Geotech Geol Eng (2018) 36:2003–2020

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-017-0442-2

ORIGINAL PAPER

Geotechnical Mapping of Najran Soils for Safe Urban

Expansion, Najran Region, Saudi Arabia
Ahmed Abd El Aal . Alaa A. Masoud

Received: 1 November 2016 / Accepted: 30 December 2017 / Published online: 10 January 2018
Ó Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract One hundred eighty-three rotary-drilled Mefraq Al-Khamis recorded the lowest values of LL
boreholes from fifteen districts in Najran area, King- (23%), PL (19%), and PI (2%). Atterberg limits
dom of Saudi Arabia, were sampled and tested in the showed a northwestward increase to reach its maxima
field and in laboratory to analyze the spatial variation at Thar. Moisture content was larget in Khobash and
in their geotechnical properties. Number of samples showed local highs at Najran Al-Fahd and Al-
varied with the performed test including grain size Mashaliya.Fine sands prevailed north and east of
distribution (668), Atterberg limits (24), moisture Abu Shadad with local highs in Al-Mashaliya and
content (432), free swelling (49), direct shear strength Najran University. Silt and clay soils dominate in
(51), unconfined compression strength (37), and soil Najran Al-Fahd district. Local highs of free swelling
water chemistry of 168 samples were analyzed for were vivid at Abu Shadad, Khobash, Mefraq Al-
Cl-, SO-2 -
3 , and CO3 ), and 120 samples for pH. Khamis, and Najran Al-Fahd districts. UCS showed
Descriptive statistics were appraised for clarifying the largest in Najran University. Shear test friction angle
geotechnical variations among the districts and vari- showed lowest at Khobash and Abu Shadad districts
ous AASHTO-classified soil types. GIS-based geosta- dominated by coarse to medium sands and gravels and
tistical kriging with minimum error achieved was used largest of 35° in Najran University and extends to Thar
for preparing the spatial maps of the geotechnical attaining the largest fine sand and gravel contents.
parameters. Results showed that majority of soil Largest Cl- and SO-2 3 contents characterized the
samples were non-plastic. Hubuna district showed districts of Thar, Al-Hosayniya and Hubuna while
the larger LL (42%), PL (25%), and PI (20%) while CO3- showed local high at Najran Al-Fahd district,
the soils were acidic with pH lower than 5.5. Three
A. Abd El Aal
main soil types according to AASHTO classification
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Al Azhar formed about 91% of the samples: A-1-b (56%), A-2-4
University, (Assiut Branch), Assiut, Egypt (23.5%), and A-3 (11.4%), were mapped and their
geotechnical properties were characterized. Results
A. Abd El Aal (&)
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering,
can help efficient decision-making process to set
Najran University, Najran, Saudi Arabia proper management zones and prevent geotechnical
e-mail: [email protected] risks where measures in the design and construction
stages can be decided for future expansions and
A. A. Masoud
Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta
subsurface tunneling based on the district- and soil
University, Tanta, Egypt type-specific.
e-mail: [email protected]

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2004 Geotech Geol Eng (2018) 36:2003–2020

Keywords Geotechnical database
Geostatistical that are widely performed to understand the potential
modeling
GIS
Najran
KSA problems of soils can be time-consuming, expensive,
and limited.
The aforementioned challenges therefore make
unraveling the accurate spatial geotechnical and
1 Introduction geological constraints of these clays and their spatial
variability imperative for investigating the land suit-
Geotechnical maps provide a cost-effective input that ability for construction and for land use management
saves time and effort for efficient planning and on the limited soil resource. This can play a decisive
management of safe urban expansions everywhere. role to help efficiently prioritize management zones
In addition to alleviating risks on the soil and with cost effective optimization of the construction
groundwater resources in urban cities, these maps times, efficient setting of mitigation measures, and
enable better making decisions in civil engineering designing projects for safe extension with appropriate
projects, such as for the construction and design of and reliable foundation system to compensate for risks
buildings, dams, roads, tunnels, etc. Geological and or over costs (e.g. Tilford 1994; Parsons and Frost
geotechnical information resulting from site investi- 2002; Hack et al. 2006; De Rienzo et al. 2008). This
gations produce large number of reports of variable dictates the use of a multidisciplinary approach that
content and quality. The use of adequate techniques can integrate the multivariate statistical and geosta-
for filtering, analysis, presentation, and building tistical techniques in a geographical information
permanent GIS database of such information play systems (GIS) environment. These techniques proved
the key role in governing the accuracy of the indispensable in risk assessment of trace elements in
geotechnical maps. agricultural soils in China (Chen et al. 2008), lead in
Predicting the performance of foundation systems mining site in Ireland (McGrath et al. 2004), and for
and earth structures under the anticipated loading delineation of management zones (Moral et al. 2010).
conditions can be obtained by subsurface exploration, The present research, therefore, aims at evaluating
in situ and laboratory testing. The alluvial clays, in the integrated use of the multivariate statistical for
particular, constitute significant risk to constructions spatial variability mapping and analysis of the
in terms of their ability to swell or to shrink and hence geotechnical characteristics of the alluvial clays. A
to volume change and are most commonly over- special focus is devoted to characterizing the geotech-
consolidated (Dhowian et al. 1985) that result in land nical risks related to the fluctuating soil water
subsidence, differential settlements, and building conditions, i.e., Cl-, SO-2 -
4 , CO3 contents, and pH,
collapse (Bell and Jermy 1994; Bell and Maud 1995; along with the soil’s swelling and unconfined com-
Stavridakis 2006; Hyndman and Hyndman 2009). pression and shear strengths potentials. Integration of
Also, the soil Cl-, SO-2 3 contents of when violating the adopted techniques aimed at answering the ques-
the permissible limits can cause severe damages to the tion: how can the numerous geotechnical parameters
concrete contents of the structures (SBC 2007; ACI be synthesized into few spatial management zones of
2008). Yet, changes to the volume and the Cl-, SO-2 3 specific characteristics to simply assess the suitability
contents of these clays are significant in the arid and for land development. Such study has been rarely
semi-arid areas justifying their mutual analysis to addressed in KSA and therefore the employed tech-
disclose their geotechnical risks (Masoud 2015, 2016). niques have been applied to a case study area, the
In these areas, the change of the soil ater content is Najran area, despite the significant socio-economic
widely related to high evapotranspiration of vegeta- impacts from the geotechnical risks where the effects
tion that sometimes exceeds four times the precipita- of catastrophic events are often amplified by the high
tion (FAO 1998), brought about by local site changes anthropic pressure and the ineffective land
such as leakage from water supply pipes or drains, or management.
associated with a pattern of short periods of rainfall
followed by long dry periods resulting in seasonal
cycles of soil swelling and shrinkage (Cameron 2006;
Clayton et al. 2010). However, the geotechnical tests

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2 Study Area would lead to large-scale surface subsidence and the

creation of earth fissures.
Najran city is the capital of Najran Province located in
southwestern Saudi Arabia near the border with
Yemen (Fig. 1). Najran is one of the fastest-growing 3 Data and Methods
cities in the kingdom; its population has risen nearly
ten times from 47,500 in 1974 to 505,652 in 2010 on One hundred eighty-three boreholes from fifteen
about 360,000 km2. Najran has experienced substan- districts were rotary-drilled and tested in the field
tial development in the past 30 years from both the and in the laboratory to determine their geotechnical
government and the private sector. The area includes properties. Number of samples varied between bore-
many archeological sites but is chiefly an agricultural holes and sites where 668 samples were tested for
area in the flood plain of Wadi Najran and barren lands grain size analyses (668), 432 for moisture content
on the alluvial soils. The relief reaches 1447 m where (Natural water content-NWC%), 24 samples for
elevation increases from 883 m to the east to 2330 m Atterberg limits (Liquid Limit—LL%, Plastic
to the west (Fig. 2). Limit—PL%, Plasticity Index—PI%), 49 for free
Three distinctive geomorphological units include swelling, 51 samples for direct shear strength, 37 for
(1) high-mountain areas in the west, (2) floodplain unconfined compression strength, and soil water
areas with alluvial deposits along the wadi, and (3) chemistry of 168 samples were analyzed for Cl-,
eastward dominating sandy dunes. Najran area is SO-2 -
3 , and CO3 ), and 120 samples for pH. UCS was
composed of igneous Precambrian rocks, as well as estimated following the ASTM D 2166 standard.
some stratified rocks of the Wajeed sandstone of Direct shear test was performed according the ASTM
Cambrian–Ordovician age, and occasional Tertiary D 3080. The soil water samples were tested for
bedrock (Sable 1985; Al-Shanti 1993; Youssef et al. quantifying their sulfate, chloride, carbonate contents
2013). The alluvial Quaternary deposits cover Wadi along with the pH. The chloride content was deter-
Najran with sand dunes dominating eastward close to mined by silver nitrate method according to the ASTM
the Empty Quarter. D512. The sulfate and carbonate contents were
The area has experienced the appearance of several determined by calorimeter method according to
earth fissures at the ground surface due to groundwater ASTM D 516. Soil water pH is determined with
depletion. Water over-pumping may create significant H? ion-selective glass electrode. Geological investi-
tension in subsurface zones and is believed to be the gations, in situ, and lab-based geotechnical tests
primary cause of soil compaction, and the tension according to specific criteria and were homogenized,

Fig. 1 Location map of Najran area with borehole locations of the studied districts

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2006 Geotech Geol Eng (2018) 36:2003–2020

Fig. 2 SRTM digital elevation model (30 m resolution) of the study area

classified, and archived in a GIS database thus far. developed to predict more reliably the spatial geotech-
Filtering criteria were based on selecting boreholes nical information and their layers. This database can
with a reliable location, a detailed measured strati- enable users to examine the geotechnical data refer-
graphic logs with continuous coring vertical profile up enced by spatial coordinates which can be easily
to a depth of 25 m from the surface, and with complete imported to other numerical tools. ArcGIS 9.3
in situ and laboratory tests and statistically homoge- software package was used for the calculation of both
neous with the whole data above 95% confidence the experimental and theoretical semi-variograms and
level. Geospatial referencing was carried out where for producing the spatial distribution maps of all
the borehole location and ground surface elevation variables. The experimental semivariograms and the
was field-determined. best-fitted theoretical models for all variables were
Geotechnical data extracted from the site investi- built based on trial and error parameter selection.
gation reports under the supervision of an engineering Models attained the best goodness of fit resulted in
geologist were entered on manuscript coding sheets. minimum mean error, root mean error, and mean
The following information was included in the squared error and attained root mean squared error
database for each sample: (1) locational data; (2) close to unity are considered the best-fit models and
geological data; (3) field test data; (4) laboratory index were selected for further analysis among which
test data; and (5) laboratory design test data. Geotech- spherical was of major use. Spatial models produced
nical data for each lithostratigraphic unit were trans- along with brief description of the employed tech-
ferred to a statistical/graphical program where niques are described below.
summary statistics were calculated for each geotech- The area of interest is especially a good example for
nical parameter. These statistics gave an indication of a complex geology area with important urban exten-
the range of variation of a geotechnical parameter sion where planners and decision makers need a useful
(maximum and minimum), as well as the distribution map that shows geotechnical zoning for a safe urban
of the variation of the parameter about its most extension. The available geotechnical data from
common value (minimum, maximum, mean, standard boreholes and geotechnical tests are presented in a
deviation, and count). The Pearson’s correlation georeferenced map to show the most important
coefficient (r) is used to disclose the degree of factors.
dependency among variables. Correlations were set The approach presented for urban geological map-
as strong (r [ 0.5), moderate (r = 0.5–0.3) and low ping is based on the GIS utility. The process applied
(r \ 0.3). consists of a multicriterion analysis. Similar examples
A GIS database comprising all the selected data was use other factors such as SPT results (Goh and Goh
constructed for the area, adopting a procedure 2007; Papadimitriou et al. 2007), but in this work we

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 Table 1 Summary statistics of the studied parameters in Najran districts
District Nos. of BH/ Grain Size NWC Atterberg limits% Direct shear UCS Swelling Soil water chemistry
depth
S#4 S#10 S#40 S#200 LL PL PI c Ø pH Cl- SO-2
3 CO3-

All 183/10–25 Min 9 16.8 6 0 0.1 23 19 2 0 0 0 6.68 7.3 0.00326 0.009 0

Max 100 100 87.4 76.4 24.1 42 25 20 2.8 35 41.66 35 9.24 0.139 0.089 20.44
SD 12.37 16.00 19.18 13.72 4.39 4.27 1.59 4.54 1 13.49 15.05 7.52 0.37 0.02 0.02 4.90
Mean 91.4 82.9 43.5 14.1 11.0 28.2 21.4 7.0 1.9 19.1 13.0 24.8 8.1 0.0 0.0 4.1
Count 668 668 668 668 432 24 24 26 55 51 37 49 168 168 168 120
MASHALIYAH 11/15 Min 9 33 14 1 0.1 26 15 8.06 0.019 0.015 2.22
Max 100 100 85 26 19.7 30 20 8.66 0.045 0.038 8.3
Geotech Geol Eng (2018) 36:2003–2020

SD 16.07 17.90 19.14 5.78 5.03 2.83 3.54 0.23 0.01 0.01 2.11
Mean 88.3 81.0 45.0 9.9 10.4 28.0 17.5 8.4 0.0 0.0 5.2
Count 45 45 45 45 45 2 2 10 10 10 10
Al 5/10 Min 82.8 27 15.5 6.1 25 7.88 0.011 0.017
HOSSANIYAH Max 100 97.3 83.2 40.1 30 8.21 0.04 0.089
SD 5.94 16.66 16.54 7.33 3.54 0.11 0.01 0.02
Mean 94.8 83.8 62.4 20.9 27.5 8.0 0.0 0.0
Count 21 21 21 21 2 10 10 10
Bir Askar 10/10 Min 29.5 21.4 14.9 3.6 0 0 0 10.1 0.01 0 6.68 7.75 0.011 0.013 0.01
Max 100 99.2 61 18.7 11 35 41.66 35 8.23 0.067 0.065 35
SD 27.11 27.42 14.93 5.08 0.64 18.02 22.17 10.26 0.13 0.01 0.01 18.02
Mean 77.1 70.6 41.3 12.8 10.6 20.0 25.2 18.7 8.0 0.0 0.0 20.0
Count 14 14 14 14 2 3 3 6 20 20 20 3
KHALDIA 5/10 Min 50.4 50.4 14.2 23 6 25 19 4 0 28 20 7.72 0.016 0.032 7.93
Max 100 97.7 87.4 76.4 13 29 23 10 0 33 35 7.88 0.139 0.062 20.44
SD 14.73 13.58 16.82 11.97 3.79 1.63 1.83 2.10 0 2.52 7.64 0.06 0.04 0.01 4.00
Mean 86.9 80.0 65.2 51.1 8.7 27.3 21.2 6.0 0 30.3 26.7 7.8 0.0 0.1 10.7
Count 22 22 22 22 3 6 6 6 3 3 9 9 9 9
Khobash 61/25 Min 46 27 6 0.3 0.34 1.818 0 0 26 8.43 0.01 0.009 0.85
Max 100 100 81 37 24.1 2.845 4 0.086 35 9.24 0.019 0.016 2.75
SD 7.87 11.90 15.90 5.32 4.49 0.26 1.60 0.03 2.62 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.66
Mean 94.5 87.6 37.7 7.8 11.5 2.5 1.3 0.0 31.8 8.7 0.0 0.0 1.4
Count 256 256 256 256 256 32 12 12 12 14 14 14 14
2007

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 Table 1 continued
2008

District Nos. of BH/ Grain Size NWC Atterberg limits% Direct shear UCS Swelling Soil water chemistry
depth
S#4 S#10 S#40 S#200 LL PL PI c Ø pH Cl- SO-2
3 CO3-

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Abu shadad 7/13.5 Min 93.4 88.9 47.3 5.8 20 7.38 0.011 0.037 0
Max 100 100 82.9 30 25 7.73 0.024 0.086 7.54
SD 2.12 2.92 7.19 8.04 3.54 0.11 0.00 0.02 2.16
Mean 98.8 96.5 73.7 17.2 22.5 7.6 0.0 0.1 1.9
Count 29 29 29 29 2 10 10 10 10
Hubuna 5/10 Min 62.2 52.2 23.9 9.9 33 19 8 25 7.89 0.012 0.012
Max 92.1 85 68.8 52.2 42 25 20 25 8.45 0.054 0.048
SD 8.08 8.85 12.1 13.16 3.8 2.65 5.1 0.17 0.01 0.01
Mean 77.7 68.8 48.2 31.7 36.5 21.5 15.0 25.0 8.2 0.0 0.0
Count 18 18 18 18 4 4 4 1 10 10 10
Najran Al Fahd 28/10 Min 63 53 15 1 2.2 2.12 0 0 26 7.3 0.011 0.01 0.11
Max 100 99 81 50.2 21 2.45 22 0.086 34 8.1 0.016 0.015 2
SD 6.48 12.32 16.37 7.70 3.36 0.13 5.87 0.04 3.08 0.31 0.00 0.00 0.73
Mean 92.9 84.4 37.8 9.6 11.7 2.3 14.5 0.0 30.0 7.7 0.0 0.0 1.3
Count 71 71 71 71 87 12 13 5 5 6 6 6 6
Thar 12/10 Min 21.5 16.8 9.7 1.4 6 0 35 0 25 7.86 0.009 0.01 0.31
Max 100 100 80 32.6 12 0 35 0 35 8.19 0.033 0.041 6.69
SD 18.76 20.58 15.84 6.82 3.06 0.00 0.00 0 4.08 0.09 0.01 0.01 2.49
Mean 81.6 74.2 34.0 12.5 8.7 0.0 35.0 0 30.0 8.0 0.0 0.0 3.5
Count 43 43 43 43 3 2 2 0 4 20 20 20 10
Al Thoyalyah 8/14.5 Min 73 63 13 0 0.2 0 34 0.193 7.9 0.011 0.016 0.39
Max 100 100 72 26 12.9 0.03 35 20.73 8.67 0.031 0.037 1.62
SD 6.14 10.15 14.32 6.32 3.79 0.02 0.71 6.81 0.31 0.01 0.01 0.38
Mean 96.8 89.6 41.8 9.7 6.8 0.0 34.5 11.7 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.8
Count 25 25 25 25 25 2 2 7 10 10 10 10
Mefraq Al- 7/18 Min 50.4 50.4 14.2 36 6 23 20 2 30 12 7.7 0.017 0.031 7.9
Khamis Max 100 98 87.4 67.3 13 29 23 9 34 31 7.88 0.054 0.07 20.44
SD 14.51 13.27 15.23 8.21 3.79 2.12 0.98 2.34 1.37 6.82 0.07 0.01 0.01 5.63
Mean 88.9 79.5 64.9 50.7 8.7 25.9 21.6 4.1 32.3 16.9 7.8 0.0 0.0 13.2
Count 33 33 33 33 3 7 7 7 6 7 9 9 9 9
Geotech Geol Eng (2018) 36:2003–2020
 Table 1 continued
District Nos. of BH/ Grain Size NWC Atterberg limits% Direct shear UCS Swelling Soil water chemistry
depth
S#4 S#10 S#40 S#200 LL PL PI c Ø pH Cl- SO-2
3 CO3-

Al Athaybah 5/10 Min 8 26 19 4 0 25 0 23 8.75 0.016 0.032 7.93

Max 14 29 23 10 0 34 0 30 8.88 0.139 0.062 20.44
SD 2.14 1.10 1.52 2.26 4.93 3.61 0.05 0.04 0.01 4.04
Mean 10.8 27.0 21.5 5.5 0.0 30.7 26.0 8.8 0.0 0.1 11.6
Count 6 6 6 6 1 3 0 3 8 8 8 8
Al Araysah Al 7/10 Min 46.5 16.8 10.5 1.4 21 7.52 0.00326 0.021
Janubi Max 100 100 62.9 32.6 23 8.6 0.012 0.0327
Geotech Geol Eng (2018) 36:2003–2020

SD 12.84 21.81 14.34 7.99 1.00 0.26 0.00 0.00

Mean 80.2 71.5 32.5 13.3 22.0 7.9 0.0 0.0
Count 24 24 24 24 3 18 18 18
Najran Airport 6/10 Min 54.6 43.2 19.7 2 0 30 20 7.86 0.009 0.013 0.31
Max 100 100 80 23 0 30 34 8.3 0.025 0.028 5.94
SD 12.70 18.92 17.87 4.26 0.00 0.00 6.85 0.15 0.01 0.01 2.31
Mean 94.1 78.6 45.4 8.7 0.0 30.0 27.8 8.0 0.0 0.0 2.3
Count 28 28 28 28 2 3 4 6 6 6 6
Najran University 8/10 Min 54.6 43.2 14.2 4.4 6 35 22 7.86 0.009 0.013 0.31
Max 100 100 80 32 12 35 35 8.3 0.025 0.028 5.94
SD 11.21 18.92 18.98 6.54 2.52 0.00 4.88 0.16 0.01 0.01 2.14
Mean 95.2 73.5 43.6 12.9 8.5 35.0 31.8 8.1 0.0 0.0 2.4
Count 39 39 39 39 4 2 6 8 8 8 8
2009

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Table 2 Correlation coefficients among the studied parameters
Depth Grain size NWC Atterberg limits% Direct shear UCS Swelling Soil water chemistry
S#4 S#10 S#40 S#200 NWC% LL% PL% PI% c Ø pH Cl- SO-2
3 CO3-

Depth 1
S#4 0.01 1
S#10 0.00 0.71 1
S#40 0.08 0.32 0.41 1
S#200 0.09 - 0.04 0.00 0.55 1
NWC 0.22 0.14 0.14 0.02 - 0.05 1
LL% 0.02 - 0.21 - 0.09 0.09 - 0.08 1
PL% 0.21 2 0.48 2 0.39 2 0.30 2 0.38 0.00 1
PI% - 0.11 0.03 0.11 0.15 - 0.10 0.94 - 0.35 1
c - 0.10 - 0.05 0.00 0.17 0.00 - 0.02 1.00 1
Ø - 0.08 2 0.37 2 0.37 - 0.14 0.32 - 0.09 2 0.40 - 0.11 - 0.93 - 0.85 1
UCS - 0.02 0.15 2 0.57 0.15 0.40 2 0.35 1.00 2 0.47 1
Swelling - 0.28 0.17 0.20 2 0.35 2 0.46 0.12 0.89 0.60 0.95 - 0.64 - 0.78 1
pH - 0.05 0.05 - 0.01 - 0.13 2 0.29 0.09 0.07 0.14 - 0.05 - 0.96 - 0.04 - 0.99 0.23 1
Cl- - 0.11 0.06 0.11 0.08 0.46 0.02 - 0.03 - 0.15 0.12 - 0.79 - 0.26 0.13 0.33 0.05 1
SO-2
3 - 0.11 0.06 0.10 0.25 0.39 - 0.20 0.14 2 0.29 0.54 - 1.00 - 0.15 0.35 0.17 - 0.30 0.32 1
CO3- 0.22 - 0.15 - 0.19 0.08 0.70 - 0.17 0.49 0.67 - 0.03 - 0.04 0.03 0.31 0.24 0.03 0.31 0.34 1
N.B correlation coefficients are shown in bold for strong (italic), moderate (bold italic), and fair (bold) relationships
Geotech Geol Eng (2018) 36:2003–2020
Geotech Geol Eng (2018) 36:2003–2020 2011

between the grain size of S#200 and the soil water

chemistry along with the geotechnical parameters of
the unified compression strength (UCS), swelling, and
the plasticity limit PL%. Grain size of S#200 clarified
strong correlation with the CO3- (r = 0.70) content,
and moderate correlation with the Cl- (r = 0.46) and
the SO-2
3 (r = 0. 39) contents. The S#200 grain size
showed also positive moderate correlation with the
UCS (r = 0.40) and negative moderate correlation
with the swelling potential (r = -0.46) and PL%
(r = -0.38).

4.1.1 Plasticity Characteristics

Fig. 3 Plasticity chart for the studied soils

integrate all factors that control the building protection Majority of soil samples were non-plastic (Fig. 3).
starting with geology, lithology and closing with the Hubuna showed the largest LL (42%), PL (25%), and
flooding and liquefaction susceptibility. We also PI (20%) while Mefraq Al-Khamis recorded the
provide the application of the GIS technique, which lowest values of LL (23%), PL (19%), and PI (2%).
is a powerful tool for management of such a lot of data Atterberg limits showed a northwestward increase to
(El May et al. 2010). reach its maxima at Thar. Moisture content was larger
in Khobash and showed local highs at Najran Al-Fahd
and Al-Mashaliya (Fig. 4a–d).
4 Results and Discussion
4.1.2 Grain Size Distribution
4.1 Geotechnical Properties of Soils
Spatial distribution of the analyzed soil grain sizes
The geotechnical parameters (Table 1) showed mainly the coarse to medium and fine gravels, coarse
ranges: LL (23–42%), PL (19–25%), PI (2–20%), to medium and fine sands, and the silt clay content that
moisture content (0.1–24.1%), Cl- content (0–0.139 play the key role of the geotechnical properties in
wt%), SO42- content (0.0.089 wt%), CO3-(0–24.40 Najran area are shown on Fig. 5. Coarse to medium
wt%), UCS (0–41.66 kg/cm2), direct shear c (0–2.8), gravels reaches a maximum of 95% at Abu Shadad
friction angle (0–35) and Swelling (6.68–35). Such with local high located at Khobash (Fig. 5a). Local
ranges suggest that multiple sources and/or complex highs exceeding 40% of fine gravels occur at Najran
geological processes affect the spatial variability of University and airport (Fig. 5b). Coarse to medium
the geotechnical properties. Correlation coefficients sands dominate at more than 65% in Khobash, Mefraq
among the studied parameters (Table 2) clarified that Al-Khamis, Thar, and Al-Thowayliya (Fig. 5c). Fine
the Plasticity index strongly correlates positively with sands prevail north and east of Abu Shadad with local
the free swelling potential (r = 0.95) and negatively highs in Al-Mashaliya and Najran University
(r = -0.93) with the friction angle of the direct shear (Fig. 5d). Silt and clay soils dominate in Najran Al-
strength test. Swelling potential is strongly positively Fahd district (Fig. 5d).
governed by the Atterberg limits and negatively
related to the friction angle of the shear Ø 4.1.3 Free Swelling
(r = -0.64). The unconfined compression strength
strongly negatively correlates with the free swelling Free swelling, the increase in volume of soil when
(r = -0.78) and the soil pH (r = -0.99) and is submerged in water due to the presence of significant
moderately affected by the soil water SO-2 quantities of smectite clay minerals, clarified the
3 (r = 0.35)
and CO3- (r = 0.31) contents. Notable strong to presence of local highs at Abu Shadad, Khobash,
moderate correlation coefficients were clarified Mefraq Al-Khamis, and Najran Al-Fahd districts
(Fig. 6).

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b Fig. 4 a–c Spatial distribution of Atterberg limits and d mois- 4.1.4 Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)
ture contents
The unconfined compressive strength is defined as the
compressive stress at which an unconfined cylindrical

Fig. 5 Are the grain size distribution maps in the study area

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Fig. 5 continued

Fig. 6 Free swelling map of the studied soils

specimen of soil will fail in a simple compression test. reducing the plasticity index and hence the swelling
Successful stabilization of expansive soils greatly potential (e.g., ASTM 2005). UCS showed largest in
relies on increasing the compressive strength by Najran University and extends to Thar (Fig. 7).

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Fig. 7 Unconfined compression strength (UCS) map of the studied soils

Fig 8 Friction angle (Ø) map of the studied soils

4.1.5 Direct Shear 4.1.6 Soil Water Chemistry

Direct shear test determines the consolidated-drained Excess chloride ion causes corrosion to the steel in
shear strength [i.e., angle of internal friction (Ø) and concrete and has great influence on the life of the
hence the soil’s shearing resistance of a sandy to silty reinforced concrete structures. The sulfate attack with
soil for understanding the stability of slopes or cuts, high alkali contents (Na? , K?) activate corrosion
finding the bearing capacity for foundations, and and would thus provide unstable environment for
calculating the pressure exerted by a soil on a retaining steel.
wall. Friction angle showed largest of 35° in Najran Due to the importance of the emerging problem of
University and extends to Thar attaining the largest concrete durability, a lot of research has been devoted
fine sand and gravel components and lowest at to carbonation during the last decades (Hamada 1969;
Khobash and Abu Shadad districts dominated by Tuutti 1982; Nagataki et al. 1986; Richardson 1988).
coarse to medium sand and gravel contents (Fig. 8). Carbonation of concrete and formation of CaCO3
result from the reaction of the Ca(OH)2 dissolved in
the pore water with the atmospheric CO2 giving an
equilibrium pH-value around 8.3, and therefore leads
to de-passivation of the reinforcing bars, and hence to

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Fig. 9 a Chloride, b sulphate, c carbonate, and d pH maps of the studied soils

initiation of corrosion. Reinforcing bars are protected this environment drops below 9, or if chloride ions
from corrosion by a thin ferrous oxide layer which penetrate up to the surface of the reinforcement, the
forms on their surface due to the high alkalinity oxide layer is destroyed, and steel corrosion starts.
(pH & 12.5) of their environment. If the pH-value of

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Fig. 9 continued

Largest Cl- and SO3- contents characterized the 5 Conclusions

districts of Thar, Al-Hosayniya and Hubuna while
CO-23 showed local high at Najran Al-Fahd district, This study demonstrates the capacity of the GIS
the soils were acidic with pH lower than 5.5 (Fig. 9a– technique for the preparation of the geotechnical
d). zoning maps regarding the suitability of a safe
construction. Advantages of using these tools are easy
4.1.7 Soil Classification data management, rapid and effective manipulation
and analysis of data, data update and the possibility of
Classification of the soils is determined according to producing various maps. Geotechnical database pro-
the system adopted by the American Association of duced in Najran area (KSA) enabled accurate engi-
State Highway and Transportation Officials (Refer- neering geological mapping, geotechnical summaries,
ence). This classification is intended to determine and assessments of engineering behaviour for the
potential variability factors to properly set future Najran’s soils area. Majority of soil samples were non-
management zones within classes. Descriptive statis- plastic. Hubuna district showed the largest LL (42%),
tics of the main geotechnical characteristics of the PL (25%), and PI (20%) while Mefraq Al-Khamis
mapped soil classes is shown in Table 3. A-1-b recorded the lowest values of LL (23%), PL (19%),
represented 56% of the samples followed by A-2-4 and PI (2%). Atterberg limits showed a northwestward
(23.5%), A-3 (11.4%), A-4 (3.7%), A-1-a (3.6%), A-2- increase to reach its maxima at Thar district. Moisture
5 (0.6), A-2-6 (0.4), A-6 (0.6), and A-7-6 (0.1). Spatial content was largest in Khobash and showed local
distribution of the three dominant soil classes is shown highs at Najran Al-Fahd and Al-Mashaliya. Fine sands
on Fig. 10. Moisture content averaged low ranged prevailed north and east of Abu Shadad with local
between10 and 11.5% in all classes. Swelling highs in Al-Mashaliya and Najran University districts.
decreases from A-1-b (28%), A-2-4 (22%), to A-3 Silt and clay soils dominated in Najran Al-Fahd
(20%). UCS and the friction angle Ø were lowest in district. Local highs of free swelling were vivid at Abu
A-2-4 and slightly increase in A-1-b and doubled in Shadad, Khobash, Mefraq Al-Khamis, and Najran Al-
A-3. Fahd districts. UCS showed largest in Najran Univer-
sity. Shear test friction angle showed lowest at
Khobash and Abu Shadad districts dominated by
coarse to medium sands and gravels and largest of 35°
in Najran University and extends to Thar attaining the
largest fine sand and gravel contents. Largest Cl- and

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123
Table 3 Summary statistics of the geotechnical parameters of the soil classes (AASHTO)
District /% Grain size NWC Atterberg limits% Direct shear UCS Swelling Soil water chemistry
S#4 S#10 S#40 S#200 LL PL PI c Ø pH Cl- SO-2
3 CO-2
3

A-1-b 56.0 Min 9 31 6 0.3 0.1 0 0 0 6.68 7.3 0.0032 0.01 0.11
Max 100 100 80 32 21 2.845 35 41.66 35 9.24 0.067 0.089 7.78
SD 10.97 13.47 11.91 5.24 4.38 0.87 13.47 14.22 7.38 0.37 0.01 0.01 1.81
Mean 91.3 83.0 33.4 8.0 11.2 2.1 18.5 10.3 28.1 8.1 0.0 0.0 1.8
Count 374 374 374 374 314 45 22 25 22 77 77 77 55
A-2-4 23.5 Min 50.4 50.4 14.2 6 1.1 23 20 2 0 0 0 12 7.38 0.0033 0.009 0
Max 100 100 87.4 67.3 24.1 33 25 10.1 2.693 34 33 35 8.88 0.054 0.079 20.44
SD 9.99 13.17 13.73 14.68 4.43 3.20 1.51 3.01 1.21 14.47 14.99 7.73 0.33 0.01 0.02 6.39
Mean 94.0 87.1 62.6 25.6 10.4 26.8 22.0 5.2 1.8 14.7 9.5 22.1 8.0 0.0 0.0 5.1
Count 157 157 157 157 64 8 8 9 4 18 6 19 46 46 46 29
A-3 11.4 Min 54.6 43.2 14.2 0 0.34 0 20 20 20 7.55 0.009 0.01 0.39
Max 100 100 80 24 19.7 0 35 22 20 8.87 0.037 0.078 10.53
SD 8.84 14.85 16.35 4.57 4.51 0.0 5.59 1.41 0.38 0.01 0.02 3.59
Mean 97.0 89.6 54.4 8.7 11.5 0.0 28.2 21.0 20.0 8.1 0.0 0.0 4.2
Count 76 76 76 76 33 2 5 2 1 12 12 12 12
A-4 3.7 Min 50.4 50.4 14.2 23 6 25 19 4 25 20 7.72 0.016 0.02 7.93
Max 100 97.7 87.4 76.4 14 30 23 10 34 35 8.88 0.139 0.062 20.44
SD 14.29 13.81 16.65 12.07 2.76 1.50 1.61 2.03 3.51 5.35 0.50 0.04 0.01 4.04
Mean 87.7 80.6 65.6 49.5 10.4 27.4 21.5 5.8 30.5 26.3 8.3 0.0 0.0 11.1
Count 25 25 25 25 10 13 13 13 6 6 17 17 17 16
A-1-a 3.6 Min 21.5 16.8 6 1 2.9 25 19 4 1.818 0.059 20 7.55 0.0033 0.011 0.44
Max 100 99 65.6 50.2 19.4 29 23 10 2.12 0.059 29 8.6 0.03 0.038 6.69
SD 21.81 21.18 12.64 9.63 5.22 1.63 1.83 2.10 0.21 6.36 0.29 0.01 0.01 2.51
Mean 66.3 46.5 21.4 9.3 10.0 27.3 21.2 6.0 2.0 0.1 24.5 8.0 0.0 0.0 2.3
Count 24 24 24 24 10 6 6 6 2 1 2 9 9 9 5
Geotech Geol Eng (2018) 36:2003–2020
Geotech Geol Eng (2018) 36:2003–2020 2019

Fig. 10 AASHTO soil classes

SO-23 contents characterized the districts of Thar, Al- map, which is easy to use, is a helpful document to
Hosayniya and Hubuna while CO-2 3 showed local high non-geologist planners and decisions makers for safe
at Najran Al-Fahd district, the soils were acidic with residential area extension. Final results can be com-
pH lower than 5.5. Three main soil types according to bined and contribute to the geotechnical microzona-
AASHTO classification formed about 91% of the tion by adding more geotechnical test results.
samples: A-1-b (56%), A-2-4 (23.5%), and A-3 A final point is that the geotechnical zoning scale
(11.4%). Specific measures can be set based on the maps used in this study and in similar cases are
spatial distribution maps of these soil classes accord- important to avoid big practical errors in planning for
ing to their established geotechnical characteristics. the future urban extension. However, results of this
Geotechnical maps provided a better understanding study do not lead to any loss of geotechnical mapping
of the engineering geological conditions that could be utility in safe urban extensions. Before any local
of much help to planners by identifying management building project, a punctual specific study is inevi-
zones and support decision-making to properly set table. The role of such a detailed geotechnical
preventive measures to combat geotechnical con- investigation is either to provide some practice for
straints in the future project areas in Najran area and safety urban project and to amplify the building
surrounding districts. security. In addition, the accurate geotechnical testing
Urban planning and development are dependent data can be used for the geotechnical mapping of the
upon and restricted by the geotechnical maps. The study area, where a large amount of such data is
study of urban geotechnical maps are, therefore, of available.
particular importance to urban planning and develop-
ment. It is important that the geologic environment Acknowledgements The authors greatly acknowledge the
efforts of Eng. Khurram Masood, the geotechnical engineer in
and the geotechnical and environmental problems be Al Jazzar Constant Engineer for providing Data. Thanks also go
evaluated and that appropriate recommendations are to Prof. Dr. Alaa Mustafa Professor of sedimentary rocks,
proposed so that geo-information can be fully utilized Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University
by urban planners. As a result, the study area was (Assiut Branch), for his critical review of the original
manuscript and constructive suggestions for upgrading the
categorized into three different zones regarding the
clarity of the manuscript. The authors are also greatly indebted
foundation suitability of residential areas as: (1) Areas to the editor and the reviewers for their valuable time and the
Suitable for safe development; (2) Provisional Settle- comments they raised that have improved the rigor of the work.
ment Areas; (3) Areas requiring detailed geotechnical
investigations.
The geotechnical zoning map prepared is recom-
mended as the final map of Najran City. This final

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