Diplomacy

• Diplomacy stands accepted as the mainstay and the core process of

relations among nations. The process of establishment of relations among
nations begins effectively by the establishment of diplomatic relations
among nations.
• “Diplomacy is the management of international relations by means of
negotiations; the method by which these relations are adjusted and
managed by ambassadors and envoys the business or art of the
diplomats” —Harold Nicholson.

• “Diplomacy is the inevitable outcome of the coexistence of separate

political units (states) with any degree of contact.” —Frankel

• Diplomacy is a basic means by which a nation seeks to secure the goals of

its national interest. Foreign policy always travels on the shoulders of
diplomacy and gets operationalized in other states.
 Definitions:
• (1) “Diplomacy is the process of representation and negotiation by which states
customarily deal with one another in times of peace.” —Padelford and Lincoln

• (2) “Diplomacy is the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official
relations between governments of independent states.” —Sir Ernest Satow

• (3) “Diplomacy is “the art of forwarding one’s interests in relation to other

countries.” —K.M. Panikar

• (4) “Diplomacy is the management of international relations by means of

negotiations; the method by which these relations are adjusted and managed by
ambassadors and envoys the business or art of the diplomats.” —Harold
Nicholson
• (5) “Diplomacy is the promotion of the national interest by peaceful means.”—
Hans J. Morgenthau
 Nature of Diplomacy:
(1) Diplomacy is not Immoral: Diplomacy is neither the art of deceit nor
mere lies or propaganda, and nor even something immoral.
(2) Diplomacy is a means of International Relations: Diplomacy is a
normal means of conducting relations. It consists of techniques and
procedures for conducting relations among nations.
(3) Diplomacy is machinery for action: In itself diplomacy is recognized
as official machinery for the conduct of relations among nations.
(4) Diplomacy acts through Settled Procedures: Diplomacy functions
through a network of foreign offices, embassies, legations, consulates,
and special missions all over the world. It always works according to
definite and settled procedures and protocol.
(5) Bilateral as well as Multilateral in Form: Diplomacy is commonly
bilateral in character. However as a result of the growing importance
of international conferences, international organisations, regional
negotiations, it has now also developed a plural character. It is
concerned with all issues and problems among nations.

(6) Diplomacy handles all types of Matters: Diplomacy may embrace

a multitude of interests—from the simplest issues to vital issues to
that of war and peace.

(7) Breakdown of Diplomacy always leads to Crisis: When diplomacy

breaks down, the danger of war, or at least of a major crisis develops.
(8) Diplomacy operates both in times of Peace as well as War: Some writers
hold that diplomacy operates only in times of peace and when war breaks
out diplomacy comes to an end. However, this is not a correct view.
Diplomacy continues to operate even when war breaks out. Of course,
during war its nature undergoes a change; from peace diplomacy it takes the
form of war diplomacy.

(9) Diplomacy works in an environment characterised both by Conflict and

Cooperation: Diplomacy works in a situation involving both cooperation and
conflict. A certain degree of cooperation among nations is essential for the
working of diplomacy because in its absence, diplomatic relations cannot be
maintained. Similarly when there is no conflict diplomacy becomes
superfluous because there is no need for negotiations. Thus existence of
cooperation as well as conflict is essential for the working of diplomacy.
(10) Diplomacy always works for securing national interests of the
nation it represents: The purpose of diplomacy is to secure the
goals of national interest as defined and specified by the foreign
policy of the nation. Diplomacy always works for the nation it
represents.

(11) Diplomacy is backed by National Power : A strong diplomacy

means a diplomacy backed by a strong national power. Diplomacy
uses persuasion and influence as the means for exercising power in
international relations. It cannot use force and violence. However, it
can issue warnings, give ultimatums, promise rewards and threaten
punishment, but beyond this it cannot directly exercise force.
“Diplomacy is the promotion of national interest by peaceful
means.”
 Functions:
(1) Ceremonial/Symbolic Functions:
The diplomats of a nation are the symbolic representatives of the state and
they represent their state and government in all official ceremonies and
functions as well as in non-official, social and cultural functions held in the
place of their postings.
(2) Representation:
A diplomat formally represents his country in a foreign state. He is the
normal agent of communication between his home office and that of the
state to which he is accredited. His representation is legal and political. He
can vote in the name of his government. Of course, in doing so he is totally
bound by the directions of his home office and the foreign Policy of the
nation.
(3) Negotiations:
• To conduct negotiations with other states is a substantive function of
diplomacy. Diplomats, observe Palmer and Perkins, are by definition
negotiators. They are the channels of communication which handle the
transmission of messages between the foreign ministries of the parent
state and the host state. Along with the nature of the message, the
manner and style of delivering the message greatly influences the
course of negotiations. It is mainly through negotiations that a diplomat
seeks to secure agreements and compromises over various conflictual
issues and problems among states.
• The role of diplomacy in conducting negotiations has, however,
declined in our times because of the emergence of multilateral
diplomacy, personal diplomacy political diplomacy, summit diplomacy
and the direct communication links among the world leaders and top
statesmen. The diplomats today do not play as great a role in
international negotiations as used to be previously played by them.
Nevertheless, they continue to be the legal and formal channels of
negotiations in international relations.
(4) Reporting:
• Reporting involves the observation of the political, economic, military and
social conditions of the host country and the accurate transmission of the
findings of the diplomat to his home country. The political reporting involves a
report about the assessment of the roles of various political parties in the
politics of the host country. It seeks to assess the friendliness or hostility of the
various political groupings towards the home state, and the power potential of
each party or organisation.
• Economic reporting involves sending of reports to the home office containing
general information about the economic health and trade potential of the host
country. Military reporting involves an assessment of the military might,
intentions and capabilities, and the strategic importance of the host country.
• The level of social and cultural conflicts among the people of the host country
and the level of social harmony and cohesion are assessed for determining the
level of stability of the host country. Thus reporting is an important and
valuable function of diplomacy.
(5) Protection of Interests:
• Diplomacy is always at work for protecting and promoting the
interests of the nation and its people living abroad. Protection of
interests is the “bedrock of the practice of diplomacy.” It works
to secure compatibility out of incompatibility through
accommodation, reconciliation and goodwill.
• A diplomat always attempts to prevent or change practices
which he feels are discriminatory to the interests of his country.
It is his responsibility to protect the persons, property and
interests of such citizens of his country as are living in the
territory of the state to which he stands posted.
• Through all these functions, diplomacy plays an important role
in international relations.
• Change in the Character of Diplomacy: From Old
Diplomacy to New Diplomacy:
• In contemporary times the nature of Diplomacy
has undergone a big change. From its traditional
dress (Old Diplomacy) it has come to acquire
several new features. This change has earned for
it the name New Diplomacy.
 Old Diplomacy : Features
(i) European Diplomacy:
Old Diplomacy was primarily confined to Europe. Being an imperial continent
which controlled and ruled the continents of Asia and Africa, Europe was the
centre of all international activities. Old Diplomacy had its origin in Europe
and continued, till 1914, to handle the relations among the European states.
(ii) Aristocratic:
In Old Diplomacy, the conduct of foreign relations was considered to be the
prerogatives of the kings or rulers and their trusted ambassadors. The
diplomats used to be selected by the monarchs and were responsible to their
‘lords’. Diplomacy was conducted by a class of professional diplomats and
was characterised by an air of aristocracy, nobility and class consciousness. It
was both formal and elitist in nature and approach.
(iii) Special Emphasis upon Virtues:
The Old Diplomacy was aristocratic and hence regarded several well
defined and accepted principles as cardinal principles or virtues of
diplomats. Honesty, integrity, truthfulness, politeness, fairness, strict
conformity to protocol, secrecy and total commitment to national interests
were considered to be the essential qualities of diplomats. However in
actual operation, the Old Diplomacy was characterised by ‘honest lies,’
integrity in appearance, qualified truthfulness, outward politeness, self-
satisfying fairness and strict observance of protocol and secrecy.
(iv) Secrecy:
Secrecy was considered to be the hallmark of Old Diplomacy. Complete
secrecy in respect of the negotiations as well as about the outcome of
these negotiations was considered to be a vitally important condition of
old diplomacy. Diplomats communicated only with their counterparts in
other countries. Secret negotiations leading to secret undertakings,
agreements or treaties or alliances were considered to be the ideal ways
of conducting relations for the preservation of peace and problem solving.
(v) Freedom of Action for the Ambassadors:
• Within the broad limits of agreed policy, the diplomats handling diplomatic
negotiations used to enjoy freedom of action. During the era of Old Diplomacy,
the ambassadors enjoyed considerable freedom in matters of negotiations. Lack
of speedy and continuous means of communications made it essential for the
state to give wide powers to its diplomats.
• The inability to maintain continuous speedy communications with the
ambassadors made it essential for the ruler of the state to give freedom of action
and full power to his ambassadors. Ambassadors always used their authority
freely without much fear of the ‘home office.’

• Old Diplomacy continued to remain in operation till the middle of the 20th
century. Thereafter, it had to change due to several big changes in the
international system as well as because of the development of fast and
comprehensive means of transport and communications. It now came to be a
New Diplomacy.
New Diplomacy and Distinction with Old Diplomacy:
• New Diplomacy has the following salient features which have been
totally different from the features of Old Diplomacy.

(i) New Diplomacy is Global, Old Diplomacy was mainly European:

The New Diplomacy is truly global in nature and scope. The rise of
Asia, Africa and Latin America and the emergence of a large number
of sovereign independent states changed the character of post-war
international relations. From mostly European relations these came
to be truly international relations involving all the sovereign states.
Consequently, diplomacy had to abandon its European character
and to become truly global in nature and approach.
(ii) New Diplomacy is mostly Multilateral, whereas Old Diplomacy was
mostly Bilateral:
Multilateral negotiations in international conferences, institutionalized
diplomacy at the United Nations and the emergence of direct personal
contacts among the statesmen and leaders of various states, have all
combined to give a new look and content to New Diplomacy. Old Diplomacy
was mostly bilateral and limited; the New Diplomacy is mostly multilateral and
global.

(iii) New Diplomacy is less formal than Old Diplomacy:

New Diplomacy is not as much formal and rigid in respect of rules or
procedures as was the case with the Old Diplomacy. Presently, there exist
quite informal and direct contacts among the leaders and diplomats of various
states.
(iv) New Diplomacy is mostly open and Old Diplomacy was mostly
secret:
In New Diplomacy the negotiations are open and the results are, invariably always,
made public soon after the reaching of agreements or treaties or alliances or
settlements. Diplomatic negotiations are given full coverage over the Radio, Press,
Television and other means of mass-media. Old Diplomacy favoured secrecy as its
governing principle.

(v) Democratic Nature of New Diplomacy versus Aristocratic nature of

Old Diplomacy:
The New Diplomacy is democratic, whereas Old Diplomacy was aristocratic in
nature. In the era of the latter, a special elitist class of diplomats, who were
professionals to the core, used to conduct diplomatic negotiations and relations.
However, at present the increased influence of public opinion, political parties,
pressure groups, world public opinion, the rise of a more democratic and less
aristocratic class of civil servants, have all given a new dimension and look to
diplomacy. Modern ambassadors and consoler’s are democratic in their outlook
towards diplomacy. A degree of informality has come to characterize their
functioning in international relations.
(vi) Under New Diplomacy, the role of a Diplomat has suffered a Decline:
• In the era of New Diplomacy, the role of diplomat has suffered a decline. Due to
the development of speedy means of transport and communications, it has
become possible for the political leaders of the states to develop and maintain
direct, continuous and active contacts with one another.
• This development has reduced the role of an ambassador as a link between his
home state and the host state. In Old Diplomacy, diplomats were regarded as the
most important vital links among the states and were full representatives of their
nations in international relations.
• They enjoyed a lot of discretion and freedom of action. New Diplomacy has
reduced the role of diplomats to glorified representatives who really act as highly
dignified messengers and actors with the responsibility of faithfully carrying out
the instructions of the foreign office and political leadership of their states. The
control of the foreign office over the diplomats has considerably increased in this
real of New Diplomacy.
• Thus, the features of New Diplomacy are almost entirely different from the
features of Old Diplomacy.
 TYPES OF NEW DIPLOMACY
1. Democratic Diplomacy- The participation of the people in
the politics of a state and the importance of public opinion led to
a democratization of diplomacy where the governments were no
longer the domain of the aristocrats and diplomacy the sole affair
of diplomats and ministers.
• But the experience of democratic diplomacy had not been
satisfactory and number of shortcomings have been pointed out
by Nicolson. The 1st is irresponsibility of sovereign people. 2nd
Inability of people to understand foreign policy. A strong public
opinion may pull down a diplomatic negotiation or dog it with
delay and imprecision.
2. Totalitarian Diplomacy- The rise o totalitarian states such as Germany,
Italy, the Soviet Union after the first world war introduced a new but
disturbing kind of diplomacy. These totalitarian states used modern
techniques of military, political and psychological power to expand their
sphere of influence, gain control over other states and subvert other regimes
and further their aggressive policy of expansion. For this they invoked
doctrines of racial superiority, mysticism, materialism and militarism to further
their national interests. Diplomacy came to be used as an instrument of
national policy and in doing so the language and practice of diplomacy was
thoroughly degraded.

3. Summit Diplomacy- This involves the direct participation of foreign

ministers, Heads of the States and Heads of Governments in diplomatic
negotiations through various summits and conferences at the international
and regional organisations. For example meetings of UN, EU, ASEAN, OAU,
SAARC etc.
4. Personal Diplomacy- Heads of states have embarked on a practice of
using their personal agents or representatives to handle delicate problems in
international relations. They even sometimes grow a tendency to consult their
personal favourites rather than the foreign ministers. Besides employing
personal agents another very common practice among Heads of the states is to
directly approach his counterpart in other country.

5. Diplomacy by Conference- In the post- Cold War period international

conferences have proliferated in the conduct of foreign policies and assumed
greater significance than normal channels of diplomacy through foreign offices
and diplomatic and consular establishments. These in the most part involves
periodic meetings of regional and international organisations attended by
number of representatives of the member states and sometimes for non
member states too. For eg: Paris peace conference(1914), Disarmament
conference at Geneva(1927), Bretton Woods Conference (1944) etc.
6. Parliamentary Diplomacy- Kenneth W. Thompson has pointed out that
there has been a “ novel, revolutionary and worldwide institutionalizing of
diplomacy”. This has generally been the result of three developments which
are:
a. Increasing incidence of public multilateral negotiations
b. Expansion of diplomatic activity into cultural and educational fields
c. Multiplication of informal channels of contact among people and nations.
• These factors have led to the growing importance of what has been called
‘parliamentary diplomacy’.
• Multilateral negotiation involves ‘a continuing organisation’, a ‘regular public
debate exposed to the medium of mass communication’, ‘rules of procedure
which govern the process of debate’ and ‘formal conclusions, ordinarily
expressed resolutions’.
• Examples of Parliamentary diplomacy are: UN General assembly and other
UN bodies.
7. Economic Diplomacy- Economic diplomacy uses trade and aid
a means of diplomacy. During the Cold war economic trade and aid
was used as instruments to win over allies and to maintain respective
spheres of influence by both USA and Soviet Union. The Truman
doctrine and the Marshall plan are prominent examples of such aid to
European countries aiming at containing the spread of communism.
• Post Cold War trade and aid along with transfer of technology
capital and information are still used while conducting economic
diplomacy.
• While economic diplomacy between equal partners may bring out
outcomes beneficial to both , such diplomacy between rich and poor
states might result in inequitable returns from the negotiations.
8. Nuclear Diplomacy- This involves using Nuclear power for
diplomacy. Nuclear diplomacy takes different forms and meanings
depending on whether the negotiating states are nuclear haves or
nuclear have nots.
• Deterrence comes into being if the parties involved in the
negotiation are all nuclear haves. Then the possession of nuclear
arsenal will deter them from using nuclear weapons.
• On the other hand if the other party does not possess nuclear
weapons then that party may be compelled into doing certain things
which the nuclear haves may desire.
• But there is an unprecedented risk attached to this type of nuclear
diplomacy and a crisis situation might escalate and reach the
threshold of nuclear war manifested during the ‘Cuban Missile crisis’.
9. Public Diplomacy- This assumes the form of people to people
contact which involves the inclusion of academicians, NGOs,
cultural groups, tourism, films, theatres, internet, blogging. The
chief aim is to increase people to people contact and improve the
image of a country abroad alongside the traditional mechanisms of
diplomacy.
• This public private partnership has immensely increased due to
the improvement in communications, information exchanges and
media and internet revolution.
• For example USA aptly used pubic diplomacy to improve public
relations and its image in other countries through the Voice of
America, organizations of academic exchanges, seminars, film
shows and host of other activities.