consumption are included.
2
Assumed to be a zero emission fuel.
CO2 Emissions from Electricity Use
Grinding is the largest electricity demand in the cement industry with around 100 kWh/t of cement
consumed in rotary kilns for grinding of raw materials, at the kiln and for grinding cement (IEA,
2007). The current best practice is reported to be around 80-90 kWh/t of clinker with most countries
for which data is available falling within the range of 90-120 kWh/t of cement (IEA, 2007).
Global CO2 Emissions from the Cement Production Process
In 1994 the average energy intensity associated with global cement production was about 4.8 MJ/kg
cement, with the most energy intensive regions being in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union
(5.5 MJ/kg), followed by North America (5.4 MJ/kg) and the Middle East (5.1 MJ/kg) (Hendriks et al.,
1998). The resulting CO2 emissions for that year were 1,126 Mt CO2, 587 Mt CO2 from process
emissions and 539 Mt CO2 from energy use (Hendriks et al., 1998).
The carbon intensity of cement manufacture is subject to some variation in the literature. Hendriks et
al. (1998) reported a carbon intensity of cement making of 0.81 kg CO2/kg cement with the carbon
intensity being about 10% higher than the average in India, North America and China. However,
Mahasenan et al. (2005) report the average gross unit-based emissions for the industry to be 0.87 kg
CO2/kg with regional variation from 0.73 CO2/kg in Japan to 0.99 kg CO2/kg in the United States.
IEA (2007) reported that total CO2 emissions per tonne of cement from energy and calcination in
2003-2004 ranged from about 0.65 kg CO2/kg of cement in Spain, Brazil and Italy to 0.93 kg CO2/kg
of cement in the United States.
(ii) Other Emissions
Other emissions that are potentially associated with the cement industry and are therefore controlled
include nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide and dust. Carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDD), dibenzofurans (PCDF) and heavy metals are
possible trace emissions.
Typical emissions from European cement kilns in 1997 are shown in Table 2-6.
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Table 2-6: Emissions from European Cement Kilns (EC, 2001)
Emissions mg/Nm3 Kg/tonne clinker Tonne/year

NOx (as NO2) <200-3,000 <0.4-6 400-6000
SO2 <10-3,500 <0.02-7 20-7000
Dust 5-200 0.01-0.4 10-400
HF <0.4-5 <0.8-10 g/t <0.8-10
HCl <1-25 <2-50 g/t <2-50
PCDD/F <0.1-0.5 ng/Nm3 <200-1000 ng/t < 0.2-1 g/year
Metals
∑ (Hg, Cd, Tl) 0.01-0.3 (mainly Hg) 200-600 mg/t 20-600 kg/year
∑ (As, Co, Ni, Se, Te) 0.001-0.1 2-200 mg/t 2-200 kg/year
∑ (Sb, Pb, Cr, Cu, 0.005-0.3 10-600 mg/t 10-600 kg/year
Mn, V, Sn, Zn)
Note: Mass figures are based on 2000 m3/tonne clinker and 1 million tonnes clinker/year. Emission ranges are one
–year averages and are indicative values based on various measurement techniques. O2-content is normally 10%.
2.4.3 Kiln Flue Gas Clean-up Methods
The exhaust gases from a kiln amount to between 1,350 – 3,000 Nm3/tonne of clinker depending on
the type of kiln (CEMBUREAU, 1999). Depending on the local discharge requirements these exhaust
gases require treatment before discharge. A summary of flue gas clean-up methods that are employed
(to varying degrees) within the cement industry is shown inTable 2-7. These methods are discussed in
further detail in the sections below.
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Table 2-7: Common Flue Gas Clean-up Methods (Adapted from EC, 2001)
Technique Kiln system Reduction Reported emissions Reported costs

applicability efficiency (106€/tonne of clinker) 3
(%) mg/m3 1 kg/tonne 2 Investment Operating
Dust
Electrostatic All - 5-50 0.01-0.1 2.1-4.6 0.1-0.2
precipitators
Fabric filters All - 5-50 0.01-0.1 2.1-4.6 0.15-0.35
NOx
SNCR Preheater 10-85 200-800 0.4-1.6 0.5-1.5 0.3-0.5
and
precalciner
SCR Possibly all 65-95 6 100-500 0.2-0.4 ca.2.5 4 0.2-0.4 4
3.5-4.5 5 uncertain 5
SOx
Absorbent All 60-80 400 0.8 0.2-0.3 0.1-0.4
addition
Dry scrubber Dry Up to 90 <400 <0.8 11 1.4-1.6
Wet scrubber All >90 <200 <0.4 6-10 0.5-0.1
Activated carbon Dry Up to 95 <50 <0.1 15 7 uncertain
2
kg/tonne clinker: based on 2000 m3/tonne clinker
3
Investment costs 106 euros and operating cost in euros/tonne of clinker. Dust: to reduce emissions to 10-50 mg/m3 from initial emissions
of up to 500 g dust/m3. NOx: to reduce emissions from initial levels of up to 2000 mg NOx /m3.
4
Costs estimated by Ökopol for a full scale installation (kiln capacities from 1,000 – 5,000 tonne clinker/day and initial emissions from
1,300 – 2,000 mg NOx /m3), operating costs ca. 25% lower than for SNCR
5
Costs estimated by CEMBUREAU
6
There has been limited study of the application of SCR to the cement manufacturing process and the literature that exists provides
conflicting data on SCR performance. The wide efficiency range shown reflects this uncertainty.
7
This cost also includes an SNCR process, referring to a kiln capacity of 2000 tonnes clinker/day and initial emissions of 50-600 mg SO2
/m3
(i) Techniques for Controlling Dust Emissions
Cement kiln flue gases carry a large amount of dust - typically 3,000 mg/m3. Whilst various de-
dusting techniques have historically been used in cement manufacturing, the modern plants now
almost exclusively use electrostatic precipitators and bag filters. These are recognised as the best
available techniques (BAT) for reducing dust emissions (EC, 2001).
Electrostatic Precipitators
Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs) use electrostatic forces to separate dust from flue gases. An
electrostatic field is generated across the path of particulate matter in the air stream. Particles become
negatively charged and migrate towards positively charged collection plates (Figure 2-12). Dust
accumulated on the collection plates is dislodged and collected by electrode rapping.
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Figure 2-12: An Electrostatic Precipitator (EPA, 2007)
A properly designed ESP combined with gas conditioning and an optimised ESP cleaning regime can
reduce dust levels down to 5-15 mg/m3 (Federal Environment Agency, Austria 1997).
EC (2001) reports that ESPs are characterised by their ability to operate under conditions of high
temperatures (up to approximately 400 ºC) and high humidity. However, Mott MacDonald
understands that the performance of ESPs at high temperatures with dry exhaust gases is problematic
and that they operate most efficiently with cool (~100ºC) moist gas.
Bag Filters
Bag filters (Figure 2-13) for de-dusting gaseous waste streams comprise a fabric membrane which is
permeable to gas flowing towards and through it but which will retain particulates. As dust
accumulates on the fabric membranes (bags) of these 'bag filters' the resistance to gas flow increases
and thus regular cleaning is required to maintain performance. The most common cleaning methods
include reverse airflow, mechanical shaking, vibration and compressed air pulsing.
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Figure 2-13: A Pulse Jet Fabric Filter (FLSmidth)
Modern fabric filters can reduce dust emissions to below 5 mg/m3 (Federal Environment Agency,
Austria 1997).
High temperature applications of bag filters require the use of more exotic fabric types than are
‘normally’ supplied (EC, 2001).
(ii) Techniques for Controlling NOx Emissions
NOx is a generic term used to refer, collectively, to all the gaseous oxides of nitrogen, nitrogen
monoxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4). There are
other less common oxides of nitrogen with variable stoichiometry represented by the formula, NxOy.
NOx are formed during the combustion of fuel by oxidisation of the molecular nitrogen of the
combustion air (thermal NOx) as well as the nitrogen compounds in the fuels (fuel NOx) and raw
materials. Thermal NOx forms at temperatures above 1200ºC and is produced mainly in the kiln
burning zone where it is hot enough to achieve this reaction (EC, 2001). The amount of thermal NOx
produced in the burning zone is related to both burning zone temperature and oxygen content (air
excess factor) (EC, 2001). Fuel NOx is generated by the combustion of the nitrogen present in the fuel.
In a precalciner the prevailing temperature is in the range 850-900ºC, which is not high enough to
form thermal NOx, but fuel NOx will occur (EC, 2001).
The temperatures in the burning zone of a cement kiln and the long residence time of the exhaust gases
in the process favour the formation of NO. Less than 10% of the NOx emissions from a kiln system
are composed of NO2 (EC, 2001). Rushworth (2008) reported the NO2 fraction as less than 5% and
Leibacher et al. (2006) reported that in the order of 98% of the NOx present in the flue gas from
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cement kiln is in the form of NO. However, these NO emissions are oxidised to NO2 in the
atmosphere after emission from the kiln. Ultimately it is the NO2 emissions which are responsible for
acid rain, smog and ozone formation and this necessitates limits on the emissions of NOx from cement
kilns. NOx emissions from cement kilns are therefore converted into their NO2 emission equivalents.
The NOx emissions (expressed as NO2) associated with cement kilns vary generally between <200 and
3000 mg NO2/Nm3 (dry gas, 0ºC, 101.3 kPa, 10% O2) (EC, 2001).
NOx emissions can be reduced via primary process optimisation measures and some of these
techniques are listed below (CEMBUREAU, 1999):
• optimisation of the clinker burning process
• computer based expert system for kiln operation
• optimisation of main burner (low NOx burner)
• multi-stage combustion for in-line precalciners.
NOx emissions in the kiln flue gas can also be abated using the clean up options detailed below.
Selective Non-catalytic Reduction (SNCR)
NOx in flue gases can be converted into N2, and water by reaction with NH4–X compounds injected
into the flue gas. The ammonia-containing solution may be supplied in the form of anhydrous
ammonia, aqueous ammonia or urea. To work effectively SNCR requires:
• That NH4–X be introduced into the flue gas at temperatures of between 800 – 1000 oC.
• That exhaust streams have a relatively high concentration of NOx as opposed to other potential
reactants.
• An oxidising or fuel lean atmosphere.
• The accurate injection of the optimum quantity of reagent NH3.
This optimal temperature window and other conditions can be obtained in suspension preheater kilns,
precalciner kilns and potentially in some Lepol kilns. It is important for the reaction to occur within
the optimal temperature range, as if the temperature falls then unconverted ammonia may be emitted
(known as 'ammonia slip') and react in the atmosphere to form visible plumes above the exhaust gas
stack. However, if the temperature is too high then the injected ammonia can itself react to form
additional NOx thus increasing the emission problem.
SNCR is routinely used at some European cement plants and there are currently at least two cement
kilns in the USA using SNCR to control NOx emissions. As such it is generally considered to be
'commercially available' (Schreiber et al., 2006) for modern preheater/precalciner kiln systems. Most
SNCR installations operating today are designed for NOx reduction rates of 10-50% and emission
levels of 500-800 mg/m3 of NOx. However, two plants in Sweden have been utilising SNCR to
comply with tight Swedish emission limits since 1997 and achieving control efficiencies of 80-85%
which corresponds to emissions of less than 200 mg/m3 of NOx – reaching flue gas purity levels, at
least in these first demonstrations, consistent with the current requirements of post-combustion
capture, discussed in section 3.3.4.
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Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
SCR has been successfully employed in the power industry and involves the injection of ammonia-
based reagents into the flue gas stream in the presence of a catalyst. Common reagents include
anhydrous ammonia, aqueous ammonia and urea. NOx compounds are converted to N2 and water and
the catalyst allows these reactions to occur at lower temperatures (300oC – 400oC) than those required
for SNCR.
The application of SCR technology to cement plants is relatively new for the industry. There have
been several small pilot studies and two large scale installations; one at the Solnhofen cement works in
Germany and the other at the Cementeria di Monselice in Italy.
Solnhofen was the first plant to adopt the full scale technology and actually has both SCR and SNCR
on-site. A recent study into the application of SCR at cement plants (Schreiber et al., 2006) concluded
that SCR technology does not, on currently available experience, appear to be a more effective NOx
treatment method than SNCR, that SCR suppliers could not provide performance guarantees and that
considerable pilot testing would be required at any given plant to optimise SCR performance at an
unknown cost. The report concluded that SCR systems could not yet be considered to be
'commercially available' technologies in the cement industry.
At the time of the report the plant had not reached the 200 mg/Nm3 imposed target for NOx emissions.
It was also not operating the SCR unit suggesting that the SNCR unit was satisfactory to meet the
operating permit emission rate of 500 mg/Nm3. However, many modifications and improvements
were made to the SCR system to cater for the high dust environment experienced in cement plants.
The main new item was equipment to remove the dust clogging the honeycomb catalyst. Many
lessons were learnt for introducing the technology to other cement plants.
Using the modified design from Solnhofen, Swiss company ELEX installed another full scale SCR
system at the Monselice Cement Plant in Italy. A range of results were achieved from the Monselice
plant ranging from 95% NOx removal efficiency down to 43% removal (Leibacher et al., 2006). A
25% ammonia solution was used as the reductant injected in one of the early stages of the preheater.
The ammonia slip through the system was negligible due to the long residence time of the vapourised
ammonia.
(iii) Techniques for Controlling SOx Emissions
Sulphur dioxide, SO2, is formed:
i. during the combustion of fuel, released in the burning zone of the kiln and the precalciner (if
present); and
ii. due to the oxidisation of pyrite/marcasite and organic sulphur in raw feed materials in the
preheater or the kiln inlet of long wet or dry kilns.
However, the SO2 formed by the combustion of fuel is absorbed by the intimate contact between the
combustion exhaust gases and the basic feed material in the preheaters of modern cement kilns. In
these modern kilns any SO2 emissions from the cement plant are predominantly due to oxidation of
pyrite/marcasite in the feed materials in the upper stages of the preheater. Modern cement plants
which do not have these sulphide minerals in their raw materials have very low emissions of SO2.
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The SO2 emissions from kilns vary between <10 and 3,500 mg/m3 (daily average basis and standard
conditions of 0ºC, 101.3 kPa, 10% O2 and dry gas) with the emissions of below 10 mg/m3 from cement
kilns which do not have sulphide minerals in their raw materials (EC, 2001).
SO2 emissions can be reduced via primary process optimisation measures and some of these
techniques are listed below (CEMBUREAU, 1999):
• reduction in sulphur content in fuels and kiln feed
• optimisation of the clinker burning process
• addition of slaked lime to the kiln feed with the use of a dry scrubber if necessary.
SO2 emissions in kiln flue gas can also be abated using the clean up options detailed below.
Addition of Absorbents
Adding absorbents, in dry or wet form, such as slaked lime, quicklime or activated fly ash with high
CaO content to the exhaust gas of a kiln can absorb SO2. Where emissions are below 1,200 mg/m3 the
most efficient way of utilising slaked lime is to add it to the kiln feed prior to clinker burning and let
the SO2 absorption occur in the kiln, rather than inject it into the flue gases after sintering. However,
where SO2 concentrations are higher this is not economically feasible.
SO2 reductions of 60-80% can be achieved by absorption injection in suspension preheater kiln
systems and for emission levels of up to 1,200 mg/m3 it is possible to reduce eventual flue gas
emissions to around 400 mg/m3 (EC, 2001). The technique is in principle applicable to all kiln
systems and is currently in use at several plants.
Dry Scrubbers
Where emission levels exceed 1,500 mg/m3 a separate scrubber may be required to reduce emission to
below 500 mg/m3. A 'dry' scrubber can be used prior to the raw meal entering the kiln.
One type of scrubber uses a venturi reactor column to produce a fluidised bed of slaked lime and raw
meal. The intensive contact between gas and absorbent, the long residence time and the low
temperature allow for efficient absorption of SO2 and absorbent rates of 90% can be achieved (EC
2001).
As of 2001 there was only one SO2 dry scrubber in operation in Europe at the HCB-Untervaz plant in
Switzerland. It has a 4 stage suspension preheater kiln system and a maximum capacity of 2,000
tonnes of clinker per day. Unabated SO2 emissions would be around 2,500 mg/m3 in direct operation
and 2,000 mg/m3 in compound operation. Using dry scrubbers the abated average emission level was
reported to be 385 mg/m3 in 1998 (EC, 2001).
Wet scrubbers
Wet scrubbers are the most commonly used technique for flue gas desulphurisation in coal fired power
plants. Calcium carbonate, hydroxide or oxide in a liquid or slurry is used to absorb SO2 from the flue
gases. The slurry is sprayed in a counter current direction to the exhaust gas and collected in a recycle
tank at the bottom of the scrubber where the formed sulphite is oxidised with air to sulphate and forms
gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O. The gypsum is separated and used as set controlling agent in cement milling,
while the water is returned to the scrubber.
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Wet scrubbers have been installed at various cement plants throughout Europe and flue gases with
peak SO2 concentrations of more than 2,000 mg/m3 have been treated to produce exhaust gases with
SO2 concentrations below 200 mg/m3 (CEMBUEAU, 1999).
The wet scrubber also significantly reduces the HCl, residual dust, metal and NH3 emissions (EC
2001).
Activated Carbon
Various pollutants such as SO2, organic compounds, metals, NH3 (and NOx if NH3 is present), NH4
compounds, HCl, HF and residual dust (after an ESP or fabric filter) can be absorbed from flue gases
using activated carbon (EC, 2001). The flue gases pass through an activated carbon filter constructed
as a packed bed and the used activated coke is periodically replaced with fresh absorbent.
As of 2001 there was only one activated carbon filter installed in Europe at Siggenthal in Switzerland.
This 4 stage cyclone preheater kiln has a capacity of 2,000 tonnes of clinker per day and prior to
installation of an activated carbon filter was emitting SO2 in concentrations of between 50 and 600
mg/m3. Following installation emissions at the outlet were significantly below 50 mg/m3 (EC, 2001).
Activated carbon filters can be fitted to all dry kiln systems.
(iv) UK National Emission Limits
Emission limits for discharges from cement production vary across the globe with the measurement
criteria (averaging time, reference conditions measurement techniques, compliance criteria etc.)
different from one country to another. Tables 2-8 and 2-9 indicate the emission limits for dust,
SO2 and NOx in the UK for production of cement (EC, 2001).
Table 2-8: UK1 Emission Limits for Dust for the Production of Cement
Plant Unit Kiln Stack Clinker Cement Other Point

Cooling Grinding Sources
New/modified mg/Nm3 40 2 50 2 40 2 50 2
Existing 3 mg/Nm3 - - - -
1
IPC Guidance Note S2.3.01
2
‘Benchmark releases’
3
Benchmark releases are, in particular, not applicable to existing plant but are a factor in considering appropriate limits.
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Table 2-9: UK1 Emission Limits for SO2 and NOx for the Production of Cement
Plant Unit SO2 SO2 NOx

Normal situation S-rich raw
materials
New/modified mg/Nm3 200 2 900 2
Existing 3 mg/Nm3 Note3 600-2500 4 500-1200 3, 5
1
IPC Guidance Note S2.3.01
2
‘Benchmark releases’
3
Benchmark releases are, in particular, not applicable to existing plant but are a factor in considering appropriate limits.
4
Limit values reflect the actual levels of releases. Daily averages and reference condition of dry gas and actual O2 content.
5
Actual releases, daily averages, not all plants currently have limits.
(v) European Discharge Limits
The Integrated Pollution Prevention Control (IPPC) Directive (EC/96/61) employs a permitting system
to achieve an integrated approach to controlling the environmental impacts of industrial activities. In
order to achieve permitting the permitting authority will consider whether the plant meets the BAT
emission limits. Permits may be issued for a plant that does not meet the BAT emission limits but a
good justification is required. Table 2-10 summarises the BAT emission limits for cement plants (EC,
2001).
Table 2-10: BAT Emission Levels (EC, 2001)
Emission Best Available Techniques (BAT) Emission Level1

NOx Combination of general primary measures, 200-500 mg NOx/m3 (as NO2)
primary measures to control NOx emissions,
staged combustion and selective non-catalytic
reduction (SNCR)
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) 100-200 mg NOx/m3 (as NO2)
SO2 Combination of general primary measures and 200-400 mg SO2/m3
absorbent addition for initial emission levels not
higher than about 1200 mg SO2/m3 and a wet or
dry scrubber for initial emission levels higher
than about 1200 mg SO2/m3
Dust Combination of general primary measures and 20-30 mg dust/m3
efficient removal of particulate matter from
point sources by application of electrostatic
precipitators and/or fabric filters
1
Emission levels are expressed on daily average basis and standard conditions of 273 K, 101.3 kPa, 10% oxygen and dry gas
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3 CO2 Capture Processes
3.1 Introduction
In this section the leading technologies that could be used to capture CO2 in cement plants are
described. These technologies include post-combustion, oxy-combustion and pre-combustion CO2
capture. The reasons why pre-combustion capture is not suitable for capture of CO2 from cement
plants are explained.
3.2 Overview
Hendriks et al. (1998) summarise the methods by which CO2 emissions can be reduced in the
production of traditional cement as:
1. Improvement of the energy efficiency of the process.
2. Shifting to a more energy efficient process (e.g. from a (semi) wet to (semi) dry process).
3. Replacing high carbon fuels by low carbon fuels.
4. Replacing fossil fuels with alternative fuels (e.g. waste-derived fuels).
5. Applying lower clinker/cement ratio (i.e. increasing the ratio additives/cement).
6. Removal of CO2 from the flue gases (CO2 capture).
The cement industry has, for various reasons and to varying degrees, implemented or begun to
implement the first five strategies. This has resulted in a reduction over time in the CO2 emitted per
tonne of clinker produced. In Japan and Europe, for example, energy efficiency improvements led to a
reduction in the energy intensity of clinker production of roughly 30% between the 1970s and the early
1990s (Japan Cement Association, 2006; CEMBUREAU, 1998). However, these efficiency
improvements appear to have plateaued as incremental improvements became less cost effective and
global emissions of CO2 per tonne of clinker have remained essentially stable since 1990 (WBCSD,
2002b). In the face of rising production this has led to an inevitable increase in absolute CO2
emissions associated with cement manufacture.
Large predicted growth in demand for cement when coupled with realistic assumptions on a
hypothetical global CO2 emissions reduction regime imply that the global cement industry may face
significant emission reduction requirements in the future (Mahasenan et al., 2005). Although there
remains undoubted scope to improve CO2 efficiency through the application of existing strategies (see
IEA GHG, 1999), the industry may need to seriously consider the application of CO2 capture to meet
significant reduction targets particularly as this technology offers a way to secure deep emission cuts.
The application of CO2 capture technologies in the cement industry is the focus of this Report.
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3.3 CO2 Capture Processes Descriptions
3.3.1 Overview
CO2 capture produces a concentrated stream of CO2 that can then be transported to a CO2 storage site
where it can remain in isolation from the atmosphere. The technology is most suited to large single
point sources of CO2 and its application is often discussed in relation to the capture of CO2 emissions
from power plants which are the biggest (stationary) sources of CO2 emissions. Cement plants are the
next biggest source of emissions and thus, there is increasing interest in the potential application of
CO2 capture technology to the cement industry. Cement kiln flue gases have a relatively high CO2
concentration (approximately 15-30%) that should provide some advantages over CO2 capture from
the power generation industry.
The approach to carbon capture can be split into three distinct categories:
• Pre-combustion – conversion of fuel to H2 and CO2 prior to combustion
• Oxy-combustion - burning fuel in pure oxygen rather than air with recycle of flue gas to
control combustion temperature
• Post-combustion – capture of CO2 from kiln flue gases.
A simplified process schematic for the three routes is shown in Figure 3-1. Although CO2 is removed
from the system at opposite ends of the process in pre- and post-combustion, the technologies
available to achieve this CO2 separation from other process streams are similar and are dealt with
individually in section 3.4. Ideally oxy-combustion should produce a flue gas with a very high
concentration of CO2 and thus negate the need for a further CO2 separation step although some
purification of the flue gas stream is likely to be required.
Figure 3-1: CO2 Capture Processes (IPCC, 2005)
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Post combustion capture has been applied in industrial manufacturing processes since the 1920s (Kohl
and Neilsen, 1997) and the same solvent technology is widely used in refining and gas processing
although predominantly with gases under reducing conditions rather than with gases containing
significant quantities of oxygen. However, given such experience this approach to CO2 capture is
considered to be 'commercially available' although it has yet to be applied at a large power or cement
plant on a commercial basis. In contrast pre- and oxy-combustion technologies are less well
developed and are considered to be 'emerging technologies' which will require further development
before finding commercial acceptance.
Each of these approaches to the process of CO2 capture and its application at cement plants is
discussed in further detail in the sections below and is followed by a review of commercially available
and emerging CO2 separation technologies.
3.3.2 Pre-combustion
Pre-combustion CO2 capture generally involves three stages. Firstly, a hydrocarbon-containing

primary fuel such as coal, natural gas or biomass is reacted with either steam or oxygen to produce a
mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide known as syngas. The process of reacting the fuel with
steam is known as 'reforming' while reaction with oxygen is known as 'partial oxidation' when applied
to gaseous or liquid fuels and 'gasification' when the primary fuel is a solid. The second step in the
process is to catalytically react the carbon monoxide with further steam to produce CO2 and more
hydrogen. This is known as the 'water gas shift reaction' and the result is a stream of hydrogen with a
high concentration of CO2 – typically 15 to 60% (dry basis). Finally, the CO2 is removed from the
CO2/H2 mixture using one of the capture methods discussed in section 3.4 leaving hydrogen to be
cleaned for use as a carbon free fuel. The process is shown in Figure 3-2.
Figure 3-2: Pre-combustion CO2 Capture Process for Cement Manufacture (Adapted
from IPCC, 2005)
Air/ O2
St ream
Coal CO 2 CO 2
Biom ass Com pression
& Dehydration
Gasificat ion H2
Reformer Com bust ion & N2
PRE COMBUSTION Calcination
+CO2 Sep.
Gas, Oil
Air
Although pre-combustion capture could be used to 'de-carbonise' the fuel source used in the cement
manufacturing process it is considered to have two major drawbacks when applied to the cement
industry that make its application unsuitable.
Firstly, since a significant proportion of the CO2 generated through cement manufacture is due to the
calcination process, which takes place after the CO2 associated with the fuel has been separated, the
exit gases from the kiln would still contain large quantities of CO2 despite the application of pre-
combustion capture. This would require additional and expensive CO2 removal (given the lower CO2
concentrations) by application of one of the other CO2 removal technologies. Secondly, there is little
opportunity to integrate the fuel conversion process into the existing production process - the cement
manufacturing process does not, unlike power generation facilities, have an existing steam cycle it can
tap into and this will increase costs associated with the process.
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For these reasons pre-combustion capture is considered not to be an attractive method by which to
reduce CO2 emissions associated with the cement industry (IEA GHG, 1999; IPCC, 2005; and
Hegerland et al., 2005) and is not considered further in this report.
3.3.3 Oxy-combustion
In the process of oxy-combustion (Figure 3-3) fuel is burnt in almost pure oxygen, rather than air. The
oxygen required for combustion is obtained by the removal of nitrogen from air, which is typically
78% nitrogen, in an Air Separation Unit (ASU).
Figure 3-3: Oxy-combustion CO2 Capture Process for Cement Manufacture (Adapted
from IPCC, 2005)
Coal CO 2 CO 2
OXYFUEL Gas Com bustion & Com pression
Biom ass Calcination & Dehydration
O2
N2
Air Air Separation
After combustion the flue gas is cooled to condense water vapour and the resulting flue gas has a high
CO2 concentration (80-98% depending on fuel and particular oxy-combustion process). The flue gas
will also contain other products associated with fuel combustion such as NOx, SOx, inert gases from
the fuel or leakage into the system and diluents used in the oxygen feed. Fuel burnt in a pure oxygen
environment has a very high stoichiometric combustion temperature (3,500oC). To control this a
proportion of the flue gas can be recycled back to the burner inlet, as a diluent, to moderate the
temperature.
The high concentration of CO2 in the flue gas eliminates or reduces the need for costly post
combustion CO2 capture from the flue gases (see section 3.4 for a discussion on CO2 separation
technologies). If the flue gas is simply captured and stored without further processing then other trace
pollutants (such as NOx and SOx) can also be compressed and stored without the need for additional
costly steps to remove these components (Marin et al., 2003). However, recent work by Air Products
(White, 2007) indicates that most of the SOx and NOx will be removed as acid during the CO2
compression.
The production of oxygen is a key step in an oxy-combustion system. The standard technology
capable of delivering the high quantities of oxygen required for oxy-combustion is the distillation of
oxygen from air at cryogenic temperatures. In a typical cryogenic air separation plant, air is
compressed and purified before being cooled through a collection of heat exchangers and finally
separated into its fractions in a double distillation column. The process has been in use for over 100
years and can reliably deliver high quantities of oxygen for industrial processes. Typical power
consumption for the delivery of 95% O2 at low pressure is 200-240 kWh/tO2 (IPCC, 2005).
Commentators have argued that this energy cost makes CO2 capture via oxy-combustion
uncompetitive compared with post-combustion technologies (Canadian Clean Power Association,
2004). There are a number of processes being explored that could reduce the cost of oxygen
production and these are discussed briefly under emerging technologies in section 3.4.3.
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Although individual parts of the oxy-combustion process are in use in various industries, including the
key step of separating O2 from air, the use of the technology specifically for the purposes of CO2
capture in an integrated process has yet to be deployed on a commercial scale.
The application of the process to power generation cycles has attracted significant attention and there
have been a number of studies (Yantovskii et al., 1992; Mathieu, 2003; Jericha et al., 2003; Nsakala et
al., 2003; Simbeck and McDonald, 2001; Kvamsdal et al., 2004; Buhre et al., 2005) and pilot tests
(Babcock Energy Ltd et al., 1995; Croiset and Thambimuthu, 2000; Anderson et al., 2004) of various
approaches to applying oxy-combustion in the process of electrical generation.
Among other examples, a 6 MW demonstration plant incorporating an oxy-combustion steam turbine

cycle is now online (IPCC, 2005) and a 68 MW 'zero emissions' oxyfuel power plant developed by
Dutch company SEQ Nederland B.V. is planned at Drachten in the Netherlands. A 30MWth oxyfuel
pilot plant is also planned for operation in 2008 at Schwarze Pumpe, Germany and another 30 MW
demonstration project is planned for operation in 2009 at Callide-A in Queensland, Australia .
Although in principle the process of oxy-combustion could be applied to the cement production
process (Zeman and Lackner, 2006) with a mixture of oxygen and recycled CO2 being fed to the
burner in the kiln, existing research into oxy-combustion has focused predominantly on the power
generation industry. Literature on the application of the technology to the cement industry is limited
and no pilot projects exist at present.
The available literature has highlighted the following issues that may affect the use of oxy-combustion
in the cement manufacturing process (Hendriks et al., 1998; IEA, 2004):
• A process redesign may be required in order to prevent excessive equipment wear. This may
make the application of this technology as a retrofit solution difficult.
• Where a precalciner is used a second combustion point using recycled CO2 may be required.
• Effects on the process chemistry need to be fully assessed. In particular, the impact of a
change of the CO2 atmosphere on the calcination process must be fully understood. If, for
example, a higher partial CO2 pressure required a higher temperature to complete reactions
this may shift more of the process into the kiln rather than the precalciner, since heat transfer
is less efficient in the kin this may reduce production capacities at a plant.
• Whether or not the process can be sufficiently free of in-leaks to prevent air dilution of the
concentrated CO2 stream.
• During periods of start-up there may not be enough CO2 from exhaust gases to recycle for
flame cooling which may result in onsite CO2 storage being required. It should be noted that
recent developments for oxy-combustion power plants indicate that start up would normally be
done using air with the flue gas being vented before switching over to recycled flue gas and
oxygen. Hence, this would only be an issue if it was not environmentally acceptable to vent
the flue gas during start-up.
All these factors will be discussed further in section 4.5.
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3.3.4 Post-combustion
Post-combustion CO2 capture adds a CO2 removal stage onto the process of flue gas clean-up. Rather
than being discharged directly to the atmosphere the flue gas is passed through equipment that
separates out CO2 which is then stored while the remaining flue gas is discharged to the atmosphere
(Figure 3-4). CO2 separation technologies are already widely applied in industrial manufacturing
processes, refining and gas processing and it is expected that they could be applied to post-combustion
capture of CO2 from cement manufacturing flue gases.
Figure 3-4: Post-combustion CO2 Capture Process for Cement Manufacture (Adapted
from IPCC, 2005)
N2
O2
Coal CO 2 CO 2
Com bust ion & CO 2
POST COMBUSTION Gas Com pression
Calcinat ion Separation
Biom ass & Dehydration
Air
The post combustion capture of CO2 from a flue gas can be achieved by a variety of different methods.
The leading commercial technologies utilise a chemical process, that offers a high capture efficiency,
selectivity and the lowest energy use and costs when compared with other existing and emerging
capture processes. These capture technologies are reviewed in section 3.4.2.
Given the high CO2 concentrations in cement plant flue gas (15-30%) post-combustion capture
appears, on the one hand, to be well suited to use at a cement plant. However, some commentators
(Thambimuthu, 2006; IEA GHG, 1999) have argued that chemical solvent scrubbing is not suited for
use at a cement plant since the large quantities of low grade heat required for solvent regeneration are
not generally available at a cement works. They suggest that given these constraints oxy- rather than
post-combustion capture is a more attractive CO2 capture route. In contrast, a recent concept study by
Hegerland et al. (2006) which looked at retrofitting capture technologies to an existing cement works
in Norway concluded that, given the stage of development of alternatives, post-combustion capture
using amine solvents is the only viable option.
3.4 Types of CO2 Capture Technology
3.4.1 Introduction
There are four basic approaches to capturing CO2 from process streams (Figure 3-5). These are as
follows:
• separation with chemical/physical solvents (absorption)
• adsorption
• separation with membranes
• cryogenic separation.
The use of chemical or physical solvents to separate CO2 is considered to be a commercially available
technology and is widely used while adsorption, membranes and cryogenic separation are considered
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developing technologies and although used in niche applications are not considered commercially
available for carbon capture at large scale power or cement plants. These commercial capture
technologies are reviewed below and the developing technologies are briefly discussed.
Figure 3-5: Types of CO2 Capture Technology (Adapted from Gupta et al., 2003)
Hindered
Amines
Amine Inorganic
Chemical Physical Gas Gas Facilitated

PSA TSA ESA Absorption Absorption Absorption Separation Transport
Adsorption Absorption Membranes Cryogenics
CO2 Capture
3.4.2 Leading CO2 Separation Technologies
(i) Chemical Solvent Scrubbing
Chemical solvent scrubbing is currently the most widely used method for capturing CO2 from low
pressure and low concentration flue gases. The majority of chemical solvents are amine based and the
most widely used is Monoethanolamine (MEA). Since CO2 is an acid gas, alkaline solvents like MEA
will form chemical bonds with it. This property can be used to absorb CO2 from a flue gas stream.
Once the CO2 has been absorbed from the flue gas, heat can be applied to the absorbent to release the
CO2 for storage while simultaneously regenerating the solvent for reuse in the process.
A process flow diagram for a commercial MEA absorption system is shown in Figure 3-6 The flue
gas is first cleaned of particulates and other impurities. It then moves into the absorption vessel where
it is brought into contact with the absorber at temperatures of between 40 and 60oC allowing CO2 to
chemically react with the solvent to form a loosely bound intermediate compound. The CO2 'rich'
solvent is then fed into the top of the stripper column, via a heat exchanger, and heat is applied (100-
140oC) to remove the chemically bound CO2 from the solvent. This produces a CO2 stream and
regenerates the original solvent which can be recycled back to the absorption vessel via a heat
exchanger and a cooler. In most industrial applications heat is supplied via steam taken from a steam
cycle. Typical CO2 recovery is between 80-95% with a product purity in excess of 99% (Rao and
Rubin, 2002).
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Figure 3-6: CO2 Recovery from Flue Gas by Chemical Absorption (Wolf et al., 2006)
CO2 t o
Com pression
Clean Flue Gas
Con d en ser
Ab sor b er St r i p p er
Flue Gas Lean -Ri ch

Heat Exch an g er
LP St eam
MEA Mak eu p
Lean MEA Reb oi l er
Rich MEA
Recovered MEA
LP St eam Recl ai m er
MEA Waste
Chemical solvent scrubbing has been used for decades in the chemical and oil industries and has begun
to be applied tentatively in power generation facilities. Although the technology has yet to be applied
to large scale power facilities or have had any application in the cement industry the process itself is
considered to be commercially available and could be used to treat cement flue gases should the right
incentives exist.
The major disadvantages with the use of MEA and other amine solvents are:
• A low carbon dioxide loading capacity - 0.4 kgCO2/kgMEA (Yeh and Pennline, 2004).
• High energy consumption during absorbent regeneration (Herzog et al, 1997; Turkenburg
and Hendriks, 1999; David and Herzog, 2000).
• A high equipment corrosion rate unless additives are used.
• High solvent degradation rates in the presence of a range flue gas constituents including
SO2, NO2 and O2.
• Removal (by filtration) and disposal or regeneration of solid salts formed when the MEA
combines with SOx or NO2.
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• Consumption of activated carbon used for removal of degradation products to prevent the
acceleration of the solvent degradation processes – typically around 0.075 kg activated
carbon per tonne CO2 (Chapel et al., 1999).
To improve the performance of amine solvents, sterically hindered amines have been developed which
can require less energy for absorption and regeneration and have higher CO2 loading capacity than
MEA. KS-1, a proprietary sterically hindered amine, has been used in a commercial gas scrubbing
operation in Malaysia since 1999 to produce a pure CO2 stream for urea production (Mimura et al.,
2000). The KS-1 solvent scrubbing process uses 2.7 MJ/kg CO2 of steam compared to approximately
3.7 MJ/kg CO2 (IPCC, 2005). Other chemicals can be added to amines to improve performance.
Inorganic alternatives to amine based scrubbers are also commercially available including the use of
potassium carbonate combined with a promoter.
In search of even greater efficiency novel process designs and alternatives to chemical scrubbers are
being investigated. These emerging technologies are briefly discussed in section 3.4.3.
(ii) Physical Solvent Scrubbing
During physical solvent scrubbing, CO2 from a gas stream is weakly absorbed by the solvent under
conditions of high pressure and released when the pressure is reduced to allow solvent regeneration.
The most commonly used physical solvent is Selexol consisting of dimethylethers of polyethylene
glycol. Alternatives include cold methanol (Rectisol), N-methyl-2-pyrolidone (Purisol) and propylene
carbonate (Fluor solvent). These physical solvents have a relatively low affinity for NOx and O2.
However, SO2 is readily absorbed and must be removed from a gas stream prior to physical solvent
use. Physical solvent scrubbing is best applied to pressurised gas streams containing high
concentrations of CO2 and is generally not considered suitable for post-combustion capture. They are
better suited for application at an Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) pre-combustion
capture plant where the fuel gases contain CO2 concentrations of 35-40% and are at high pressures.
Although cement kiln flue gases have a relatively high CO2 concentration (15-30%) they emerge at
atmospheric pressure and thus would require considerable energy input for pressurisation before
physical solvents could be usefully applied. As such physical solvent scrubbing is not considered
suitable to clean up the flue gas from a conventional cement plant. An exception may be where an
oxy-combustion process (as described in Section 3.3.3) was first applied which would result in very
high CO2 flue gas concentrations (Croiset and Thambimuthu, 1999; McDonald and Palkes, 1999;
Wolsky et al., 1994).
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(iii) Hybrid Chemical/Physical Solvents
Under certain conditions a combination of chemical and physical solvents may be efficiently used.
The Sufinol and the Amisol processes are examples of this hybrid solvent approach and are currently
used to remove CO2 and sulphur from coal syngas.
A summary of the commercially available CO2 solvents is given in Table 3-1.
Absorption process Solvent Process conditions
Physical solvents
Rectisol Methanol -10/-70˚C, >2 MPa
Purisol n-2-methyl-2-pyrolidone -20/+40˚C, >2 MPa
Selexol Dimethyl ethters of -40 ˚C, 2-3 MPa
polyethyleneglycol
Fluor solvent Propylene carbonate Below ambient temperatures,
3.1-6.9 MPa
Chemical solvents
Organic (amine based)
MEA 2,5 n monoethanolamine and 40 ˚C, ambient-intermediate
inhibitors pressures
Amine guard 5n monoethanolamine and 40 ˚C, ambient-intermediate
inhibitors pressures
Econamine 6n diglycolamine 80-120˚C, 6.3 MPa
ADIP 2-4n diisopropanolamine 2n 35-40˚C, >0.1 MPa
methyldiethanolamine
MDEA 2n methyldiethanolamine
Flexsorb, KS-1, KS-2, KS-3 Hindered amine
Inorganic
Benfield and versions Potassium carbonate and 70-120˚C, 2.2-7 MPa
catalysts. Lurgi and Catacarb
processes with arsenic trioxide
Physical/chemical solvents
Sulfinol-D, Sulfinol M Mixture of DIPA or MDEA, >0.5 MPa
water and tertahydrothiopene
(DIPAM) or diethylamine
Amisol Mixture of methanol and MEA, 5/40˚C, >1 MPa
DEA, diisopropylamine
(DIPAM) or diethylamine
Table 3-1: Commercially Available CO2 Scrubbing Solvents (Gupta et al., 2003)
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3.4.3 Developing CO2 Separation and Capture Technologies
As well as investigating novel physical/chemical solvents and potential improvements to the

absorption process a number of speculative capture technologies are currently being explored. It is
hoped that these developing technologies may offer cheaper and more efficient ways of capturing CO2.
These developing approaches to CO2 capture are described below.
(i) Absorption
Novel technologies are being investigated in order to improve, complement or replace the chemical
and physical absorption techniques previously described. Innovative designs are being investigated
with regards to the packing process (Aroonwilas et al., 2003), the increase of aqueous MEA
concentrations (Aboudheir et al., 2003) and the prevention of oxidative degradation of MEA by
deoxygenation of the solvent solutions (Chakravarti et al., 2001).
Besides novel process designs, various novel solvents are also being tested with the aim of reducing
energy consumption for solvent regeneration (Chakma, 1995; Chakma and Tontiwachwuthikul, 1999;
Cullinane and Rochelle, 2003; and IEA, 2004). One of the most promising of these new solvents is
aqueous ammonia.
Although research on its use for CO2 capture is at an early stage there have been a number of papers
and articles published highlighting several important perceived advantages that aqueous ammonia has
over amine scrubbers and MEA in particular. These include:
• The CO2 removal efficiency of aqueous ammonia is higher than MEA (99% compared to
94%) (Yeh et al., 2002)
• The CO2 loading capacity of aqueos ammonia is 3 times that of MEA (1.2kgCO2 /kg NH3
compared to 0.40 kgCO2 /kg MEA) (Yeh and Pennline, 2004)
• NH3 solution is also significantly cheaper by weight than MEA which, when combined with its
better efficiency, make it over 12.5 times cheaper, in terms of chemical make-up costs, than
MEA (Ciferno et al., 2005)
• The thermal energy requirement is approximately 50% less in a duel alkali system using
ammonia to absorb CO2 and anion exchange resins to regenerate ammonia for reuse than using
amine to absorb CO2 and steam stripping to dissociate the resulting carbamates (Huang and
Chang, 2002)
• Aqueous ammonia could be used to capture all three major acid gases (SO2, NOx, and CO2)
simultaneously since, unlike MEA, it does not suffer from absorbent degradation problems in
the presence of SO2 or O2. This is expected to reduce the total cost of and complexity of
emission control systems (Yeh and Pennline, 2004).
Though a promising future replacement for amine based scrubbing, challenges remain to the use of
ammonia in this manner. As a result of ammonia's high volatility it will tend to vaporise in the
absorption tower and escape with the flue gas (commonly referred to as ‘ammonia slip’). To mitigate
this the absorption process must take place at either elevated pressure or very low temperature and
additional tail gas control measures will be necessary. The regeneration of the ammonia solvent will
take place at an elevated pressure (Wolf et al., 2006). Given these uncertainties laboratory-scale
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testing and more rigorous process analysis and modelling will be required before ammonia based
solvents can be utilised on a commercial basis.
(ii) Adsorption
In the adsorption process, CO2 from a gas stream fix to the surface of a solid sorbent by either
chemical or physical processes and are thereby removed from the gas stream. For applications to CO2
capture, adsorbing beds of alumina, zeolite and activated carbon are currently the most effective
sorbents. Though promising, this technology incurs the costs of removing the adsorbed gas, which is
energy intensive (Anderson and Newell, 2003).
The main types of adsorption processes are as follows:
• Temperature swing adsorption (TSA)
• Pressure swing adsorption (PSA)
• Electric swing adsorption (ESA).
In PSA, the gas mixture flows through packed beds of spherical materials at elevated pressures and
low temperatures until the adsorption of the desired component approaches equilibrium conditions at
the bed exit and the adsorbent is regenerated by reducing the pressure. In TSA, heat is used to
regenerate adsorbents by raising their temperature (Hassan, 2005). PSA and TSA are commercially
used for gas separation and in the removal of CO2 from natural gas, though TSA requires more energy,
time for regeneration and larger adsorbent beds (Hassan, 2005; IPCC, 2005). It is understood that
PSA requires high feed partial pressure of CO2 or a vacuum regeranration step to desorb CO2. PSA is
used for treating 5 bar pressure process off-gas from the COREX iron making facility at Saldana Bay,
South Africa. Though not yet commercially available, ESA is said to offer the prospect of lower
energy consumption than PSA and TSA (Hassan, 2005). In ESA, regeneration takes place by passing
a low voltage electric current through the adsorbing material (Hassan, 2005). TSA, PSA and ESA
generally require the gases to be cooled and dried, thereby limiting the attractiveness of this
technology (IPCC, 2005), although it is understood that the PSA process referred to at Saldana Bay,
South Africa does not utilise gas drying. Adsorption is not yet considered attractive for large-scale
separation of CO2 from flue gases because the capacity and CO2 selectivity of available absorbents is
low (Gupta et al., 2003), new sorbents with improved performance characteristics are needed to make
this approach to CO2 capture commercially viable.
One such novel sorbent is CaO. The use of CaO as a sorbent to separate CO2 from gas streams entails
the carbonation reaction of CaO to separate CO2 from hot gases and the regeneration of the sorbent by
calcining the CaCO3 into CaO and pure CO2. This carbonation-calcination cycle was successfully
tested in experimental settings (Abanades et al., 2004; Grasa and Abanades, 2006), at a pilot plant
(Curran et al., 1967) and in a post-combustion system (Shimizu et al., 1999). This process is not
suitable for CO2 capture at a cement plant as the CaO produced at the cement plant is produced by
calcining CaCO3. Therefore, there is no CO2 emission reduction available by this route.
(iii) Membrane Separation
Membranes are specially manufactured materials that allow the selective passage of a gas through
them; a process that depends on the nature of the materials and the pressure difference across the
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membrane itself which favours high-pressure streams. Although this technology has not yet been
applied in large-scale and demanding industrial settings, a considerable research effort is in progress to
make it more applicable (IEA, 2004; IPCC, 2005). The main membrane technologies are described
below.
Gas separation membranes
Gas separation membranes have the potential of capturing CO2, depending on the permeability and
selectivity of the membrane. The applicability of this technology to CO2 capture is thus ideal for a
concentrated CO2 source stream with few contaminant gases, flowing through a permeable membrane
that is highly selective with respect to CO2. These conditions would only apply to the oxy-combustion
capture model for the cement industry. Despite the high concentration of CO2 in cement plant flue
gas, applications of this technology for post-combustion capture would require a multistage process
requiring a large number of membranes that would substantially increase capital costs (Anderson and
Newell, 2003).
Though most have been used only in research laboratory settings, common types of gas separation
membranes include polymer, palladium, and molecular sieve membranes (Riemer et al., 1993). Gas
separation membranes are likely to play a key role in CO2 capture systems in the future as their energy
efficiency can be higher than for absorption separation systems (IEA, 2004).
Gas absorption membranes
In gas absorption, a microporous membrane keeps the gas and liquid flows separate by acting as a
contacting device between gas mixtures and liquid absorbents (such as MEA solvents), thereby
increasing the efficiency of physical or chemical absorption.
In contrast to gas separation, it is the absorption liquid and not the membrane that determines the
process’ selectivity. This technology minimises entrapment and foaming, in addition to capital costs
due to its compacted nature (Miesen and Shuai, 1997; Hassan, 2005) but is limited to gas streams and
absorption liquids of similar pressure levels (Anderson and Newell, 2003).
Facilitated transport membranes
These membranes rely on the formation of complexes or reversible chemical reactions of components
present in a gas stream with compounds present in the membrane which are then transported through
the membrane. Carbozymes (Trachtenberg et al., 2007), amines and molten salt hydrates have been
suggested for CO2 separations with porous membranes used for support. These membranes have only
been tested on a laboratory scale and are fraught with limitations related to membrane selectivity and
saturation but could be used in a pre-concentration step as part of other capture processes (IPCC,
2005).
(iv) Cryogenic Separation
Cryogenic separation involves the compression and cooling of gas mixtures in multiple stages to
induce phase changes in CO2 and other gases which allow them to be separated. Studies by Herzog et
al. (1997) have shown this process to be most effective with gases containing components with very
different boiling points. This is not typical of gas streams in the cement industry. Furthermore, the
behaviour of CO2 itself is complicated and can lead to the formation of solids that damage equipment
and reduce heat transfer rates. Cryogenic separation could be effective for large and highly
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concentrated source streams of CO2, which compensate for the high energy demand of such a process
(Anderson and Newell, 2003).
In the future, the most promising applications of cryogenics are predicted for the separation of CO2 in
oxyfuel combustion in which the input gas has high concentrations of CO2 or from high-pressure gases
such as in pre-combustion capture processes (Hassan, 2005).
Clathrate Hydrate
While clathrate hydrates have the potential to impede the cryogenic processes described above, their
formation could be used to separate CO2 from gas mixtures. With more research, this could be
achieved by combining CO2 and water at various combinations of high pressure and low temperature,
leading to the formation of clathrate hydrate crystals that can be separated from other gases,
transported as slurry and stored in a dedicated location (Chargin and Socolow, 1997).
(v) Emerging Air Separation Technologies
The production of a large quantity of concentrated O2 is a vital and currently expensive step in the
process of oxy-combustion, in particular. There are a number of emerging air separation technologies
that may, in the future, lead to more efficient O2 production and thus make oxy-combustion more
attractive. These emerging technologies are discussed briefly below.
Ion Transport Membranes
The use of membrane technologies for the production of oxygen is an emerging alternative to
cryogenic air separation which may, if proven, make oxy-combustion a more attractive process. Ion
Transport Membranes (ITMs) are semi permeable ceramic mixed metal oxide membranes that can be
used to separate oxygen from a stream of heated air. A voltage or pressure differential across the
membranes causes oxygen ions from the airflow to migrate through the membrane where, on the other
side, they recombine to form oxygen gas and electrons (Bredesden et al., 2004). These membranes
operate at temperatures similar to those of the tertiary air drawn from the cooler for combustion in the
precalciner of a modern cement kiln (Clark, 2006) and as such offer potential for integration into
cement manufacturing process. If membrane technologies are effective at larger scales then they may
offer a more efficient alternative to cryogenic air separation (Stein and Foster, 2001).
Chemical Looping Combustion
An alternative to having to produce a separate stream of oxygen to be used in an oxy-combustion

process is Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC) first proposed by Richter and Knoche (1983). The
concept is based on the use of a metal/metal oxide system to provide a reversible chemical reaction for
oxygen supply. Fuel combustion is split into separate oxidation and reduction reactions in two
reactors. In one reactor a suitable metal reacts with air to produce a metal oxide, which is then
circulated to the other reactor where it reacts with the fuel to produce syngas and a metal (that can be
recycled back into the process). This so called 'flameless combustion' avoids the need for energy
intensive air separation to provide a pure oxygen supply. Although the concept of CLC has been
around for over 25 years it has only been applied in a laboratory and has never been tested on a
commercial scale – as such it should be considered a speculative technology (IPPC, 2005).
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4 Evaluation of CO2 Capture at a New-Build Cement Plant
4.1 Introduction
This section of the Report describes the detailed technical evaluation of applying CO2 capture to a
new-build cement plant. Both post-combustion and oxy-combustion capture have been studied.
Outline designs including mass and energy balances have been prepared for both options. The
performance of the cement plants with CO2 capture is described.
4.2 Design Basis
The design basis for the study was as follows:
• The capacity of the cement plant was 1 Mt/y of cement. This is typical of a modern European
cement plant.
• The cement plant is a 5-stage preheater with precalciner dry process cement plant. This was
chosen as the best available technique (BAT) for the production of cement clinker for new
plants and major upgrades is considered to be a dry process kiln with multi-stage preheating
and precalcination (EC, 2001).
• The plant is located in NE Scotland, UK. It should be noted that the IEA GHG’s standard site
location of the NE coast of The Netherlands was not used due to the absence of cement plants
in this region of Europe. The location of NE Scotland was considered more realistic
particularly due to its proximity to the North Sea oilfields which have been proposed as
potential CO2 storage locations. The ambient conditions of the site in Scotland were assumed
to be the same as those for IEA GHG’s standard site in The Netherlands.
• The fuel to the plant is 60% coal and 40% petroleum coke. This is typical although due to
rising costs the use of petroleum coke is reducing in the UK. Due to the heat balance a fuel
ratio of 65% coal and 35% petroleum coke was accepted in the oxy-combustion case as
described later.
• The cement plant is located adjacent to a limestone quarry.
4.3 Assumptions
The main technical assumptions used for this study were based on the IEA GHG R&D programme
Technical & Financial Assessment Criteria (IEA GHG, 2003). These have been developed for the
technical and financial assessment of power plants with CO2 capture. Discussions were held with the
BCA to modify some of the assumptions to be relevant to the cement industry.
The key points are summarised below:
Site Conditions
• Ambient air temperature: 9 ºC
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• Ambient air relative humidity: 60%
• Ambient air pressure: 1.013 bar
Operational hours
• Days of operation per year: 330
• Hours of operation per day: 24
Raw meal
• Moisture content: 8% (w/w)
• Sulphur content: 0.33% (w/w – dry basis)
Raw mill
• Moisture content of raw meal exiting raw mill: 1% (w/w)
• Air in-leaks in raw mill: 0.5 kg/kg clinker
Preheater
• Air in-leaks in preheater: 0.13 kg/kg clinker
Precalciner
• It is assumed that the precalciner is fed with coal only.
Kiln
• It is assumed that the kiln is fed with petroleum coke only.
• Air in-leaks in kiln inlet: 0.15 kg/kg clinker
• Air in-leaks in kiln outlet: 0.05 kg/kg clinker
Coal
• The coal specification is presented in Appendix A.
Petroleum coke
• The petroleum coke specification is presented in Appendix B.
Fuel drying
• Moisture content of dried coal: 1% (w/w)
• Moisture content of dried petroleum coke: 1% (w/w)
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Cement product
• Clinker composition in cement: 91% (w/w)
• Gypsum composition in cement: 4% (w/w)
• Limestone composition in cement: 5% (w/w)
Flue gas composition
• Fraction of NO2 in NOx: 10% (w/w)
CO2 processing
• For consistency with other IEA GHG studies the minimum CO2 capture level is 80% with the
preferred level 85%. However, a lower percentage capture was accepted in the oxy-
combustion case as described later.
• CO2 is to be compressed to 110 bara before injection into the transfer pipeline.
O2 purity
• The O2 purity supplied by the Air Separation Unit (ASU) was specified at 95% (v/v), this
figure being derived from previous studies (IEA GHG, 2005) as the optimum purity associated
with oxy-combustion power plant given tramp air ingress.
• N2 content in O2 supplied by Air Separation Unit (ASU): 2% (v/v)
• Argon content in O2 supplied by Air Separation Unit (ASU): 3% (v/v)
Seawater
• It is assumed that seawater is available for cooling. Direct cooling is used for large
compressor intercoolers and an indirect cooling system is used for other process coolers.
• Average inlet temperature of seawater cooling water: 12 ºC
• Maximum temperature rise: 7 ºC
• Salinity: 22 g/l
4.4 Evaluation of Post-Combustion CO2 Capture
4.4.1 Overview
For this study, CO2 absorption using MEA was selected as the preferred technology for post-
combustion CO2 capture. As such, the design, technical issues and process descriptions are based
around this technology. The selection of MEA is made on the basis of commercial acceptance for this
proven chemical solvent. It should be recognised that substantial scope may exist for future designs
using more economic post-combustion capture technologies being developed in the power sector.
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4.4.2 Major Technical Issues
The addition of post-combustion CO2 capture to a cement plant involves overcoming some major
technical issues if an efficient and cost effective solution is to be delivered. A typical cement plant
operates in such a way that will allow the incorporation of the capture equipment with limited
modifications to the existing plant. However, the following issues must be considered:
(i) Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
Sulphur oxides (SOx) can be produced in the cement production process from two different sources;
either from the raw meal itself or from the fuel. Any sulphides (e.g. pyrite or marcasite) present in the
raw meal will be oxidised when exposed to heat and oxygen in the precalciner or the kiln. SOx are
also produced from the combustion of coal or pet-coke. The sulphur in the fuel reacts in the same way
as the sulphides in the raw meal to produce SOx. Both these processes mainly occur in the precalciner
and the kiln. However, ordinarily in the cement process the majority of the SOx and other acidic gases
are re-absorbed into the system in the raw mill and preheater. SOx emissions are not often of concern
at modern cement plants, therefore, as such emissions result almost exclusively from the oxidation of
the sulphides in the raw mill occurring in the upper stages of the pre-heater. Thus, cement plants using
low sulphide minerals as the raw material have very low emissions of SO2, even as low as 10 mg/m3.
For plants using raw meal with significant sulphide minerals, however, SO2 emissions can be as high
as 3,500 mg/m3.
The level of sulphides in the raw meal depends on the location of the source. For example, raw meal
from Northern UK contains relatively higher levels of sulphides compared to the South of the country.
As the location of the plant for this study is in the North East of Scotland and it is assumed that the
raw material is sourced locally then Mott MacDonald has assumed a sulphide concentration of 0.33%
(w/w) in the raw material for the cement plant.
When calcination occurs in the precalciner and kiln Mott MacDonald has assumed that all sulphur
oxides are absorbed in the clinker. Additionally, the exit gas from the preheater contains some SOx
which are partially absorbed in the raw mill.
The concentration of SO2 in the flue gas from the cement process is important for post-combustion
capture due to the nature of amines. Amines react with acidic compounds to form amine salts that will
not dissociate in the amine stripping system. These amine salts must be removed from the amine
solution and must be replaced with fresh make-up amine solution. Hence, the consumption (and cost)
of amine within the amine absorption system is directly related to the concentration of SO2 in the inlet
gas. It is important, therefore, that the flue gas exposed to the amine has a very low concentration of
SO2 as amine solution is currently priced at around 1100 €/t. It has been reported that the SO2
concentration in the inlet to the amine absorption process should be restricted to approximately 10
ppmv [@ 6% O2] if CO2 absorption using amine is to economic (Chapel et al., 1999). This study has
assumed that the flue gas should be treated to this level prior to the amine absorption system.
In the process flow scheme considered for this study SO2 can also originate from another source: the
auxiliary boiler required to produce steam for the stripper. The coal used in the CHP plant has an
assumed sulphur content of 1.1% (w/w). The SOx that escapes through the raw mill and is produced
by the auxiliary boiler is removed by a wet limestone flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) system. This
system was chosen due to its demonstrated ability to achieve high levels of flue gas desulphurisation,
as required for post-combustion capture, and its current application in cement plant in Eastern
Scotland, similar to the design basis for this study. Wet limestone FGD is also currently the most
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common way to mitigate SOx emissions in power plants, and benefits from current power sector trials
of post-combustion capture.
Seawater FGD was also considered but it was considered that a higher level of SO2 reduction could be
achieved using the wet limestone technique. Further study of hybrid combinations of limestone FGD
with seawater FGD or absorbent injection within the cement process is suggested to establish the most
economic means of achieving these high levels of purity in cement plant applications.
Importantly, a by-product of the wet limestone process is gypsum which can be used later in the
process to mix with the clinker to form the final cement product. The level of SOx reduction required
will determine the amount of gypsum produced. For the process studied here approximately 50% of
the gypsum required by the cement plant will be produced from reducing SO2 emissions to the
required level for economic amine absorption.
(ii) Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
NOx are formed as a result of the combustion of the fuel. It can be formed in two ways during
combustion: thermal NOx is formed by the oxidisation of the molecular nitrogen in the combustion air;
and fuel NOx is formed from the oxidisation of the nitrogen compounds in the fuel. The fuel nitrogen
content assumed in this study is 1.5% (w/w) for pet-coke and 1.8% (w/w) for coal. In modern
precalciner cement plants combustion occurs in both the precalciner and the kiln. The high
temperatures involved in the rotary kiln combustion process cause a large amount of thermal NOx to
be formed.
NOx are problematic for MEA absorption systems as they result in solvent degradation. The chief
culprit in NOx is NO2 which reacts to form nitric acid in the amine solvent and ultimately heat stable
salts (Chapel et al., 1999). However, typically less than 10% of the NOx emissions from the cement
process are NO2 with the large majority being NO (Hegerland 2006; EC, 2001; Rushworth, 2008; and
Leibacher, 2006) and only a fraction of the NO2 is absorbed in the solvent (Knudsen et al., 2006 and
Iijima et al., 2007). NOx emissions associated with cement kilns vary generally between <200 and
3000 mg/Nm3 (EC, 2001) containing NO2 emissions of 20-300 mg/Nm3. It is reported that the
concentration of NO2 in the flue gas should be restricted to approximately 41 mg/Nm3 (20 ppmv at 6%
O2) for economic post-combustion capture using amine (IEA GHG, 2004).
There are two main ways to reduce the NOx in a flue gas. These have been described in section 0.
The most common way to mitigate NOx emissions from power plants is to use selective catalytic
reduction (SCR). SCR has been applied in this study because SCR is generally capable of achieving
greater levels of NOx reduction as compared to SNCR. This is a conservative approach and it is
recognised that SNCR may be able to achieve the required levels of NOx reduction.
To apply SCR to the cement process requires some modification of existing cement plant equipment
(described later in section 4.4.5).
(iii) Dust
The cement process produces significant quantities of dust which are carried in the flue gas and are in
the region of 3000 mg/m3. For a typical cement plant the main issues with dust are meeting the
emission standards for dust and loss of end product (i.e. clinker). Both of these issues are mitigated
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through the use of electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) or bag filters. Generally, the dust is removed from
the exit flue gas and recycled with the raw meal in one of the storage silos.
The presence of dust can effect the operation of the SCR technology and the amine CO2 absorber.
High dust conditions for SCR can cause problems with the dust sticking to the catalyst and clogging
the system. The SCR unit will be located downstream (in the direction of the gas) of the preheater,
which does not allow the reduction of dust levels prior to it. Therefore, the SCR unit must be designed
to operate in a high dust environment. A pilot plant for high dust SCR is currently being tested in
Monselice, Italy with reportedly positive results (Leibacher et al., 2006). For this application a
standard SCR unit for a power plant application has been modified to prevent clogging; the catalyst is
manufactured with slightly larger holes in the honeycomb design and additional high pressure air
blowers are fitted to remove dust sticking to the catalyst.
Dust also has a negative effect on the amine solution and causes wastage once it comes into contact
with the amine. To operate post-combustion capture economically the dust level must be below
15 mg/Nm3 (Chapel et al., 1999). Both ESPs and bag filters are capable of removing 99.9% of the
dust loading in the flue gas and are therefore appropriate for this application.
(iv) Air Dilution
Air in-leaks occur in the raw mill, preheater and kiln due to the pressure within the system operating at
slightly below atmospheric. Excessive air in-leaks will result in contamination of the CO2-rich
exhaust gas with nitrogen, oxygen and argon. This will increase the volume flow rate of the flue gas
and reduce the CO2 concentration. Both these factors will reduce the efficiency of the capture process
and increase the operating costs. The air in-leaks have been included in the process model as they
cannot be avoided.
(v) Additional Power Requirements
There will be additional power required for the compression of the CO2. Typically, this additional
power requirement for compression of the CO2 will be around 0.146 kWh/kgCO2 (IEA GHG, 2005)
In this study the total power requirement for the cement plant and the post-combustion capture plant
will be supplied by an onsite CHP plant. The CHP plant will also meet the steam demand to strip the
CO2 from the MEA.
(vi) Additional Steam Requirements
One of the major technical issues with using MEA CO2 capture is the large steam requirement. After
the CO2 has been absorbed by the MEA it then has to be regenerated by using heat in the stripper
column. The heat is supplied from low pressure steam that can be generated by an auxiliary boiler or a
power plant (either co-located or on-site). The steam conditions required are approximately 3.5 bara
and 140 - 150°C at approximately 200 – 250 t/hr (for the cement application).
Another alternative could be to use a different post-combustion capture technology that does not have
such a large steam demand. There are other techniques currently being developed but are not as
commercially and technically advanced as MEA CO2 capture. These alternatives are discussed in
section 4.4.11.
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(vii) Reducing Conditions
It is recognised that the clinker must not be generated in reducing conditions. This necessitates that an
excess of oxygen is maintained in the process. The oxygen concentration is required to be >2% (w/w)
in the preheater, precalciner and the kiln.
(viii) Heat Reduction for MEA Absorption
The flue gas leaves the cement process (at the raw mill) at approximately 110°C. This must be cooled
to approximately 50°C to meet the ideal temperature required for CO2 absorption in the MEA. This
can be achieved by passing the flue gas through the FGD system. Due to the contact with the wet
limestone slurry and the long residence time the temperature of the flue gas will drop to 45-50°C.
(ix) Other Gases
The oxygen content required for CO2 absorption in the MEA is >1.5% (v/v) (Chapel et al., 1999).
This should not pose any issues for the cement plant considered in this study as the oxygen content in
the flue gas after the raw mill is estimated to be 7.8% (v/v). Combined with the other exit gases from
the fuel drying and CHP, the oxygen content drops down to 4.3% (v/v) but this is still significantly
above the target value.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) can be present in small quantities within cement flue gases; typical
concentrations are around 8 mg/Nm3 (Hegerland et al., 2006). The presence of any acidic components
such as HCl will reduce the efficiency of the MEA absorption process. HCl concentrations will be
reduced by SCR and by FGD so concentrations should not pose a significant problem.
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) can also appear in similar quantities to HCl (~8 mg/Nm3) but should not
affect CO2 absorption in the MEA (Hegerland et al., 2006).
(x) Heat Integration
Although the cement process has been highly optimised already, post-combustion capture offers a
potential opportunity to maximise performance through heat recovery from the CO2 compression
system.
Although heat integration between the CO2 compression plant and the cement plant could lead to
energy savings it is important to understand that this may reduce the operational flexibility of the
plant. There may be valid strategic reasons for having the capability to operate the cement plant
without the CO2 compression plant. Full heat integration may make this difficult to achieve.
4.4.3 Configurations Considered
During the development of the conceptual design of a post-combustion cement plant several different
configurations for CO2 capture were considered and are illustrated in Figure 4-1 to Figure 4-4. They
can be summarised as:
• Configuration 1: Capture of all flue gases from cement plant in existing orientation.
• Configuration 2: Diversion of preheater exit gases for fuel drying and subsequent capture.
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• Configuration 3: Diversion of cooler exhaust for fuel drying with capture of all other flue
gases.
• Configuration 4: Dual preheaters with capture of gases only from the precalciner.
Figure 4-1: Post-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 1 - Capture of all Flue Gases
from Cement Plant in Existing Orientation
Post-
Combustion
CCS
Exhaust Exhaust Fuel Exhaust Exhaust

Gas Gas Preparation Gas Gas
Cleaning Condition Cleaning Cleaning
Raw Mill Preheater Precalciner Rotary Cooler

Kiln
Air intake Air intake Air intake

Fuel
Raw
Inert
Non-inert
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Figure 4-2: Post-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 2 - Diversion of Preheater

Exit Gases for Fuel Drying and Subsequent Capture
Post-
Combustion
CCS
Exhaust Exhaust Fuel Exhaust

Gas Gas Preparation Gas
Cleaning Condition Cleaning

Kiln
Fuel
Raw
Inert
Non-inert
Figure 4-3: Post-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 3 - Diversion of Cooler

Exhaust for Fuel Drying with Capture of all other Flue Gases
Post-
Combustion
CCS
Exhaust Exhaust Exhaust Fuel

Gas Gas Gas Preparation

Kiln
Leak-
Air intake Air intake

Fuel
Raw
Inert
Non-inert
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Figure 4-4: Post-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 4 - Dual Preheaters with

Capture of Gases only from the Precalciner

Raw Mill Preheater 1 Rotary Cooler

Precalciner Kiln
Preheater 2
Fuel Post-
Raw Combustion
Inert CCS
Non-inert
The configurations are compared with a summary of their respective advantages and disadvantages
shown in Table 4-1.
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Table 4-1: Comparison of Different Post-Combustion Configurations
Configuration 1 2 3 4
Advantages Can potentially Less gas will need Using cooler excess Air in-leaks from the
capture all the CO2 to be separated air to dry fuel is raw mill are avoided.
the cement plant. from the CO2 already proven.
(possibly a higher
CO2 concentration),
therefore lower
Does not affect the Capex and Opex.
cement process.
Air in-leaks from

the raw mill are
avoided
Disadvantages Air in-leaks reduce Only applicable to Non-inert gas is Dual pre-heaters
the efficiency of the plants where the used for drying the required which makes
process by diluting raw mill is remote. fuel. This can retrofitting difficult.
the flue gas. cause operational
Not all the CO2 has difficulties as it is a Not all CO2 is
the potential to be less safe mode of captured.
captured. operation.
Air in-leaks will

dilute the flue gas.
Technical risk Low Low Low Low
4.4.4 Chosen Configuration
Configuration 1 was chosen for further evaluation because there is the possibility to capture all of the
CO2 emitted from the cement plant, it has minimal impact on the standard cement process (only the
addition of SCR will affect the process directly) and it could easily be retrofitted to an existing plant.
None of the other three options can offer all these advantages.
4.4.5 Process Description
A detailed evaluation of configuration 1 was undertaken.
PFD 234996/PC/FS02 contained in Appendix D illustrates the major process units and process
streams.
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(i) Process Modelling
Mott MacDonald and Whitehopleman developed a steady state mass and energy balance of the process
using Excel. Each individual process unit was modelled. The mass flows into and out of each process
unit were calculated based on simple performance equations derived from typical industry data or
parameters. The energy flows were calculated using the basic thermodynamic properties of the
components. Where necessary recycle loops were solved using an iterative approach.
The outputs of this exercise were the compositions of the individual streams contained in Appendix D.
(ii) General Description
PFD 234996/PC/FS02 contained in Appendix D shows the arrangement selected for the basis of this
particular study. There are five key features that distinguish the process from a conventional cement
plant:
• An SCR unit is fitted between the preheater and the raw mill for NOx abatement. The
ammonia will be injected into the first stage of the preheater to increase the residence time of
the reaction.
• An auxiliary boiler or CHP plant is required for the low pressure steam for MEA stripping.
The CO2 from this process will also be captured and will mix with the cement flue gas before
the wet limestone FGD unit.
• An FGD unit is fitted to remove SOx from the flue gas stream.
• CO2 capture equipment based on amine solvent separation is installed.
• The net CO2 product is compressed, dried, the inerts separated and the pure CO2 is further
compressed to pipeline pressure of 110 bara.
A more detailed process description is described below:
(iii) Raw Material Preparation
Limestone is extracted from the adjacent limestone quarry by drilling and blasting. The blasted
limestone is loaded onto haul trucks by wheel loaders and hauled to the crusher. The crusher is a
double rotator hammer crusher rated at 1000 tph and capable of producing limestone of the required
size of less than 90mm in a single pass through the crusher. Crushed limestone is conveyed to a
longitudinal prehomogenisation stockpile where it is stacked together with the shale secondary raw
material using the windrow technique.
The shale secondary raw material is imported to a primary stockpile from which it is loaded to a
hammer crusher rated at 250 tph. Crushed shale is delivered onto the crushed limestone conveyor belt
and the two raw materials are delivered together to the prehomogenisation stockpile. The mixture of
raw materials passes through a prompt gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA) cross-belt
analyser. This PGNAA analyser determines the composition of the mixture of raw materials allowing
the proportions of limestone and shale in the mixture to be adjusted to required chemistry targets by
varying the feed rates to the limestone and shale crushers.
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Raw material crushing operations are carried out on a day work basis, working eight hours per day for
five days per week. The prehomogenisation stockpile comprises two longitudinal beds of
35,000 tonnes capacity each, providing sufficient crushed raw materials for more than 7 days raw
milling operations. One stockpile is built while the other is reclaimed to the raw mill on successive
weeks. Power consumption of the raw material crushing, stacking and reclaiming operations totals
2 kWh/t of clinker produced from the kiln.
(iv) Raw Mill
The premixed raw materials are extracted to a premix bin which feeds the vertical roller mill for raw
grinding. Additional corrective raw material feed bins are provided for sand and iron oxide. These
materials are imported to primary stockpiles and loaded into the raw mill feed bins via apron feeders
and conveyor belts, as required by the process. The premix and corrective raw materials are extracted
from their feed bins at a measured rate and conveyed to the raw mill in the proportions required to
meet the kiln feed chemistry targets. 52.42 kg/s of raw meal is required, with a raw material
consumption of 1.51 t/t clinker. This value compares favourably to the 1.57 tonnes of raw meal
required to produce 1 tonne of clinker for the typical average consumption of raw materials in the EU
(EC 2001).
The raw mill is a vertical roller mill. Feed is delivered onto the centre of the rotating table of the mill
and is drawn under the rollers of the mill which are pressed onto the material bed on the table by
hydraulic cylinders. Ground raw material falls over the dam ring round the edge of the table and is
lifted by the hot gases (tempered tertiary air) sweeping the mill through the mill body to the integral
separator. Coarse material is rejected by the separator and falls back to the mill table for regrinding
while fine material is drawn out of the separator and mill with the hot gases by the mill induced draft
fan.
Air from the SCR tower unit is used to sweep the raw mill and dry the raw materials from their initial
moisture content of 8% (w/w) to 1% (w/w). This requires approximately 292 kJ/kg of energy. The
dried raw mix and sweeping air exit the raw mill at 100ºC. The temperature of the SCR unit exit air
entering the mill is tempered by recirculation of mill exhaust air in order to protect the bearings of the
rollers and separator.
The raw milling system has a rated capacity of 255 tph in order to provide 33% overtaking capacity
above the requirements of the kiln for raw mix kiln feed. This enables planned stops of the raw
milling system for maintenance to take place for up to 6 hours per day. During these periods when the
raw milling system is stopped the SCR exhaust air bypasses the raw milling circuit and the gas
conditioning tower is brought into operation, introducing moisture via atomising sprays into the flue
gas to reduce the temperature.
The fine, raw mix product is collected from the hot gases after the raw mill induced draft fan by
collection cyclones and the bag filter for dedusting. The bag filter recovers approximately 0.96 kg/s of
dust that is recycled into either the storage silo or directly into the preheater entry. The de-dusted
gases are drawn through a fan and exhausted to the gas mixer. With the addition of air in-leaks,
(which are significant in the raw mill at approximately 15.96 kg/s) the total exit gas from the raw mill
transported to the carbon capture equipment is 75.59 kg/s, of which 29.6% is CO2. This is
considerably higher than the typical concentration in flue gases from power plant applications and
should provide some technical and economic advantages to CO2 capture at a cement plant. The
collected raw mix product is transported mechanically to the combined raw mix homogenisation and
storage silo. This homogenisation silo has a capacity of 10,000 tonnes in order to provide over 2 days
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buffer storage of ground raw mix kiln feed. Homogenisation of the raw mix in the silo is achieved by
sequential activation of air slides in the segmented base of the silo by compressed air and extraction of
material from a pressure relieved central chamber with a conical roof.
Power consumption of the raw milling and homogenisation system totals 25 kWh/t of clinker
produced from the kiln.
(v) Selective Catalytic Reduction
The SCR tower is situated between the preheater and the raw mill. The reductant used in this case is a
25% ammonia solution. The vapourised ammonia is injected into the first stage of the modified
preheater to allow a long residence time with the gas. This reduces the ammonia slip (the amount of
ammonia that passes through the system) to less than 5 mg/Nm3 (Schreiber and Russell, 2006).
Ammonia slip can be a problem with SNCR applications. The temperature of the gas at this stage will
be sufficiently high to allow the reaction to take place. The reaction can only occur on the surface of
the catalyst and requires a temperature between 300°C and 450°C for optimal operation. The
ammonia rich flue gas is blown through the SCR system which consists of several layers of catalyst.
For the cement application the catalysts are honeycomb shaped (as opposed to a flat plate catalyst) to
allow the dust to pass through. The basic equations for the reactions that will take place are as
follows:
4NO + 4NH3 + O2 Æ 4N2 + 6H2O
4NH3 + 2NO2 + O2 Æ 3N2 +6H2O
It should be noted that the MEA is unaffected by the NO but the SCR system is still capable of
removing it from the flue gas. The catalyst is usually manufactured from active metals and substrates
(a combination of vanadium oxide and titanium dioxide is considered best for cement kiln
applications) (Leibacher et al., 2006) and is arranged in several honeycomb layers. The holes in the
catalyst are slightly larger than usual for SCR used in power stations due to the high dust environment
created by the cement process. The holes can be approximately 10 mm in diameter to avoid clogging
of the dust. The tower is designed so that each catalyst layer is periodically cleaned using pressurised
air.
Based on the reported BAT emission level for SCR of 100-200 mgNOx/Nm3 (as NO2) (EC, 2001) then
this system should comfortably be able to achieve a maximum outlet NOx concentration of 410
mg/Nm3 (at 6% O2) in order to achieve the target NO2 concentration of 41 mg/Nm3 (at 6% O2)
required for economic post-combustion capture with amine.
(vi) Preheater
A 5-stage preheater would be slightly modified to integrate with the SCR system required for CO2
capture using MEA. Vapourised ammonia injection equipment must be integrated into the first
cyclone stage and the process is described below.
The milled raw meal product is transported from the silos via conveyors and elevators to the preheater
feed bin. This is situated at the top of the preheater. Here it enters the first of the 5 cyclone stages,
vaporised ammonia is also added at this stage for NOx abatement. It is added to the preheater because
it gives the NOx a longer residence time to mix with the ammonia (although the reaction will only take
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IEA GHG
place on the surface of the catalyst), it gives a higher NOx removal efficiency and decreases the level
of ammonia slip (ammonia that passes through the SCR system to the exit gas stream).
The preheater uses exhaust air from the precalciner (which operates at 900°C) to dry the raw meal and
drive off any remaining moisture; this requires approximately 167 kJ/kg of heat. It is estimated that
18% of the calcination also occurs in the preheater. Calcination is an endothermic reaction and
absorbs 353 kJ/kg of heat. As the preheater is not perfectly insulated some heat is lost as radiation;
this is estimated at 75 kJ/kg. The preheated (and partially calcined) raw meal enters the precalciner at
780°C at 61.76 kg/s with no moisture content.
(vii) Precalciner
The bulk of the calcination process is carried out in the precalciner. Dried pulverised coal is used as
the fuel and is delivered at the required rate (2.03 kg/s at 1% (w/w) moisture) to ensure constant
temperature operation of the precalciner at 900ºC. This amounts to 60% of the total calorific input to
the kiln system and is in line with the normal practice in the operation of precalciner cement kilns.
In a conventional, in-line precalciner the oxygen for the combustion of the precalciner fuel is part
drawn from the excess air in the hot kiln exhaust gases rising from the rotary kiln and part from the hot
tertiary air drawn from the hot end of the clinker cooler which have bypassed the kiln via the tertiary
air duct. The tertiary air has been heated to 908°C to maintain the high precalciner temperature.
The Mott MacDonald mass and energy balance model assumes 77% of the calcination occurs in the
precalciner and consumes 1511 kJ/kg of heat. There are also radiation losses in the precalciner that
account for 25 kJ/kg of energy. The release of CO2 in the calcination reaction significantly reduces
the amount of solid feed passing forward to the rotary kiln. The preheated raw meal entering the
precalciner is 61.76 kg/s but the calcined raw meal (95% calcined) only has a mass flow rate of
37.46 kg/s. The calcined raw meal enters the rotary kiln at 870°C.
Air in-leaks are also present in the precalciner and account for 4.81 kg/s of the total precalciner exit
gas of 70.51 kg/s. The temperature of the exit gas is 900°C.
(viii) Kiln
The material from the precalciner is collected in the lower stage cyclone of the preheater tower and
enters the kiln via the kiln inlet hearth. A burner is situated both centrally and co-axially with the kiln
at the front end of the kiln. Petroleum coke is fired into the front end of the kiln along with the
‘primary air’. The kiln burning conditions are constantly monitored in terms of clinker temperature,
burning zone temperature and nitrous oxides, oxygen and carbon monoxide emissions (at the back end
of the kiln). The pet-coke is heated to approximately 65ºC in the fuel drying process and is
transported to the kiln using a fan at 1.5 kg/s. The secondary combustion air is drawn into the kiln
from the cooler and enters the kiln at approximately 1025°C. The hot clinker leaving the kiln falls into
the clinker cooler. The kiln rotates at between 3 and 4 revolutions per minute driven by the main drive
of the kiln. By the end of its time in the kiln the raw meal has been completely calcined and combined
to form clinker and exits the kiln at approximately 32.57 kg/s at 1350°C.
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(ix) Fuel Preparation
Raw coal is imported to site and stored under cover. It is transported from the stockpile by a belt
conveyor transport system that feeds an intermediate raw coal storage hopper. The raw coal is
extracted from this storage hopper at a controlled rate and fed to the vertical roller coal mill. This mill
has a rated capacity of 10 tph in order to provide 25% overtaking capacity above the requirements of
the precalciner for fine coal. This enables planned stops of the coal milling system for maintenance to
take place for up to 5 hours per day.
This vertical roller mill is swept by inert (<10% w/w oxygen) exhaust gases from the preheater. These
exhaust gases have a temperature of approximately 330ºC and are used for drying the coal while it is
being ground in the mill. The temperature at the mill exit is controlled to a temperature of
approximately 70ºC dependent on the dewatering curve of the coal being used to fire the precalciner.
Raw coal is delivered onto the centre of the rotating table of the vertical roller mill and drawn under
the rollers by centrifugal force induced by the rotation of the table. The rollers are pressed onto the
bed of coal on the rotating table by hydraulic cylinders. After passing under the rollers the ground
coal falls over the dam ring around the edge of the rotating table and is picked up by the hot, inert
gases sweeping the mill and carried to the internal classifier of the mill. Coal which is not of sufficient
fineness for firing in the precalciner is returned to the centre of the rotating table for regrinding. Fine
coal passes out of the mill with the exhaust gases and is collected in a bag filter. The collected
pulverised and dried coal is delivered into a fine coal storage bin for onward delivery to the
precalciner at the rate demanded by the process. The exhaust gases from the filter are vented to
atmosphere through their own dedicated stack. The metered coal from the precalciner fine coal bin is
delivered pneumatically to the precalciner coal burners using tertiary air as the transport gas.
Raw petroleum coke is handled in a similar way to the coal. It is imported to site, stored under cover
and transported from the stockpile by a belt conveyor transport system that feeds an intermediate raw
petroleum coke storage hopper. The raw petroleum coke is extracted from the storage hopper at a
controlled rate and fed to the petroleum coke mill. This mill has a rated capacity of 5 tph in order to
provide 25% overtaking capacity above the requirements of the kiln for fine petroleum coke. This
enables planned stops of the petroleum coke milling system for maintenance to take place for up to 5
hours per day.
This vertical roller mill is swept by inert (<10% w/w oxygen) exhaust gases from the preheater. These
exhaust gases have a temperature of approximately 330ºC and are used for drying the petroleum coke
while it is being ground in the mill. The temperature at the mill exit is controlled to a temperature of
approximately 70ºC.
Raw petroleum coke is delivered onto the centre of the rotating table of the vertical roller mill and
drawn under the rollers by centrifugal force induced by the rotation of the table. The rollers are
pressed onto the bed of petroleum coke on the rotating table by hydraulic cylinders. After passing
under the rollers the ground petroleum coke falls over the dam ring around the edge of the rotating
table and is picked up by the hot, inert gases sweeping the mill and carried to the internal classifier of
the mill. Petroleum coke which is not of sufficient fineness for firing in the main burner of the rotary
kiln is returned to the centre of the rotating table for regrinding. Fine petroleum coke passes out of the
mill with the exhaust gases and is collected in a bag filter. The collected pulverised and dried
petroleum coke is delivered into a fine petroleum coke storage bin for onward delivery to the main
burner of the rotary kiln at the rate demanded by the process. The exhaust gases from the filter are
vented to atmosphere through their own dedicated stack. The metered, fine petroleum coke from the
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IEA GHG
main burner fine petroleum coke bin is delivered pneumatically to the main burner of the rotary kiln
where it is blown into the kiln with additional primary air.
(x) Clinker Cooler
The hot clinker falls from the kiln onto the inclined, static grate of the clinker cooler at a temperature
of 1300ºC. A layer of cooled clinker permanently sits on this grate protecting the plates against
abrasion and overheating. Sliding of fresh, hot clinker over this layer of cooled clinker is induced by
the transport of clinker away from the base of the inclined, static grate over the subsequent, horizontal
grate of the cooler. Clinker is progressively transported over this horizontal grate by the reciprocating
action of the tracks or bars moving above the grate within the bed of clinker using the principal of a
“walking floor”. Cooling air is blown into air beams beneath and through the grates along the entire
length of the cooler. The air beams and grates are stationary along the entire length of the cooler with
the movement of the clinker induced by the moving elements above the grate.
The clinker is cooled from 1350ºC to 50ºC above ambient temperature at the discharge of the cooler.
Heat is transferred from the clinker to the cooling air stream for subsequent recycling in the process.
The hottest secondary air at a temperature of 1125ºC is drawn into the rotary kiln to provide the
secondary combustion air for the firing of the petroleum coke in the main burner of the kiln. Hot
tertiary air at 908ºC is drawn into the tertiary air duct from above the cooler horizontal grate. The
lower temperature excess air resulting from the final clinker cooling is exhausted through a bag filter
system before passing to the stack.
The cooled clinker falls into the hammer crusher and then one of two metal clinker conveyors. From
the main clinker conveyor the clinker can be fed to either the main clinker storage silo or to the cement
mill clinker feed bins. The second, shorter clinker conveyor feeds to a clinker export hopper for lorry
loading. This arrangement provides redundancy of the clinker transport system away from the kiln
and cooler.
The main clinker storage silo has 60,000 tonnes capacity in order to provide sufficient storage for
20 days operation of the kiln and allow for continued supply of the market during kiln refractory lining
repairs of this duration. Clinker can be recovered from the main clinker store to the cement mill
clinker feed bins.
(xi) Cement Milling
Two vertical roller mills are used for cement finish grinding. Each mill has a rated capacity of 90 tph
at the average Blaine 3500 cm2/g of the cement products produced on the cement plant. This provides
for the 1,000,000 tonnes per year production of the cement plant to be ground in 310 days with the
mills operating for 18 hours of those days. This allows ample overtaking capacity to facilitate
maintenance of the mills and for seasonality in the demand for cement from the plant.
Ambient air is used for ventilation of the mills and dedusting is provided by bag filter and fan units.
Power consumption of the finish milling system totals 35 kWh/t of cement produced.
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IEA GHG
(xii) Packing and Loading
Two cement storage silos, each of 10,000 tonnes capacity are provided for finished cement storage.
This is sufficient for almost 7 days dispatches of cement from the plant. These silos are each divided
into six compartments to allow for storage of up to 12 different cement products.
Cement can also be transferred to a bag packing plant from where the bagged product is conveyed to a
palletiser for warehousing and storage. The warehouse is capable of storing 2,000 tonnes of palletised,
bagged cement, sufficient for more than 3 days dispatches of cement in this form of packaging.
(xiii) Gas Mixer
A gas mixer is required to mix the gas from three sources prior to the wet limestone FGD system. The
gases come from the kiln/calciner system, the fuel drying and the auxiliary boiler/CHP.
(xiv) Flue Gas Desulphurisation
Wet limestone flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) is situated after the flue gases have been mixed from
the auxiliary boiler/CHP and the clinker production process. The flue gases pass to the absorber
column where they are mixed in the reaction tank with the sprayed limestone slurry. The slurry has a
residence time of approximately ten hours. The inlet temperature of the flue gas coming from the raw
mill will be approximately 110°C. The limestone slurry will cool the flue gas to 45-50°C during the
process. This is the ideal temperature for the CO2 capture in the MEA and reduces the need for
additional flue gas cooling. The absorber column, inlet and outlet pipes must all be manufactured
using corrosion resistant materials to avoid corrosion caused by the wet portion of the flue gas. The
slurry is typically a 15% concentration of calcium sulphate, calcium sulphite, unreacted alkali, inert
materials, fly ash and various dissolved materials (IEA GHG, 2004). The slurry is produced using
several layers of spray banks. The slurry required depends on the level of SO2 removal required. For
absorption of CO2 with MEA very low levels of SO2 are required (<10 ppmv) and the amount of
limestone required is approximately 13,000 t/y. These should be considered as preliminary figures as
substantial testing and optimisation will be required before the FGD system is installed.
The basic equation for the reaction with SO2 is shown below:
CaCO3 + SO2 + 2H2O + 0.5O2 Æ CaSO4.(2H2O) + CO2
The resulting product from the reaction is wet gypsum and carbon dioxide. The gypsum can be dried
and added to the clinker later in the process to create cement. The gypsum formed from the FGD
process can account for around half of the gypsum required in the cement product. The carbon
dioxide formed will be captured along with the rest of the CO2 in the flue gas and the water can be
recycled to form the wet limestone slurry.
Limestone processing and storage may also be required. Limestone must be ground with the recycled
FGD water to form the slurry and added to the reaction tank when required by control valves.
Alternatively, pre-ground limestone could be used. Since large quantities of limestone will be
delivered to site for the cement process, it is most likely that it will be more cost-effective to process
the limestone on site.
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IEA GHG
(xv) Amine Capture Process
The de-sulphurised gas should leave the FGD system at approximately 50°C and will be suitable for
the CO2 absorption process. The clean flue gas is blown from the FGD unit to the packed absorber
column; it enters from the bottom of the column and is forced in counter current flow with the lean
MEA. The lean MEA is fed in from the top of the absorber column along with any makeup MEA
required. Ideally, the CO2 absorption and stripping cycle should be a closed loop system where all the
MEA is regenerated in the stripper column and returned to the absorber. However, certain compounds
in the flue gas combine with MEA to form amine salts and must be removed from the system. The
amount of make-up MEA required will influenced by the levels of NO2, SO2, dust and other
degenerative components present in the flue gas. The MEA make-up required has been estimated at
2,400 t/yr.
The CO2 first comes into contact with rich MEA and as it travels up the packed column the MEA
contains less CO2 (leaner) and therefore will more readily absorb. The clean flue gas leaves at the top
of the column and goes through a water wash (to remove any MEA slip) before exiting to the
atmosphere. Depending on the amount of CO2 left in the clean flue gas, stack gas preheating may also
be required to prevent slumping. A basic process flow diagram of the CO2 capture process is shown in
Figure 4-5.
Figure 4-5: MEA CO2 Capture System
CO2 t o
Com pression
Clean Flue Gas
Con d en ser
Ab sor b er St r i p p er
Flue Gas Lean -Ri ch

Heat Exch an g er
LP St eam
MEA Mak eu p
Lean MEA Reb oi l er
Rich MEA
Recovered MEA
LP St eam Recl ai m er
MEA Waste
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IEA GHG
The rich MEA flows through a heat exchanger with the lean MEA from the stripper column to
increase its temperature. The rich MEA is fed into the top of the stripper column; low pressure (LP)
steam increases the temperature of the rich MEA to release the CO2 which flows out from the top of
the stripper column. The LP steam demand has been estimated at 200-250 t/hr with a temperature of
140-150°C and a pressure of approximately 2.2 barg. The steam can be provided by either an
auxiliary boiler or a CHP plant and these options are discussed in Section 4.4.5(xvii).
Any excess steam residing in the CO2 is recovered using a condenser from where the CO2 goes onto
compression. A slip steram of MEA is fed into a reclaimer where it is heated to a higher temperature
in the presence of Sodium Hydroxide. This recovers some of the degraded MEA and is returned to the
cycle. The Waste MEA leaves the reclaimer and must be disposed. There is the possibility of using
this as a fuel in the kiln but this would require further investigation (see Section 4.4.9). The hot lean
MEA goes through the heat exchanger with the rich MEA and reduces in temperature before entering
the top of the absorber.
Compared to power plant applications, the gas stream from the cement process is more favourable for
CO2 capture. There is less gas and the concentration of CO2 is greater. This results in smaller
absorber and stripper columns being required. The absorber column will be approximately 11.87 m in
height and 10.3 m in diameter. The stripper column will have the same diameter but a height of only
8.23 m.
(xvi) CO2 Drying and Compression
The CO2 leaving the stripper column is already more than 95% (w/w) pure CO2 and does not require
further purification. The CO2 leaves the condenser at atmospheric pressure and temperature. This
needs to be dried and compressed to 110 bara before transportation.
(xvii) Electrical Supply
The total installed power required by the cement plant is estimated at 16.3 MWe with an additional
26.9 MWe required for the CO2 capture plant (see Table 4-2) giving a total power demand of
43.2 MWe. The operating power, operating hours and the power consumed of all the major process
units are also shown in Table 4-2. The estimation of overall CO2 emissions of a post-combustion
capture cement plant includes a coal-fired CHP plant to supply heat and power to the entire plant and
it is assumed that a suitable grid connection is available.
A significant addition of power is required for the CO2 capture plant. It can be seen from Table 4-2
that nearly 50% of the additional power required to capture the CO2 is in the compression to 110 bara.
The steam demand for the MEA stripping can be met with a 45 MWe CHP plant. If a CHP plant is
constructed onsite then there may also be some commercial benefits from exporting energy to the grid,
especially if biomass is used to raise the steam as the plant would be entitled to ROCs, but this is not
considered further here. The CHP could also qualify for enhanced capital allowances if it was deemed
a good quality CHP. From preliminary calculations, it appears good quality CHP could be achieved,
although no capital allowances are assumed for this study.
The CHP plant was sized on a 45 MWe back pressure steam turbine. A simple model using the
GateCycle software assessed the sizing of the plant required. The output from the model can be seen
in Figure 4-6.
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IEA GHG
Figure 4-6: GateCycle Output for CHP Plant
The model shows that the turbine requires approximately 242 t/h of steam at 130 bara and 530°C. The
steam requirement calculated for the stripper is 202 t/h at 3.5 bara and 140°C. The exhaust from the
turbine would be at 3.5 bara and would more than meet the steam demand of the CO2 capture system.
This is simplified model of the system and the steam cycle has been slightly oversized, a condenser
may be required to optimise the steam flow to the stripper column. The quantity of coal required to
raise this steam has been estimated at approximately 228,000 t/y.
An alternative to installing a CHP plant would be to import the electricity and provide the steam using
an auxiliary boiler. This would reduce the amount of coal required and reduce the capital cost of the
plant as a steam turbine would not be required. However, the benefits of producing power would not
be realised.
Another option for a new-build cement plant would be to co-locate with an existing power station that
could provide the LP steam to the stripper column. This would reduce the need for either a CHP plant
or an auxiliary boiler.
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IEA GHG
Table 4-2: Electrical Demand of Post-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2 Capture
Process Area Main Equipment Installed Operating Operating Power

Items Power Power hours per consumed
(MWe) (MWe) year (MWh/y)
Raw Material Limestone crusher 0.60 0.51 2080 1061
Preparation Shale crusher 0.20 0.17 2080 354
Stacker-reclaimer 0.28 0.24 2080 500
system
Raw Mill Raw mill drive 1.20 1.02 5730 5845
Raw mill fan 1.50 1.28 5730 7306
Raw mill ancillaries - - - -
Raw mill bag filter - - - -
Bag filter fan 1.20 1.02 5730 5845
Conditioning Tower 1.20 1.02 5730 5845
Homogenising 0.12 0.10 5730 560
chamber silo
Preheater Preheater feed bin - - - -
5 stage preheater - - - -
Preheater fan 0.90 0.77 7920 6059
Precalciner Precalciner - - - -
Rotary Kiln Kiln 0.65 0.55 7920 4349
Clinker Cooler Grate cooler 1.00 0.85 7920 6732
Cooler bag filter
Cooler bag filter
Clinker crusher
Clinker conveyor
Clinker storage silo
Export clinker
hopper
Coal preparation Coal milling system 0.30 0.26 6095 1554
Petroleum coke Petroleum coke mill 0.30 0.26 6095 1554
preparation
Cement milling Mill 1 3.15 2.68 5580 14940
Mill 2 3.15 2.68 5580 14940
Packing and loading Silo 1 - - - -
Silo 2 - - - -
Bag packing plant 0.50 0.43 7920 3366
Total for cement 16.24 13.81 - 80809
plant
Selective Catalytic Reactor Casing 0.35 0.30 7920 2356
Reduction (SCR) Bypass System
Catalyst
Ammonia Injection
Equipment
Handling Equipment
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Control System
Flue Gas Spray Tower 2.10 1.79 7920 14137
Desulphurisation Absorption
(FGD) Reaction Tank
Mist Eliminators
Limestone Storage
Limestone
Preparation
Dewatering System
Other Gas Mixer - - - -
CO2 Capture Pumps (MEA, 3.90 3.32 7920 26255
Reflux, Stripper etc)
Amine Filter
Package
Water Tankage
Cross Exchangers
Stripper
Coolers (DCC and
water wash)
DCC Towers
Overhead Stripper
Condenser
Stripper Reboiler
Lean Solvent Cooler
Packing
Absorption Tower
Flash Drums
CO2 compression and Dryer 23.71 20.15 7920 159618
purification Compressors
CO2 Pumps
CHP Plant Coal and Ash 7.50 6.38 7920 50490
Handling (incl.
milling)
Boiler Island
Steam Turbine plant
and Generator
Selective Catalytic
Reduction
Balance of Plant
Total for CO2 37.56 31.93 - 252857
Capture Plant
Total for whole 53.80 45.73 - 333666
plant
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IEA GHG
4.4.6 Plant Performance
The performance of the cement plant with post-combustion CO2 capture will only be affected by the
addition of an SCR unit between the preheater and the raw mill. This will reduce the temperature of
the flue gas used for drying in the raw mill. The MEA CO2 capture process will not affect the cement
process.
It should be noted that the flue gas leaves the FGD unit with a CO2 concentration of 26.4% (w/w).
Research and preliminary testing indicate that the CO2 capture rate using amine scrubbing could be
between 85% and 95%. For consistency with other IEA GHG studies the CO2 capture rate has been
conservatively assumed at 85%.
Table 4-3 summarises the performance of the post-combustion CO2 capture cement plant.
Table 4-3: Performance of Cement Plant with Post-combustion CO2 capture
Parameter Unit Value

Inputs Raw meal consumed t/y 1,494,526
Coal required t/y 291,633
Petroleum coke required t/y 32,876
Limestone for FGD t/y 12,795
Water for FGD t/y 115,152
Ammonia t/y 1,855
MEA Make Up t/y 2,400
Low Pressure Steam t/y 1,662,000
(@ 3.5 bara and 141°C)
Electricity consumption MWh/y 333,666
Outputs Clinker produced t/y 910,000
Cement produced t/y 1,000,000
Gypsum produced t/y 16,374
(FGD)
Net Electricity Exported MWh/y 22,734
CO2 captured t/y 1,067,734
CO2 emitted t/y 188,424
(i) Evaluation of MEA Absorption
Although it has been assumed in this study that the CO2 capture rate using MEA is 85%, the
University of Regina, Canada has modelled CO2 capture from the predicted cement flue gas with a
95% capture rate. The modelling was based on early data provided by Mott MacDonald and cannot be
compared directly with other outputs in this Report. However, it gives a further indication of the
possibilities of CO2 capture from this gas composition. The results from this study can be seen in
Table 4-4. Two options to achieve the 95% capture rate by using different CO2 loading and liquid
circulating rates were considered.
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Table 4-4: Outputs from MEA Modelling with 95% Capture
Parameter Option 1 Option 2

CO2 Feed (t/day) 4680 4680
Absorption liquid
MEA concentration (wt%) 30 30
CO2 lean loading (mol/mol) 0.22 0.18
CO2 rich loading (mol/mol) 0.45 0.43
Liquid circulating rate (t/h) 3,823 3,485
Solvent regeneration
Energy requirement (kJ/kg CO2) 3,384 4,832
Energy requirement (kJ/h) 6.246×108 8.918×108
Steam pressure (MPa) 0.35 0.35
CO2 Captured (t/day) 4,429 4,429
4.4.7 Plant Layout
Cement plants are typically linear in layout for an economical flow of material. A 1 Mt/y cement
plant without CO2 would expect to occupy approximately 15 ha (500 m x 300 m) of land but could
accommodate less space if necessary. Post combustion capture would require a considerable amount
of additional land. Although it is difficult to estimate the area required, Table 4-5 gives some
indication of the footprint required for the CO2 capture plant.
Table 4-5: Estimated Footprint for CO2 Capture in a Cement Plant
Equipment Footprint (ha)

Cement Plant Approx. 15
SCR Included above
FGD and limestone processing 1.0 – 1.4
CHP Plant Approx. 2
MEA Capture System 0.5 - 0.7
CO2 Drying and Compression 0.1 - 0.16
TOTAL 18.6 – 19.3
There may also be a limestone quarry that would occupy a much larger area, possibly as much as
200 ha (2000 m x 1000 m). A detailed layout of post-combustion cement plant is beyond the scope of
this study but it is important to note that the following will need to be considered:
• Hazardous materials (e.g. MEA, ammonia) should be stored at a safe distance from other
buildings.
• The ancillary buildings should be located so as to minimise the time spent by personnel in
travelling between buildings.
• Administration offices should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes.
• Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical run of pipes to and from the
process units.
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• Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future expansion
of the site.
4.4.8 Operation Considerations
(i) Operating with Raw Mill Off
It has been assumed that the raw mill will be inactive for 15% of the time due to the high maintenance
requirements. The raw milling has been oversized and has an overtaking capacity above the kiln
which enables planned maintenance on the mill to take place. During the periods of maintenance the
exhaust gas from the SCR will bypass the raw mill circuit. A gas conditioning tower is situated in
parallel with the raw mill for this purpose. Moisture is introduced to the gas via atomising sprays to
reduce the temperature. It should still be possible to capture all of the CO2 if the raw mill is not
operating although the SO2 concentration in the flue gas will increase (due to the lack of absorption
within the raw mill) and will increase the SO2 removal required from the FGD system. Hence, it is
necessary to design the FGD system for the maximum loading rate when the raw mill is off.
(ii) SCR or FGD not Operating
If the SCR or FGD is not operating this will allow increase concentrations of SO2 and NO2 to pass
through to the MEA CO2 absorption system. Amines react with acidic compounds to form amine salts
that will not dissociate in the amine stripping system. Thus, under these conditions, there will be more
waste MEA that must be removed from the capture cycle. A decision must be made at this point as to
whether it is more economic to pay for the extra cost of MEA required or to stop the CO2 capture
altogether whilst the SCR and FGD units are non-operational.
Maintenance of the units should be planned for periods when the cement plant is not operating to
minimise the amount of downtime of the CO2 capture system.
4.4.9 Emissions and Environmental Considerations
A post-combustion capture cement plant will achieve emission standards well below current cement
plants. This is an added advantage of CO2 capture. Some emissions will occur and these are
discussed in the following sections.
(i) Emission Sources
During normal operation there will only be two major gaseous discharges to the atmosphere. These
will be the exhaust gases from the MEA absorber and excess cooling air from the clinker cooler. The
flue gases will be discharged via a single stack. Due to the requirements of the MEA CO2 capture
system, flue gas clean up systems must be employed to reduce the levels of contaminants down to
acceptably low values. Any contaminants passing through to the MEA system (e.g. ammonia, NO2,
SO2) will combine with the MEA and be removed as part of the MEA waste. This results in the
discharged flue gas being virtually free of any contaminants.
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(ii) Dust
A large amount of dust is carried through in the flue gases during the cement process. From the raw
mill itself approximately 1 kg/s of dust must be eliminated from the flue gas before it reaches the
MEA. This is achieved with the addition of bag filters that can capture 99.9% of the dust in the flue
gas. The requirement for the CO2 capture system is 15 mg/Nm3 and the bag filters can achieve as low
as 5 mg/Nm3. Any dust that does enter the absorber will combine with the amine and will be removed
with the waste. This results in negligible amounts of dust reaching the stack. Any dust caught in the
bag filters will be recycled into the clinker at a later stage.
Dust also forms in the coal and pet coke drying system, as well as the clinker cooler. Discharges from
these processes will pass through bag filters prior to discharge.
(iii) NOx Emissions
NO2 emissions must be reduced to 20 ppmv for the MEA CO2 capture system. This is achieved using
SCR. Therefore, the overall NOx emissions to the atmosphere will be very low. This level of NO2 is
well below the usual emission regulations that apply at cement plants.
(iv) SOx Emissions
As discussed in Section 0, modern cement plants which do not have sulphide minerals in their raw
materials have very low emissions of SOx and often achieve emission levels below 10 mg/m3 of SO2
without using abatement techniques (EC, 2001). In this case it is assumed that the raw meal originates
from NE Scotland and contains 0.33% (w/w – dry basis) sulphur.
It is expected that 30% or more of the sulphur in the raw material will be evaporated and be emitted
from the first stage of the preheater and that SO2 will be the main (99%) sulphur compound to be
released (EC, 2001). The gases from the preheater are used for drying within the raw mill (when in
operation) and for fuel drying. It is reported that between 20-70% of the SO2 that is passed to the raw
mill will be captured by the finely ground raw materials (EC, 2001).
SO2 will also be formed in the CHP plant and will combine with the flue gas from the cement process
in the gas mixer before the wet limestone FGD system. The FGD system will reduce the SO2 content
to approximately 10 ppmv to meet the requirements for MEA CO2 capture. Thus, the flue gas emitted
to the atmosphere will contain minimal amounts of SO2.
(v) Effluent
During normal operation there will be three main effluent discharges. These are:
• chloride purge in the FGD system
• waste MEA
• water obtained from temperature swing dual bed desiccant dryer.
These discharges will either be recycled or disposed of in an appropriate manner.
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The condensed water obtained from the temperature swing bed desiccant dryer will contain dissolved
acid gas components which may require neutralisation prior to discharge.
Periodically some of the recycle effluent from the FGD system must be removed to avoid build up of
chloride in the limestone slurry. The waste from this effluent can be dried and disposed in a landfill
site.
MEA waste is caused by contaminants from the flue gas and has been estimated at 2,400 t/y for this
cement plant. MEA is an odorous and corrosive substance and should be handled carefully when
being disposed. It also has a calorific value of approximately 22 MJ/kg which offers the possibility of
burning it in the cement kiln. Disposing of the waste MEA in this manner requires further detailed
evaluation as there will be environmental regulation issues associated with disposing of a waste
material in this manner (e.g. Waste Incineration Directive). It is likely that combustion of the MEA
would produce more NOx which would increase the capital and operating costs for the SCR system.
No costs associated with any effluent treatment have been included in the cost estimate for the post-
combustion process option.
4.4.10 Design Risk Assessment
It is of paramount importance that a post-combustion cement plant is implemented safely and without
significant impact upon operational flexibility. Mott MacDonald have undertaken a preliminary
design risk assessment to identify the major additional plant operation risks that need to be considered
beyond those that apply for a cement plant without carbon capture. The results of this exercise are
shown in Table 4-6. It is important to note that this exercise would have to be repeated in greater
detail if a detailed design of an post-combustion cement plant was undertaken.
Table 4-6: Preliminary Design Risk Assessment for Post-Combustion CO2 Capture
Cement Plant
Hazard Hazard Stage of Risk Control Owner Comment

Ref work Measures
1 Risk of operator Operation 1. Standards, Contractor Hazards
suffocation as CO2 codes of practice associated
is an asphyxiant etc. to be adopted with handling
during design. CO2 are well
2. Appropriate understood
material from other
selection during industries.
design.
3. HAZOP study
to be undertaken.
2 Risk of dust Operation 1. Standards, Contractor Hazards
explosion in fuel codes of practice associated
milling and drying etc. to be adopted with
stages. during design. explosive
2. HAZOP study dusts are well
to be undertaken. understood
3. ATEX within
assessment to be cement
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Ref work Measures
performed. industry.
3 Risk of corrosion Operation 1. Standards, Contractor Hazards
damage due to codes of practice associated
presence of acidic etc. to be adopted with acidic
components (e.g. during design. components
SO2, SO3 and HCl) 2. Appropriate in gas streams
in gas streams. material are well
selection during understood
design. from other
industries.
4 Risk of injury to Operation 1. Standards, Contractor Hazards
operator due to codes of practice associated
handling of etc. to be adopted with handling
ammonia solution. during design. of ammonia
2. Appropriate are well
material understood
selection during from other
design. industries.
3. HAZOP study
to be undertaken.
suffocation as N2 is codes of practice associated
an asphyxiant. etc. to be adopted with handling
during design. N2 are well
understood
from other
industries.
injury as MEA is a codes of practice associated
corrosive material. etc. to be adopted with handling
during design. MEA are well
material from other
design.
3. HAZOP study
to be undertaken
7 Risk of damage Operation 1. Standards, Contractor Hazards
caused by release codes of practice associated
of high pressure as etc. to be adopted with handling
high pressures during design. high
present in CO2 2. HAZOP study pressures are
compression unit. to be undertaken well
understood
from other
industries.
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4.4.11 Possibilities for Alternative CO2 Absorption Technologies
As discussed in section 3.4.2 there are several other alternatives to amine absorption for the capture of
CO2 that are being researched in the power generation industry. Although they are less commercially
and technically advanced as amine absorption, there may be some differences in the technologies that
are more advantageous for the cement industry. In the section below one alternative technology which
has received significant interest from the power generation industry is examined as a possible
alternative CO2 absorption technology that could be applied to the cement process. There are plans to
build larger chilled ammonia plants. AEP is planning on building a 200 MWe plant by 2011.
(i) Chilled Ammonia
The Chilled Ammonia Capture (CAP) process is currently being developed by Alstom. Small and
large scale bench tests have been completed with a full scale (14,000 tons of CO2 per year) field test to
begin in the near future at We Energies Pleasant Prairie Power Plant located in Pleasant Prairie,
Wisconsin, USA (Black et al., 2007). EPRI will be conducting the techno-economic analysis to scale
up system for commercial operation.
Process Description
The process description is based on the CAP process applied to power plants but there may be several
differences when adapted to the cement industry. The CAP process has three main stages: flue gas
cooling, CO2 absorption and solvent stripping. Figure 4-7 shows a process flow diagram.
Figure 4-7: Chilled Ammonia Process Diagram
The flue gas from the cement plant will already have been treated to remove the NOx, SOx and dust
and will be at approximately 50-60°C. The flue gas is cooled to 0-20°C in two stages using direct
contact cooling (DCC). During the first stage, the flue gas is cooled to approximately 37°C and is
fully saturated with water on exit. The condensate and cooling water are sent to a cooling tower after
processing. Here, most of the condensate is evaporated and the water is cooled back down to 27°C.
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During condensation in the DCC units, some residual contaminants will be entrained in the condensate
making it acidic and corrosive; this must be taken into account when design the cooling units.
Before the second stage, the flue gas must be pressurised to approximately 1.25 bara to continue
through the CO2 absorption process. During the second stage, the flue gas is contacted with chilled
water (approximately 3°C) and is cooled to 5°C. Some of the cooling water is then used to cool the
water in the first stage and the rest goes back to the water chiller.
The CO2 absorber is in the form of a spray tower designed to operate with slurry. The flue gas flows
up the tower counter current to both an aqueous ammonium carbonate solution and a slurry containing
aqueous ammonium bicarbonate, solid ammonium bicarbonate and aqueous ammonium carbonate.
The clean flue gas is released at the top of the absorber to a water wash, removing any ammonia still
entrained. The flue gas is then heated to 60°C to remove any visible plume formation and prevent
ammonia odours reaching the ground before releasing it to the atmosphere.
Before going to the stripper all the solids in the CO2 rich slurry must be dissolved. The lean CO2
solution is used to heat the CO2 rich slurry in a heat exchanger to approximately 75°C, at which point
all the solids are dissolved.
The stripper is a packed column that operates at high pressure and temperature (31 bara and 127°C).
The heat causes the absorption reaction to reverse leaving aqueous ammonium carbonate and the
released CO2. The CO2 may still contain trace components of ammonia that can be removed by
cooling to 20-30°C and contacted with a water wash unit. This reduces ammonia costs and helps
prevent corrosion in pipes downstream.
The CO2 can then be compressed to 110 bara but this requires less stages than the amine process
because the CO2 is already compressed to 30 bara.
Potential Advantages
Notwithstanding the energy demands of water cooling, the CAP process may be more energy efficient
than the amine capture process for the following reasons:
• It re-uses greater low-grade waste heat generated in the process, reducing the useful heat
consumption of the system.
• The slurry is pressurised to 30 bara, thus reducing the compression ratio required for the CO2
at the end of the process.
• The power required to compress the CO2 rich liquid is small in comparison to the power
required to compress CO2 gas. Although the total pressure increase required is ultimately the
same, an energy saving is made by compressing the liquid rather than the gas in the CAP.
• The ammonia solution has a high capacity to dissolve CO2, which can reduce the volume of
solution with obvious advantages of reduced pump sizes, heat exchangers etc.
• Ammonia is a readily available chemical and will be cheaper and in direct comparison to
amine it will be easier and cheaper to source. Ammonium carbonate and ammonium
bicarbonate are very stable in solution and are not degradable, thus the make-up requirements
are negligible.
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• The stripping of the CO2 from the ammonia solution also requires less heat input than that for
the equivalent amine process.
Technical Barriers
There are some technical barriers that must be overcome before CAP becomes commercially viable
for both the power and cement industries. These are:
• Additional heat is required to dissolve the ammonium bicarbonate solids before transferring to
the stripper column that may cancel out the energy benefits of the low energy absorption.
• The precipitation of the ammonium bicarbonate solids is an exothermic reaction requiring

additional cooling.
• Ammonia slip into both the clean flue gas and the CO2 captured requires additional water
scrubbing that may not be economical.
• A large amount of refrigeration is required to keep the cooling water at 3°C, which will
consume electricity.
• Full scale tests have still not been conducted and may highlight other performance issues that
have not been mentioned in this report.
Capital and Operating Costs
CAP is an emerging technology and so far has only been considered for the power generation industry.
There is no cost data currently available for the process as applied to the cement industry but Mott
MacDonald understands that the approximate EPC price for CAP is around $2,200/kW and that
preliminary indications are that the price of CAP is higher than the cost of MEA absorption. Mott
MacDonald recommends that these figures are regarded with a degree of caution as the cost for the
technology is not fully established. The equipment list for the CAP process is listed below:
Flue Gas Cooling
DCC units
Cooling tower
Pumps
CO2 Capture and Regeneration
Spray Tower Absorber
Packed Bed Stripping Unit
High Pressure Slurry Pumps
Slurry recycle pumps
Rich/Lean Heat Exchanger
Flue Gas/CO2 Heat Exchanger
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Water Wash Units and Accessories
Water Chillers
CO2 Compression and Drying

The operational costs will likely be lower than for the MEA system because CAP requires less steam
for regeneration of the CO2. The cooling water, ammonia and power for the pumps will be the main
costs linked with the operation of the plant.
4.5 Evaluation of Oxy-Combustion CO2 Capture
4.5.1 Overview
As described in section 3.3.3 oxy-combustion technology as a means to achieve near-zero CO2

emission power generation has been the subject of a significant number of research papers and reports
(e.g. IEA GHG, 2005). Although Mott MacDonald does not anticipate full-scale commercialisation of
oxy-combustion power plants to occur until around 2015 a small number of Original Equipment
Manufacturers (OEMs) are developing the technology. Doosan Babcock, for example, is focussing its
main efforts within CO2 capture technologies on oxy-combustion for pulverised fuel power generation
both as a retrofit technology and for applications to a new-build advanced power generation plant
(Panesar and Sekkappan, 2007).
As described in section 3.3.3 the principle of oxy-combustion for power plants is to combust the fuel
in an oxygen-rich atmosphere to create a CO2-rich exhaust that can be captured. This principle can
also be applied to the cement production process. In an oxy-combustion cement production process
the calcination and fuel combustion are undertaken in an oxygen-rich atmosphere to produce a flue gas
comprising mainly CO2 and water vapour. Although the concept is not new for the cement industry it
is not being widely researched. Frank Zeman and Klaus Lackner at Columbia University, USA appear
to be the only researchers to have published papers on the subject. Dr Zeman was consulted as part of
this study.
4.5.2 Major Technical Issues
The major technical issues associated with the oxy-combustion cement production process are
discussed below. Most of these issues are topics for fundamental research and are beyond the scope of
this study. Although the feasibility of an oxy-combustion cement process remains to be proven, none
of the issues identified was considered a “show-stopper” at the time of writing the report.
(i) Flame Temperatures and Dilution
The oxy-combustion process is based on excluding the inert components of air from the combustion
process. These components, mainly composed of nitrogen gas, pass through the combustion chamber
during conventional air firing without chemical change. The presence of the inerts does, however,
play an important role as it dilutes the combustion process gases to yield acceptable flame
temperatures. Flame temperatures in excess of 3500 ºC can be achieved by oxygen combustion. This
is too hot for normal operation so it is therefore essential that within an oxy-combustion process a
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proportion of the CO2-rich flue gases are recycled back to the combustion zone to provide the
necessary dilution. The flame temperature can be adjusted by varying the flue gas recycle ratio.
However, due to the requirement for high temperatures to achieve calcination and clinker formation
the fact that it is far easier to reach high temperatures in oxygen combustion as compared to air
combustion could be seen as an advantage for operating the cement process in this manner as it may
lead to shorter residence times and permit reductions in the size.
(ii) Heat Transfer Characteristics
The radiant heat fluxes and convective heat transfer performance of the combustion chamber are a
function of the gas composition in the chamber. Changing the atmosphere within the combustion
chamber from one dominated by nitrogen to one dominated by CO2 will have a significant effect on
the heat transfer characteristics. It should be noted that CO2 has a higher molar heat capacity [Cp =
37.84 J/(mol K) at 20 ºC, 1 bar(a)] than nitrogen [Cp = 28.86 J/(mol K) at 20 ºC, 1 bar(a)] which may
actually improve the heat transfer characteristics of the combustion chamber.
(iii) Feed Lifting
Oxygen enrichment of cement kiln combustion has been practiced for a number of years on some kilns
in the USA. Clark (2006) reports that the benefits in terms of increased clinker output are limited to
~15 per cent additional output for a ~2 per cent oxygen enrichment. Clark (2006) states that the
reason for this is thought to be that nitrogen ballast in the exhaust gases plays an important role in
lifting the feed between cyclone stages in the suspension preheater of a modern cement kiln. CO2 is a
denser gas than nitrogen and should be more effective in this feed lifting role within the suspension
preheater. Hence, the recycled CO2 is important not only for reducing the flame temperatures but also
for a suspension preheater to work effectively.
(iv) Wear and Tear
Due to the higher flame temperatures it is generally understood that cement kiln wall deterioration will
increase at higher oxygen concentrations. Hence, there is a balance between achieving high
temperatures for the cement production process and having to replace the kiln wall lining. Literature
(e.g. Wrampe and Rolseth, 1976) suggests that 22-23% (w/w) “contained oxygen level” (or equivalent
oxygen content of combustion air) is the optimum concentration in conventional kilns. Zeman (2007)
indicated that a higher oxygen concentration of approx. 28.5% may be more optimal for an oxy-
combustion system.
(v) Process Chemistry
Research is on-going to determine whether clinker formation in a different atmosphere will still
generate a useful product. Zeman and Lackner (2006) have indicated that they intend to undertake
studies to compare conventional clinker with that produced in a CO2 environment but no results have
yet been published. Zeman (2008) reported the following to Mott MacDonald regarding his findings
to date with changing the dominant gas in the kiln from nitrogen to carbon dioxide using a raw meal
with a composition of 80.5% lime, 14.4% silica, 3.7% alumina and 1.4% hematite:
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• In a CO2 atmosphere the onset of calcination is delayed until the reaction temperature reaches
900ºC.
• In a CO2 atmosphere re-carbonation occurs immediately after the temperature drops below
900ºC thus placing an emphasis on a stable temperature profile between the precalciner and
the kiln as any re-carbonation will necessitate re-calcination.
• Despite the high partial pressure of CO2 the evolution of CO2 nears completion at
temperatures above 1100ºC indicating that temperatures in the kiln are high enough to fully
calcine the raw meal.
• Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) measurements showed a marked reduction in specific surface
area for raw meal heated in a CO2 atmosphere compared to raw meal heated in a N2
atmosphere. The reduced surface area may affect low temperature belite formation.
However, once temperatures reach 1200ºC the available surface area is similar for both
environments.
• Once the calcination reaction is complete there is no difference between samples prepared in
either atmosphere prior to the onset of clinker formation.
• The degree of sintering and chemical reactions induced by clinker formation at high
temperatures prevents re-carbonation during cooling with CO2.
Further fundamental research into the thermodynamics, kinetics and equilibrium chemistry of driving
off the CO2 in a CO2-rich atmosphere is required to further develop the oxy-combustion cement
process. This research was beyond the scope of this report.
(vi) Air Dilution
Air in-leaks occur in the raw mill, preheater and kiln. Excessive air in-leaks will result in
contamination of the CO2-rich exhaust gas with nitrogen, oxygen and argon. These contaminants will
require removal which will increase the costs of operating an oxy-combustion cement process. Any
design for an oxy-combustion cement process must minimise air in-leaks.
(vii) Flue Gas Clean-up
Depending on the final storage location of the CO2 the gas will require some clean-up. It may be
necessary to remove water vapour, nitrogen, argon, NOx and SOx from the flue gas stream. However,
as the majority of the nitrogen has been removed from the combustion chamber levels of thermally
generated NOx should be lower than in a conventional air fired system.
(viii) Additional Power Requirements
There will be additional power required for the compression of the CO2. Typically, this additional
power requirement for compression of the CO2 will be around 0.146 kWh/kgCO2 (IEA GHG, 2005).
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(ix) Air Separation Unit (ASU)
An on-site air separation unit will be required to deliver oxygen to the oxy-combustion process. This
will require energy and increase the electricity demand of the plant compared with a conventional
plant. The power required by a cryogenic oxygen plant is typically in the range 200-240 kWh/tO2
(IPCC, 2005).
IEA GHG have recently published a study (IEA GHG, 2007b) which includes descriptions of
cryogenic and membrane oxygen production processes, their components and their integration into
power generation and synthesis gas production processes with CO2 capture. Readers are referred to
this study for further information on recent and potential future improvements in these oxygen
production processes.
(x) Reducing Conditions
It is recognised that the clinker must not be generated in reducing conditions. This necessitates that an
excess of oxygen is maintained in the process. It is generally considered that the oxygen concentration
should be maintained >2% (w/w).
(xi) Heat Integration
Oxy-combustion offers potential opportunities to maximise performance through integration of the

additional oxy-combustion process units with the cement process. Options available are as follows:
• heat recovery from additional flue gas cooling
• heat recovery from CO2 compression and ASU compressors
• direct mechanical drives for compressors.
Although heat integration between the CO2 compression plant, ASU compressors and the cement plant
could lead to energy savings it is important to understand that this may reduce the operational
flexibility of the plant. There may be valid strategic reasons for having the capability to operate the
cement plant without the CO2 compression plant or ASU. Full heat integration may make this difficult
to achieve.
4.5.3 Configurations Considered
During the development of the conceptual design of an oxy-combustion cement plant a number of
different configurations were considered. These are illustrated in Figure 4-8 to Figure 4-11. They can
be summarised as:
• Configuration 1: Diversion of preheater exit gases for fuel drying and subsequent capture or
recycle.
• Configuration 2: Capture and recycle of all flue gases from cement plant with diversion of
cooler exhaust for fuel drying.
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• Configuration 3: Capture and recycle of all flue gases from cement plant with diversion of
cooler exhaust for fuel drying and a ‘leak-free’ raw mill.
• Configuration 4: Dual preheaters with oxy-combustion in the precalciner only.
Figure 4-8: Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 1 - Diversion of Preheater

Exit Gases for Fuel Drying and Subsequent Capture or Recycle
CO2 rich
stream for
CCS
Exhaust Exhaust Fuel

Gas Gas Preparation
Cleaning Condition

Kiln
Fuel (solid)
Raw meal/clinker
Air
Inert air Separation
Non-inert air N2 Unit
Oxygen
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Figure 4-9: Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 2 - Capture and Recycle of all
Flue Gases from Cement Plant with Diversion of Cooler Exhaust for Fuel Drying
CO2 rich
stream for
CCS


Kiln
Fuel (solid)
Air
Raw meal/clinker
Inert air
Separation
Oxygen
Figure 4-10: Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 3 - Capture and Recycle of

all Flue Gases from Cement Plant with Diversion of Cooler Exhaust for Fuel Drying
and a ‘Leak-free’ Raw Mill
CO2 rich
stream for
CCS


Kiln
Leak-free
Air in-leak
Air in-leak
Fuel (solid)
Raw meal/clinker
Air
Oxygen
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Figure 4-11: Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant Configuration 4 - Dual Preheaters with

Oxy-Combustion in the Precalciner only

Preheater 1 Rotary
Raw Mill Precalciner Cooler
Preheater 2 Kiln
Fuel (solid) CO2 rich Air

Raw meal/clinker stream for
CCS
Oxygen
The advantages and disadvantages of the different configurations are compared in Table 4-7.
Table 4-7: Comparison of Different Oxy-Combustion Configurations
Configuration 1 2 3 4
Advantages The CO2 generated The CO2 generated The CO2 generated Heat demands are
in both the in both the in both the better matched than
precalciner and the precalciner and the precalciner and the 1.
kiln is captured. kiln is captured. kiln is captured.
Kiln operates
Air in-leaks from Heat demands are Heat demands are conventionally.
raw mill are better matched than better matched than
avoided. 1. 1. Air in-leaks from kiln
and raw mill are
Inert gas is used for Air in-leaks from avoided.
drying the fuel. raw mill are
avoided.
Disadvantages Heat demands are Kiln operation with Kiln operation with Only the CO2
not matched. The CO2-rich CO2-rich generated in the
drying requirement atmosphere atmosphere precalciner is
is greater in the raw unproven. unproven. captured.
mill than the fuel
preparation. The Non-inert gas is Non-inert gas is Non-inert gas is used
heat available from used for drying the used for drying the for drying the fuel.
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the preheater fuel. This can fuel. This can This can cause
exhaust gases is not cause operational cause operational operational
used effectively. difficulties as it is a difficulties as it is a difficulties as it is a
less safe mode of less safe mode of less safe mode of
Kiln operation with operation. operation. operation.
CO2-rich
atmosphere Air in-leaks in kiln, Requires design of
unproven. preheater and raw a leak-free raw mill
mill are not resulting in
The layout of avoided. significant capital
cement plants is cost increase.
such that the raw
mill is often remote Air in-leaks in kiln
from the air cooler. and preheater are
not avoided.
Air in-leaks in kiln
and preheater are
not avoided.
Technical risk High High High Medium
4.5.4 Chosen Configuration
The operation of the precalciner was critical in determining the configuration which was taken forward
for detailed evaluation. Precalciners in a modern cement plant consume ~60% of the fuel demand and
are operated to undertake up to 95% of the calcination. Hence, the majority of the CO2 emissions
within a modern cement plant originate within the precalciner. The option to capture the majority of
CO2 emissions from the cement plant by focussing on a single unit without affecting the rest of the
cement plant was considered to be the most cost effective and lowest risk configuration for reducing
the CO2 emissions from a cement plant using oxy-combustion. Furthermore, by focussing only on the
precalciner the difficulties of undertaking oxy-combustion in the kiln and the inherent problem of air
in-leakage in the kiln and raw mill were avoided. Hence, configuration 4 was taken forward for
detailed evaluation.
4.5.5 Process Description
A detailed evaluation of configuration 4 was undertaken. It should be noted that the final
configuration analysed in detail was a refinement of the preliminary configuration.
PFD 234996/OC/FS03 contained in Appendix E illustrates the major process units and process
streams.
(i) Process Modelling
Mott MacDonald and Whitehopleman developed a steady state mass and energy balance of the process
using Excel. Each individual process unit was modelled. The mass flows into and out of each process
unit were calculated based on simple performance equations derived from typical industry data or
parameters. The energy flows were calculated using the basic thermodynamic properties of the
components. Where necessary recycle loops were solved using an iterative approach.
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The outputs of this exercise were the compositions of the individual streams contained in Appendix E.
(ii) General Description
PFD 234996/OC/FS03 in Appendix E shows the arrangement selected for the basis of this particular
study. There are three key features that distinguish the process from a conventional cement plant:
• The combustion air for the precalciner is separated prior to the precalciner in an air separation
unit (ASU). Only the oxygen (95 mol% oxygen with 2 mol% nitrogen and 3 mol% argon) is
supplied to the precalciner, the nitrogen and argon are vented to atmosphere.
• Part of the precalciner exhaust gases, around 50% of the total, is recirculated back to the
precalciner burners to provide the part of the ballasting effect which is carried out by the
atmospheric nitrogen in a conventional system.
• The net flue gas from the precalciner is cooled and passed to the CO2 compression and inerts
separation plant. The net product is compressed, dried, the inerts separated and the pure CO2
is further compressed to pipeline pressure of 110 bara.
A more detailed process description is described below.
(iii) Raw Material Preparation
The raw material preparation is identical to the post-combustion capture cement plant described in
section 4.4.5.
(iv) Raw Mill
The premixed raw materials are extracted to a premix bin which feeds the vertical roller mill for raw
grinding. Additional corrective raw material feed bins are provided for sand and iron oxide. These
materials are imported to primary stockpiles and loaded into the raw mill feed bins via apron feeders
and conveyor belts, as required by the process. The premix and corrective raw materials are extracted
from their feed bins at a measured rate and conveyed to the raw mill in the proportions required to
meet the kiln feed chemistry targets.
The raw mill is a vertical roller mill. Feed is delivered onto the centre of the rotating table of the mill
and is drawn under the rollers of the mill which are pressed onto the material bed on the table by
hydraulic cylinders. Ground raw material falls over the dam ring round the edge of the table and is
lifted by the hot gases sweeping the mill through the mill body to the integral separator. Coarse
material is rejected by the separator and falls back to the mill table for regrinding while fine material is
drawn out of the separator and mill with the hot gases by the mill induced draft fan.
A combination of gases from elsewhere in the process are used to sweep the raw mill and dry the raw
materials from their initial moisture content of 8% (w/w) to 1% (w/w). The gases comprise cooled
‘tertiary air’ (~411ºC), excess exhaust gas from the kiln preheater (~330ºC) and exhaust air from the
clinker cooler (~270ºC). The dried raw mix and sweeping air exit the raw mill at 100ºC. The
temperature of the hot gases entering the mill is tempered by recirculation of mill exhaust air in order
to protect the bearings of the rollers and separator.
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The raw milling system has a rated capacity of 240 tph in order to provide 33% overtaking capacity
above the requirements of the kiln for raw mix kiln feed. This enables planned stops of the raw
milling system for maintenance to take place for up to 6 hours per day. During these periods when the
raw milling system is stopped the gases that are used for drying are diverted to an Organic Rankine
Cycle (ORC) heat recovery system.
The fine, raw mix product is collected from the hot gases after the raw mill induced draft fan by
collection cyclones and a bag filter for dedusting. The de-dusted gases are drawn through a fan and
exhausted to atmosphere through the main stack. The collected raw mix product is transported
mechanically to the combined raw mix homogenisation and storage silo. This homogenisation silo has
a capacity of 10,000 tonnes in order to provide over 2 days buffer storage of ground raw mix kiln feed.
Homogenisation of the raw mix in the silo is achieved by sequential activation of air slides in the
segmented base of the silo by compressed air and extraction of material from a pressure relieved
central chamber with a conical roof.
Power consumption of the raw milling and homogenisation system totals 25 kWh/t of clinker
produced from the kiln.
(v) Kiln Preheater
Kiln feed raw mix is extracted from the homogenisation silo on airslides and delivered to the kiln
preheater feed bin. From the kiln preheater feed bin the raw mix feed is extracted at a controlled rate
(as specified by the operator) into an elevator which transports the meal to the top of the preheater
where it is delivered into the gas riser duct between stage 2 and 1 cyclones (where the preheater
cyclones are numbered in the order in which the material flows through them, i.e. stage 1 is the top
stage and stage 4 is the bottom stage of the preheater). The kiln feed raw mix enters the kiln preheater
at approximately 18.5 kg/s and 1% (w/w) moisture content when the kiln is operating at its design
capacity.
The kiln preheater tower includes 4 preheating and collection stages with heat exchange taking place
in the gas risers between cyclones and collection of the preheated feed taking place in the cyclones.
Exhaust gases from the rotary kiln are drawn through the kiln preheater by the kiln preheater induced
draft fan. Successive heat exchange between the rising exhaust gas and the feed in each successive
stage of the preheater lifts the temperature of the kiln feed raw mix from 100ºC to around 870ºC at the
discharge from the lower, fourth stage cyclone into the precalciner.
The temperature of the exhaust gases exiting the rotary section of the kiln into the kiln preheater is at
1100ºC. Some of the partially preheated feed from the third stage cyclone of the kiln preheater
therefore has to be delivered into the gas riser from the kiln to the lower, fourth stage of the kiln
preheater tower in order to cool these exhaust gases. In this way melt formation and clogging in the
kiln preheater tower is avoided. The feed used to cool the kiln exhaust gases in the gas riser from the
kiln is therefore calcined in the kiln preheater tower and 32% of the calcination of the total feed takes
place in the kiln and kiln preheater tower. The CO2 derived from calcination of this portion of the
total feed to the kiln is therefore not captured, in addition to the CO2 derived from the combustion of
the fuel in the main burner of the kiln.
The temperature of the exhaust gases passing through the kiln preheater fan is 330ºC and these are
ducted to: (i) the fuel grinding systems to provide inert gases for drying of the coal and petroleum coke
in the fuel grinding systems; and (ii) the raw mill to provide additional drying capacity.
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(vi) Precalciner Preheater
Kiln feed raw mix is extracted from the homogenisation silo on airslides and delivered to the
precalciner preheater feed bin. From the precalciner preheater feed bin the raw mix feed is extracted
at a controlled rate (as specified by the operator) into an elevator which transports the meal to top of
the preheater where it is delivered into the gas riser duct between stage 2 and 1 cyclones (where the
preheater cyclones are numbered in the order in which the material flows through them, i.e. stage 1 is
the top stage and stage 5 is the bottom stage of the preheater). The kiln feed raw mix enters the
precalciner preheater at approximately 33 kg/s and 1% (w/w) moisture content.
The precalciner preheater tower includes 5 preheating and collection stages with heat exchange taking
place in the gas risers between cyclones and collection of the preheated feed taking place in the
cyclones. Exhaust gases from the precalciner are drawn through the precalciner preheater by the
precalciner preheater induced draft fan. Successive heat exchange between the rising exhaust gas and
the feed in each successive stage of the preheater lifts the temperature of the kiln feed raw mix from
100ºC to around 870ºC at the discharge from the fourth stage cyclone into the precalciner.
This preheated feed from the fourth stage cyclone is joined by the feed from the lower, fourth stage
cyclone of the kiln preheater in the precalciner. The total calcined feed exiting the precalciner is then
separated from the precalciner exhaust gases in the lower, fifth stage of the precalciner preheater and
delivered to the inlet hearth of the rotary kiln.
The temperature of the exhaust gases passing through the precalciner preheater fan is 330ºC and these
are split into a recycle stream (approximately 50% of total flow) and a stream for CO2 capture
(approximately 50% of total flow). The stream for CO2 capture is passed through a gas-to-gas heat
exchanger which heats up the oxygen generated from the ASU and then to an electrostatic precipitator
(ESP) for dust collection prior to further purification.
(vii) Precalciner
The bulk of the calcination process is carried out in the precalciner. Dried pulverised coal is used as
the fuel and is delivered at the required rate (2.4 kg/s at 1% (w/w) moisture) to ensure constant
temperature operation of the precalciner at 900ºC. This amounts to 65% of the total calorific input to
the kiln system and is in line with the normal practice in the operation of precalciner cement kilns. For
this particular configuration it is advantageous to maximise the proportion of the total fuel fired in the
precalciner for CO2 capture purposes as this increases the amount of CO2 generated from both the
combustion of fuel and the calcination of the feed which can be subsequently captured. However, the
ability to raise the proportion of fuel fired in the precalciner is limited by the requirement to fire a safe
minimum proportion of the fuel on the main burner of the kiln to ensure stable operation. It is
estimated that 68% of the calcination takes place in the precalciner and precalciner preheater tower.
In a conventional in-line precalciner the oxygen for the combustion of the precalciner fuel is part
drawn from the excess air in the hot kiln exhaust gases rising from the rotary kiln and part from the hot
tertiary air drawn from the hot end of the clinker cooler which have bypassed the kiln via the tertiary
air duct. In this case the oxygen for the combustion of the precalciner fuel is provided by oxygen from
the air separation unit (ASU). The oxygen stream has had its temperature raised by heat exchange
with the stream diverted for CO2 capture. This heated oxygen stream is mixed with the recycle stream
which has a high concentration of CO2 before the combined stream is heated by the ‘tertiary’ air from
the clinker cooler in a gas-to-gas heat exchanger. The cooled tertiary air then passes to the raw mill
for drying.
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The quantity of recycle gas is set to ensure:
• complete combustion
• that reducing conditions do not occur within the precalciner (an excess of oxygen of 1.2%
w/w at exit of precalciner is provided)
• the weight of ballast gas is maintained at the amount required for conventional combustion.
(viii) Rotary Kiln
The precalcined material from the precalciner is collected in the lower stage cyclone of the precalciner
preheater tower and enters the kiln via the kiln inlet hearth. From this point forward the rotary kiln is
operating in the conventional manner of a precalciner cement kiln. A burner is situated both centrally
and co-axially with the kiln at the front end of the kiln. Petroleum coke is fired into the front end of
the kiln whilst monitoring the kiln burning conditions. The hot clinker leaving the kiln falls into the
clinker cooler. The kiln rotates at between 3 and 4 revolutions per minute driven by the main drive of
the kiln.
(ix) Fuel Preparation
The raw coal preparation is identical to the post-combustion capture cement plant described in section
4.4.5 except that: (i) the vertical roller mill is swept by exhaust gases from the kiln preheater (which
have a temperature of approximately 330ºC); and (ii) the metered coal from the precalciner fine coal
bin is delivered pneumatically to the precalciner coal burners using precalciner recycle gas as the
transport gas.
The raw petroleum coke preparation is identical to the post-combustion capture cement plant
described in section 4.4.5 except that the vertical roller mill is swept by exhaust gases from the kiln
preheater (which have a temperature of approximately 330ºC).
(x) Clinker Cooler
The clinker cooler is identical to the post-combustion capture cement plant described in section 4.4.5
except that the hot tertiary air at 795ºC is drawn into the tertiary air duct from above the cooler
horizontal grate and used to: (i) heat up the recycled CO2 and oxygen for combustion of the coal in the
precalciner; and (ii) to dry the raw materials in the raw mill. The lower temperature excess air
resulting from the final clinker cooling is also passed to the raw mill for drying.
(xi) Cement Milling
The cement milling is identical to the post-combustion capture cement plant described in section 4.4.5.
(xii) Packing and Loading
The cement packing and loading is identical to the post-combustion capture cement plant described in
section 4.4.5.
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(xiii) Air Separation Unit (ASU)
The oxygen flow required in the precalciner (5.51 kg/s) is supplied at 95% mol purity from the Air
Separation Unit (ASU).
Oxygen will be produced in an ASU with a maximum capacity of 600 t/d. This is well within the
range of installed plant output. The process is well known and produces gaseous oxygen by boiling
liquid oxygen and is ideally suited to this application as the delivery pressure is low. There is no
requirement for either pumping the liquid oxygen or compressing the gaseous product.
A low purity cycle is used which produces 95% mol oxygen purity. Studies (e.g. IEA GHG, 2005)
have been carried out to show that for oxy-combustion power plants this is the optimum purity. This
is principally due to two factors:
• There will always be some air in-leakage and there will always be some inerts that must be
removed in the CO2 purification plant.
• The increase in power required for the ASU to produce 99.5% mol purity oxygen is greater
than the increase in CO2 compression power required to remove inerts introduced due to lower
purity oxygen.
These factors also apply for a cement plant.
The oxygen is delivered from the plant at around 16ºC. This is heated up to 310ºC in a gas-to-gas heat
exchanger with the stream for CO2 purification and compression which requires cooling.
The separated air stream containing predominantly nitrogen and argon is vented to atmosphere. It
should be noted that there are potential revenues available from using this stream to produce nitrogen
and argon for sale. Further uses of this gas stream have not been considered as part of this study.
(xiv) Gas Mixer
A proportion (approximately 50%) of the precalciner preheater exhaust gases is drawn by fan to a gas
mixer which mixes this stream (at 330ºC) with the heated oxygen (at 310ºC) to form the precalciner
recycle (at 325 ºC). The combined stream is mostly CO2 (63.7% w/w) and oxygen (23.1% w/w). The
mixing is undertaken by introducing turbulence in a length of pipe by the use of orifices or baffles.
(xv) Gas-to-Gas Heat Exchanger (Recycle/‘Tertiary Air’)
The recycle stream (at 325ºC) passes to a gas-to-gas heat exchanger where the hot ‘tertiary’ air (at
795ºC) is used to heat up the recycle stream to temperatures approaching the operation temperature of
the precalciner. The cooled tertiary air is used for raw mill drying.
It is recognised that the operation of such a high temperature gas-to-gas heat exchanger with a high
dust load is a significant technical challenge. However, during the course of their investigations for
this study, Mott MacDonald became aware that there is some experience within the cement industry of
operating such high temperature and high dust load gas-to-gas heat exchangers and that currently an
inlet temperature of around 800ºC is considered to be the acceptable maximum.
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(xvi) ESP
The proportion of precalciner preheater exhaust gases that have been sent for purification and CO2
capture exit the gas-to-gas heat exchanger at around 248ºC. This gas contains dust from the preheater
which must be removed prior to further purification steps. An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is used
for this purpose rather than a bag filter as the literature (e.g. EC, 2001) suggests that they operate
better at higher temperatures compared to bag filters.
If the CO2 is not to be captured (e.g. during start-up) then the exit stream from the ESP can be vented
directly to atmosphere.
(xvii) Product Gas Purification
The dedusted gas is cooled further, dried and then passed through a compression and inerts (nitrogen
and argon) and oxygen removal stage that delivers a final CO2 product (16.9 kg/s) of 95% (mol) at 110
bara.
The CO2-rich flue gas leaves the ESP at approximately 248ºC. The first part of the CO2 treatment
system cools the flue gas, thus removing the moisture by condensation, and compresses it to 30 bara.
A venturi mixer is used to quench the gas with water to a temperature where a conventional indirect
seawater contact cooler can be used. A two column system is used. The first column cools the flue
gas to 35ºC by direct contact with condensate that has been cooled against seawater in titanium plate-
frame heat exchangers. The exit stream from this column is then further cooled against seawater to a
temperature of 13ºC in a second direct contact cooler.
The net flue gas is now around 79% (mol) CO2 and at atmospheric pressure. It is now compressed to
30 bara for further drying before purification. Compression to 30 bara is carried out in two stages.
The first compressor compresses the CO2 adiabatically to 15 bara. Cooling water is used to further
cool the raw CO2 to 20ºC before compression to 30 bara with intercooling using cooling water.
The raw CO2 gas passes through a temperature swing dual bed desiccant dryer.
The inerts removal process uses the principle of phase separation between condensed liquid CO2 and
insoluble inerts gas. The actual CO2 pressure levels used for the separation are fixed by the
specification of > 95% (mol) CO2 product purity and the need to reduce the CO2 vented with the inerts
to an economic minimum.
It has been assumed that any excess O2, SO2 or NOx present in the CO2 need not be removed. For
specific applications requiring higher purity CO2 (e.g. > 98%) the process would need some
modification.
It should be noted that the condensed water obtained from the indirect seawater cooler and
temperature swing bed desiccant dryer will contain dissolved acid gas components. Recent work by
Air Products (White, 2007) indicates that most of the SOx and NOx will be removed as acids during
the CO2 compression. This acidic waste stream will require neutralisation prior to discharge.
(xviii) CO2 Compression
The final compression stage takes the gas up to 110 bara for pipeline transmission.
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(xix) Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) unit
During periods when the main process is still operating but the raw mill is not running then the gases
that are normally used for the drying (i.e. cooled ‘tertiary’ air, kiln preheater exhaust and clinker
cooler exhaust gas) will be diverted to an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) heat recovery system. This
unit will be used to generate electrical power which could be used on the site or exported to the grid.
The basic operating principle of the system is as follows:
• The heat contained in the waste gases is transferred to a closed loop circulating low pressure
thermal oil.
• The thermal oil heat content is transferred to the energy converter motive fluid (typically a
hydrocarbon such as pentane) in a vaporiser.
• The motive fluid is used to generate electrical power through a specially designed impulse
type turbine.
• The motive fluid is condensed and returned to the vaporiser.
Mott MacDonald estimates that it would be possible to generate a maximum electrical power of 4.7
MW if all the hot gases were sent to the ORC unit.
(xx) Electrical Supply
The total installed power required by the plant is estimated at 31.3 MW (see Table 4-8). The operating
power, operating hours and the power consumed of all the major process units are also shown in Table
4-8. It has been assumed that a suitable grid connection is available.
It should be noted that the ORC will be capable of generating a maximum electrical power of
4.67 MW when the hot gases are not being used for raw mill drying. It has been assumed that this will
only occur for 15% of operational hours.
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Table 4-8: Electrical Demand of Oxy-combustion Cement Plant with CO2 capture

Raw Material Limestone crusher 0.60 0.51 2080 1061
Preparation Shale crusher 0.20 0.17 2080 354
Stacker-reclaimer 0.28 0.24 2080 500
system
Raw Mill Raw mill drive 1.20 1.02 5730 5845
Raw mill fan 1.50 1.28 5730 7306
Raw mill ancillaries - - - -
Raw mill bag filter - - - -
Bag filter fan 1.20 1.02 5730 5845
Homogenising 0.12 0.10 5730 560
chamber silo
Kiln preheater Preheater (kiln) feed - - - -
bin
Preheater (kiln) fan 0.35 0.30 7920 2356
Precalciner Preheater (precalciner) - - - -
preheater feed bin
Preheater (precalciner) 0.55 0.47 7920 3703
fan
Precalciner Precalciner - - - -
Rotary Kiln Kiln 0.65 0.55 7920 4349
Clinker Cooler Grate cooler 1.00 0.85 7920 6732
Cooler bag filter
Cooler bag filter
Clinker crusher
Clinker conveyor
Clinker storage silo
Export clinker hopper
Coal preparation Coal milling system 0.30 0.26 6095 1554
Petroleum coke Petroleum coke mill 0.30 0.26 6095 1554
preparation
Cement milling Mill 1 3.15 2.68 5580 14940
Mill 2 3.15 2.68 5580 14940
Packing and Silo 1 - - - -
loading Silo 2 - - - -
Bag packing plant 0.50 0.43 7920 3366
ORC heat recovery Electrostatic 0.08 0.06 1188 76
unit precipitator
ORC heat recovery - - - -
unit
Exhaust gas fan 0.70 0.60 1188 707
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Air Separation Unit Main air compressors 6.00 5.10 7920 40392
Air purification
system
Main heat exchanger
ASU compander
ASU column system
Pumps
Gas-to-gas heat
exchanger for
oxygen/product
Backup storage vessel
Recycle Recycle stream fan 0.33 0.28 7920 2188
Gas mixer - - - -
Gas-to-gas heat - - - -
exchanger for ‘tertiary
air’/recycle
Electrostatic Electrostatic 0.08 0.06 7920 505
precipitator precipitator
Electrostatic 0.23 0.19 7920 1515
precipitator fan
CO2 compression Venturi scrubber 8.88 7.55 7920 59763
and purification Indirect contact cooler
Direct contact
seawater cooler
Compressors
Heat exchangers
Flue gas expander
Total 31.32 26.62 - 180109
4.5.6 Plant Performance
The performance of the oxy-combustion cement plant with CO2 capture is shown in Table 4-9. Note
that for the purposes of this analysis the CO2 emitted from the electricity delivered to site is not
included in the CO2 emitted figure.
The CO2 capture rate of the plant is 52%.
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Table 4-9: Performance of Oxy-combustion Cement Plant with CO2 capture
Parameter Unit Value

Inputs Raw meal consumed t/y 1,508,424
Coal required t/y 72,061
Petroleum coke t/y 27,091
required
Oxygen (at 95% mol) t/y 166,298
from ASU
Electricity MWh/y 174,562
consumption
Outputs Clinker produced t/y 910,000
Cement produced t/y 1,000,000
CO2 captured t/y 465,014
CO2 emitted t/y 282,853
4.5.7 Plant Layout
The process units and ancillary buildings will need to be laid out to give the most economical flow of
materials and personnel around the site. A detailed layout of an oxy-combustion cement plant is
beyond the scope of this study but it is important to note that the following will need to be considered:
• Cement plants are typical laid out linearly.
• Hazardous materials (e.g. oxygen) should be stored at a safe distance from other buildings.
• The ancillary buildings should be located so as to minimise the time spent by personnel in
travelling between buildings.
• Administration offices should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes.
• Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical run of pipes to and from the
process units.
• Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future expansion
of the site.
Mott MacDonald estimates that the footprint of an oxy-combustion cement plant would be similar to a
cement plant without CO2 capture. A typical 1 Mt/y cement plant without cement capture would
occupy approximately 15 ha (500 m x 300 m) but could be accommodated in less space if necessary.
Mott MacDonald estimates that the additional equipment required for an oxy-combustion cement plant
(ASU, ORC, recycle and CO2 compression equipment etc.) would require approximately 0.5 ha. The
limestone quarry would occupy a much larger area, possibly as much as 200 ha (2000 m x 1000 m).
For illustration purposes Figure 4-12 shows the typical layout for 2 x 330 tpd ASUs. The footprint of
this plant is 25.6 m x 59.7 m.
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Figure 4-12: Typical Layout for 2 x 330 tpd ASUs (Air Liquide)
4.5.8 Operation Considerations
The following key operation considerations have been identified for the oxy-combustion CO2 capture
cement plant:
• The precalciner must be designed in such a way as to permit air-firing as a fall-back position
should there be an interruption in supply from the ASU. Therefore, adequate backup for the
ASU should be provided in order to allow a controlled change-over to air-firing. Backup
should be in the form of liquid oxygen enough of which will be stored on site to allow
controlled changeover to air-firing. A liquid oxygen capacity of 60 tonne capacity should be
sufficient (3 hours of operation). It will be stored at 2.5 bara in a vacuum insulated storage
tank which can be filled by gravity from the ASU. This tank would also be used during start-
up of the ASU.
• As mentioned in section 4.5.5(xix), if the raw mill is not operating then the hot gases which
are normally used for drying will be diverted to an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) unit for
generating electrical power.
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• As mentioned in section 4.5.5(xvi), if the CO2 purification and compression plant is not
available then it will be possible to discharge the purge stream following dust removal in the
ESP. This route will also be used during start-up until a sufficiently concentrated CO2 stream
is achieved.
• For operational flexibility the provision to use tertiary air in the precalciner should be
included. This will help during start-up.
• It has been noted within the cement industry that there are operational difficulties with using
separate line calciners (SLCs). The principal issue relates to blocking that can occur if flow is
stopped (e.g. during a power cut or a shut down). It is important that sufficient emergency
generator power is available on site to ensure fans remain operational so that a controlled shut
down can be undertaken. In addition, the design of the ductwork around the SLC must be
such that the settling of calcined material is prevented.
4.5.9 Emissions and Environmental Considerations
An oxy-combustion capture cement plant will achieve emission standards well below current cement
plants. This is an added advantage of CO2 capture. Some emissions will occur and these are
discussed in the following sections.
(i) Emission Sources
During normal operation there will be five main discharges to atmosphere. These are:
• exhaust gases from the raw mill
• exhaust gases from the coal dryer
• exhaust gases from the petroleum coke dryer
• waste gas from the ASU
• inerts and oxygen from the CO2 purification plant.
The following discharges would also occur:
• purge stream gas during start-up and when CO2 purification and compression plant is not
available
• discharge gases from ORC unit when raw mill is not operating.
These gases could be discharged via a single stack or via individual stacks depending on the layout,
cost and the environmental constraints imposed on the plant.
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(ii) Dust
As discussed in section 0 the best available techniques for reducing dust emissions from point sources
is the application of electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) and/or fabric filters. The BAT emission level2
associated with these techniques is 20-30 mg dust/m3 (EC, 2001). Discharges from the raw mill, the
coal dryer and the petroleum coke dryer will pass through bag filters prior to discharge. Discharges
from the ORC or the purge stream will pass through ESPs prior to discharge. The selection of ESPs
over bag filters in these cases is due to the reported better performance of ESPs at higher temperatures.
All other emissions will not contain dust and will not require treatment.
Through use of these abatement technologies it is expected that dust emissions from the plant will be
within the BAT range i.e. 20-30 mg dust/m3.
Any dust collected would be recycled back through the process.
(iii) NOx Emissions
The level of NOx present in the flue gases from oxy-combustion processes are considered to be lower
than for conventionally operated processes due to the reduction in production of thermal NOx.
However, in the configuration under consideration, the kiln is operating in a conventional mode so the
production of thermal NOx and fuel NOx from the kiln will be the same. Production of thermal NOx in
the precalciner will not be significant due to the reduced levels of nitrogen and the temperature of
operation. Production of fuel NOx will be generated as per a conventional process.
NOx emissions will occur in:
• exhaust gases from the raw mill
• exhaust gases from the coal dryer
• exhaust gases from the petroleum coke dryer
• inerts and oxygen from the CO2 purification plant
• purge stream gas during start-up and when CO2 purification and compression plant is not
available
• discharge gases from ORC unit when raw mill is not operating.
The BAT techniques for reducing NOx emissions are a combination of general primary measures,
primary measures to control NOx emissions, staged combustion and selective non-catalytic reduction
(SNCR). It is anticipated that a combination of these techniques would be used to ensure that the BAT
emission level3 of 200-500 mg NOx/m3 (as NO2) was achieved from the discharges.
Recent work by Air Products (White, 2007) has indicated that most of the NOx in the CO2 stream will
be removed as nitric acid during compression. Hence, the inerts and oxygen from the CO2 purification
plant should contain negligible levels of NOx.
2
Emission levels are expressed on a daily average basis and standard conditions of 273 K, 101.3 kPa, 10% oxygen and dry
gas.
3
gas.
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IEA GHG
The costs associated with any NOx emissions reduction measures have not been included in the cost
estimate for the oxy-combustion process option.
(iv) SOx Emissions
As discussed in Section 0, modern cement plants which do not have sulphide minerals in their raw
materials have very low emissions of SOx and often achieve emission levels below 10 mgSO2/m3
without using abatement techniques (EC 2001). In this case it is assumed that the raw meal originates
from NE Scotland and contains 0.33% (w/w – dry basis) sulphur.
It is expected that 30% or more of the sulphur in the raw material will be evaporated and be emitted
from the first stage of the preheater and that SO2 will be the main (99%) sulphur compound to be
released (EC 2001). In this case the emissions will be emitted from both the kiln preheater and the
precalciner preheater.
The gases from the kiln preheater are used for drying within the raw mill (when in operation) and for
fuel drying. It is reported that between 20-70% of the SO2 that is passed to the raw mill will be
captured by the finely ground raw materials (EC 2001).
The gases from the precalciner preheater are either recycled back to the precalciner or are passed
forward for CO2 purification and compression. It is expected that SO2 recycled back to the precalciner
will be absorbed into the solid material. It is also expected that most of the SO2 passed forward to the
CO2 purification and compression stages will be removed in the condensate during the contact cooling
process prior to CO2 compression. Recent work by Air Products (White, 2007) has indicated that most
of the SO2 in the CO2 stream will be removed as sulphuric acid during compression. Hence, the inerts
and oxygen from the CO2 purification plant should contain negligible levels of SO2.
It is expected that sulphur in the fuels fed to the precalciner or kiln will not lead to significant SO2
emissions due to the strong alkaline nature in the sintering zone, the calcination zone and the lower
stages of the preheaters. This sulphur will be captured in the clinker.
The BAT techniques for reducing SO2 emissions are a combination of general primary measures and
absorbent addition for initial emission levels not higher than about 1200 mg/m3 of SO2 and a wet or
dry scrubber for initial emission levels higher than about 1200 mg/m3 of SO2. The BAT emission
level4 associated with these techniques is 200-400 mg/m3 of SO2.
The costs associated with any SOx emissions reduction measures have not been included in the cost
estimate for the oxy-combustion process option.
(v) Effluent
During normal operation there will be three main effluent discharges. These are:
• condensed water from the indirect seawater cooler
• seawater discharge from the direct seawater cooler
4
gas.
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• water obtained from temperature swing dual bed desiccant dryer.
The condensed water obtained from the indirect seawater cooler and temperature swing bed desiccant
dryer will contain acidic components. Recent work by Air Products (White, 2007) indicates that most
of the SOx and NOx will be removed as acids during the CO2 compression. This acidic waste stream
will require neutralisation prior to discharge. However, it may be possible to convert the sulphuric
acid produced into gypsum by direct reaction with limestone in a stirred tank reactor. The gypsum
could then be used in the cement production process. The effluent from this process would contain
soluble calcium nitrate. Mott MacDonald has not investigated the feasibility of this option further.
The seawater obtained from direct seawater cooler will also contain some dissolved acid gas
components and may require further treatment prior to discharge. It should be noted that previous
studies examining oxy-combustion at power plants (IEA GHG, 2005) have shown this stream being
discharged directly back to the sea.
The costs associated with any effluent treatment have not been included in the cost estimate for the
oxy-combustion process option.
(vi) Others
As discussed in Section 2.4.2 in addition to dust, NOx and SOx there are a number of pollutants
considered to be of concern for the production of cement. These include:
• Carbon monoxide
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
• Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDDs and PCDFs)
• Metals and their compounds
• HF
• HCl.
The fate of these pollutants within the oxy-combustion process has not been examined in detail within
this study. However, it is important to note that the recycling of exit gases from the precalciner
preheater will result in material with a high calcium oxide content being in contact with gases
containing acid species such as HF and HCl. It is therefore expected that these species will be
absorbed within the clinker and will result in a reduction of emissions as compared to a standard
cement plant.
4.5.10 Design Risk Assessment
It is of paramount importance that an oxy-combustion cement plant is implemented safely and without
significant impact upon operational flexibility. Mott MacDonald have undertaken a preliminary
design risk assessment to identify the major additional plant operation risks that need to be considered
beyond those that apply for a cement plant without carbon capture. The results of this exercise are
shown in Table 4-10. It is important to note that this exercise would have to be repeated in greater
detail if a detailed design of an oxy-combustion cement plant was undertaken.
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Table 4-10: Preliminary Design Risk Assessment for Oxy-Combustion CO2 Capture
Cement Plant

Ref work Measures
suffocation as CO2 codes of practice associated
is an asphyxiant etc. to be adopted with handling
during design. CO2 are well
material from other
design.
3. HAZOP study
to be undertaken.
2 Risk of fire or Operation 1. Standards, Contractor Hazards
explosion as O2 codes of practice associated
may ignite on etc. to be adopted with handling
contact with during design. O2 are well
combustible 2. Appropriate understood
materials. material from other
design.
3. HAZOP study
to be undertaken.
4. ATEX
assessment to be
performed.
3 Risk of dust Operation 1. Standards, Contractor Hazards
explosion in fuel codes of practice associated
milling and drying etc. to be adopted with
stages. during design. explosive
2. HAZOP study dusts are well
to be undertaken. understood
3. ATEX within
assessment to be cement
performed. industry.
4 Risk of corrosion Operation 1. Standards, Contractor Hazards
damage due to codes of practice associated
presence of acidic etc. to be adopted with acidic
components (e.g. during design. components
SO2, SO3 and HCl) 2. Appropriate in gas streams
in gas streams. material are well
selection during understood
design. from other
industries.
exposure to codes of practice associated
extreme etc. to be adopted with low
temperatures as during design. temperatures
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IEA GHG

Ref work Measures
very low 2. Appropriate are well
temperatures material understood
present in selection during from other
cryogenic air design. industries.
separation unit. 3. HAZOP study
to be undertaken.
suffocation as N2 is codes of practice associated
an asphyxiant etc. to be adopted with handling
during design. N2 are well
understood
from other
industries.
7 Risk of fire as Operation 1. Standards, Contractor Hazards
pentane used in codes of practice associated
ORC which is etc. to be adopted with handling
flammable. during design. hydrocarbons
2. Appropriate are well
material understood
selection during from other
design. industries.
3. HAZOP study
to be undertaken
8 Risk of damage Operation 1. Standards, Contractor Hazards
caused by release codes of practice associated
of high pressure as etc. to be adopted with handling
high pressures during design. high
present in CO2 2. HAZOP study pressures are
compression unit. to be undertaken well
understood
from other
industries.
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5 Economic Analysis of CO2 Capture at a New-Build Cement Plant
5.1 Introduction
This section of the report describes the assessment of the capital and operating costs of adding CO2
capture to a new-build cement plant. Both post-combustion and oxy-combustion capture options are
reported.
Various sensitivities have also been investigated.
5.2 Assumptions
The main financial assumptions used for this study were based on the IEA GHG R&D programme
Technical & Financial Assessment Criteria (IEA GHG, 2003). These have been developed for the
technical and financial assessment of power plants with CO2 capture. Discussions were held with the
BCA to modify some of the assumptions to be relevant to the cement industry.
The key points are summarised below:
Location
• A green field site with no special civil works implications was assumed.
• Adequate plant and facilities to make the plant self-sufficient in site services were included in
the investment costs.
Currency
• The results of the studies are expressed in Euro € applicable to a specific year.
• An exchange rate of 1 Euro = 0.694 UK £ has been applied where necessary.
• An exchange rate of 1 Euro = 1.389 US $ has been applied where necessary.
Design and Construction
• The ‘S’ curve of expenditure during construction of the cement plant was as follows:
Year 1 20% investment
Plant Life
• A design life of twenty five years is assumed as the basis for the economic appraisal.
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Load Factor
• The load factor, defined as the achieved output as a percentage of rated nameplate capacity,
for the cement plant is assumed as follows:
Year 1 60% of rated capacity
Subsequent years 90% of nameplate capacity
Cost of Debt
• All capital requirements are treated as debt at the same discount rate used to derive capital
charges.
• There is no allowance for grants, cheap loans etc.
• Specific capital cost figures are presented without including an allowance for funds used
during contingencies.
Capital charges
• Discounted cash flow calculations are expressed at a discount rate of 10%.
• Inflation assumptions have not been made. No allowance is made for escalation of fuel,
labour or other costs relative to each other.
Contingencies
• A contingency has been added to the capital cost to give a 50% probability of a cost over-run
or under-run. The value of the contingency is taken as 5% of the installed cement plant cost
and 10% of the installed CO2 capture technology plant cost.
• All plant is assumed to be built on a turnkey basis i.e. the cost of risk is built into the
contractor’s fees.
Fees
• The contractor’s fees for design and build form part of the basic plant cost estimate.
• 5% of the installed plant cost (excluding contingency) has been included to cover owners costs
such as land purchase, surveys and general site preparation etc.
• 2% of the installed plant cost (excluding contingency has been included to cover fees such as
process/patent fees, fees for agents or consultants, and legal and planning costs.
Commissioning and Working Capital
• A 3 month commissioning period has been assumed for all plant.
• Sufficient storage for 7 days operation at rated capacity will be allowed for limestone.
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• Sufficient storage for 15 days operation at rated capacity will be allowed for coal, petroleum
coke, other raw materials, products and consumables.
• Allowance is made for receipts from product sales during the commissioning period.
Decommissioning
• The remediation cost of the cement plant quarries was not included in this analysis.
Taxation and Insurance
• 1% per year of the installed plant cost (excluding contingency and fees) has been allowed to
cover specific services e.g. local rates.
• Taxation on profits has not been included in the assessments.
• An allowance of 1% per year of the installed plant cost (excluding contingency and fees) has
been included to cover insurance.
Maintenance
• Routine and breakdown maintenance has been allowed for at 4% per year of installed plant
cost (excluding contingency and fees) for solids handling plant and at 2% per year for plants
handling gases and liquids and services plant.
• The cost of maintenance labour is assumed to be included within the labour costs.
Labour
• Operating labour only has been identified and assumed to work in a 5 shift pattern.
• The annual salary of an operator has been assumed to be €40,000/yr.
• An allowance of 20% of the operating labour direct costs has been included to cover
supervision.
• A further 30% of direct labour costs has been included to cover administration and general
overheads.
Fuels and raw materials
• The cost of limestone delivered to the site is assumed to be €3/tonne.
• The cost of shale delivered to the site is assumed to be €1.5/tonne.
• The cost of sand delivered to the site is assumed to be €50/tonne.
• The cost of iron oxide delivered to the site is assumed to be €50/tonne.
• The cost of gypsum delivered to the site is assumed to be €10/tonne.
• The cost of coal delivered to the site is assumed to be €65/t (2.51 €/GJ (LHV basis)).
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• The cost of petroleum coke delivered to the site is assumed to be €80/t (2.34 €/GJ (LHV
basis).
• The cost of power delivered to the site is assumed to be €0.0500/kWh. This figure represents
an annual average wholesale price without carbon for the UK (i.e. the price does not include
EU ETS compliance costs).
• The revenue for power generated on-site and exported to the grid is assumed to be
€0.0500/kWh. This figure represents an annual average wholesale price without carbon for
the UK (i.e. the price does not include EU ETS compliance costs).
• The cost of water and seawater delivered to the site is assumed to be €0.1/t.
• The cost of cooling water is assumed to be €0.02/t.
• The cost of ammonia is assumed to be €200/t.
• The cost of MEA is assumed to be €1100/t.
• The cost of additive inhibitor is assumed to be 20% of price of MEA make-up.
• It is assumed that the SCR catalyst must be changed every 3 years.
5.3 Base Case: Cement Plant with no CO2 Capture
5.3.1 Base Case
For the purposes of calculating the additional costs for installing CO2 capture at a cement plant the
capital and operating costs of a base case cement plant with no CO2 capture were estimated. The
flowsheet for the base case (234996-BC-FS01) and the stream data are contained in Appendix C.
5.3.2 Capital Costs
A cement plant equipment supplier provided a budget cost for a 1 million tonnes per year cement plant
in Northern Europe of €120 million for the mechanical and electrical equipment. For the purposes of
this study this total budget has been allocated to the different process sections of the cement plant as
set out in Table 5-1. The estimated accuracy of the figures quoted is ± 25%.
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Table 5-1: Capital Cost Allocation for Cement Plant with no CO2 Capture (Base Case)
Cement Plant Process Section CAPEX budget

€M
Raw material crushing and blending
Limestone crushing 2.50
Shale crushing 1.25
Stacker-reclaimer 2.08
Raw milling and homogenisation
Raw mill drive 16.50
Raw mill fan 0.50
Raw mill ancillaries 1.90
Raw mill bag filter 2.00
Bag filter fan 0.50
Conditioning Tower 0.50
Homogenisation chamber silo 5.28
Preheater
Preheater feed bin Included below
Five stage preheater 5.40
Preheater fan 0.80
Precalciner
Precalciner 0.50
Rotary Kiln
Kiln 12.00
Clinker Cooler
Grate cooler 12.00
Cooler bag filter 2.00
Cooler bag filter fan 0.50
Clinker crusher Included below
Clinker conveyor 1.50
Clinker storage silo 9.00
Export clinker hopper 0.30
Coal preparation
Coal milling system 5.00
Petroleum coke preparation
Petroleum coke milling system 5.00
Cement milling
Mill 1 10.00
Mill 2 10.00
Cement packing and loading
Compartmental silo 1 5.00
Bag packing plant 3.00
Total 120
The following must be added to the total mechanical and electrical cost:
• construction costs including mechanical erection, instrument and electrical installation, civil
works, buildings and site preparation
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IEA GHG
• design and engineering costs
• other costs including temporary facilities, training, commissioning, start-up costs and spare
parts
• EPC services including contractors home services and construction supervision and freight
• contingency
• fees
• owners costs.
The breakdown of these costs for the base case plant are shown in Table 5-2.
Table 5-2: Capital Costs for Cement Plant with no CO2 Capture (Base Case)
Description €M
Mechanical and Electrical Equipment Cost 120
Design and Engineering 42
Construction 48
Other Costs 8
EPC Services 17
Installed Costs 235
Contingency 12
Fees 5
Owners Costs 12
Total Investment Cost 263
5.3.3 Operating Costs
The operating costs are formed from variable costs and fixed costs.
The variable cost element in the total operating cost is derived from the consumables associated with
the plant. The consumables are listed in Table 5-3 and are based on 330 working days per year.
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Table 5-3: Variable Operating Costs for Cement Plant with no CO2 Capture (Base Case)
Description Unit Cost Consumption €M/year

(€/unit)
Limestone 3/t 1,245,973 t/y 3.74
Shale 1.5/t 283,974 t/y 0.43
Sand 50/t 7,473 t/y 0.37
Iron Oxide 50/t 7,473 t/y 0.37
Gypsum 10/t 40,000 t/y 0.40
Coal 65/t 0.0633 Mt/y 4.11
Petroleum Coke 80/t 0.0319 Mt/y 2.55
Miscellaneous Materials 0.72
Power 0.05/kWh 80,809 MWh/y 4.04
Process Water 0.1/t 240,000 t/y 0.02
Total variable operating cost 16.76
The fixed cost contribution to the operating costs is shown in Table 5-4. These costs comprise the
items listed below:
• maintenance
• operating labour
• supervision
• administration and general overheads
• local rates
• insurance.
Table 5-4: Fixed Operating Costs for Cement Plant with no CO2 Capture (Base Case)
Description €M/year
Maintenance 9.4
Operating labour 3.2
Supervision 0.6
Administration and general overheads 1.2
Local rates 2.4
Insurance 2.4
Total fixed operating costs 19.1
5.4 Economic Analysis of Post-Combustion CO2 Capture
5.4.1 Capital Costs
The capital cost allocation of the post-combustion cement plant described in section 4.4.5 is set out as
in Table 5-5. The estimated accuracy of the figures quoted is ± 25%. These figures were derived from
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IEA GHG
budgetary prices provided by suppliers, costs scaled from published information and prices obtained
from Mott MacDonald’s database of equipment prices.
The CHP capital costs assume that there is currently a grid connection and that no reinforcement of the
grid or additional capital costs are required.
Potential cost reductions could occur if the CHP was replaced with an auxiliary boiler to provide the
low pressure steam. This would remove the need for the steam turbine, reduce the coal requirements
and reduce the balance of plant costs. However, the operating costs would increase because the
cement plant will not be a net exporter of electricity (as it would be if the CHP was operating).
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Table 5-5: Capital Cost Allocation for Post-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2
Capture
Cement Plant Process Section CAPEX budget Total

€M €M
Raw material preparation
Limestone crusher 2.50
Shale crusher 1.25
Stacker-reclaimer system 2.08
Raw mill drive 16.50
Raw mill fan 0.50
Raw mill ancillaries 1.90
Bag filter fan 0.50
Conditioning Tower 0.50
Preheater
Preheater feed bin Included below
Preheater fan 0.80
Precalciner
Precalciner 0.50
Rotary Kiln
Kiln 12.00
Clinker Cooler
Grate cooler 12.00
Coal preparation
Cement milling
Mill 1 10.00
Mill 2 10.00
Total mechanical and electrical cost of cement plant 120.0
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) 4.6
Reactor Casing
Bypass System
Catalyst
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IEA GHG

€M €M
Ammonia Injection System
Handling Equipment
Control System
Flue Gas Desulphurisation 22.5
Spray Tower Absorption
Reaction Tank
Mist Eliminators
Limestone Storage
Limestone Preparation
Dewatering System
Other
Gas Mixer 0.1
CO2 Capture 31.8
Pumps (MEA, reflux, stripper etc)
Amine Filter Package
Water Tankage
Cross Exchangers
Stripper
Coolers (DCC and water wash)
DCC Towers
Overhead Stripper Condenser
Stripper Reboiler
Lean Solvent Cooler
Packing
Absorption Tower
Flash Drums
CO2 compression and purification 7.8
Dryer
Compressors
CO2 Pumps
CHP Plant 66.2
Coal and Ash Handling
Boiler Island
Steam Turbine Plant and Generator
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
Balance of Plant
Total mechanical and electrical cost of additional post- 132.9
combustion plant
Total mechanical and electrical cost of post-combustion cement 252.9
plant
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IEA GHG
parts
• EPC services including contractors home services and construction supervision and freight
• contingency
• fees
• owners costs.
The breakdown of these costs for the post-combustion cement plant are shown in Table 5-6.
Table 5-6: Capital Costs for Post-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2 Capture
Description Cement Plant Post-Combustion Plant Total

€M €M €M
Mechanical and Electrical Equipment Cost 120 133 253
Design and Engineering 42 29 71
Construction 48 57 105
Other Costs 8 24 32
EPC Services 17 14 31
Installed Costs 235 256 492
Contingency 12 20 32
Fees 5 5 10
Owners Costs 12 13 25
Total Investment Cost 263 294 558
the plant. The consumables are listed in Table 5-7 and are based on 330 working days per year.
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Table 5-7: Variable Operating Costs for Post-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2
Capture

(€/unit)
Limestone for raw meal and blending 3/t 1,245,679 t/y 3.74
Limestone for FGD 3/t 12,830 t/y 0.04
Shale 1.5/t 283,974 t/y 0.43
Sand 50/t 7,473 t/y 0.37
Gypsum 10/t 23,634 t/y 0.24
Ammonia 200/t 1,853 t/y 0.37
MEA 1100/t 2,242 t/y 2.47
Additive Inhibitor - - 0.49
Catalyst for SCR Change every 3 years - 1.19
Coal for Precalciner 65/t 0.0633 Mt/y 4.11
Coal for CHP 65/t 0.2283 Mt/y 14.84
Miscellaneous Materials - - 0.72
Power – Cement Plant 0.05/kWh 80,809 MWh/y 4.04
Power – Post Combustion Plant 0.05/kWh 252,857 MWh/y 12.64
Process Water – Cement plant 0.1/t 0.24 Mt/y 0.02
Process Water – Post-Combustion plant 0.1/t 0.15 Mt/y 0.02
Cooling Water – Cement Plant 0.02/t - -
Cooling Water – Post-Combustion Plant 0.02/t 4.38 Mt/y 0.09
Power – Generated in the CHP 0.05/kWh 356,400 MWh/y (17.82)
Net variable operating cost 30.93
The fixed cost contribution to the operating costs is shown in Table 5-8.
Table 5-8: Fixed Operating Costs for Post-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2 Capture
Description Cement Plant Post-Combustion Plant Total

€M €M €M
Maintenance 9.4 7.4 16.8
Operating labour 3.2 2.4 5.6
Supervision 0.6 0.5 1.1
Administration and general overheads 1.2 0.9 2.0
Local rates 2.4 2.6 4.9
Insurance 2.4 2.6 4.9
Total fixed operating costs 19.1 16.2 35.3
5.4.3 Cash Flow Calculations
The assumptions set out in section 5.2 have been applied to the IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D
Programme model which has been adapted to reflect the operations of a cement manufacturing plant.
The model projects the cash flows arising from the construction and operation of a plant for a 25 year
period and calculates the net increase in costs as a result of employing CO2 capture technology.
Revenues are not considered, as these are assumed to be identical for all potential plants. Similarly,
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IEA GHG
any implications for a cost of carbon are omitted as these are not relevant to the study. The cash flow
spreadsheet for the base case and post-combustion capture are included with Appendix F.
The model assumes that electricity generated on site at the cement plant can be wholly used to offset
the consumption of the plant and, where applicable, any excess can be sold to the grid.
A discount rate of 10% is used to calculate the levelised cost of cement manufacture, which represents
the cost per tonne of cement produced in current monetary value (at 2008). The results of the model
for the base case and for a post-combustion plant are shown in Table 5-9.
Table 5-9: Cost of Cement Manufacture
€/t
No CO2 capture (Base Case) 65.7
With capture (Post-Combustion) 129.4
As would be expected given the large increase in the capital cost of the plant, the cost per tonne of
cement is increased considerably when post-combustion carbon capture is added.
5.4.4 Calculations of CO2 Cost
The increase in cost per tonne of cement produced has been used to derive a cost per tonne of CO2
emissions avoided when compared with the base case. Emissions from the base case plant, with no
CO2 capture, were calculated to be 728,422 t CO2/yr or 0.728 tonnes CO2 per tonne of cement
produced. For the post-combustion plant, two scenarios have been considered:
• a conservative scenario, in which only the CO2 captured from cement manufacture at the site
is considered when calculating the cost of reduction;
• an holistic scenario, including both the CO2 captured from cement manufacture, plus the CO2
saved by on-site power generation and, as the post-combustion cement plant is a net exporter
of electricity, displaced CO2 generation from the grid.
For the second scenario, a CO2 emissions level of 0.52 kg/kWh for external power has been assumed.
Appendix G includes a note on the derivation of this emission factor.
The results for the model are shown in Table 5-10.
Table 5-10: Cost of CO2 Avoidance
€ / t CO2
Power emissions excluded 118.1
Power emissions from grid included 107.4
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As indicated by the high increase in cost per tonne of cement produced, the cost per tonne of CO2
emissions avoided is also relatively high. Given the excess power produced by the plant, which is
assumed to be sold to the grid, including the CO2 not emitted due to displacing fossil fuel power
generation results in a reduction in the cost per tonne emitted. However, this is a generous assumption
and it may be prudent not to include this in an analysis of post-combustion capture.
The cost per tonne of CO2 captured is calculated by dividing the incremental cost per tonne increase in
producing cement in a post-combustion cement plant by the quantity of CO2 captured per tonne of
cement. For this system the cost per tonne of CO2 captured is 59.6 €/tCO2.
5.4.5 Sensitivities
In order to test the robustness of the model results, a number of sensitivity cases for key inputs have
been modelled. The key inputs are capital costs, operating costs, plant life, fuel costs and discount
rate, and the outcomes are discussed below.
(i) Capital Cost
The impact of a ± 25% variation in the capital cost of the whole plant has been considered. The results
are shown in Table 5-11. It should be noted that some of the operating costs (e.g. local rates,
insurance and maintenance) are calculated as percentages of the installed plant cost. For the purposes
of this sensitivity analysis these costs were assumed to remain constant (i.e. the same as for the base
case).
Table 5-11: Capital Cost Sensitivities
-25% Base Case +25%
€/t cement Base Case 58.2 65.6 73.1
Post-combustion CO2 capture plant 113.7 129.4 145.1
€/t CO2 Power emissions excluded 102.7 118.1 133.4

avoided
Power emissions from grid included 93.4 107.4 121.3
As would be expected given the relatively large impact of the capital cost on the cost of cement
production and CO2 capture, the results are very sensitive to variations in the capital cost assumptions.
(ii) Operating Costs
The impact of a ± 25% variation in the operating costs of all plant has been considered. Table 5-12
shows the results. It should be noted that for the purposes of the sensitivity analysis the cost of fuel
and power are not included in the operating costs. In the analysis they are assumed to remain at the
base case values.
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IEA GHG
Table 5-12: Operating Cost Sensitivities
-25% Base Case +25%

avoided
These results show that the model is sensitive to changes in operating costs, within the range shown.
(iii) Fuel Costs
Fuel costs are difficult to forecast with any degree of accuracy over the longer-term and can fluctuate
significantly. The base case costs of coal and petroleum coke were €65/t (2.51 €/GJ (LHV basis)) and
€80/t (2.34 €/GJ (LHV basis)) respectively. The impact of a ± 50% variation in the cost of coal and
pet coke has been considered. Table 5-13 shows the results.
Table 5-13: Fuel Costs Sensitivity
-50% Base Case +50%

avoided
The table shows that the results are affected by variation in fuel costs although to a lesser degree than
for capital costs. Post-combustion capture requires a large increase in coal consumption so any
increase in cost is bound to impact on the cost per tonne of CO2 avoided.
(iv) Power Costs
The impact of a ± 25% variation in the cost of power (purchase and sale) has been considered. Table
5-14 shows the results.
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IEA GHG
Table 5-14: Power Costs Sensitivity
-25% Base Case +25%

avoided
The table shows that the results are not greatly affected by variation in power costs. However, as post-
combustion capture results in the net export of electricity the cost per tonne of cement or avoidance
decreases as the price of power increases due to the increases in revenue.
(v) Compound Operating Costs
The impact of a ± 25% variation in all the operating costs (including fuel and power purchase costs)
has also been considered. Table 5-15 shows the results.
Table 5-15: Compound Operating Cost Sensitivities
-25% Base Case +25%

avoided
These results show that the model is sensitive to changes in all operating costs, within the range
shown.
(vi) Plant Life
The operating life of the plant has been extended to 40 years to examine the impact on the model
results. Table 5-16 shows the results.
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IEA GHG
Table 5-16: Plant Life Sensitivity
Base Case 40 yrs
€/t cement Base Case 65.6 63.4
Post-combustion CO2 capture plant 129.4 124.7
€/t CO2 Power emissions excluded 118.1 113.5

avoided
Power emissions from grid included 107.4 103.2
The sensitivity analysis shows that extending the life of the plant to 40 years only reduces the cost of
CO2 reduction by around 4%. The CO2 captured is not discounted in the model and so the increased
cost of cement production is spread over an additional 15 years of CO2 capture.
(vii) Discount Rate
The impact of a ± 2% variation around the base case discount rate of 10% applied in the model has
been considered. Table 5-17 shows the results.
Table 5-17: Discount Rate Sensitivities
8% Base Case 12%

avoided
The results show that the cost of CO2 avoidance is sensitive to the discount rate used. As future
cement production becomes more heavily discounted, the cost per tonne produced in order to recoup
the capital expenditure increases.
(viii) Emissions Factor
Where the CO2 emissions from external power have been included an emissions factor of 0.52 kg/kWh
has been used. The impact of using a high emissions factor of 0.745 kg/kWh such as that from a new
large coal-fired power plant (IEA GHG, 2004) and a low emissions factor of 0.14 kg/kWh to represent
electricity from a low CO2 source such as a coal-fired plant with 85% capture have been considered.
Table 5-18 shows the results.
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IEA GHG
Table 5-18: Emissions Factor Sensitivities
Low Base Case High
Emissions Factor 0.14 0.52 0.745

(kg/kWh)
€/t CO2 avoided Power emissions excluded 118.1 118.1 118.1
The results show that the cost of CO2 avoidance is sensitive to the emissions factor when power
emissions from the grid are included. It can be seen that as the emissions factor increases from low to
high the cost of avoidance decreases.
(ix) Low Sulphur Raw Meal and External Steam Supply Scenario
This study was based on a cement plant located in NE Scotland. Raw meal from Northern UK
contains relatively higher levels of sulphides compared to the South of the country so it was necessary
to assume that the raw meal used in this study contained high levels of sulphide (0.33% (w/w)). This
assumption necessitates the use of FGD to meet the SOx levels required for efficient absorption of CO2
with MEA. Modern cement plants which do not have these sulphide minerals in their raw materials
can achieve SO2 emissions below 10 mg/m3 (EC, 2001). The sensitivity of costs to a low sulphur raw
meal and an external source of steam were assessed. The rationale of assuming an external source of
steam was that a coal-fired CHP plant would require FGD (even with low-sulphur coal) so in order to
gain a substantial cost benefit an external source of steam must be assumed. The scenario was based
on the following assumptions:
• The SO2 emissions from the cement plant were below 10 mg/m3 (daily average basis and
standard conditions of 0C, 101.3 kPa, 10% O2 and dry gas).
• Over-the-fence steam was available at the required temperature and pressure for the process.
• The steam was waste heat and was therefore carbon neutral.
• The cost of the steam was €10/t.
• No power is generated on site.
• CO2 emissions are 15% of base case emissions.
• Coal and pet-coke consumption is the same as the base case.
• Due to the lack of FGD, CHP plant and reduced volume of CO2 the electrical demand is 50%
of the post-combustion option considered in this Report.
• Water consumption is same as base case.
• Cooling water consumption is 60% of the post-combustion option considered in the Report.
• Installed costs are 60% of the post-combustion option considered in the Report.
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• The steam requirement is 1.1 Mt/y.
• Labour costs are 60% of the post-combustion option considered in the Report.
• Administration, rates and insurance are 60% of the post-combustion option considered in the
Report.
The cash flow spreadsheet for the scenario are included in Appendix F. Table 5-19 shows the results
of the analysis.
Table 5-19: Sensitivities of Costs to a Low Sulphur Raw Meal and External Steam
Supply Scenario
Base Case Post-Combustion Low Sulphur Raw

Base Case Meal and External
(No CO2 Capture) Steam Supply
Scenario
€/t cement 65.6 129.4 97.3
€/t CO2 avoided n/a 118.1 51.2

(power emissions
excluded)

(power emissions
from grid included)
The results show that the cost of CO2 avoidance can be significantly reduced if the capital costs for
FGD and CHP are avoided and steam is purchased from an external source at the assumed cost of
€10/t. This indicates that the co-location of a new-build cement plant with an external source of steam
should be investigated if the costs associated with CO2 capture at the cement plant are to be
minimised.
(x) Alternative Solvent for CO2 Absorption Scenario
This study was based on using MEA for CO2 absorption. The sensitivity of costs to using an
alternative solvent such as MHI’s KS-1 solvent which has a steam consumption of about 2.7
MJ/kgCO2 compared to about 3.7 MJ/kgCO2 were assessed. The scenario was based on the following
assumptions:
• The CO2 capture rate of the MEA and KS-1 systems are identical.
• The solvent replacement costs for MEA and KS-1 are identical.
• Due to the reduction in size of the CHP plant the power produced is 75% of the post-
combustion option considered in the Report.
• 75% less coal is used in the CHP plant compared to the post-combustion option considered in
the Report.
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IEA GHG
• Installed costs are 90% of the post-combustion option considered in the Report.
The cash flow spreadsheet for the scenario are included in Appendix F. Table 5-20 shows the results
of the analysis.
Table 5-20: Sensitivities of Costs to an Alternative Solvent for CO2 Absorption

Scenario
Base Case Post-Combustion Post-Combustion

Capture (with Capture (with KS-1)
(No CO2 Capture) MEA)
€/t cement 65.6 129.4 121.6
€/t CO2 avoided n/a 118.1 105.0

(power emissions
excluded)

(power emissions
from grid included)
The results show that the cost of CO2 avoidance can be significantly reduced if alternative solvents
with a lower requirement for steam are used. This is due to the capital cost savings resulting from the
smaller CHP plant required and the knock-on effects caused by the reduction in flue gases from the
CHP plant that require treatment. Improvements in CO2 absorption solvents will have a strong
influence on reducing the costs of CO2 capture using post-combustion at cement plants.
5.5 Economic Analysis of Oxy-Combustion CO2 Capture
5.5.1 Capital Costs
The capital cost allocation of the oxy-combustion cement plant described in section 4.5.5 is set out as
in Table 5-21. The estimated accuracy of the figures quoted is ± 25%. These figures were derived
from budgetary prices provided by suppliers, costs scaled from published information and prices
obtained from Mott MacDonald’s database of equipment prices.
As stated in section 4.5.2(ii) the effect of reducing the nitrogen content in the precalciner may raise the
emissivity of the gas and improve the radiative heat transfer within the precalciner. Hence, for the
same fuel firing rate, an oxy-combustion precalciner of smaller dimensions may be able to achieve
similar calcination conditions as its air-firing counterpart. The reduction in cost associated with a
smaller precalciner has not been considered within this study as a detailed design of the precalciner
has not been undertaken. The cost saving will be somewhat minor compared to the overall oxy-
combustion cement plant and considering the target budget capital cost estimate of ±25%.
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IEA GHG
Table 5-21: Capital Cost Allocation for Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2
Capture

€M €M
Raw material preparation
Limestone crusher 2.50
Shale crusher 1.25
Stacker-reclaimer system 2.08
Raw mill drive 16.5
Raw mill fan 0.5
Raw mill ancillaries Included above
Bag filter fan 0.5
Kiln preheater
Preheater (kiln) feed bin Included below
Four stage preheater 2.0
Preheater (kiln) fan 0.5
Precalciner preheater
Preheater (calciner) feed bin Included below
Preheater (calciner) fan 0.7
Precalciner
Precalciner 0.5
Rotary Kiln
Kiln 12.0
Clinker Cooler
Grate cooler 12.0
Coal preparation
Cement milling
Mill 1 10.0
Mill 2 10.0
ORC heat recovery unit
Electrostatic precipitator 1.5
Heat recovery heat exchanger 2.4
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IEA GHG

€M €M
ORC heat recovery unit 3.6
Exhaust gas fan 0.8
Total mechanical and electrical cost of cement plant 125.9
Air Separation Unit (ASU)
Main air compressors 8.3
Air purification system Included above
Main heat exchanger Included above
ASU compander Included above
ASU column system Included above
Pumps Included above
Backup storage vessel Included above
Gas-to-gas heat exchanger for oxygen/product 0.7
Recycle
Recycle stream fan 0.4
Gas mixer 0.1
Gas-to-gas heat exchanger for ‘tertiary air’/recycle 1.0
Electrostatic precipitator
Electrostatic precipitator 1.5
Electrostatic precipitator fan 0.3
CO2 compression and purification 7.6
Venturi scruber
Indirect contact cooler
Direct contact seawater cooler
Compressors
Heat exchangers
Flue gas expander
Total mechanical and electrical cost of additional oxy- 19.9
combustion plant
Total mechanical and electrical cost of oxy-combustion cement 145.8
plant
parts
• EPC services including contractors home services and construction supervision and freight;
• contingency
• fees
• owners costs.
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IEA GHG
The breakdown of these costs for the oxy-combustion cement plant are shown in Table 5-22.
Table 5-22: Capital Costs for Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2 Capture
Description Cement Plant Oxy-Combustion Plant Total

€M €M €M
Mechanical and Electrical Equipment Cost 126 20 146
Design and Engineering 44 7 51
Construction 50 9 59
Other Costs 9 6 15
EPC Services 18 1 19
Installed Costs 247 43 290
Contingency 12 4 17
Fees 5 1 6
Owners Costs 12 2 15
Total Investment Cost 276 51 327
the plant. Table 5-23 lists the consumables used based on 330 working days per year.
Table 5-23: Variable Operating Costs for Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2
Capture

(€/unit)
Limestone 3/t 1,256,739 t/y 3.77
Shale 1.5/t 286,601 t/y 0.43
Sand 50/t 7,542 t/y 0.38
Gypsum 10/t 40,000 t/y 0.40
Coal 65/t 0.0721 Mt/y 4.68
Miscellaneous Materials 0.72
Power 0.05/kWh 174,562 MWh/y 8.73
Seawater 0.02/t 11.3 Mt/y 0.25
Cooling water 0.02/t 1.7 Mt/y 0.04
The fixed cost contribution to the operating costs is shown in Table 5-24
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IEA GHG
Table 5-24: Fixed Operating Costs for Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant with CO2
Capture
Description Cement Plant Oxy-Combustion Plant Total

€M €M €M
Maintenance 9.9 0.9 10.7
Operating labour 3.2 0.8 4.0
Supervision 0.6 0.2 0.8
Administration and general overheads 1.2 0.3 1.4
Local rates 2.5 0.4 2.9
Insurance 2.5 0.4 2.9
Total fixed operating costs 19.8 3.0 22.8
5.5.3 Cash Flow Calculations
The assumptions set out in section 5.2 have been applied to the IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D
Programme model which has been adapted to reflect the operations of a cement manufacturing plant.
The model projects the cash flows arising from the construction and operation of a plant for a 25 year
period and calculates the net increase in costs as a result of employing CO2 capture technology.
Revenues are not considered as these are assumed to be identical for all potential plants. Similarly,
any implications for a cost of carbon are omitted as these are not relevant to the study. The cash flow
spreadsheet for the base case and oxy-combustion capture are included in Appendix F.
The model assumes that electricity generated on site at the cement plant can be wholly used to offset
the consumption of the plant and, where applicable, any excess can be sold to the grid.
A discount rate of 10% is used to calculate the levelised cost of cement manufacture, which represents
the cost per tonne of cement produced in current monetary value (at 2008). The results of the model
for the base case and for an oxy-combustion plant are shown in Table 5-25.
Table 5-25: Cost of Cement Manufacture
€/t
No CO2 capture 65.6
With capture (Oxy-Combustion) 81.6
Although the capital cost of oxy-combustion plant is considerable, it is much lower than that for post-
combustion capture, and so the cost of cement production is affected to a lesser degree.
5.5.4 Calculations of CO2 Cost
The increase in cost per tonne of cement produced has been used to derive a cost per tonne of CO2
emissions avoided when compared with the base case. Emissions from the base case plant, with no
CO2 capture, were assumed to be 728,422 t CO2 /yr, or 0.728 tonnes CO2 per tonne of cement
produced. For the oxy-combustion plant, two scenarios have again been considered:
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IEA GHG
• a conservative scenario, in which only the CO2 captured from cement manufacture at the site
is considered when calculating the cost of reduction;
• an holistic scenario, including both the CO2 captured from cement manufacture and, as the
oxy-combustion cement plant imports more power from the grid than the base case, the CO2
emissions associated with the additional power imported.
For the second scenario, a CO2 emissions level of 0.52 kg/kWh for external power has been assumed.
Appendix G includes a note on the derivation of this emission factor.
The results for the model are shown in Table 5-26.
Table 5-26: Cost of CO2 Avoidance
€ / t CO2
Power emissions excluded 35.8
Power emissions from grid included 40.2
The cost per tonne of CO2 emissions avoided is significant but much lower than that for post-
combustion. However, in this case, including the impact on CO2 resulting from the increased power
consumption increases the cost per tonne captured. Oxy-combustion uses considerable quantities of
imported power which it is important to take into account when assessing the overall impact on CO2
emissions.
The cost per tonne of CO2 captured is calculated by dividing the incremental cost per tonne increase in
producing cement in an oxy-combustion cement plant by the quantity of CO2 captured per tonne of
cement. For this system the cost per tonne of CO2 captured is 34.3 €/tCO2.
5.5.5 Sensitivities
In order to test the robustness of the model results, a number of sensitivity cases for key inputs have
been modelled. The key inputs are capital costs, operating costs, plant life, fuel costs and discount
rate, and the outcomes are discussed below.
(i) Capital Cost
The impact of a ±25% variation in the capital cost of the whole plant has been considered. The results
are shown in Table 5-27. It should be noted that some of the operating costs (e.g. local rates,
insurance and maintenance) are calculated as percentages of the installed plant cost. For the purposes
of this sensitivity analysis these costs were assumed to remain constant (i.e. the same as for the base
case).
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IEA GHG
Table 5-27: Capital Cost Sensitivities
-25% Base Case +25%
Oxy-combustion CO2 capture plant 72.4 81.6 90.8

avoided
Although there is an impact on the model results from variations in the capital cost, the impact is less
than that for post-combustion as would be expected given the lower cost of the capture plant.
(ii) Operating Costs
The impact of a ±25% variation in the operating costs of all plant have been considered. The results
are shown in Table 5-28. It should be noted that for the purposes of the sensitivity analysis the cost of
fuel and power are not included in the operating costs. In the analysis they are assumed to remain at
the base case values.
Table 5-28: Operating Cost Sensitivities
-25% Base Case +25%

avoided
Given that the increase in operating costs when adding oxy-combustion CO2 capture is less than that
for post-combustion, the impact of variations of the operating costs on the model results will also be
less. The results are therefore not greatly sensitive to variations in the operating cost assumptions,
within the range shown.
(iii) Fuel Costs
Fuel costs are difficult to forecast with any degree of accuracy over the longer-term and can fluctuate
significantly. The base case costs of coal and petroleum coke were €65/t (2.51 €/GJ (LHV basis)) and
€80/t (2.34 €/GJ (LHV basis)) respectively. The impact of a ± 50% variation in the cost of coal and
pet coke has been considered. The results are shown in Table 5-29.
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IEA GHG
Table 5-29: Fuel Costs Sensitivity
-50% Base Case +50%

avoided
The table shows that, although the cost of cement is affected, variation in the fuel price has little effect
on the cost of CO2 avoidance through oxy-combustion.
(iv) Power Costs
The impact of a ± 25% variation in the cost of power (purchase and sale) has been considered. The
results are shown in Table 5-30.
Table 5-30: Power Costs Sensitivity
-25% Base Case +25%

avoided
The table shows that the results are not greatly affected by variation in power costs. However, as oxy-
combustion capture results in the net import of electricity the cost per tonne of cement or capture
increases as the price of power increases due to increases in operating costs.
(v) Compound Operating Costs
The impact of a ±25% variation in all the operating costs (including fuel and power costs) has also
been considered. The results are shown in Table 5-31.
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IEA GHG
Table 5-31: Compound Operating Cost Sensitivities
-25% Base Case +25%

avoided
The results show that the model is sensitive to variations in the operating cost assumptions, within the
range shown.
(vi) Plant Life
The operating life of the plant has been extended to 40 years to examine the impact on the model
results. These are shown in Table 5-32.
Table 5-32: Plant Life Sensitivity
Base Case 40 yrs
€/t cement Base Case 65.6 63.4
Oxy-combustion CO2 capture plant 81.6 78.9
€/t CO2 Power emissions excluded 35.8 34.6

avoided
Power emissions from grid included 40.2 38.9
The sensitivity analysis shows that extending the life of the plant reduces the cost of CO2 reduction as
the additional capital cost is spread over the additional 15 years of CO2 captured.
(vii) Discount Rate
The impact of a ±2% variation around the base case discount rate of 10% applied in the model has
been considered. The results are shown in Table 5-33.
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IEA GHG
Table 5-33: Discount Rate Sensitivities
8% Base Case 12%

avoided
The results show that the cost of CO2 capture is sensitive to the discount rate used. As future cement
production becomes more heavily discounted, the cost per tonne produced in order to recoup the
capital expenditure increases. As the capital cost for the capture plant is lower than that for post-
combustion, the model results for oxy-combustion are less sensitive to variation in the discount rate
applied.
(viii) Emissions Factor
Where the CO2 emissions from external power have been included an emissions factor of 0.52 kg/kWh
has been used. The impact of using a high emissions factor of 0.745 kg/kWh such as that from a new
large coal-fired power plant (IEA GHG, 2004) and a low emissions factor of 0.14 kg/kWh to represent
electricity from a low CO2 source such as a coal-fired plant with 85% capture have been considered.
Table 5-34 shows the results.
Table 5-34: Emissions Factor Sensitivities
Low Base Case High
Emissions Factor 0.14 0.52 0.745

(kg/kWh)
€/t CO2 avoided Power emissions excluded 35.8 35.8 35.8
The results show that the cost of CO2 capture is sensitive to the emissions factor when power
emissions from the grid are included. It can be seen that as the emissions factor increases from low to
high the cost of capture decreases.
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IEA GHG
(ix) Co-location of Oxy-Combustion Cement Plant with Oxy-Combustion Power

Plant Scenario
The scenario of co-locating the oxy-combustion cement plant with an oxy-combustion power plant
was examined. The rationale behind examining this sensitivity was the potential cost savings
available if the oxygen production and CO2 compression facilities are consolidated. The scenario was
based on the following assumptions:
• Oxygen was available over-the-fence from the oxy-combustion power plant.
• The cost of oxygen was €30/t. This is considered typical for industry.
• The CO2 produced would be exported for compression and purification at the oxy-combustion
power plant.
• The cost of exporting the CO2 for purification and compression was €10/t.
• The power consumed is 55% of the oxy-combustion option considered in this Report.
• The water and cooling water demand is the same for a co-located plant and the oxy-
combustion option considered in this Report.
• Installed costs are 90% of the oxy-combustion option considered in this Report.
The cash flow spreadsheets for the scenario are included in Appendix F. Table 5-19 shows the results
of the analysis.
Table 5-35: Sensitivities of Costs to Co-location with an Oxy-Combustion Power Plant
Base Case Oxy-Combustion Co-location with

Base Case an Oxy-
(No CO2 Capture) Combustion
Power Plant
€/t cement 65.6 81.6 80.8

(power emissions
excluded)

(power emissions
from grid included)
Based on the assumed values for oxygen and carbon dioxide there is a decrease in the cost of CO2
avoidance for a cement plant co-located with an oxy-combustion plant. This scenario is heavily
dependant on the values for oxygen and carbon dioxide. The option will become cheaper if lower
prices for oxygen and carbon dioxide can be negotiated.
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IEA GHG
5.6 Sensitivities of Costs to an Asian Developing Country Scenario
The sensitivities of costs to an Asian developing country scenario were assessed. The scenario was
based on the following assumptions:
• The capacity of the cement plant is 3 Mt/y of cement. This is typical for modern Asian
cement plants.
• The equipment costs (both cement plant and CO2 capture plant) were assumed to be 60% of
the European prices.
• A cost-scale exponent of 0.6 was assumed.
• The labour costs were assumed to be 50% of the European prices.
• The administration, rates and insurance were assumed to be 50% of the European prices.
• All costs for fuel and raw materials were assumed to be the same as for the European scenario.
• The performance of the cement plant and CO2 capture plant was assumed to be the same as for
the European scenario. It is recognised that this is a conservative assumption as there may be
some improvements at a larger scale plant e.g. a three times larger CHP would be more
efficient.
The cash flow spreadsheets for the base case, post-combustion capture and oxy-combustion capture
for the Asian developing country scenario are included in Appendix F. Table 5-36 shows the results
of the analysis.
Table 5-36: Sensitivities of Costs to an Asian Developing Country Scenario
Base Case Asian Scenario
No CO2 Post- Oxy- No CO2 Post- Oxy-

Capture Combustion Combustion Capture Combustion Combustion
€/t cement 65.6 129.4 81.6 37.3 72.2 46.4
€/t CO2 captured n/a 118.1 35.8 n/a 64.6 20.4

(power emissions
excluded)
€/t CO2 captured n/a 107.4 40.2 n/a 58.8 22.9

(power emissions
from grid included)
The cost of cement production is significantly lower in the Asian scenario. This is principally due to
the economy of scale of operating a larger plant, the lower equipment costs and the cheaper labour. If
carbon capture is applied then the cost of production increases significantly (more for post-combustion
than oxy-combustion). However, it should be noted that the cost of cement production is only
comparable to the European base case when post-combustion capture is applied.
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IEA GHG
As in the European base case the cost per tonne of CO2 captured is significant but much lower for oxy-
combustion than for post-combustion. However, when compared to the European base case the costs
for capture are significantly lower. This indicates that due to the benefits of economies of scale, lower
equipment costs and cheaper labour it is more cost effective to undertake carbon capture at a cement
plant in Asia than at a European plant.
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6 Retro-fitting Issues
6.1 Introduction
The suitability of each CO2 capture technology for retrofit to existing modern cement plants has also
been assessed. This has taken into account estimates of the additional land area required and the need
to make modifications to the existing cement plant equipment.
6.2 Post-Combustion Capture
As post-combustion capture of CO2 from the exhaust gases of a cement kiln by monoethanolamine
(MEA) absorption is an “end-of-pipe” technology then it could be retrofitted to any existing cement
kiln. The economic feasibility of that would be dependent on the particular kiln and the costs of
overcoming the key constraints on the application of the technology, which are:
• The MEA solvent is degraded by NO2, SO2 and O2 in the exhaust gases.
• There are major space requirements for the absorption and subsequent solvent
stripping/regeneration columns.
• There are major steam requirements for absorbent stripping and regeneration
• There are major power requirements for compressing the CO2 gas.
Whether post-combustion chemical absorption could be economically retrofitted to an existing cement

kiln would therefore be determined by a technical audit of the existing cement kiln. The availability of
space for the absorption and stripping/regeneration columns would be quickly assessed. Also the
availability of sufficient steam or the feasibility of providing the necessary additional steam – with
sufficient land area and fuel supply infrastructure for on-site steam-raising or cogeneration.
Under the case where a 45 MWe CHP plant is used to raise the necessary steam, there will be
electrical energy available for export so sufficient grid connection capacity to accommodate the
maximum export load would therefore be required.
The potentially greater challenge would be to assess the equipment that would need to be installed to
reduce the NO2, SO2 and O2 in the exhaust gases prior to MEA absorption of CO2. Cement plants with
no oxidisable sulphur compounds in their raw materials have negligible SO2 emissions. The kilns on
such cement plants would therefore be ready candidates for retrofitting of this CO2 capture technology.
Where cement plants do use raw materials containing oxidisable sulphur compounds then those that
had already been provided with SO2 scrubbing equipment would also be ready candidates although it
is likely that the FGD systems would require some upgrading to achieve the low SOx levels required
for economic CO2 capture with MEA. Alternatively SO2 scrubbing equipment could be installed as
part of the equipment required for post-combustion CO2 capture by MEA absorption.
Installation of SCR technology to reduce the NO2 content of the exhaust gases prior to MEA
absorption of CO2 would need to be undertaken. However, there are currently only two such
installations on cement kilns around the world and there is still some uncertainty whether this would
reduce the NO2 content of the exhaust gases sufficiently. This is the only equipment that would
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IEA GHG
directly affect the cement process when it is installed. SCR must be added between the preheater and
the raw mill, with additional ammonia sprays necessary in the preheater. This will modify the process
and may require additional fuel input to maintain the temperature for the raw mill but it can be
integrated.
All current cement kilns have significant oxygen, O2, content in their exhaust gases. MEA is degraded
by oxygen. However, the use of additives can inhibit the oxidation of MEA and so this does not
represent a significant obstacle.
The flue gases from a cement plant are generally higher in CO2 concentration than those from coal or
gas fired power plants. This makes the flue gas from a cement plant more amenable to capture of CO2
than power plants due to the efficiency of absorbing CO2 from a concentrated gas stream. There may
be further economic benefits from reducing air in-leaks in the cement plant to ensure an even more
concentrated stream of CO2 in the flue gas. Hence, retrofitting post-combustion capture of CO2 by
MEA absorption may require major refurbishment and provision of additional equipment to minimise
air in-leaks along the kiln exhaust gas flow path. However, given that the capital cost of the absorber
tower is a relatively small fraction of the overall cost of capture, air in-leakage is not considered to be
a ‘showstopper’.
6.3 Oxy-Combustion Capture
Operating the precalciner in an oxy-combustion mode results in fundamental changes to the reaction
conditions. Hence, retrofitting oxy-combustion in the precalciner only, and capture of the CO2 in the
exhaust gases from the precalciner only, could only be readily undertaken in certain types of cement
plants, dependent on their process and design.
An assumption of this study has been that retrofits for CO2capture would only be applicable to
modern, existing, cement plants. Capture in older, smaller plants was not considered. Modern,
existing, cement plants will most likely be equipped with a precalciner. However, in order for the
retrofit to be relatively straightforward the precalciner would need to be operated as a separate-line
calciner (SLC). It would then be possible to retrofit oxy-combustion to a precalciner cement kiln with
a precalciner combustion chamber installed parallel with the exhaust gas riser from the rotary kiln,
provided that the kiln was also provided with twin (or multiple) preheater towers. Mott MacDonald
notes that operation with a separate-line calciner (SLC) is not currently the preferred technology for
cement production.
In assessing the suitability of an existing cement plant for retrofit of this CO2 capture technology the
criteria would be as follows:
• The kiln is provided with a separate line (or separate combustion chamber) precalciner.
• The kiln is provided with twin (or multiple) preheater towers.
• Those twin (or multiple) preheater towers to have separate, dedicated, induced draft fans.
• The solid fuel grinding system to be swept by inert preheater exhaust gases from one (the
intended rotary kiln) preheater tower.
• Sufficient space is available alongside the preheater tower, (on the intended precalciner side)
for installation of the air-separation unit, CO2 purification and compression equipment. Mott
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MacDonald estimates that for a 1 Mt/y cement plant the area required would be approximately
0.5 ha.
• The electrical energy supply capacity is sufficient for the maximum load to be increased by
approximately 15 MW to accommodate the additional power requirements.
Once these criteria have been assessed, it would then be necessary to undertake considerable process
modelling and design effort to ensure the technology could be successfully introduced.
It is important to note that one of the key outcomes from this study is the significantly lower cost of
employing oxy-combustion technology over post-combustion technology. The criteria developed
above could be used to determine the most suitable plant for retrofit of this technology. However,
given the cost differential between oxy-combustion and post-combustion capture it may be more
economic to undertake a major rebuild of the kiln (i.e. from single to twin preheater towers) and
undertake the oxy-combustion retrofit rather than implementing the post-combustion option. The
costs of undertaking the retrofit would need to be assessed on a case by case basis.
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7 Capture-Ready Cement Plants
7.1 Introduction
The G8 communiqué (Gleaneagles Plan of Action, 2005) raises the question of a definition for
'capture-ready', for which a consensus definition is not currently provided by the literature. A recent
study (IEA GHG, 2007a) commissioned by the IEA GHG provides a comprehensive review of the
literature, noting that the definition of capture ready can be either primarily technical or economic, and
is likely to be ultimately determined by regulators. It is recommended that readers refer to the IEA
GHG study for an overview of the relevant literature.
The IEA GHG definition for capture-ready plant outlines the essential considerations that would apply
globally to thermal generation plant, irrespective to the specific regulatory and economic context as
follows:
“A CO2 capture ready plant is a plant which can include CO2 capture when the necessary regulatory
or economic drivers are in place. The aim of building plants that are capture ready is to reduce the
risk of stranded assets or ‘carbon lock-in’.
Developers of capture ready plants should take responsibility for ensuring that all known factors in
their control that would prevent installation and operation of CO2 capture have been identified and
eliminated.
This might include:
• A study of options for CO2 capture retrofit and potential pre-investments
• Inclusion of sufficient space and access for the additional facilities that would be required
• Identification of reasonable route(s) to storage of CO2
Competent authorities involved in permitting power plants should be provided with sufficient
information to be able to judge whether the developer has met these criteria.”
The same considerations as developed above for power plant apply equally well to cement plant. Mott
MacDonald has reviewed ways of making cement plants ‘capture-ready’ and the findings are
presented in the sections below.
This study has used chemical absorption with monoethanolamine (MEA) for the post-combustion
capture of CO2 from a cement plant. Essentially this is an “end-of-pipe” technology and the
requirements for modification of the cement manufacturing process are minimal. As such the
technology could be applied to any cement plant. The key constraints on the application of the
technology are:
• The MEA solvent is degraded by NO2, SO2 and O2 in the exhaust gases.
• There are major space requirements for the absorption and subsequent solvent
stripping/regeneration columns.
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• There are major steam requirements for absorbent stripping and regeneration.
• There are major power requirements for compressing the CO2 gas.
A “capture-ready” cement plant would therefore need to make provision for overcoming these
constraints. Overcoming the space constraint would simply require that sufficient space was reserved
for the absorption and stripping/regeneration columns as well as additional space for the CO2
compression and purification and local CO2 storage and/or pipeline. The power requirement could be
met if sufficient electrical energy supply from the grid was available or by a captive power plant.
However, a steam supply is also needed so consideration must be given to how this will be provided.
In this study it has been assumed that a captive CHP plant would provide the steam and electrical
power. In this case the incremental equipment for generation of the additional steam and power would
be added at the time the CO2 capture was implemented and sufficient space for this equipment would
need to be allowed for. Location of the new cement plant could also aid with the plant being capture
ready. Being close to a power station willing to sell both heat and power or to an industrial provider
of steam would be particularly advantageous. Being close to links for CO2 storage would also help.
The potentially greater challenge is reducing the levels of NO2 and SO2 in the exhaust gases from a
“capture-ready” cement kiln. Achieving low SO2 levels in the exhaust gases prior to solvent
absorption of CO2 would be the most readily achieved. Provided that the “capture-ready” cement
plant utilised raw materials with no oxidisable sulphur content then there would be negligible SO2
content in the exhaust gases. If the cement plant did use raw materials containing oxidisable sulphur
compounds then installation of wet or dry scrubbing equipment would be sufficient to reduce the SO2
to levels acceptable for CO2 absorption by MEA.
Sufficient reduction of the content of NO2 in the exhaust gases to less than 41 mg/Nm3 (20 ppmv at
6% O2) prior to MEA absorption is more problematic. The SCR installation at the Solnhofen cement
plant in Germany has demonstrated the ability to reduce NOx emissions to less than 200 mg/Nm3 in
short-term trials. Based on NO2 comprising less than 10% of these total NOx emissions and the
reported low absorption rates of NOx within CO2 absorption systems (Knudsen et al., 2006 and Iijima
et al., 2007) then installation of SCR equipment on the “capture-ready” cement kiln exhaust ahead of
the MEA solvent absorption column should be sufficient to reduce the NO2 content of the exhaust
gases sufficiently.
The oxygen content of the exhaust gas from a cement plant would typically be 7~10%. MEA is
degraded by oxygen so it is beneficial to have a low oxygen content in the exhaust gases prior to MEA
absorption of CO2. However, the use of additives can inhibit the oxidation of MEA and so this does
not represent a significant obstacle.
Although it must be recognised that the flue gases from a cement plant are generally higher in CO2
concentration than those from coal or gas fired power plants the reduction of air in-leakage in the
cement process would be beneficial to the economic capture of CO2 as it is easier to absorb CO2 from
a concentrated stream. Current cement manufacturing technology utilises the exhaust gases from the
cement kiln for drying of raw materials in the raw grinding mill. There are significant air in-leaks in
the cement kiln exhaust gas flow path from the kiln inlet, through the preheater, raw mill, gas
conditioning and dust collection systems. An ideal “capture-ready” cement plant would deploy
additional technologies to minimise these air in-leaks. This would boost the thermal efficiency and
productivity of the cement kiln and would therefore be in the interests of the industry. Air in-leaks are
minimised in solid fuel grinding systems so it should therefore be feasible to reduce air in-leaks in raw
grinding systems, given sufficient incentive to do so. Prevention of the dilution of the exhaust gases
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by in-leaking air in order that they be most suitable for post combustion capture of CO2 by MEA
absorption would be such an incentive.
This study has examined oxy-combustion in the precalciner only and capture of the CO2 in the exhaust
gases from the precalciner only. This requires that the exhaust gases from the precalciner are vented
separately from the exhaust gases from the rotary kiln. In order to maintain the thermal efficiency of
the cement kiln process the exhaust gases from the precalciner and the rotary kiln are drawn through
separate, dedicated preheater towers.
Such separate line calciner (SLC) cement kilns are in the product range of the major cement kiln
equipment supplier, FL Smidth, and were regularly provided in the late 1980s and 1990s. Some kilns
provided by equipment supplier KHD also operate in this separate line mode. This kiln configuration
was perceived to be advantageous as the precalciner was aspirated with pure tertiary air and therefore
combustion took place in an atmosphere of 23% (w/w) oxygen.
In an in line calciner (ILC) cement kiln the exhaust gas from the rotary section of the cement kiln is
vented through the precalciner. The oxygen content of this vitiated exhaust from the rotary kiln is
raised by separately ducting pure tertiary air to the precalciner. Despite this introduction of tertiary
air, the combustion efficiency in these in line calciners is compromised by the lower overall oxygen
content of the gases sweeping the calciner.
In recent years SLC cement kilns have fallen from favour for a number of reasons:
• Completely separating the kiln exhaust gases from the precalciner precludes using staged
combustion in the precalciner as a means to mitigate thermal NOx emissions generated in
the rotary section of the kiln.
• The problem of combustion in a depleted oxygen atmosphere in an ILC kiln can be

overcome by locating the precalciner combustion chamber parallel with the exhaust gas
riser from the rotary kiln. Pure tertiary air is delivered to the precalciner combustion
chamber and ducting takes the exhaust gases from the precalciner to the rotary kiln exhaust
gas riser. This technology is known as a “downdraft” or Reinforced Suspension Preheater
(RSP) type precalciner. In these configurations the precalciner and rotary kiln share the
same preheater tower or multiple preheater towers.
• In the event of a power failure with an SLC kiln the burden of material in the precalciner
preheater tower falls into the base of precalciner rather than into the rotary kiln.
Installation of a cement plant that is designed to be capture-ready for oxy-combustion in the

precalciner only would require twin preheater towers with separate induced draft fans dedicated to
each tower. Ideally the SLC configuration would be installed. However, switching from a parallel
precalciner combustion chamber to fully separate venting would only require minor preheater
ductwork modifications. Inert preheater exhaust gas for solid fuel drying would be drawn from the
actual, or intended on switching, rotary kiln preheater tower.
Other ductwork modifications would be required on switching from conventional to precalciner only
oxy-combustion operating mode. The tertiary air duct would be redirected from the precalciner to the
raw mill via a gas-to-gas heat exchanger to exchange with the recycled precalciner exhaust gas. The
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precalciner tower exhaust gas duct would be split after the induced draft fan with one duct
recirculating exhaust to the precalciner and the other duct leading to the CO2 purification and
compression plant.
A “product” layout of the capture ready cement plant, with the equipment laid out in a straight line in
the sequence of operations to manufacture cement, would facilitate this switching between
conventional and CO2 capture operating mode. Tertiary air would be ducted along the length of the
rotary kiln from the cooler to the preheater in both modes of operation. Extension of the tertiary air
duct from the precalciner to the raw mill behind the preheater tower would not be a major task.
Similarly, splitting the exhaust duct from the precalciner tower after the induced draft fan with one
duct recirculating to the precalciner would not be overly onerous.
Sufficient space would need to be provided for the air separation unit and CO2 purification and
compression plant and would ideally be installed adjacent to the preheater tower and kiln on the side
closest to the precalciner. This study has estimated that the space required for a 1 Mt/y cement plant
would be approximately 0.5 ha.
In conventional mode a 1 Mt per year cement plant operating for 330 days per year would require
around 16 MW of installed electrical supply capacity. This study has estimated that an oxy-
combustion cement plant would require approximately 31 MW of installed electrical supply capacity.
A capture–ready oxy-combustion plant would need to make allowance for this additional power
requirement by ensuring that a suitable grid connection was available.
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8 Information Gaps and R&D Needs
8.1 Introduction
In this section important information gaps are identified and suggestions for research, development
and demonstration are made.
For both technologies, there is important potential for realising economies of scale through co-location
of cement plant with power plants, or other large emitters, also implementing CCS. This would be
particularly true if the capture concept (e.g. oxy- or post-combustion) employed by the co-located
plants was the same – allowing shared use of ASUs, MEA units etc. Economies of scale in CO2
transport and storage are also likely. It is recommended that further quantitative study of the benefits
available through co-location be carried out.
With respect to the further development of post-combustion CO2 capture at cement plants the
following suggestions for research, development and demonstration are made:
• The opportunities for combustion of waste MEA in the kiln. This must include research into
the influence of trace metals in the waste MEA on the cement product quality.
• Specific investigation into high concentration CO2 flue gas capture techniques, combined with
continuing attention to application of the latest post-combustion capture technologies being
developed for power generation applications.
• Specific investigation into the influence of NOx levels on the performance of MEA.
• Further work and full scale tests must be performed to assess the viability of high dust SCR.
• FGD, SNCR and SCR efficiencies – to meet the stringent levels required to avoid excessive
amine waste.
• Further study of hybrid combinations of FGD equipment to meet required SOx removal
efficiency at minimum cost – including combinations of wet limestone, seawater scrubbing
and absorbent injection within the cement process.
• Further work to reduce air in-leaks into process equipment resulting in a higher CO2
concentration in the flue gas stream.
• Alternative CO2 capture techniques that use less steam, therefore smaller heat requirement and
require a smaller CHP.
• Alternative CO2 capture techniques that require less gas clean up will significantly reduce the
capital and operating costs of the plant.
• A pilot scale post-combustion CO2 capture plant must be built and operated with the cement
process to demonstrate that the post-combustion process can be implemented successfully.
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• Further study into the opportunities and potential economic savings for co-location of cement
plants with power plants particularly where post-combustion capture is to be applied at the
power plant.
With respect to the further development of oxy-combustion CO2 capture at cement plants the
following suggestions for research, development and demonstration are made:
• The optimal ratio of O2 to CO2 within an oxy-combustion cement process should be

investigated.
• The heat transfer characteristics of the atmosphere within an oxy-combustion cement process
must be understood.
• The kiln wall refractory lining behaviour at different oxygen levels must be determined.
• Demonstrate that clinker produced in a CO2 environment has similar properties to that
produced by conventional means.
• Process chemistry (thermodynamics and equilibrium) for calcination in a CO2 environment

require further investigation.
• Further study of the operation of gas-to-gas heat exchangers at the high temperatures (~800 C)
and high dust load required to maximise the heat integration within the oxy-combustion
process.
• A pilot scale oxy-combustion cement process must be built and operated to gain insights (e.g.
operation of suspension preheaters with O2/CO2 atmosphere, determination of optimal
precalciner temperature etc.) and demonstrate that the oxy-combustion process can be
implemented successfully.
• The feasibility and economics of undertaking oxy-combustion in both the precalciner and the
kiln to give the possibility of capturing greater than 90% of the CO2.
• Further work to reduce air in-leaks into process equipment to improve the feasibility and
economics of undertaking oxy-combustion in both the precalciner and the kiln.
It should be noted that during the course of this study Mott MacDonald became aware that cement
equipment manufacturers are already undertaking some research and development into the oxy-
combustion process. It is expected that the number of research papers relating to this topic will
increase in the near future.
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9 Comparison between Post-Combustion and Oxy-Combustion for

CO2 Capture at Cement Plants
9.1 Introduction
This section summarises and compares the post-combustion and oxy-combustion solutions for CO2
capture at cement plants that have been considered in this study.
9.2 Summary
The options for applying post-combustion and oxy-combustion carbon capture at cement plants are
summarised in Table 9-1.
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Table 9-1: Summary of Oxy-combustion and Post-combustion Cement Plants with CO2
Capture
Parameter Unit Base Case Post-Combustion Oxy-

Combustion
Inputs Coal t/y 63,317 291,633 72,061
Petroleum Coke t/y 32,876 32,876 27,091
Outputs Clinker produced t/y 910,000 910,000 910,000
Cement produced t/y 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000
CO2 captured t/y 0 1,067,734 465,014
CO2 emitted on site t/y 728,422 188,424 282,853
Net Power Demand MWh/y 80,809 -22,734 174,562
Performance CO2 associated with t/y 42,021 -11,822 90,772
net power imports
avoided (excluding net
power imports)
avoided (including net
power imports)
CO2 avoided, net of % - 77 52
power imports
Costs Total Investment Cost €M 263 558 327
Net Variable Operating €M/y 17 31 22
Costs
Fixed Operating Costs €M/y 19 35 23
Cost per tonne of CO2 €/t N/A 107.4 40.2
emissions avoided i
Costs per tonne of €/t 65.6 129.4 81.6
cement product (∆ = +63.8) (∆ = +16.0)
Cost per tonne of CO2 €/t N/A 59.6 34.3
captured
i
Cost per tonne of CO2 emissions avoided is calculated by first determining the difference between the CO2
emissions associated with the design under consideration and the base case. The additional costs incurred
(compared to the base case) to achieve this reduction are then evaluated and the result expressed as €/tCO2.
9.3 Comparison with Other Studies
As the feasibility of capturing CO2 at cement plants has not been widely investigated or reported in the
literature it is difficult to compare the costs determined from this study. The key figures from the
Hegerland et al. (2006) evaluation of applying post-combustion CO2 capture as a retrofit at a 1.4 Mt/y
cement plant in Norway are reported in Table 9-2. The reported accuracy of the figures is ±35%.
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Table 9-2: Conceptual Costs for Retrofitting Post-Combustion CO2 Capture Reported
by Hegerland et al. (2006)
Parameter Norwegian Kroner Euro

Total equipment cost 255 MNOK 32 €M
Total investment cost 877 MNOK 111 €M
Total variable operating costs 212 MNOK/y 27 €M/y
Fixed operating costs 40 MNOK/y 5 €M/y
Total cost per capture 360 46
NOK/tonne of CO2 €/tonne of CO2
On first inspection the figures reported in Table 9-2 appear lower than those determined in this study.
However, it should be noted that the option investigated by Hegerland et al. (2006) was significantly
different to that chosen for this study making a like for like comparison difficult. The most important
differences were:
• SNCR was used for NOx reduction
• seawater scrubbing was used for SO2 reduction
• natural gas was used to provide the energy for the amine plant
• the plant considered in Norway was larger and therefore offered more economies of scale.
These differences together with the fact that the flue gas outlet from the cement process contained
much lower levels of SO2 (200 mg/Nm3 of SO2) account for the differences between the estimated
costs.
Mahasenan et al. (2005), based on a survey of literature and the typical CO2 content of the flue gas
from cement plants, estimated the cost of capturing CO2 from the stack of a cement kiln using an
amine-based process at about $50/tonne of CO2 (approx. €36/tonne of CO2) plus another $9/tonne of
CO2 (approx. €6/tonne of CO2) to compress the CO2 to pipeline specifications (not fully described).
The authors of the study admit that the estimates are approximate and that additional research is
needed to better estimate the magnitude and variability of these costs. Based on the findings from this
Report and Hegerland et al. (2006) it appears that this figure underestimates the costs of providing
post-combustion capture at a cement plant.
Mott MacDonald are not aware of any published reports indicating the costs of applying oxy-
combustion at a cement plant. However, Zeman (2008) provided the following costs from his
investigations into an oxygen-fired kiln:
• The cost of the oxygen plant is estimated at $3/tCO2 (approx. €2/tCO2) captured.
• The cost of the CO2 compression equipment is estimated at $7-8/tCO2 (approx. €5.1/tCO2)
captured.
• The additional electricity costs associated with the production of oxygen and compression of
CO2 are estimated as $6.85/tCO2 captured (€4.69/tCO2 for pulverised coal fuel) and
$5.51/tCO2 captured (€3.83/tCO2 for natural gas fuel).
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• The minimum cost of capture is estimated at between $15 and $18 per tonne of CO2 captured
(€11-13/tCO2).
Once again, on first inspection the figures reported by Zeman (2008) appear significantly lower than
those determined in this study. However, it should be noted that the option investigated by Zeman
(2008) considers oxy-combustion being applied to the whole cement plant and that these figures are
considered as ‘minimum’. Mott MacDonald considers the estimated cost to be conservative.
It should be noted that the quantity of oxygen needed per tonne of CO2 captured in the case considered
in the Report is expected to be less than in the case where oxy-combustion is applied to the whole
plant. This is because the majority of the extra CO2 captured in a total capture case would be fuel-
based, which requires oxygen, rather than calcination-based, which does not.
9.4 Comparison between Cement Industry and Power Industry
Previous studies (IEA GHG, 2004) have calculated the cost of avoidance of CO2 emissions at a
USCPF post-combustion power plant using coal at 29.5 $/tCO2 (25 €/tCO2 at exchange rate of the
day). This is significantly lower than the estimated cost reported here. Mott MacDonald considers
that the main reasons for this difference to be:
• The fact that there is no steam supply available for amine stripping at a cement plant. The
costs of providing a CHP plant capable of meeting the steam requirements are significant.
• The high sulphur content in the raw meal considered as part of this study increased the cost of
FGD.
• The economies of scale offered by undertaking carbon capture at a large power plant. The
plant considered in the IEA GHG study was designed to capture approximately 5.4 Mt/y. The
post-combustion cement plant considered in this Report captures approximately 1.1 Mt/y.
• There have been significant rises in plant equipment costs, particularly in the power sector,
since the IEA GHG study was carried out in 2004. These cost rises have been primarily
driven both by materials costs and high demand for new-build plants. Such high equipment
costs both increase the current base plant cost and the penalty associated with implementation
of CO2 capture relative to the original study results.
• There have been significant increases in fuel prices since the IEA GHG study was carried out
in 2004. IEA GHG (2004) was based on a coal price of $1.5/GJ (LHV basis) where as this
study used €2.51/GJ (LHV basis) which is approximately $3.5/GJ (LHV basis).
• Given that application of post-combustion CO2 capture to cement plant is a relatively new
field of study, without existing demonstrations to provide technology learning, the design
proposed by this study is conservative relative to power sector examples. Further study would
enable refinements to be made to the design approach which would be expected to reduce the
cost of CO2 capture.
Davison (2008) provided updated costs of post-combustion CO2 capture in power plants using Fluor’s
Econamine FG+ process which was used as the basis of the IEA GHG study published in 2004 (IEA
GHG,2004). Inflating capital costs and capital-related operating costs (insurance, local taxes and
maintenance) from early 2004 by 25% in Euro terms and using a coal cost of 65 €/t resulted in a cost
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of CO2 emissions avoidance of 39 €/tCO2 and electricity costs of 59.9 €/MWh without capture and
84.1 €/MWh with capture. This indicates that: (i) the cost of CO2 emissions avoidance by post-
combustion capture is more expensive at a cement plant than at a power plant; and (ii) oxy-combustion
capture at a cement plant is more cost effective than post-combustion capture at a power plant.
It should also be recognised that co-location of a post-combustion cement plant with a post-
combustion power plant would offer significant cost-saving opportunities as equipment (e.g. FGD,
CO2 absorbers, CO2 compressors) could be shared. Mott MacDonald suggests that under this scenario
the cost of CO2 avoidance for the cement plant would reduce significantly from the values presented in
Table 9-1. The limit of the reduction would be the cost of abatement at the power plant.
Previous studies (IEA GHG, 2005) have calculated the cost of avoidance of CO2 emission at an oxy-
combustion power plant using pulverised coal at 37 $/tCO2 (31 €/tCO2 at exchange rate of the day).
This is slightly lower than the estimated cost reported here. In addition to the equipment cost rises
noted above, Mott MacDonald considers the main reason for this difference to be economies of scale.
The target net power of the coal-fired power plant considered in the IEA GHG study was 500 MWe.
The CO2 captured at a power plant of this scale is approximately 3.3 Mt/y. The oxy-combustion
cement plant considered in this Report captures only 0.47 Mt/y. Mott MacDonald would expect the
economies of scale offered by the power plant application to reduce the levelised cost of capture.
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10 Conclusions
The conclusions from this study are outlined below.
10.1 Post-Combustion CO2 Capture
10.1.1 Technical Issues
• Economic CO2 capture using amine solvents requires flue gas impurities to be removed. Post-
combustion capture at cement plants will be more technically and commercially favourable
when applied at cement plants with low SO2 and low NO2 concentrations in the flue gas as this
will reduce the costs associated with desulphurisation and deNOx.
• This study used wet scrubbing FGD and SCR to achieve the required levels of SO2 and NO2
for economic capture of CO2 using amines. These technologies are considered conservative
approaches and other less capital intensive technologies of reducing levels of SO2 and NO2
(e.g. addition of solid sorbents or use of SNCR) may meet the required levels.
• The additional steam requirements for post-combustion CO2 capture using amine solvents are
significant and result in additional CO2 emissions which require capture themselves. This
indicates that post-combustion capture will be most efficient and cost effective if the cement
plant is co-located near a pre-existing readily available steam supply e.g. a power station.
10.1.2 Performance
• A post-combustion capture cement plant is capable of capturing the majority of CO2 emitted
from a cement plant including those emissions associated with the auxiliary power generation.
This can occur with minimal impact on the conventional cement production process.
• The footprint of a post-combustion capture cement plant producing 1 Mt/y of cement is

estimated to be in the range 3.6-4.3 ha.
10.1.3 Environmental
• A post-combustion capture cement plant will achieve emission standards well below current
cement plants. This is an added advantage of CO2 capture.
10.1.4 Economics
• For the post-combustion capture cement plant considered in this study the cost per tonne of
CO2 emissions avoided is €107.4/t.
• For the post-combustion capture cement plant considered in this study the cost delta
associated with the capture plant compared to the cost of the plant without capture is €63.7 per
tonne of cement product.
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10.1.5 Retrofitting
• It is technically feasible to retrofit post-combustion capture using amine absorption to any

existing cement plant.
• The key constraints influencing the economic feasibility of applying post-combustion capture
as a retrofit solution are:
o The concentration of NO2 and SOx in the flue gases.
o The space requirements for the capture and compression equipment.
o The availability of sufficient steam for the amine absorption and regeneration system.
• The cost effectiveness of measures to reduce air in-leaks within the cement process would also
need to be evaluated before a post-combustion capture solution was retrofitted at a cement
plant.
10.1.6 Capture Ready
• A cement plant that was designed to be capture ready for post-combustion capture using
amine would need to make provision for the following:
o Leaving sufficient space for the flue gas treatment, CO2 absorption, CO2 purification
and CO2 compression equipment.
o Fuel supply capacity, grid supply capacity and land for a power plant capable of
generating the additional steam and electricity required by the capture equipment, or
else potential for over-the-fence steam purchase from neighbouring cogeneration
facilities.
o Including SOx and NO2 abatement technologies within the plant or providing the
space and capability to introduce these later.
o Including technologies to reduce air in-leaks within the cement process.
• It is clear that it would be beneficial if the cement plant was co-located near an existing readily
available steam supply (e.g. a power plant) that could be used when the post-combustion
capture plant was installed.
10.2 Oxy-Combustion CO2 Capture
10.2.1 Technical issues
• A number of major technical issues associated with the oxy-combustion process require
further research and characterisation if the technology is to be developed further. These
include:
o The influence of the higher flame temperatures possible with combustion in an

O2/CO2 atmosphere on the design and operation of the precalciner.
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o The influence of the O2/CO2 atmosphere on the heat transfer characteristics within the
combustion chamber and the effect on the design and operation of the precalciner.
o The influence of the O2/CO2 atmosphere on the feed lifting between cyclone stages in
the suspension preheater.
o Optimising the balance between achieving high temperatures for the cement
production process (which are easier to achieve with oxy-combustion) and having to
replace the kiln wall lining.
o Characterising the thermodynamics, kinetics and equilibrium chemistry for an oxy-

combustion process.
o Confirming that the product obtained from the oxy-combustion process meets the
required quality parameters.
• A pilot scale oxy-combustion cement process must be built to demonstrate that the oxy-
combustion process can be implemented successfully.
• At the time of writing this report Mott MacDonald does not consider any of the technical
issues associated with the development of oxy-combustion to be “show-stoppers”. Oxy-
combustion CO2 capture at cement plants is considered feasible although until it is
demonstrated at pilot scale it will remain a higher technical risk solution than post-combustion
CO2 capture.
10.2.2 Performance
• Initially, the fact that the majority of CO2 in a modern cement plant originates within the
precalciner offered the possibility of capturing the majority of the CO2 by focussing on a
single process unit. Further research on this possibility and the preparation of a heat and mass
balance has indicated that altering the process to focus on the precalciner reduces the quantity
of CO2 produced in the precalciner.
• This study has determined that a CO2 capture cement plant with oxy-combustion in the
precalciner only is capable of capturing 47% of the CO2 emitted from the plant (excluding
those emissions associated with the additional power requirements). This can occur with
minimal impact on the kiln operation.
• The footprint of a CO2 capture cement plant using oxy-combustion capture in the precalciner
only and producing 1 Mt/y of cement is estimated to be similar to a conventional cement plant
i.e. approximately 15.5 ha.
10.2.3 Environmental
• An oxy-combustion capture cement plant will achieve emission standards well below current
cement plants. This is an added advantage of CO2 capture.
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10.2.4 Economics
• For the oxy-combustion capture cement plant considered in this study the cost per tonne of
CO2 emissions avoided is €42.4/t.
• For the oxy-combustion capture cement plant considered in this study the cost delta associated
with the capture plant compared to the cost of the plant without capture is €16.8 per tonne of
cement product.
10.2.5 Retrofitting
• Key constraints influencing the economic feasibility of applying oxy-combustion capture as a

retrofit solution are:
o The process and design of the existing kiln.
o The space requirements for the ASU, CO2 purification and compression equipment.
• The electrical energy supply capacity to be sufficient for the maximum load to be increased by
approximately 15 MW to accommodate the additional power requirements (for a 1 Mt/y
cement plant).
• The most feasible scenario for retro-fitting oxy-combustion in the precalciner only would be if
the existing precalciner operated as a separate line calciner (SLC). SLC operation is not
currently the preferred technology within the cement industry.
• However, given the significant cost differential between employing oxy-combustion and post-
combustion capture it may be more economic to undertake a major rebuild of the kiln (i.e.
from single to twin preheater towers) and undertake the oxy-combustion retrofit rather than
implementing the post-combustion option. The costs of undertaking the retrofit would need to
be assessed on a case by case basis.
10.2.6 Capture Ready
• Installation of a cement plant that is designed to be capture-ready for oxy-combustion in the

precalciner only would require twin preheater towers with separate induced draft fans
dedicated to each tower. Ideally the SLC configuration would be installed. However,
switching from a parallel precalciner combustion chamber to fully separate venting would
only require minor preheater ductwork modifications.
• Sufficient space would need to be provided for the air separation unit and CO2 purification and
compression plant and would ideally be installed adjacent to the preheater tower and kiln on
the side closest to the precalciner. This study has estimated that the space required for a 1
Mt/y cement plant would be approximately 0.5 ha.
• A capture–ready oxy-combustion plant would need to make allowance for the additional
power requirement by ensuring that a suitable grid connection was available. This study has
estimated that a 1 Mt/y cement plant employing CO2 capture in the precalciner would require
an additional installed electrical supply capacity of approximately 15 MW.
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10.3 Overall
• The most significant air in-leaks at a cement plant occur in the raw mill, preheater and kiln.
Technological developments to reduce these air in-leaks should be encouraged as they will
improve the efficiency and costs of carbon capture using either oxy-combustion or post-
combustion methods.
• Auxiliary power for post-combustion capture should be met by combustion of a low sulphur
fuel as this will reduce the desulphurisation costs associated with the flue gas from the energy
plant.
• Combustion of biomass to generate the auxiliary power for post-combustion will reduce the
carbon footprint of the plant.
• Until more research and development has been undertaken on the oxy-combustion solution for
cement production, post-combustion capture will remain the lowest technical risk capture
solution.
• For the case considered in this study, oxy-combustion capture at cement plants offers the
lowest cost solution for capturing CO2 at new-build cement plants. However, there are a
number of fundamental technical issues which will need to be further investigated for this
option to be successfully deployed.
• This study has focussed on oxy-combustion capture within the precalciner only. The option
for the whole plant to operate in an oxy-combustion mode should also be pursued particularly
if higher capture rates are required.
• The option of co-locating a post-combustion capture (or oxy-combustion capture) cement

plant with a post-combustion capture (or oxy-combustion capture) power station offers
significant cost-saving opportunities.
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11 Acknowledgements
Mott MacDonald wishes to thank the following:
• IEA GHG for the funding of this study;
• BCA for their support during the study;
• Dr Michael Clark of Whitehopleman;
• Jim Rushworth of Lafarge for his helpful inputs to the study and facilitating a site visit to
Cauldon Cement Works;
• Martin Stocks of Lafarge for providing valuable operational input;
• Dr Frank Zeman of the Earth Institute at Columbia University;
• Dr Dietmar Schultz and Sebastien Frie of Polysius AG;
• David Hurren of Air Liquide;
• Ragi Panesar of Doosan Babcock;
• Vince White of Air Products;
• Amy Veawab and Adisorn Aroonwilas of University of Regina, Canada;
• Peter Studer of ELEX;
• David Porter of Lentjes Lurgi; and
• Nick Hepher of FLSmidth.
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Appendix A Coal Specification
Proximate analysis: weight %

Coal (dry, ash-free) 78.3
Ash 12.2
Moisture 9.5
Ultimate analysis: weight %

Carbon 82.5
Hydrogen 5.6
Oxygen 9.0
Nitrogen 1.8
Sulphur 1.1
Chlorine 0.03
Ash analysis: weight %

SiO2 50.0
Al2O3 30.0
TiO2 2.0
Fe2O3 9.7
CaO 3.9
MgO 0.4
Na2O 0.1
K2O 0.1
P2O5 1.7
SO3 1.7
Gross CV (HHV) 27.06 MJ/kg

Net CV (LHV) 25.87 MJ/kg
Hardgrove Index 45
Ash fusion point (reducing atmosphere) 1350ºC
The coal specification is based on an open-cut coal from Eastern Australia.
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Appendix B Petroleum Coke Specification
Proximate analysis: weight %

Petroleum coke (dry, ash-free) 97.6
ash 0.4
moisture 2.0
Ultimate analysis: weight %

Carbon 87.6
Hydrogen 3.7
Oxygen 1.7
Nitrogen 1.5
Sulphur 5.5
Net CV (LHV) 34.16 MJ/kg
B-1
IEA GHG
Appendix C PFD and Stream Compositions for Base Case Option
C-1
CO2 capture in the cement industry
Post-combustion
Refer to drawing no. 234996/PC/FS02
Spreadsheet designed by Simon Turner 13/06/2007

Spreadsheet reviewed by Pete Lilley 17/08/2007
Spreadsheet checked by Duncan Barker 21/11/2007
Mass flowrates
STREAM NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Collected
Bag Filter Bag Filter Dust
Air Inleak (raw Preheater Exit Gas Air Inleak Precalciner Exit Preheated Air Inleaks to Precalcined Rotary Kiln Exit Air Inleaks to Secondary Collected Exit Gas from Collected Dust Exit Gas Exit Gas post post raw Preheater Exit Gas
STREAM NAME Raw meal mill) to Raw Mill Raw Mill Exit Gas Raw Meal Exit (Preheater) Gas Raw Meal Tertiary Air precalciner raw meal Gas Dry Coal Kiln Clinker Air Primary Air Dry Pet Coke Cooling Air Cooled Clinker Excess Air Dust Air Fuel Drying post FD post FD raw mill mill Wet Coal Wet Pet Coke to Fuel Drying
COMPONENT kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s
Carbon dioxide kg/s 0.01 22.99 22.99 0.00 25.54 0.01 0.00 4.35 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.02 2.55 2.55 22.99 2.55
Hydrogen kg/s 0.10 0.04 0.10 0.04 0.20
Nitrogen kg/s 11.99 27.94 39.93 3.12 27.93 13.70 3.61 10.61 0.03 1.20 8.28 1.13 0.02 50.79 28.80 28.80 3.10 3.10 39.93 0.03 0.02 3.10
Oxygen kg/s 3.69 1.77 5.46 0.96 1.10 4.21 1.11 0.31 0.16 0.37 2.55 0.35 0.02 15.61 8.85 8.85 0.20 0.20 5.46 0.16 0.02 0.20
Argon kg/s 0.20 0.47 0.68 0.05 0.47 0.23 0.06 0.18 0.02 0.14 0.02 0.86 0.49 0.49 0.05 0.05 0.68 0.05
Carbon kg/s 1.43 0.98 1.43 0.98
Nitrogen dioxide kg/s 0.14 0.14 0.16 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.14 0.02
Sulphur dioxide kg/s 0.17 0.06 0.11 0.00 0.11 0.15 0.00 0.27 0.27 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.02
Raw meal kg/s 48.06 50.38 60.61 35.60
Clinker kg/s 29.98 28.48
Sulphur kg/s 0.16 0.16 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.06
Ammonia kg/s
Limestone kg/s
Gypsum kg/s
MEA kg/s
Ash kg/s 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.01 0.28 0.27 0.01
Dust kg/s 3.28 0.96 0.96 13.88 0.96 0.40 1.37 4.79 0.01 1.98 0.24 2.83 0.85 0.85 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.96 0.01 0.36
Total Dry Flow kg/s 48.22 15.88 56.77 70.22 51.62 4.13 69.08 61.75 18.56 4.79 37.46 20.30 2.02 1.59 32.57 11.22 1.50 1.13 67.29 31.92 39.02 0.85 38.17 5.96 0.01 5.94 69.25 0.96 2.01 1.13 6.50
Water kg/s 4.19 0.07 1.78 5.52 0.52 0.02 1.43 0.08 0.02 0.44 0.02 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.31 0.17 0.17 0.40 0.40 5.52 0.21 0.02 0.20
Phase - Solid Gas Gas Gas Solid Gas Gas Solid Gas Gas Solid Gas Solid Gas Solid Gas Gas Solid Gas Solid Gas Solid Gas Gas Solid Gas Gas Solid Solid Solid Gas
o
Temperature C 9 9 330 110 100 9 900 780 908 9 870 1025 100 9 1350 1025 9 100 9 59 279 279 279 130 130 130 110 110 9 9 330
Pressure bar(a) - 1.013 <1.013 <1.013 - 1.013 <1.013 - 1.013 1.013 - <1.013 - 1.013 - 1.013 1.013 - 1.013 - 1.013 - 1.013 <1.013 - <1.013 <1.013 - - - <1.013
Total Wet flow kg/s 52.41 15.96 58.54 75.74 52.14 4.15 70.51 61.75 18.64 4.81 37.46 20.73 2.04 1.60 32.57 11.27 1.50 1.14 67.60 31.92 39.19 0.85 38.34 6.36 0.01 6.34 74.77 0.96 2.22 1.15 6.70
Total Stream Enthaply MJ/hr -2327796 -4644 -1059804 -1079820 -2242116 -1332 -1253196 -2455236 57456 -1260 -1448100 -276588 -8028 -576 -1166616 32616 -576 -2052 -19944 -1280160 -5616 -12384 22752 -105588 -18 -105588 -1038384 -41436 -16668 -1116 -
Total Stream Enthaply MJ/s -646.61 -1.29 -294.39 -299.95 -622.81 -0.37 -348.11 -682.01 15.96 -0.35 -402.25 -76.83 -2.23 -0.16 -324.06 9.06 -0.16 -0.57 -5.54 -355.6 -1.56 -3.44 6.32 -29.33 -0.005 -29.33 -288.44 -11.51 -4.63 -0.31 -
Note
For molar flows and heat capacities the clinker is assumed to be 100% CaO
For molar flows and heat capacities the raw meal is assumed to be 100% limestone
For molar flows and heat capacities the Ash is assumed to be 100% SiO2
For molar flows and heat capacities the Coal is assumed to be carbon
For molar flows and heat capacities the Pet Coke is assumed to be carbon
For molar flows and heat capacities the Dust in streams 3, 4, 5, 8 and 28 are assumed to be 100% CaCO2
For molar flows and heat capacities the Dust in streams 7, 9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 20, 21 and 22 are assumed to be 100% CaO
For molar flows and heat capacities the Dust in streams 13, 24, 25 and 28 are assumed to be 100% Coal
The enthalpy for all liquid and gaseous components was calculated in CHEMCAD using SRK equation of state method.
The enthalpy for all solid components was calculated in CHEMCAD using latent heat method.
Solid components were: coal, pet coke, calcium carbonate, calcium oxide, ash
Post-combustion

Mass compositions
STREAM NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
STREAM NAME Raw meal Air Inleak (raw Preheater Exit Gas Raw Mill Exit Gas Raw Meal Exit Air Inleak Precalciner Exit Preheated Tertiary Air Air Inleaks to Precalcined Rotary Kiln Exit Dry Coal Air Inleaks to Clinker Secondary Primary Air Dry Pet Coke Cooling Air Cooled Clinker Excess Air Collected Air Exit Gas from Collected Dust Bag Filter Bag Filter Collected Wet Coal Wet Pet Coke Preheater Exit Gas
mill) to Raw Mill (Preheater) Gas Raw Meal precalciner raw meal Gas Kiln Air Dust Fuel Drying post FD Exit Gas Exit Gas post Dust to Fuel Drying
post FD raw mill post raw
mill
COMPONENT % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w)
Carbon dioxide % (w/w) dry 0.05 40.49 32.75 0.05 36.97 0.04 0.05 21.45 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.05 42.88 42.98 33.20 39.26
Hydrogen % (w/w) dry 4.82 3.68 4.85 3.67 3.04
Nitrogen % (w/w) dry 75.47 49.22 56.86 75.47 40.43 73.83 75.47 52.28 1.55 75.47 73.83 75.47 1.49 75.47 73.83 75.47 52.11 52.24 57.65 1.56 1.49 47.72
Oxygen % (w/w) dry 23.20 3.12 7.77 23.20 1.60 22.70 23.20 1.53 7.75 23.20 22.70 23.20 1.69 23.20 22.70 23.20 3.30 3.31 7.88 7.79 1.69 3.02
Argon % (w/w) dry 1.28 0.83 0.96 1.28 0.69 1.25 1.28 0.89 1.28 1.25 1.28 1.28 1.25 1.28 0.88 0.89 0.98 0.81
Carbon % (w/w) dry 71.07 87.16 71.38 86.86
Nitrogen dioxide % (w/w) dry 0.25 0.20 0.23 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.20 0.24
Sulphur dioxide % (w/w) dry 0.30 0.08 0.22 0.00 0.18 0.40 0.00 0.83 0.85 0.32 0.32 0.08 0.29
Raw meal % (w/w) dry 99.67 97.61 98.15 95.05
Clinker % (w/w) dry 92.05 89.23
Sulphur % (w/w) dry 0.33 0.31 0.10 0.17 0.95 0.20 5.47 0.20 0.95 5.32
Ammonia % (w/w) dry
Limestone % (w/w) dry
Gypsum % (w/w) dry
MEA % (w/w) dry
Ash % (w/w) dry 0.72 13.42 0.85 0.50 0.87 13.48 0.50
Dust % (w/w) dry 5.79 1.37 1.87 20.09 1.56 2.18 3.65 23.59 #REF! 6.07 2.18 8.86 2.18 100.00 0.00 0.24 100.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.48 5.61
Total % (w/w) dry 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 #REF! 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Water % (w/w) wet 8.00 0.46 3.04 7.29 1.01 0.46 2.03 0.45 0.46 2.10 1.00 0.46 0.45 0.41 0.97 0.46 0.44 0.45 6.29 6.30 7.38 9.50 1.94 2.95

Post-combustion

Molar flowrates (dry)
STREAM NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Collected
COMPONENT MW (g/mol) mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s
Carbon dioxide 44.01 0.17 522.30 522.47 0.04 580.29 0.19 0.05 98.91 0.02 0.11 0.02 0.70 0.40 0.40 58.03 58.03 522.47 58.03
Hydrogen (H2) 2.02 48.30 20.58 48.30 20.58 97.94
Nitrogen (N2) 28.01 427.97 997.32 1425.29 111.27 996.86 489.07 128.98 378.80 1.12 42.80 295.68 40.32 0.60 1813.01 1028.25 1028.25 110.81 110.81 1425.29 1.12 0.60 110.81
Oxygen (O2) 32.00 115.17 55.33 170.50 29.94 34.51 131.62 34.71 9.72 4.89 11.52 79.57 10.85 0.60 487.91 276.72 276.72 6.15 6.15 170.50 4.89 0.60 6.15
Argon 39.95 5.09 11.86 16.95 1.32 11.86 5.82 1.53 4.51 0.51 3.52 0.48 21.56 12.23 12.23 1.32 1.32 16.95 1.32
Carbon 12.01 119.44 81.77 119.44 81.77
Nitrogen dioxide 46.01 3.06 3.06 3.41 1.17 0.34 0.34 3.06 0.34
Sulphur dioxide 64.06 2.68 0.91 1.77 0.00 1.77 2.37 0.00 4.24 4.24 0.30 0.30 0.91 0.30
Raw meal 100.90 476.28 499.33 600.72 352.85
Clinker 56.08 534.54 507.81
Sulphur 32.06 4.96 4.96 1.99 1.99 0.60 1.99 1.92 1.99 0.60 1.88
Ammonia 17.03
Limestone 100.90
Gypsum 172.17
MEA 61.08
Ash 88.64 3.06 3.06 3.12 0.06 3.12 3.06 0.06
Dust 100.90 32.56 9.56 9.55 137.56 9.55 4.01 13.56 47.45 #REF! 19.60 2.42 28.01 8.42 8.42 0.01 0.14 0.14 0.00 0.01 9.55 0.09 0.05 3.62
Total dry molar flow mol/s 481.24 548.39 1625.12 2148.74 515.61 142.58 1764.49 614.02 630.71 165.27 373.81 540.55 #REF! 54.84 563.48 381.31 51.67 105.53 2323.18 545.17 1326.02 8.42 1317.60 177.09 0.14 176.95 2139.19 9.55 177.49 105.54 278.51
Water 18.015 232.73 4.05 98.64 306.33 29.09 1.05 79.46 4.63 1.21 24.21 1.13 0.40 2.79 0.34 0.61 17.08 9.66 9.66 22.18 22.18 306.33 11.71 1.24 10.96
Total wet molar flow mol/s 713.98 552.44 1723.76 2455.07 544.70 143.64 1843.94 614.02 635.33 166.49 373.81 564.76 #REF! 55.24 563.48 384.09 52.01 106.15 2340.26 545.17 1335.68 8.42 1327.27 199.27 0.14 199.13 2445.52 9.55 189.20 106.78 289.47
Molecular weight g/mol 73.40 28.89 33.96 30.85 95.73 28.89 38.24 100.57 29.34 28.89 100.20 36.71 #REF! 28.89 57.79 29.34 28.89 10.72 28.89 58.54 29.34 100.90 28.89 31.90 100.90 31.85 30.58 100.90 11.74 10.80 23.15
Post-combustion

Molar Compositions (dry)
STREAM NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
Collected
mol% mol%
COMPONENT mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry)
Carbon dioxide mol% (dry) 0.03 32.14 24.32 0.03 32.89 0.03 0.03 18.30 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 32.77 32.80 24.42 20.84
Hydrogen mol% (dry) #REF! 19.50 27.21 19.50 35.17
Nitrogen mol% (dry) 78.04 61.37 66.33 78.04 56.50 77.54 78.04 70.08 #REF! 78.04 77.54 78.04 0.57 78.04 77.54 78.04 62.57 62.62 66.63 0.63 0.57 39.79
Oxygen mol% (dry) 21.00 3.40 7.93 21.00 1.96 20.87 21.00 1.80 #REF! 21.00 20.87 21.00 0.56 21.00 20.87 21.00 3.47 3.47 7.97 2.76 0.56 2.21
Argon mol% (dry) 0.93 0.73 0.79 0.93 0.67 0.92 0.93 0.83 0.93 0.92 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.93 0.74 0.74 0.79 0.47
Carbon mol% (dry) #REF! 77.49 67.30 77.48
Nitrogen dioxide mol% (dry) 0.19 0.14 0.19 0.22 0.19 0.19 0.14 0.12
Sulphur dioxide mol% (dry) 0.16 0.04 0.34 0.00 0.29 0.63 0.00 0.75 0.78 0.17 0.17 0.04 0.11
Raw meal mol% (dry) 98.97 96.84 97.83 94.39
Clinker mol% (dry) 94.86 93.15
Sulphur mol% (dry) 1.03 0.96 0.32 0.53 #REF! 0.35 1.82 0.36 0.34 1.78
Ammonia mol% (dry)
Limestone mol% (dry)
Gypsum mol% (dry)
MEA mol% (dry)
Ash mol% (dry) 0.82 #REF! 0.55 0.06 0.57 1.72 0.06
Dust mol% (dry) 2.00 0.44 1.85 7.80 1.55 0.64 3.63 8.78 #REF! 3.48 0.64 5.14 0.64 100.00 0.00 0.08 100.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.05 0.05 1.30
Total mol% (dry) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 #REF! 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
IEA GHG
Appendix D PFD and Stream Compositions for Post-Combustion

Option
D-1
Post-combustion

Mass flowrates
STREAM NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Air Inleak (raw Air Inleak Precalciner Exit Preheater Preheated Raw Air Inleaks to Rotary Kiln Precalcined Dry Pet Air Inleaks to Collected Vapourised SCR Exit
STREAM NAME Raw meal mill) SCR Exit Gas Raw Mill Exit Gas Raw Meal Exit (Preheater) Gas Exit Gas Meal Dry Coal Tertiary Air precalciner Exit Gas raw meal Coke Primary Air Secondary Air Kiln Clinker Cooling Air Cooled Clinker Excess Air Air Dust Ammonia Gas Wet Coal
COMPONENT kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s
Carbon dioxide kg/s 0.01 22.36 22.37 0.00 25.54 25.54 0.01 0.00 4.35 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.00 2.55
Hydrogen kg/s 0.10 0.04 0.10
Nitrogen kg/s 11.99 28.24 40.23 3.12 27.93 31.04 0.03 13.70 3.61 10.61 0.02 1.13 8.28 1.20 50.79 28.81 28.81 1.10 3.23 0.03
Oxygen kg/s 3.69 2.02 5.70 0.96 1.10 1.97 0.16 4.21 1.11 0.31 0.02 0.35 2.55 0.37 15.61 8.86 8.86 0.34 0.23 0.16
Argon kg/s 0.20 0.48 0.68 0.05 0.47 0.53 0.23 0.06 0.18 0.02 0.14 0.02 0.86 0.49 0.49 0.02 0.05
Carbon kg/s 1.43 0.98 1.43
Nitrogen dioxide kg/s 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.16 0.05 0.00
Sulphur dioxide kg/s 0.17 0.06 0.11 0.00 0.19 0.11 0.00 0.15 0.27 0.27 0.02
Raw meal kg/s 48.06 50.39 60.62 35.61
Sulphur kg/s 0.16 0.16 0.06 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.02
Ammonia kg/s 0.00 0.08 0.00
Limestone kg/s
Gypsum kg/s
MEA kg/s
Ash kg/s 0.27 0.27 0.01 0.28 0.28 0.27
Dust kg/s 3.29 0.96 0.96 13.88 3.65 0.96 0.40 4.79 1.37 0.24 1.98 2.83 0.85 0.00 0.85
Total Dry Flow kg/s 48.22 15.88 56.55 70.00 51.62 4.13 69.08 63.07 61.76 2.01 18.56 4.79 20.30 37.46 1.13 1.50 11.22 1.59 32.57 67.30 31.92 39.02 38.17 0.85 1.54 6.08 2.01
Water kg/s 4.19 0.07 1.84 5.58 0.52 0.02 1.43 1.97 0.02 0.08 0.02 0.44 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.31 0.17 0.17 0.01 0.21 0.21
Phase - Solid Gas Gas Gas Solid Gas Gas Gas Solid Solid Gas Gas Gas Solid Solid Gas Gas Gas Solid Gas Solid Gas Gas Solid Liquid Gas Solid
o
Temperature C 9 9 310 110 100 9 900 330 780 100 908 9 1025 870 100 9 1025 9 1350 9 59 279 279 279 9 310 9
Pressure bar(a) - 1.013 <1.013 <1.013 - 1.013 <1.013 <1.013 - - 1.013 1.013 <1.013 - - 1.013 1.013 1.013 - 1.013 - 1.013 1.013 - 10 <1.013 -
Total Wet flow kg/s 52.42 15.96 58.39 75.59 52.15 4.15 70.51 65.05 61.76 2.03 18.64 4.81 20.73 37.46 1.14 1.50 11.27 1.60 32.57 67.61 31.92 39.20 38.35 0.85 1.55 6.29 2.22
Total Stream Enthaply MJ/hr -2332137.6 -4644 -940716 -1061748 -2245968 -1224 -1253952 -1060236 -2458440 -8028 57456 -1260 -276588 -1450548 -2052 -576 -13608 -576 -1169388 -19944 -1283256 -7416 22464 -28368 -1548 -91728 -16668
Total Stream Enthaply MJ/s -647.816 -1.29 -261.31 -294.93 -623.88 -0.34 -348.32 -294.51 -682.9 -2.23 15.96 -0.35 -76.83 -402.93 -0.57 -0.16 -3.78 -0.16 -324.83 -5.54 -356.46 -2.06 6.24 -7.88 -0.43 -25.48 -4.63
Mass flowrates
STREAM NUMBER 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Exit Gas from Fuel Collected Dust post Bag Filter Exit Gas Bag Filter Exit Gas Collected Dust Vapourised Gas Mixer Exit Gypsum Effluent from Exit Gas from Make up Flue Gas to Waste water Compressed Make Up
STREAM NAME Wet Pet Coke Drying raw mill post raw mill post FD post FD Coal for CHP Air CHP Exit Gas LP Steam Ammonia CHP SCR Exit Gas Gas Limestone Water from FGD FGD FGD water Surplus Water Atmosphere CO2 to drying from drying Dry CO2 CO2 MEA Waste MEA
COMPONENT kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s
Carbon dioxide kg/s 2.55 22.37 2.55 0.03 18.99 0.00 18.99 43.91 44.06 6.61 37.45 37.45 37.45 0.00
Hydrogen kg/s 0.04 0.35
Nitrogen kg/s 0.02 3.23 40.23 3.23 0.11 53.13 53.13 2.61 56.00 99.45 99.45 99.45
Oxygen kg/s 0.02 0.23 5.70 0.23 0.56 16.33 0.00 0.80 0.80 6.74 6.68 6.68
Argon kg/s 0.05 0.68 0.05 0.90 0.90 0.04 0.95 1.68 1.68 1.68
Carbon kg/s 0.98 5.17
Sulphur dioxide kg/s 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.14 0.14 0.21 0.00 0.00
Raw meal kg/s
Clinker kg/s
Sulphur kg/s 0.06 0.07
Ammonia kg/s 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.00
Limestone kg/s 0.45 0.11
Gypsum kg/s 0.57
MEA kg/s 0.08 0.08
Ash kg/s 0.01 0.98 0.98
Dust kg/s 0.01 0.01 0.96 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total Dry Flow kg/s 1.13 6.10 0.96 69.04 6.08 0.01 7.25 70.39 74.50 0.00 3.64 76.88 152.00 0.45 0.00 0.57 0.11 151.88 0.00 0.00 114.43 37.45 0.00 37.45 37.45 0.08 0.08
Water kg/s 0.02 0.41 5.58 0.41 0.76 0.32 4.22 56.17 0.02 4.53 10.52 4.04 3.92 10.52 108.81 107.23 11.58 0.53 0.53 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.25
Phase - Solid Gas Solid Gas Gas Solid Solid Gas Gas Gas Liquid Gas Gas Solid Liquid Solid Liquid Gas Liquid Liquid Gas Gas Liquid Gas Gas Liquid Liquid
o
Temperature C 9 130 110 110 130 130 100 9 400 140 9 310 140 9 9 59 50 50 9 27 27 27 27 27 43 9 45
Pressure bar(a) - <1.013 - <1.013 <1.013 - - 1.013 1.013 3.5 10 1.013 1.013 - - - - 1.013 1.38 2.76 1.013 1.62 1.013 12 110 - -
Total Wet flow kg/s 1.15 6.51 0.96 74.62 6.50 0.01 8.01 70.71 78.72 56.17 3.66 81.40 162.52 0.45 4.04 0.57 4.03 162.40 108.81 107.23 126.00 37.97 0.53 37.45 37.45 0.34 0.34
Total Stream Enthaply MJ/hr -1116 -106092 -41436 -1020312 -106056 -18 -62640 -20628 -725220 -2777688 -3132 -748728 -1920024 -19548 -233028 -21960 -228492 -1979136 -6532452 -6409044 -877716 -1277280 -30852 -1250928 -1274688 -1260 -1224
Total Stream Enthaply MJ/s -0.31 -29.47 -11.51 -283.42 -29.46 -0.005 -17.4 -5.73 -201.45 -771.58 -0.87 -207.98 -533.34 -5.43 -64.73 -6.1 -63.47 -549.76 -1814.57 -1780.29 -243.81 -354.8 -8.57 -347.48 -354.08 -0.35 -0.34
Note
For molar flows and heat capacities the Dust in streams 3, 4, 5, 8, 9 and 30 are assumed to be 100% CaCO2
For molar flows and heat capacities the Dust in streams 7, 11, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 22 and 24 are assumed to be 100% CaO
For molar flows and heat capacities the Dust in streams 28, 29 and 33 are assumed to be 100% Coal
Solid components were: coal, pet coke, calcium carbonate, calcium oxide, ash, gypsum
Post-combustion

Mass compositions
STREAM NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
STREAM NAME Raw meal Air Inleak (raw Air Inleak Precalciner Exit Preheater Preheated Raw Air Inleaks to Rotary Kiln Precalcined Dry Pet Air Inleaks to Collected Vapourised SCR Exit
mill) SCR Exit Gas Raw Mill Exit Gas Raw Meal Exit (Preheater) Gas Exit Gas Meal Dry Coal Tertiary Air precalciner Exit Gas raw meal Coke Primary Air Secondary Air Kiln Clinker Cooling Air Cooled Clinker Excess Air Air Dust Ammonia Gas Wet Coal
COMPONENT % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w)
Carbon dioxide % (w/w) dry 0.05 39.54 31.95 0.05 36.97 40.49 0.04 0.05 21.45 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.04 41.98
Hydrogen % (w/w) dry 4.85 3.68 4.85
Nitrogen % (w/w) dry 75.47 49.94 57.47 75.47 40.42 49.22 1.56 73.83 75.47 52.28 1.49 75.47 73.83 75.47 75.47 73.83 75.47 71.68 53.02 1.56
Oxygen % (w/w) dry 23.20 3.57 8.15 23.20 1.60 3.12 7.79 22.70 23.20 1.53 1.69 23.20 22.70 23.20 23.20 22.70 23.20 22.04 3.79 7.79
Argon % (w/w) dry 1.28 0.84 0.97 1.28 0.69 0.83 1.25 1.28 0.89 1.28 1.25 1.28 1.28 1.25 1.28 1.22 0.90
Carbon % (w/w) dry 71.38 87.16 71.38
Nitrogen dioxide % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.00
Sulphur dioxide % (w/w) dry 0.30 0.08 0.21 0.00 0.30 0.18 0.00 0.40 0.82 0.84 0.31
Raw meal % (w/w) dry 99.67 97.61 98.16 95.06
Clinker % (w/w) dry 92.06 89.24
Sulphur % (w/w) dry 0.33 0.31 0.10 0.95 0.17 5.47 0.20 0.20 0.95
Ammonia % (w/w) dry 0.00 5.02 0.00
Limestone % (w/w) dry
Gypsum % (w/w) dry
MEA % (w/w) dry
Ash % (w/w) dry 13.48 0.72 0.50 0.85 0.87 13.48
Dust % (w/w) dry 5.81 1.38 1.87 20.09 5.79 1.56 2.18 23.59 3.65 2.18 6.07 8.86 2.18 0.00 100.00
Total % (w/w) dry 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Water % (w/w) wet 8.00 0.46 3.15 7.39 1.01 0.46 2.03 3.04 1.00 0.45 0.46 2.10 0.97 0.41 0.45 0.46 0.46 0.44 0.45 0.43 3.34 9.50
Mass compositions
STREAM NUMBER 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
STREAM NAME
Wet Pet Coke Drying raw mill post raw mill post FD post FD Coal for CHP Air CHP Exit Gas LP Steam Ammonia CHP SCR Exit Gas Gas Limestone Water from FGD FGD FGD water Surplus Water Atmosphere CO2 to drying from drying Dry CO2 CO2 MEA Waste MEA
COMPONENT % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w) % (w/w)
Carbon dioxide % (w/w) dry 41.88 32.40 41.98 0.05 25.49 0.04 24.70 28.89 29.01 5.78 100.00 100.00 100.00
Hydrogen % (w/w) dry 3.67 4.85
Nitrogen % (w/w) dry 1.49 52.90 58.27 53.02 1.56 75.47 71.31 71.68 72.85 65.43 65.48 86.91
Oxygen % (w/w) dry 1.69 3.78 8.26 3.79 7.79 23.20 0.00 22.04 1.04 4.43 4.40 5.84
Argon % (w/w) dry 0.89 0.99 0.90 1.28 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.11 1.11 1.47
Carbon % (w/w) dry 86.86 71.38
Nitrogen dioxide % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Sulphur dioxide % (w/w) dry 0.31 0.08 0.31 0.18 0.18 0.14 0.00 0.00
Raw meal % (w/w) dry
Clinker % (w/w) dry
Sulphur % (w/w) dry 5.32 0.95
Ammonia % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.02 0.00 0.00 0.00
Limestone % (w/w) dry 100.00 100.00
Gypsum % (w/w) dry 100.00
MEA % (w/w) dry 100.00 100.00
Ash % (w/w) dry 0.50 13.48 1.31
Dust % (w/w) dry 0.48 0.23 100.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total % (w/w) dry 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Water % (w/w) wet 1.94 6.33 7.48 6.35 9.50 0.46 5.36 100.00 0.43 5.56 6.47 100.00 97.22 6.48 100.00 100.00 9.19 1.39 100.00 0.00 0.00 75.00 75.00
Post-combustion

STREAM NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
COMPONENT MW (g/mol) mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s
Carbon dioxide 44.01 0.17 508.06 508.22 0.04 580.29 580.34 0.19 0.05 98.91 0.02 0.11 0.02 0.70 0.40 0.40 0.02 58.04
Hydrogen (H2) 2.02 48.30 20.58 48.30
Nitrogen (N2) 28.01 427.97 1008.07 1436.03 111.27 996.86 1108.14 1.12 489.07 128.98 378.80 0.60 40.32 295.68 42.80 1813.22 1028.46 1028.46 39.40 115.15 1.12
Oxygen (O2) 32.00 115.17 63.10 178.27 29.94 34.51 61.48 4.89 131.62 34.71 9.72 0.60 10.85 79.57 11.52 487.96 276.77 276.77 10.60 7.21 4.89
Argon 39.95 5.09 11.95 17.04 1.32 11.86 13.18 5.82 1.53 4.51 0.48 3.52 0.51 21.57 12.23 12.23 0.47 1.36
Carbon 12.01 119.44 81.77 119.44
Nitrogen dioxide 46.01 0.00 0.00 3.41 3.41 1.17 0.00
Sulphur dioxide 64.06 2.61 0.89 1.72 0.00 2.98 1.72 0.00 2.32 4.19 4.19 0.30
Raw meal 100.90 476.36 499.41 600.79 352.91
Clinker 56.08 534.66 507.92
Sulphur 32.06 4.96 4.96 1.99 0.60 1.99 1.92 1.99 1.99 0.60
Ammonia 17.03 0.00 4.54 0.00
Limestone 100.90
Gypsum 172.17
MEA 61.08
Ash 88.64 3.06 3.06 0.06 3.12 3.12 3.06
Dust 100.90 32.56 9.56 9.55 137.57 36.18 9.55 4.01 47.45 13.56 2.42 19.60 28.02 8.43 0.01 8.42
Total dry molar flow mol/s 481.33 548.39 1626.34 2150.01 515.64 142.58 1764.50 1805.69 614.05 177.40 630.71 165.27 540.55 373.83 105.53 51.67 381.31 54.84 563.55 2323.45 545.24 1326.29 1317.87 8.42 55.03 182.06 177.40
Water 18.015 232.77 4.05 102.24 309.97 29.10 1.05 79.46 109.61 1.13 4.63 1.21 24.21 0.61 0.34 2.79 0.40 17.08 9.67 9.67 0.37 11.68 11.71
Total wet molar flow mol/s 714.10 552.44 1728.58 2459.98 544.74 143.64 1843.95 1915.29 614.05 178.53 635.33 166.49 564.76 373.83 106.15 52.01 384.09 55.24 563.55 2340.53 545.24 1335.95 1327.54 8.42 55.40 193.74 189.12
Molecular weight g/mol 73.40 28.89 33.78 30.73 95.73 28.89 38.24 33.96 100.57 11.37 29.34 28.89 36.71 100.21 10.72 28.89 29.34 28.89 57.79 28.89 58.54 29.34 28.89 100.90 27.91 32.49 11.74
STREAM NUMBER 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
COMPONENT MW (g/mol) mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s
Carbon dioxide 0.00 58.04 508.22 58.04 0.74 431.44 0.04 431.48 997.74 1001.07 150.16 850.91 850.91 850.91
Hydrogen (H2) 0.00 20.58 174.17
Nitrogen (N2) 0.00 0.60 115.15 1436.03 115.15 4.03 1896.45 1896.45 93.23 1999.08 3550.26 3550.26 3550.26
Oxygen (O2) 78.09 0.60 7.21 178.27 7.21 17.63 510.36 0.00 25.09 25.09 210.57 208.90 208.90
Argon 0.03 1.36 17.04 1.36 22.55 22.55 1.11 23.66 42.07 42.07 42.07
Carbon 0.93 81.77 430.70
Nitrogen dioxide 0.86 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Sulphur dioxide 0.00 0.30 0.89 0.30 2.15 2.15 3.34 0.00 0.00
Raw meal 1.03
Clinker 0.91
Sulphur 0.00 1.88 2.15
Ammonia 0.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 10.74 0.00 0.00 0.00
Limestone 1.03 4.45 1.11
Gypsum 0.00 3.34
MEA 4.19 1.38 1.38
Ash 0.00 0.06 11.02 11.02
Dust 1.03 0.05 0.14 9.55 0.01 0.00 0.14 0.01 0.01 0.01
Total dry molar flow mol/s 105.54 182.20 9.55 2140.46 182.06 0.14 639.71 2430.10 2371.67 0.00 130.21 2481.46 4803.98 4.45 0.00 3.34 1.11 4802.31 0.00 0.00 3951.40 850.91 0.00 850.91 850.91 1.38 1.38
Water 100.003 1.24 22.89 309.97 22.89 42.23 17.86 234.26 3118.12 0.88 251.26 584.12 224.19 217.52 584.12 6039.84 5952.22 642.53 29.21 29.21 0.00 0.00 14.02 14.02
Total wet molar flow mol/s 106.78 205.09 9.55 2450.43 204.95 0.14 681.94 2447.96 2605.93 3118.12 131.09 2732.71 5388.09 4.45 224.19 3.34 218.63 5386.43 6039.84 5952.22 4593.93 880.12 29.21 850.91 850.91 15.40 15.40
Molecular weight g/mol 10.80 31.75 100.90 30.45 31.70 100.90 11.74 28.89 30.21 18.02 27.91 29.79 30.16 100.90 18.02 172.17 18.44 30.15 18.02 18.02 27.43 43.15 18.02 44.01 44.01 21.87 21.87
Post-combustion

STREAM NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
mol%
COMPONENT mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry)
Carbon dioxide mol% (dry) 0.03 31.24 23.64 0.03 32.89 32.14 0.03 0.03 18.30 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 31.88
Hydrogen mol% (dry) 27.23 19.50 27.23
Nitrogen mol% (dry) 78.04 61.98 66.79 78.04 56.50 61.37 0.63 77.54 78.04 70.08 0.57 78.04 77.54 78.04 78.04 77.54 78.04 71.60 63.25 0.63
Oxygen mol% (dry) 21.00 3.88 8.29 21.00 1.96 3.40 2.76 20.87 21.00 1.80 0.56 21.00 20.87 21.00 21.00 20.87 21.00 19.27 3.96 2.76
Argon mol% (dry) 0.93 0.73 0.79 0.93 0.67 0.73 0.92 0.93 0.83 0.93 0.92 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.93 0.85 0.75
Carbon mol% (dry) 67.33 77.49 67.33
Nitrogen dioxide mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.19 0.22 0.00
Sulphur dioxide mol% (dry) 0.16 0.04 0.33 0.00 0.16 0.28 0.00 0.62 0.74 0.77 0.16
Raw meal mol% (dry) 98.97 96.85 97.84 94.40
Clinker mol% (dry) 94.87 93.16
Sulphur mol% (dry) 1.03 0.96 0.32 0.34 0.53 1.82 0.35 0.36 0.34
Ammonia mol% (dry) 0.00 8.25 0.00
Limestone mol% (dry)
Gypsum mol% (dry)
MEA mol% (dry)
Ash mol% (dry) 1.72 0.82 0.06 0.55 0.57 1.72
Dust mol% (dry) 2.00 0.44 1.85 7.80 2.00 1.56 0.64 8.78 3.63 0.64 3.48 5.14 0.64 0.00 100.00
Total mol% (dry) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
STREAM NUMBER 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
mol%
COMPONENT mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry) mol% (dry)
Carbon dioxide mol% (dry) 31.85 23.74 31.88 0.03 18.19 0.03 17.39 20.77 20.85 3.80 100.00 100.00 100.00
Hydrogen mol% (dry) 19.50 27.23
Nitrogen mol% (dry) 0.57 63.20 67.09 63.25 0.63 78.04 79.96 71.60 80.56 73.90 73.93 89.85
Oxygen mol% (dry) 0.56 3.96 8.33 3.96 2.76 21.00 0.00 19.27 1.01 4.38 4.35 5.29
Argon mol% (dry) 0.75 0.80 0.75 0.93 0.95 0.85 0.95 0.88 0.88 1.06
Carbon mol% (dry) 77.48 67.33
Nitrogen dioxide mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.34 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Sulphur dioxide mol% (dry) 0.16 0.04 0.16 0.09 0.09 0.07 0.00 0.00
Raw meal mol% (dry)
Clinker mol% (dry)
Sulphur mol% (dry) 1.78 0.34
Ammonia mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.25 0.00 0.00 0.00
Limestone mol% (dry) 100.00 100.00
Gypsum mol% (dry) 100.00
MEA mol% (dry) 100.00 100.00
Ash mol% (dry) 0.06 1.72 0.46
Dust mol% (dry) 0.05 0.08 100.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total mol% (dry) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
IEA GHG
Appendix E PFD and Stream Compositions for Oxy-Combustion Option
E-1
Oxy-combustion option
Refer to drawing no. 234996/OC/FS03
Spreadsheet designed by Duncan Barker

13/06/2007
Spreadsheet reviewed by Peter Lilley
12/07/2007
Spreadsheet checked by Simon Turner
13/12/2007
Mass flowrates
STREAM ID 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
STREAM NAME Wet raw Raw mill air in- Dried raw Exit gases Dry raw meal to Dry raw meal to Kiln preheater Kiln Kiln preheater exit Raw coal Dried coal Coal dryer air Exit gas Raw pet Dried pet Pet coke Exit gas from Kiln preheater to Kiln preheater Kiln exit gas to Kiln inlet air in- Precalciner Precalciner to Preclaciner Precalciner Feed to
meal leaks meal from raw mill kiln preheater precalciner air in-leaks preheater gases to raw mill in-leaks from coal coke coke dryer air in- pet coke precalciner to kiln kiln preheater leaks preheater to precalciner preheater air in- preheater exit gas kiln
preheater exit gases dryer leaks dryer precalciner preheater leaks
COMPONENT
Ash kg/s 0.28 0.28 0.00 0.00
Carbon kg/s 1.66 1.66 0.82 0.82
Hydrogen kg/s 0.11 0.11 0.03 0.03
Nitrogen kg/s 12.04 75.77 1.13 13.03 11.02 0.18 0.18 0.24 1.67 0.02 0.02 0.24 0.81 9.49 2.41 2.14 2.00 4.14
Oxygen kg/s 3.70 21.09 0.35 1.41 1.19 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.23 0.01 0.01 0.07 0.14 0.32 0.74 0.80 0.62 1.42
Sulphur kg/s 0.16 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.05
Carbon dioxide kg/s 0.01 7.21 0.00 8.48 7.17 0.00 0.93 0.00 0.37 5.46 0.00 34.84 0.00 34.84
Argon kg/s 0.20 1.29 0.02 0.22 0.19 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.01 0.16 0.04 0.46 0.03 0.49
Sulphur dioxide kg/s 0.06 0.20 0.17 0.02 0.01 0.11 0.12 0.12
Raw meal kg/s 48.67 51.03 18.33 32.59 25.55 6.39 58.84 51.81
Clinker kg/s
Dust kg/s 0.93 0.78 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 17.55 27.90 1.65
Total dry flow kg/s 48.67 15.96 51.03 105.45 18.33 32.59 1.49 24.29 20.55 2.29 2.38 0.32 2.89 0.93 0.97 0.32 1.35 25.55 6.39 33.12 3.19 58.84 66.42 2.66 42.82 51.81
Water kg/s 4.23 0.00 0.52 4.18 0.19 0.33 0.00 0.52 0.44 0.24 0.02 0.00 0.27 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.00 0.00 2.07 0.00 2.07 0.00
Phase - Solid Gas Solid Gas Solid Solid Gas Gas Gas Solid Solid Gas Gas Solid Solid Gas Gas Solid Solid Gas Gas Solid Gas Gas Gas Solid
o
Temperature C 9 9 100 110 100 100 9 330 330 9 100 9 70 9 100 9 70 870 870 1100 9 870 900 9 330 900
Pressure bar(a) - 1.013 - <1.013 - - 1.013 <1.013 <1.013 - - 1.013 - - - 1.013 <1.013 - - - 1.013 - <1.013 1.013 <1.013 -
Total wet flow kg/s 52.90 15.96 51.54 109.62 18.52 32.92 1.49 24.81 20.99 2.53 2.41 0.32 3.16 0.95 0.98 0.32 1.38 25.55 6.39 33.45 3.19 58.84 68.49 2.66 44.89 51.81
Total Stream Enthaply MJ/hr -2360088 -1260 -2240280 -400392 -800676 -1423188 -86.4 -313776 -265032 -18504 -8640 -18 -42408 -972 -1692 -18 -13320 -996264 -249156 -775116 -187.2 -2294352 -2132280 -154.8 -1244736 -2001384
Total Stream Enthaply MJ/s -655.58 -0.35 -622.3 -111.22 -222.41 -395.33 -0.024 -87.16 -73.62 -5.14 -2.4 -0.005 -11.78 -0.27 -0.47 -0.005 -3.7 -276.74 -69.21 -215.31 -0.052 -637.32 -592.3 -0.043 -345.76 -555.94
Mass flowrates
STREAM ID 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
STREAM NAME Kiln exit Kiln exit air in- Primary air Secondary air Tertiary air Inlet air to air Exhaust air from Cooled Recycled gas Purge Air to ASU Waste gas Oxygen from Heated Recycled Heated Cooled Cooled purge Cooled and Water from Cooled CO2 Inerts from gas Water from CO2 rich stream Compressed CO2
leaks cooler clinker cooler clinker stream from ASU ASU oxygen to gas with recycled gas tertiary air to stream dedusted purge cooler rich waste clean up CO2 for compression rich stream
gas mixer oxygen with oxygen raw mill stream stream purification
COMPONENT
Ash kg/s
Carbon kg/s
Hydrogen kg/s
Nitrogen kg/s 1.20 1.01 7.27 20.21 59.98 32.50 2.04 2.11 18.30 18.20 0.10 0.10 2.14 2.14 20.21 2.11 2.11 2.11 1.68 0.43 0.43
Oxygen kg/s 0.37 0.31 2.24 6.21 18.44 9.99 0.70 0.72 5.63 0.11 5.51 5.51 6.21 6.21 6.21 0.72 0.72 0.00 0.72 0.64 0.00 0.09 0.09
Sulphur kg/s
Carbon dioxide kg/s 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.04 0.02 17.13 17.71 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.00 17.13 17.13 0.01 17.71 17.71 0.00 17.71 1.40 0.00 16.31 16.31
Argon kg/s 0.02 0.02 0.12 0.34 1.02 0.55 0.24 0.25 0.31 0.09 0.22 0.22 0.46 0.46 0.34 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.21 0.04 0.04
Nitrogen dioxide kg/s 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.00 0.08 0.06 0.00 0.02 0.02
Sulphur dioxide kg/s 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00
Raw meal kg/s
Dust kg/s 1.60 1.60 0.81 0.84 0.81 0.81 1.60 0.84 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total dry flow kg/s 33.51 1.60 1.34 11.23 28.37 79.47 43.06 31.92 21.05 21.77 24.25 18.42 5.83 5.83 26.89 26.89 28.37 21.77 20.93 0.05 20.88 3.98 0.01 16.89 16.89
Water kg/s 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.02 1.05 0.11 0.11 0.00 0.00 1.02 1.02 0.00 1.05 1.05 0.79 0.26 0.00 0.26 0.00 0.00
Phase - Solid Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas Solid Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas Gas Liquid Gas Gas Liquid Gas Liquid
o
Temperature C 1350 9 9 1125 795 9 270 59 330 330 9 16 16 310 325 775 404 248 248 35 13 7 20 7 43
Pressure bar(a) - 1.013 1.013 <1.013 <1.013 1.013 <1.013 - <1.013 <1.013 1.013 1.2 1.6 <1.013 <1.013 <1.013 <1.013 <1.013 <1.013 1.013 1.013 1.013 1.013 9.33 110
Total wet flow kg/s 33.51 1.60 1.34 11.23 28.37 79.47 43.06 31.92 22.07 22.82 24.36 18.53 5.83 5.83 27.90 27.90 28.37 22.82 21.99 0.84 21.14 3.98 0.27 16.89 16.89
Total Stream Enthaply MJ/hr -1214748 -93.6 -79.2 -17424 18180 -5940 38052 -1298052 -612072 -632664 -7092 -6264 -180 5616 -606564 -553860 -25920 -639936 -604080 -45864 -584568 -45144 -15048 -526500 -533484
Total Stream Enthaply MJ/s -337.43 -0.026 -0.022 -4.84 5.05 -1.65 10.57 -360.57 -170.02 -175.74 -1.97 -1.74 -0.05 1.56 -168.49 -153.85 -7.2 -177.76 -167.8 -12.74 -162.38 -12.54 -4.18 -146.25 -148.19
Note
Moisture content within air inleaks has been ignored
For molar flows and heat capacities the Dust in streams 8, 9, 25, 35, 36, 41, 42 and 44 are assumed to be 100% CaCO2
For molar flows and heat capacities the Dust in streams 20, 23, 30, 31 and 43 are assumed to be 100% CaO
For molar flows and heat capacities the Dust in streams 11 and 15 are assumed to be 100% Coal

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12/07/2007
13/12/2007
Mass compositions
STREAM NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
STREAM NAME Wet raw Raw mill air in- Dried raw Exit gases Dry raw meal to Dry raw meal to Kiln preheater Kiln Kiln preheater exit Raw coal Dried coal Coal dryer air Exit gas Raw pet Dried pet Pet coke Exit gas from Kiln preheater to Kiln preheater Kiln exit gas to Kiln inlet air in- Precalciner Precalciner to Preclaciner Precalciner
meal leaks meal from raw mill kiln preheater precalciner air in-leaks preheater gases to raw mill in-leaks from coal coke coke dryer air in- pet coke precalciner to kiln kiln preheater leaks preheater to precalciner preheater air in- preheater exit gas
COMPONENT
Ash % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 12.20 11.72 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 72.44 69.56 0.00 0.00 87.60 83.99 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.92 4.72 0.00 0.00 3.70 3.55 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Nitrogen % (w/w) dry 0.00 75.47 0.00 71.86 0.00 0.00 75.47 53.64 53.64 7.90 7.59 75.47 57.95 1.70 1.63 75.47 60.44 0.00 0.00 28.66 75.47 0.00 3.22 75.47 9.67
Oxygen % (w/w) dry 0.00 23.20 0.00 20.00 0.00 0.00 23.20 5.79 5.79 1.58 1.52 23.20 7.92 1.50 1.44 23.20 10.09 0.00 0.00 0.96 23.20 0.00 1.21 23.20 3.32
Sulphur % (w/w) dry 0.33 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.97 0.93 0.00 0.00 5.50 5.27 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon dioxide % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.05 0.00 6.84 0.00 0.00 0.05 34.90 34.90 0.00 0.00 0.05 32.28 0.00 0.00 0.05 27.70 0.00 0.00 16.48 0.05 0.00 52.45 0.05 81.36
Argon % (w/w) dry 0.00 1.28 0.00 1.22 0.00 0.00 1.28 0.91 0.91 0.00 0.00 1.28 0.98 0.00 0.00 1.28 1.03 0.00 0.00 0.49 1.28 0.00 0.69 1.28 1.15
Nitrogen dioxide % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.37
Sulphur dioxide % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.82 0.82 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.76 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.65 0.00 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.29
Raw meal % (w/w) dry 100.00 0.00 100.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Clinker % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dust % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.81 3.81 0.00 4.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 53.00 0.00 0.00 42.00 0.00 3.84
Total % (w/w) dry 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Water % (w/w) wet 8.00 0.00 1.00 3.81 1.00 1.00 0.00 2.09 2.09 9.50 1.00 0.00 8.60 2.00 1.00 0.00 2.34 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 3.02 0.00 4.61
Mass compositions
STREAM NUMBER 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
STREAM NAME Feed to Kiln exit Kiln exit air in- Primary air Secondary air Tertiary air Inlet air to air Exhaust air Cooled clinker Recycled Purge stream Air to ASU Waste gas Oxygen from Heated Recycled gas Heated Cooled tertiary air Cooled purge Cooled and Water from Cooled CO2 rich Inerts from gas Water from CO2 CO2 rich stream Compress
kiln leaks cooler from clinker gas from ASU ASU oxygen to with oxygen recycled gas to raw mill stream dedusted purge cooler waste stream clean up purification for compression ed CO2
cooler gas mixer with oxygen stream rich
stream
COMPONENT
Ash % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Nitrogen % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 75.47 75.47 64.75 71.23 75.47 75.47 0.00 9.67 9.67 75.47 98.82 1.74 1.74 7.95 7.95 71.23 9.67 10.06 0.00 10.08 42.09 0.00 2.54 2.54
Oxygen % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 23.20 23.20 19.90 21.90 23.20 23.20 0.00 3.32 3.32 23.20 0.61 94.53 94.53 23.10 23.10 21.90 3.32 3.45 0.01 3.46 15.95 0.02 0.51 0.51
Sulphur % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon dioxide % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.00 81.36 81.36 0.05 0.07 0.00 0.00 63.71 63.71 0.05 81.36 84.61 1.63 84.82 35.19 4.05 96.58 96.58
Argon % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 1.28 1.28 1.10 1.21 1.28 1.28 0.00 1.15 1.15 1.28 0.51 3.73 3.73 1.71 1.71 1.21 1.15 1.20 0.00 1.20 5.18 0.00 0.27 0.27
Nitrogen dioxide % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.37 0.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.29 0.29 0.00 0.37 0.38 1.77 0.38 1.59 2.91 0.10 0.10
Sulphur dioxide % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.29 0.29 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.22 0.00 0.29 0.30 96.59 0.05 0.00 93.02 0.00 0.00
Raw meal % (w/w) dry 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Clinker % (w/w) dry 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dust % (w/w) dry 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 14.21 5.62 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.84 3.84 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.01 3.01 5.62 3.84 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total % (w/w) dry 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Water % (w/w) wet 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.61 4.61 0.46 0.60 0.00 0.00 3.65 3.65 0.00 4.61 4.79 93.60 1.24 0.00 96.00 0.00 0.00
Note

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13/12/2007
STREAM NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
STREAM NAME Wet raw Raw mill air in- Dried raw Exit gases Dry raw meal to Dry raw meal to Kiln preheater Kiln Kiln preheater exit Raw coal Dried coal Coal dryer air Exit gas Raw pet Dried pet Pet coke Exit gas from Kiln preheater to Kiln preheater Kiln exit gas to Kiln inlet air in- Precalciner Precalciner to Preclaciner Precalciner Feed to
meal leaks meal from raw mill kiln preheater precalciner air in-leaks preheater gases to raw mill in-leaks from coal coke coke dryer air in- pet coke precalciner to kiln kiln preheater leaks preheater to precalciner preheater air in- preheater exit gas kiln
COMPONENT MW (g/mol) mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s
Ash 88.64 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.15 3.15 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon 12.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 137.95 137.95 0.00 0.00 67.92 67.92 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen (H2) 2.016 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 55.78 55.78 0.00 0.00 17.09 17.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Nitrogen (N2) 28.02 0.00 429.82 0.00 2704.13 0.00 0.00 40.23 464.95 393.35 6.45 6.45 8.60 59.74 0.56 0.56 8.60 29.05 0.00 0.00 338.76 85.96 0.00 76.30 71.52 147.82 0.00
Oxygen (O2) 32.00 0.00 115.70 0.00 659.16 0.00 0.00 10.83 43.92 37.16 1.13 1.13 2.31 7.15 0.44 0.44 2.31 4.25 0.00 0.00 9.96 23.14 0.00 25.14 19.25 44.39 0.00
Sulphur 32.06 5.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.69 0.69 0.00 0.00 1.60 1.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon dioxide 44.01 0.00 0.18 0.00 163.90 0.00 0.00 0.02 192.59 162.93 0.00 0.00 0.00 21.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.48 0.00 0.00 124.00 0.04 0.00 791.62 0.03 791.65 0.00
Argon 39.94 0.00 5.11 0.00 32.18 0.00 0.00 0.48 5.53 4.68 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.71 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.35 0.00 0.00 4.03 1.02 0.00 11.53 0.85 12.38 0.00
Nitrogen dioxide 46.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.57 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.68 0.57 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.68 0.00 0.00 3.44 0.00 3.44 0.00
Sulphur dioxide 64.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.89 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.11 2.63 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.34 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.00 1.67 0.00 0.00 1.92 0.00 1.92 0.00
Raw meal 100.09 486.29 0.00 509.82 0.00 183.15 325.60 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 255.32 63.83 0.00 0.00 587.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 517.66
Clinker 56.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dust 100.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 9.25 7.83 0.00 1.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.41 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 175.38 0.00 0.00 278.74 0.00 16.44 0.00
Total dry molar flow 491.30 550.82 509.82 3560.84 183.15 325.60 51.56 720.04 609.15 205.15 206.17 11.02 89.20 87.61 88.01 11.02 42.29 255.32 63.83 654.48 110.16 587.90 1188.68 91.66 1018.05 517.66
Water 18.016 234.92 0.00 28.61 231.98 10.28 18.27 0.00 28.77 24.34 13.33 1.34 0.00 15.09 1.05 0.54 0.00 1.79 0.00 0.00 18.50 0.00 0.00 114.91 0.00 114.91 0.00
Total wet molar flow 726.22 550.82 538.43 3792.82 193.43 343.87 51.56 748.81 633.49 218.48 207.51 11.02 104.29 88.66 88.56 11.02 44.08 255.32 63.83 672.97 110.16 587.90 1303.59 91.66 1132.96 517.66
Molecular weight g/mol 72.85 28.97 95.73 28.90 95.73 95.73 28.97 33.13 33.13 11.57 11.59 28.97 30.31 10.72 11.08 28.97 31.29 100.09 100.09 49.71 28.97 100.09 52.54 28.97 39.63 100.09
STREAM NUMBER 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
STREAM NAME Kiln exit Kiln exit air in- Primary air Secondary air Tertiary air Inlet air to air Exhaust air from Cooled Recycled gas Purge Air to ASU Waste gas Oxygen from Heated Recycled Heated Cooled Cooled purge Cooled and Water from Cooled CO2 Inerts from gas Water from CO2 rich stream Compressed CO2
leaks cooler clinker cooler clinker stream from ASU ASU oxygen to gas with recycled gas tertiary air to stream dedusted purge cooler rich waste clean up CO2 for compression rich stream
gas mixer oxygen with oxygen raw mill stream stream purification
COMPONENT MW (g/mol) mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s mol/s
Ash 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon 12.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen (H2) 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Nitrogen (N2) 28.02 0.00 42.98 36.21 259.56 721.18 2140.52 1159.77 0.00 72.67 75.15 653.17 649.55 3.63 3.63 76.30 76.30 721.18 75.15 75.15 0.00 75.15 59.83 0.00 15.32 15.32
Oxygen (O2) 32.00 0.00 11.57 9.75 69.87 194.12 576.17 312.18 0.00 21.82 22.57 175.82 3.52 172.30 172.30 194.12 194.12 194.12 22.57 22.57 0.00 22.57 19.86 0.00 2.71 2.71
Sulphur 32.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon dioxide 44.01 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.11 0.30 0.90 0.49 0.00 389.19 402.46 0.28 0.28 0.00 0.00 389.19 389.19 0.30 402.46 402.46 0.02 402.44 31.85 0.01 370.58 370.58
Argon 39.94 0.00 0.51 0.43 3.09 8.58 25.47 13.80 0.00 6.08 6.29 7.77 2.33 5.44 5.44 11.53 11.53 8.58 6.29 6.29 0.00 6.29 5.17 0.00 1.13 1.13
Nitrogen dioxide 46.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.69 1.75 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.69 1.69 0.00 1.75 1.75 0.02 1.73 1.37 0.01 0.35 0.35
Sulphur dioxide 64.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.94 0.97 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.94 0.94 0.00 0.97 0.97 0.81 0.16 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00
Raw meal 100.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Clinker 56.08 597.58 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 569.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dust 100.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 15.94 15.94 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.08 8.36 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 8.08 8.08 15.94 8.36 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total dry molar flow 597.58 55.08 46.41 348.57 940.14 2743.06 1486.24 569.12 500.49 517.55 837.04 655.67 181.37 181.37 681.86 681.86 940.14 517.55 509.19 0.86 508.34 118.07 0.18 390.09 390.09
Water 18.016 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 56.49 58.42 6.15 6.15 0.00 0.00 56.49 56.49 0.00 58.42 58.42 43.81 14.60 0.00 14.60 0.00 0.00
Total wet molar flow 597.58 55.08 46.41 348.57 940.14 2743.06 1486.24 569.12 556.98 575.97 843.19 661.82 181.37 181.37 738.35 738.35 940.14 575.97 567.61 44.67 522.94 118.07 14.78 390.09 390.09
Molecular weight g/mol 56.08 28.97 28.97 32.22 30.18 28.97 28.97 56.08 39.63 39.63 28.89 28.00 32.16 32.16 37.79 37.79 30.18 39.63 38.74 18.88 40.43 33.73 18.54 43.29 43.29
Note

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12/07/2007
13/12/2007
Molar compositions (dry)
STREAM NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
STREAM NAME Wet raw Raw mill air in- Dried raw Exit gases Dry raw meal to Dry raw meal to Kiln preheater Kiln Kiln preheater exit Raw coal Dried coal Coal dryer air Exit gas Raw pet Dried pet Pet coke Exit gas from Kiln preheater to Kiln preheater Kiln exit gas to Kiln inlet air in- Precalciner Precalciner to Preclaciner Precalciner
meal leaks meal from raw mill kiln preheater precalciner air in-leaks preheater gases to raw mill in-leaks from coal coke coke dryer air in- pet coke precalciner to kiln kiln preheater leaks preheater to precalciner preheater air in- preheater exit gas
COMPONENT
Ash mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.53 1.53 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 67.24 66.91 0.00 0.00 77.53 77.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 27.19 27.06 0.00 0.00 19.51 19.42 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Nitrogen mol% (dry) 0.00 78.03 0.00 75.94 0.00 0.00 78.03 64.57 64.57 3.14 3.13 78.03 66.97 0.64 0.64 78.03 68.70 0.00 0.00 51.76 78.03 0.00 6.42 78.03 14.52
Oxygen mol% (dry) 0.00 21.00 0.00 18.51 0.00 0.00 21.00 6.10 6.10 0.55 0.55 21.00 8.01 0.50 0.50 21.00 10.04 0.00 0.00 1.52 21.00 0.00 2.11 21.00 4.36
Sulphur mol% (dry) 1.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.34 0.33 0.00 0.00 1.82 1.81 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon dioxide mol% (dry) 0.00 0.03 0.00 4.60 0.00 0.00 0.03 26.75 26.75 0.00 0.00 0.03 23.75 0.00 0.00 0.03 20.05 0.00 0.00 18.95 0.03 0.00 66.60 0.03 77.76
Argon mol% (dry) 0.00 0.93 0.00 0.90 0.00 0.00 0.93 0.77 0.77 0.00 0.00 0.93 0.80 0.00 0.00 0.93 0.82 0.00 0.00 0.62 0.93 0.00 0.97 0.93 1.22
Nitrogen dioxide mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.29 0.00 0.34
Sulphur dioxide mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.43 0.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.19
Raw meal mol% (dry) 98.98 0.00 100.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Clinker mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dust mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.28 1.28 0.00 0.49 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.46 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 26.80 0.00 0.00 23.45 0.00 1.62
Total mol% (dry) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Molar compositions (dry)
STREAM NUMBER 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
STREAM NAME Feed to Kiln exit Kiln exit air in- Primary air Secondary air Tertiary air Inlet air to air Exhaust air Cooled clinker Recycled Purge stream Air to ASU Waste gas Oxygen from Heated Recycled gas Heated Cooled tertiary air Cooled purge Cooled and Water from Cooled CO2 rich Inerts from gas Water from CO2 CO2 rich stream Compress
kiln leaks cooler from clinker gas from ASU ASU oxygen to with oxygen recycled gas to raw mill stream dedusted purge cooler waste stream clean up purification for compression ed CO2
cooler gas mixer with oxygen stream rich
stream
COMPONENT
Ash mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Hydrogen mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Nitrogen mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 78.03 78.03 74.46 76.71 78.03 78.03 0.00 14.52 14.52 78.03 99.07 2.00 2.00 11.19 11.19 76.71 14.52 14.76 0.00 14.78 50.67 0.00 3.93 3.93
Oxygen mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 21.00 21.00 20.04 20.65 21.00 21.00 0.00 4.36 4.36 21.00 0.54 95.00 95.00 28.47 28.47 20.65 4.36 4.43 0.02 4.44 16.82 0.04 0.69 0.69
Sulphur mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Carbon dioxide mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.00 77.76 77.76 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.00 57.08 57.08 0.03 77.76 79.04 2.34 79.17 26.97 5.73 95.00 95.00
Argon mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.93 0.93 0.89 0.91 0.93 0.93 0.00 1.22 1.22 0.93 0.36 3.00 3.00 1.69 1.69 0.91 1.22 1.24 0.00 1.24 4.38 0.00 0.29 0.29
Nitrogen dioxide mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.34 0.34 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.25 0.00 0.34 0.34 2.43 0.34 1.16 3.93 0.09 0.09
Sulphur dioxide mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.14 0.00 0.19 0.19 95.21 0.03 0.00 90.30 0.00 0.00
Raw meal mol% (dry) 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Clinker mol% (dry) 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dust mol% (dry) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.57 1.70 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.62 1.62 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.19 1.19 1.70 1.62 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total mol% (dry) 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Note
IEA GHG
Appendix F Economic Analysis Spreadsheets
F-1
Version 1
IEA GREENHOUSE GAS R&D PROGRAMME Cement Manufacturing Plant - No CO2 Capture Date 11 January 2008
Production Capital Cost Million € Operating Costs at load factor 90% Economic parameters Results summary
Cement 1.0 Mt/y Installed costs 235.2 Million €/year Discount rate 10% % Cement production cost 65.650 €/t
Power generation 0.0 MWh/y Average contingencies 5.0% 11.8 Fuel 6.7 Base year 2008 %
CO2 emissions 728,422 t/y Owners costs 7.0% 16.5 Power 4.0
Total capital cost 263.5 Limestone 3.7 Coal price 65.00 €/t
Consumption @ 90% load factor Other raw materials 1.6 Pet coke price 80.00 €/t
Coal 63,317 t/y Decommissioning cost 0 Water 0.02 Power Purchase Price 50.00 €/MWh
Pet Coke 32,876 t/y Cooling water 0.0 Power Sale Price 50.00 €/MWh
Power 80,809 MWh/y Stocks Consumables 0.7 Water price 0.10 €/t
Water 0.24 Mt/y Fuel 15 days Total Variable Costs 16.8 Cooling water price 0.02 €/t
Cooling water 0 Mt/y Limestone 7 days
CO2 emissions 0.728 t/t Other raw materials 15 days Fixed costs
Maintenance 9.4
CO2 emissions Working Capital Labour 3.8
CO2 emissions - power generation 0.520 kg/kWh Fuel 0.3 Administration, rates & insurance 5.9
CO2 emissions including power 0.770 t/t Limestone 0.1 Total fixed 19.1
Other raw materials 0.1
Total working capital 0.4 Total Operating Costs 35.9
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

Million $ 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036
Year 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Load Factor 60% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%
Equivalent yearly hours 5256 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884
Expediture Factor 0% 20% 45% 35%
Cement Production 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.0
Revenues
Power generation 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Operating Costs
Fuel 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.5 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 0.0
Power 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.7 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 0.0
Limestone 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 0.0
Other raw materials 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 0.0
Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cooling water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Consumables 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.0
Maintenance 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 0.0
Labour 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 0.0
Administration, rates & insurance 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 0.0
Fixed Capital Expenditures 0.0 52.7 118.6 92.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Working Capital 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Decommissioning Cost 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total Cash Flow (yearly) 0.0 52.7 118.6 116.6 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 0.0
Total Cash Flow (cumulated) 0.0 52.7 171.3 287.9 323.8 359.7 395.7 431.6 467.5 503.4 539.4 575.3 611.2 647.2 683.1 719.0 755.0 790.9 826.8 862.7 898.7 934.6 970.5 1006.5 1042.4 1078.3 1114.3 1150.2 1150.2
Version 1
IEA GREENHOUSE GAS R&D PROGRAMME Cement Manufacturing Plant - Post Combustion CO 2 Capture Date 11 January 2008
Cement 1.0 Mt Installed costs 491.6 Million €/year Discount rate 10% % Cement production cost 129.4 €/t
Power generation 356,400 MWh/y Average contingencies 6.5% 31.8 Fuel 21.6 Base year 2008
CO2 emissions 188,424 t/y Owners costs 7.0% 34.4 Power 0.0 Emission avoidance cost 118.1 €/t CO 2
Total capital cost 557.8 Limestone 3.8 Coal price 65.00 €/t Excluding Power
Consumption @ 90% load factor Other raw materials 6.0 Pet coke price 80.00 €/t Emission avoidance cost 107.4 €/t CO 2
Coal 291,633 t/y Decommissioning cost 0 Water 0.04 Power Purchase Price 50.00 €/MWh Including Power
Power 333,665 MWh/y Stocks Consumables 0.7 Water price 0.10 €/t CO2 emissions avoided, including power 77%
Cooling Water 4.4 Mt/y Limestone 7 days
CO2 emissions 0.188 t/t Other raw materials 15 days Fixed costs CO2 emissions for external power 0.52 tCO2/MWh
CO2 emissions including power 0.177 t/t Maintenance 16.8
Working Capital Labour 6.7
Reference plant data Fuel 0.9 Administration, rates & insurance 11.8
CO2 emissions 0.728 t/t Limestone 0.1 Total fixed 35.4
Cement production cost 65.6 €/t Other raw materials 0.2
CO2 emissions including power 0.770 t/t Total working capital 1.2 Total Operating Costs 67.6
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

Million $ 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036
Year 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Load Factor 60% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%
Revenues
Operating Costs
Fuel 0.0 0.0 0.0 14.4 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 0.0
Power 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Limestone 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 0.0
Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cooling water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0
Consumables 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.0
Maintenance 0.0 0.0 0.0 11.2 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 0.0
Labour 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.5 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 0.0
Working Capital 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Version 1
IEA GREENHOUSE GAS R&D PROGRAMME Cement Manufacturing Plant - Oxy Combustion CO 2 Capture Date 11 January 2008
Power generation 5,548.0 MWh/y Average contingencies 5.8% 16.7 Fuel 6.9 Base year 2008 %
CO2 emissions 282,853 t/y Owners costs 7.0% 20.3 Power 8.7 Emission avoidance cost 35.8 €/t CO2
Consumption @ 90% load factor Other raw materials 1.6 Pet coke price 80.00 €/t Emission avoidance cost 40.2 €/t CO2
Coal 72,061 t/y Decommissioning cost 0 Sea Water 0.3 Power Purchase Price 50.00 €/MWh Including Power
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

Million $ 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036
Year 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Load Factor 60% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%
Revenues
Operating Costs
Fuel 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.6 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 0.0
Power 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.8 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 0.0
Limestone 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 0.0
Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.0
Cooling water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Consumables 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.0
Maintenance 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.2 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 0.0
Labour 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.2 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 0.0
Working Capital 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Version 1
IEA GREENHOUSE GAS R&D PROGRAMME Cement Manufacturing Plant - No CO 2 Capture Date 11 January 2008
CO2 emissions 728,422 t/y Owners costs 7.0% 16.5 Power 4.0
Cooling water 0 Mt/y Limestone 7 days
Maintenance 9.4
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

Million $ 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038 2039 2040 2041 2042 2043 2044 2045 2046 2047 2048 2049 2050
Year 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Load Factor 60% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%
Equivalent yearly hours 5256 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884 7884
Cement Production 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Revenues
Power generation 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Operating Costs
Fuel 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.5 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7
Power 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.7 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Limestone 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7
Other raw materials 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6
Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cooling water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Consumables 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Maintenance 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4 9.4
Labour 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8
Administration, rates & insurance 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9 5.9
Fixed Capital Expenditures 0.0 52.7 118.6 92.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Working Capital 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Decommissioning Cost 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total Cash Flow (yearly 0.0 52.7 118.6 116.6 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9 35.9
Total Cash Flow (cumulated) 0.0 52.7 171.3 287.9 323.8 359.7 395.7 431.6 467.5 503.4 539.4 575.3 611.2 647.2 683.1 719.0 755.0 790.9 826.8 862.7 898.7 934.6 970.5 1006.5 1042.4 1078.3 1114.3 1150.2 1186.1 1222.1 1258.0 1293.9 1329.8 1365.8 1401.7 1437.6 1473.6 1509.5 1545.4 1581.4 1617.3 1653.2 1689.1
Version 1
IEA GREENHOUSE GAS R&D PROGRAMME Cement Manufacturing Plant - Post Combustion CO 2 Capture Date 11 January 2008
CO2 emissions 0.188 t/t Other raw materials 15 days Fixed costs CO2 emissions for external power 0.52 tCO 2/MWh
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

Million $ 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038 2039 2040 2041 2042 2043 2044 2045 2046 2047 2048 2049 2050
Year 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Load Factor 60% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%
Revenues
Operating Costs
Fuel 0.0 0.0 0.0 14.4 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6 21.6
Power 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Limestone 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8
Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cooling water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Consumables 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Maintenance 0.0 0.0 0.0 11.2 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8 16.8
Labour 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.5 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7
Working Capital 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total Cash Flow (yearly) 0.0 111.6 251.0 240.7 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5 66.5
Version 1
IEA GREENHOUSE GAS R&D PROGRAMME Cement Manufacturing Plant - Oxy Combustion CO 2 Capture Date 11 January 2008
CO2 emissions 0.283 t/t Other raw materials 15 days Fixed costs CO2 emissions for external power 0.52 tCO 2/MWh
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

Million $ 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038 2039 2040 2041 2042 2043 2044 2045 2046 2047 2048 2049 2050
Year 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
Load Factor 60% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%
Revenues
Operating Costs
Fuel 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.6 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9
Power 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.8 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7
Limestone 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8
Sea Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Cooling water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Consumables 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Maintenance 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.2 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7 10.7
Labour 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.2 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8
Working Capital 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total Cash Flow (yearly) 0.0 65.4 147.2 144.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7 44.7
Version 1
IEA GREENHOUSE GAS R&D PROGRAMME Cement Manufacturing Plant - Post Combustion CO 2 Capture (Low Sulphur Scenario) Date 11 January 2008
Power generation 0 MWh/y Average contingencies 6.5% 19.1 Fuel 6.7 Base year 2008
Total capital cost 334.7 Steam 11 Coal price 65.00 €/t Excluding Power
Consumption @ 90% load factor Limestone 3.7 Pet coke price 80.00 €/t Emission avoidance cost 55.2 €/t CO 2
Coal 63,317 t/y Decommissioning cost 0 Other raw materials 6.0 Power Purchase Price 50.00 €/MWh Including Power
Pet Coke 32,876 t/y Water 0.02 Power Sale Price 50.00 €/MWh
Power 166,833 MWh/y Stocks Cooling water 0.1 Water price 0.10 €/t CO2 emissions avoided, including power 75%
Water 0.240 Mt/y Fuel 15 days Consumables 0.7 Cooling water price 0.02 €/t
Cooling Water 2.6 Mt/y Limestone 7 days Total Variable Costs 36.7 Steam price 10 €/t
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

Million $ 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036
Year 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Load Factor 60% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%
Revenues
Operating Costs
Fuel 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.5 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 0.0
Power 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.6 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 0.0
Steam 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.3 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0 0.0
Limestone 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 0.0
Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cooling water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0
Consumables 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.0
Maintenance 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.9 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 11.8 0.0
Labour 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.7 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 0.0
Working Capital 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Version 1
IEA GREENHOUSE GAS R&D PROGRAMME Cement Manufacturing Plant - Oxy Combustion CO 2 Capture (Co-location with Power Plant) Date 11 January 2008
Power generation 5,548.0 MWh/y Average contingencies 5.8% 15.0 Fuel 6.9 Base year 2008 %
Consumption @ 90% load factor Oxygen 5.0 Pet coke price 80.00 €/t Emission avoidance cost 34.4 €/t CO2
Coal 72,061 t/y Decommissioning cost 0 Carbon dioxide 2.8 Power Purchase Price 50.00 €/MWh Including Power
Pet Coke 27,091 t/y Other raw materials 1.6 Power Sale Price 50.00 €/MWh
Power 99,060 MWh/y Stocks Sea Water 0.0 Sea Water price 0.02 €/t CO2 emissions avoided, including power 57%
Sea Water 0.24 Mt/y Fuel 15 days Cooling water 0.00 Cooling water price 0.02 €/t
Cooling Water 0.0 Mt/y Limestone 7 days Consumables 0.7
CO2 emissions 0.283 t/t Other raw materials 15 days Total Variable Costs 25.4 CO2 emissions for external power 0.52 tCO2/MWh
CO2 emissions including power 0.331 t/t Fixed costs
Working Capital Maintenance 10.4 Oxygen Price 30 €/t
Reference plant data Fuel 0.3 Labour 4.7 CO2 Export Price 10 €/t
CO2 emissions 0.728 t/t Limestone 0.1 Administration, rates & insurance 7.0
Cement production cost 65.6 €/t Other raw materials 0.1 Total fixed 22.1
CO2 emissions including power 0.770 t/t Total working capital 0.4
Total Operating Costs 47.6
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

Million $ 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036
Year 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Load Factor 60% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%
Revenues
Operating Costs
Fuel 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.6 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 6.9 0.0
Power 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.1 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 0.0
Limestone 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 0.0
Oxygen 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.3 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 0.0
Carbon dioxide 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.9 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 0.0
Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cooling water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Consumables 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.0
Maintenance 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.0 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.4 0.0
Labour 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.1 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 0.0
Working Capital 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Version 1
IEA GREENHOUSE GAS R&D PROGRAMME Cement Manufacturing Plant - Post Combustion CO 2 Capture (KS-1 Scenario) Date 11 January 2008
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

Million $ 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036
Year 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Load Factor 60% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%
Revenues
Operating Costs
Fuel 0.0 0.0 0.0 11.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 17.9 0.0
Power 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Limestone 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 0.0
Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cooling water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0
Consumables 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.0
Maintenance 0.0 0.0 0.0 11.8 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 17.7 0.0
Labour 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.7 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 0.0
Working Capital 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Version 1
IEA GREENHOUSE GAS R&D PROGRAMME Cement Manufacturing Plant - No CO2 Capture (Asian Scenario) Date 11 January 2008
CO2 emissions 2,185,266 t/y Owners costs 7.0% 19.1 Power 12.1
Cooling water 0.0 Mt/y Limestone 7 days
Maintenance 12.2
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

Million $ 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036
Year 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Load Factor 60% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%
Revenues
Operating Costs
Fuel 0.0 0.0 0.0 13.5 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 20.2 0.0
Power 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 0.0
Limestone 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.5 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 0.0
Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0
Cooling water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Consumables 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 0.0
Maintenance 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.1 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 12.2 0.0
Labour 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 0.0
Working Capital 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Version 1
IEA GREENHOUSE GAS R&D PROGRAMME Cement Manufacturing Plant - Post Combustion CO 2 Capture (Asian Scenario) Date 11 January 2008
Power generation 1,069,200 MWh/y Average contingencies 6.5% 36.9 Fuel 64.8 Base year 2008
Power 1,000,995 MWh/y Stocks Consumables 2.2 Water price 0.10 €/t CO2 emissions avoided, including power 77%
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

Million $ 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036
Year 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Load Factor 60% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%
Revenues
Operating Costs
Fuel 0.0 0.0 0.0 43.2 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 64.8 0.0
Power 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Limestone 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.6 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 0.0
Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0
Cooling water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.0
Consumables 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 0.0
Maintenance 0.0 0.0 0.0 14.7 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 22.1 0.0
Labour 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.7 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 10.1 0.0
Working Capital 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Version 1
IEA GREENHOUSE GAS R&D PROGRAMME Cement Manufacturing Plant - Oxy Combustion CO 2 Capture (Asian Scenario) Date 11 January 2008
Power generation 16,644 MWh/y Average contingencies 5.8% 19.4 Fuel 20.6 Base year 2008 %
Consumption @ 90% load factor Other raw materials 4.8 Pet coke price 80.00 €/t Emission avoidance cost 22.9 €/t CO2
Power 540,327 MWh/y Stocks Consumables 2.2 Sea Water price 0.02 €/t CO2 emissions avoided, including power 52%
CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

Million $ 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036
Year 000 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Load Factor 60% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90% 90%
Revenues
Operating Costs
Fuel 0.0 0.0 0.0 13.7 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 0.0
Power 0.0 0.0 0.0 17.5 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 26.2 0.0
Limestone 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.5 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 11.3 0.0
Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.0
Cooling water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0
Consumables 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 0.0
Maintenance 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 0.0
Labour 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.8 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 0.0
Working Capital 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
IEA GHG
Appendix G Note on Emission Factors
Emission factors throughout the assessment have been sourced using published reference sources and
are noted within the text. It should be remembered that all emission factors are subject to a degree of
uncertainty and therefore the calculations derived should be considered as approximations. Emission
factors for energy use, for example, are subject to the exact operating regimes and fuel type, while
transport emissions vary between vehicle type, and usage patterns such as the vehicle speed.
In order to determine the emission factor for average grid electrical consumption (and to estimate
avoided emissions), emission factors supplied by Defra were used in combination with the energy
statistics presented in the Digest of UK Energy Statistics (DUKES) to derive an average grid emission
factors. This was done by calculating the sum of the emissions of CO2 from each type of power
generation (coal, natural gas, oil etc.) divided by the total electricity supplied to the grid (net). In this
way the individual efficiencies of each type of power generation are also accounted for. The overall
emission factor for the grid was calculated as 520 kg/MWh supplied to the grid. The derivation of this
emission factor is presented in Table G-1.
Table G-1: Derivation of Grid Emission Factor (2006 Base Data)
Generation Method Coal Oil Gas Nuclear Renewable Other Total

Fuel Consumed GWh 378805 15075 328515 213661 38896 20865
Emission Factor 320 270 190 0 0 320
(t/GWh)
kTonnes CO2 emitted 121,218 4,070 62,418 0 0 6,677 194,383
Total electricity supplied to the grid (2006) = 376793 GWh
Tonnes CO2/GWh = 194,383,000 tonnes CO2 / 376793 GWh = 520 kg/MWh
G-1

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CO2 CAPTURE IN

The International Energy Agency (IEA) was established in 1974

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the

Copyright © IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme 2008.

This report describes research sponsored by the IEA Greenhouse

Mott MacDonald Ltd

The principal researchers were:

The assistance of David Pocklington, Richard Leese and Stefania

To ensure the quality and technical integrity of the research

The IEA GHG manager for this report: John Davison

The expert reviewers for this report:

The report should be cited in literature as follows:

IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEA GHG), “CO2

Further information or copies of the report can be obtained by

• Provide descriptions of cement plants and the global cement industry

CO2 capture technologies

Post combustion capture

• A CO2 capture plant which includes a solvent scrubber and regenerator

Performance and costs of cement plants with CO2 capture

Comparison with CO2 capture in power generation

Base case Base case

Co-location Power emissions factor

Alternative solvent Co-location

3Mt/y Asian plant 3Mt/y Asian plant

Cost of CO 2 avoidance , €/t Cost of CO 2 avoidance , €/t

Power emissions factor

Alternative post combustion capture solvent

Large Asian plants

Retrofit of CO2 capture

Capture ready plants

Expert Reviewers’ Comments

1 A study on assessing the capture readiness of cements plants.

International Energy Agency Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEA GHG)

CO2 Capture in the

CO2 Capture in the

Issue and Revision Record

Michael Clark Nick Escott

List of Contents Page

Executive Summary S-1

Chapters and Appendices

2 Cement Plants 2-1

3 CO2 Capture Processes 3-1

3.4.2 Leading CO2 Separation Technologies 3-7

4 Evaluation of CO2 Capture at a New-Build Cement Plant 4-1

5 Economic Analysis of CO2 Capture at a New-Build Cement Plant 5-1

5.6 Sensitivities of Costs to an Asian Developing Country Scenario 5-31

6 Retro-fitting Issues 6-1

7 Capture-Ready Cement Plants 7-1

8 Information Gaps and R&D Needs 8-1

9 Comparison between Post-Combustion and Oxy-Combustion for CO2 Capture at

Appendix A Coal Specification A-1

Appendix B Petroleum Coke Specification B-1

Appendix D PFD and Stream Compositions for Post-Combustion Option D-1

Appendix E PFD and Stream Compositions for Oxy-Combustion Option E-1

Appendix F Economic Analysis Spreadsheets F-1

Appendix G Note on Emission Factors G-1

Post-Combustion CO2 Capture Cement Plant

• concentration of sulphur dioxide (SOx) in flue gas

• concentration of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in flue gas