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MOURA, N.A. and MOURA, T.F.P.

Training principles for jumpers:
Implications for the special
strength development.

ARTICLE · OCTOBER 2001

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 TRAINING
© by IAAF
THEORY 16:4 ; 51–61, 2001

Training principles for jumpers:

implications for special strength
development
by Nelio Alfano Moura and Tania Fernandes de Paula Moura

Nelio Alfano Moura (Brazil),

Brazil is the leading country in
recently appointed National Jumps
South American athletics, with
Coach, has been working with
the jumps events among our most
National teams since 1990,
successful disciplines. The top ABSTRACT attending events such as the Syd-
class results achieved by some ney 2000 Olympic Games, the
Brazilian jumpers recently have World Championships in Seville 99
been produced by a systematic

AUTHOR
and Edmonton 2001 and the World
approach, based on concepts Junior Championships in both
firmly grounded on scientific data Annecy 98 and Santiago 2000. He
and modern methodological has coached at least one athlete to
trends. With special emphasis on every Olympic Games since Seoul
special strength development, in 1988, and has produced 30
some of the most important prin- National Team athletes. He is an
ciples we have developed in struc- IAAF Level I Lecturer and has had
turing training programmes for more than 20 articles published in
jumpers are: technical and scientific journals.
Short cycles in preference to Tania Fernandes de Paula Moura
longer ones in the annual training (Brazil) coached the Brazilian Team
programme; at the World Youth Championships
Special strength training being in Debrecen-2001 and the World
done throughout the season, University Games in Beijing-2001,
because training effects are amongst other international
absolutely specific; championships. She has worked
Quality of training (technique and with many athletes who have com-
power produced in each repeti- peted internationally in the last
few years, including Olympic ath-
tion) is far more important than
letes and one World Youth Champi-
quantity (tons lifted, or number of
on. She coaches jumpers and works
jumps performed).
New Studies in Athletics • no. 4/2001

for the BM&F – Funilense Team.

Introduction involved in the sport is very low considering

n South America, Brazil has for years the huge population we have. However, even
I been the leading country in athletics,
and the horizontal jumps are among our
with the small numbers available to us, we
have always been able to develop world class
best events. Despite that, track and field has jumpers.
not reached the level of popularity that we This tradition began in the 1950’s with
would like, and the number of youngsters Adhemar Ferreira da Silva, one of the great-
51
 Training principles for jumpers: implications for special strength development

est triple jumpers in history. Da Silva was fol- our athletes’ careers, and the implications for
lowed by Nelson Prudêncio (Olympic silver them of special strength development.
medallist in 1968 and bronze medallist in
1972) and João Carlos de Oliveira (two Long term Training Organisation
Olympic bronze medals and World record We firmly believe in the statement that it
holder for 10 years). We should also mention takes 6 - 10 years to develop a high per-
Anisio Silva (7th at 1993 WC), Nelson Ferreira formance athlete (ARBEIT, 1998; PILA-
Junior (5th at 1997 WC in the long jump) TELEÑA, s/d). In order to be considered a high
and Maurren Higa Maggi (1999 long jump performance athlete, it is not enough to just
World leader; 9th best jump all-time, with produce a big jump - you have to be consis-
7.26m; 1999 and 2001 World Championships tent! On this basis, Maurren Maggi definite-
finalist; 2001 World University and Goodwill ly belongs to such a group. On the other
Games Gold Medallist) as successful Brazilian hand, Jadel Gregório jumped in March 2001
jumpers. Our tradition in horizontal jumping a then World leading 17,13m. His second
events continues, with the young Jadel best jump was 16,48m at that time, so it was
Gregório (21 years old), World University clear that, although very gifted, he had some
Games bronze medallist, and the promising work to do before joining this group. A string
Thiago Carahyba Dias, who won the long of good efforts (16,98m; 16,94m; 16,83m)
jump in Debrecen, at the second World Youth topped by his bronze medal performance
Championships. (16,92m) at the World University Games now
We have the opportunity to work with allow us to include Gregório among the best
many of these fine athletes, and we are con- jumpers in the World.
vinced that these results have not been In order to guarantee future success, we
achieved by chance. Within the space con- need to plan the entire career of the athlete.
fines of this article, we will try to present an We have done it splitting the entire process
outline of the principles we have been fol- into phases, as can be seen in Figure 1 and
lowing to guide the long term planning of table 1.
PHASE INITIAL AGE DURATION GOALS AND CHARACTERISTICS
SPORT INTRODUCTION 9 - 11 years 4 - 5 years • Basic technique learning in
Sub-phase I: (prepubescent) Sub-phase I different events
Foundation • Self-esteem development
Sub-phase II: 12 - 13 years • General and multilateral training
Basic Training (pubescent) Sub-phase II • Games, fun activities
• Adapted competitions
EARLY SPECIALISATION 14 - 15 years 3 - 4 years • Technique refinement
• Development of positive com-
petitive behaviour
• Choice of a group of events
• More formal competitions
LATE SPECIALISATION 18 - 20 years 3 - 4 years • Technique mastering
• Choice of one or two events
New Studies in Athletics • no. 4/2001

• Increased frequency and inten-

sity of training and competitions
ELITE LEVEL 21 - 24 years Indeterminate • Realisation of the technical,
physical and psychological
potential, expressed by elite
results achievement

Table 1: Phases of an athlete’s development. Based on THUMM (1987), GAMBETTA (1986),

PILA-TELEÑA (s/d) and THOMPSON (1991).
52
 Training principles for jumpers: implications for special strength development

what is strictly necessary, and these

capacities should be developed in the
early stages of training.
Elite Level ◆ High performance athletes should be sub-
jected to specific training all season long.
When we talk about jumpers, this speci-
ficity includes the choice of the best exer-
cia
Late Spe lisation cises, considering the type of strength and
the goals to be reached (Figure 2).
◆ The training controls and prescription,
taking into account the volume of work,
pecialisation
Early S have been overestimated. The proposed
values usually found in the literature are
too high to be done with quality in a
drug-free environment.
rod
Sport Int uction ◆ The biggest emphasis should be given to
training quality, so the monitoring of ath-
letes performing special exercises is very
important. There is no problem if high
Figure 1: Phases of an athlete’s develop- performance athletes who possess the
ability to exploit their special capacities in
ment. Based on THUMM (1987), GAMBETTA
each repetition of a given exercise, per-
(1986), PILA-TELEÑA (s/d) and THOMPSON
form less repetitions than developing ath-
(1991). letes, as long as the monitoring shows
that the desired level of quality has fallen
Annual cycle Organisation below the minimum level requirement;
Since the sixties, periodisation has been ◆ We can repeat the phases of training devel-
considered to be the most effective way to opment (acquisition, maintenance, and
organise the annual cycle of training. Nowa- temporary loss) more often than thought
days, we see a lot of different alternatives possible in the past. The formal structure
with regard to the structuring of training, all with two competitive periods rigidly deter-
of which are very difficult to be scientifical- mined has been abandoned. Short cycles
ly checked. What we consider important is are better than long ones (TSCHIENE, 1989)
the selection of sound principles and making to prevent over-training and performance
our decisions based on them. Despite all the stagnation provoked by the “complete
discussion that goes on constantly between adaptation” phenomenon (Figure 3).
sports training theo-
rists, some statements 80
Strength improovement (%)

are hardly disputed: 70

◆ General training can 60
hamper the develop- 50
ment of special
New Studies in Athletics • no. 4/2001

40
capacities when it is
done concurrently 30
(DUDLEY & DJAMIL, 20
1985; HUNTER et al, 10
1987). Therefore, 0
high performance Squat Leg-Press Knee Extension
athletes should not
try to develop gener- Figure 2: Specificity in strength training. Squat was the training
al capacities beyond exercise. Modified from FAHEY (1998).
53
 Training principles for jumpers: implications for special strength development

120
100
80
60
40
20
0

= Introductory Block = SPC Block = Technical Block = Competition

(Special Physical Conditioning)

Figure 3: A sample model of periodisation with structured block elements, and this is the
basis on which our athletes’ training has been organised.

Strength development in the Jumps tions are not as straightforward as previous-

events ly thought. In actual fact, when the stimulus
Strength is the capacity of skeletal muscle to the development of strength endurance or
to produce maximal tension or force, at a maximal strength lasts more than eight con-
given velocity. Any tension generated by the secutive weeks, deleterious effects on special
muscle has the tendency to shorten it, chang- strength (BOSCO, 1985) and on the muscle’s
ing the joint angles and thus producing microstructure (WIEMANN & TIDOW, 1995)
movement. Strength is a determining factor can be noticed. On the other hand, ANDER-
in jumping events, and can be manifested in SEN, SCHJERLING & SALTIN (2000) found
different ways according to its speed and that when muscles are subjected to a heavy
endurance interrelationships. (Figure 4). weight training programme, the number of
The most important strength aspects for type IIb fibres decreases (from 9% to about
jumpers are elastic and reactive strength, 2%), as they convert to type IIa fibres. How-
but proper levels of strength endurance and ever, after a period of detraining, rather than
maximal strength should be developed to just returning to initial levels, the relative
ensure a sound base is established for the amount of IIb fibres increases up to 18%.
improvement of special strength aspects and This data is very interesting, and justifies
for the prevention of injuries. the use of heavy strength training for 6-9
weeks but no longer than that,
in order to avoid type I fibre
e e d
Sp development. This should take
place in the SPC block and also
ce
nd uren be repeated for the brief peri-
ed e Power
Spe ods (2 or 3 weeks) during the
year devoted to the develop-
ra nce ment or maintenance of maxi-
u
End Strength endu
S t re ngth mal strength. A tapering phase
rance will later on provide an oppor-
New Studies in Athletics • no. 4/2001

tunity to reconvert IIa muscle

fibres into faster IIb types.
Figure 4. Three-dimensional speed, strength and
The complex or contrast
endurance interrelationships. Based on NEUMANN (1988). training method has become
Even though the traditional approach of increasingly popular among jumpers, and
developing strength by following the most strength training programmes that we
sequence of strength endurance => maximal use follow this principle. This method tries to
strength => special strength still dominates, increase the possibility of transference of the
new data shows that training transforma- effects in the direction of the real competi-
54
 Training principles for jumpers: implications for special strength development

tive situation, playing with the central nerv- er, there are exceptions to this principle and
ous system by varying the type and intensity it is very important that they are known by
of the stimulus. Another interesting concept the coach.
- hypergravity - was introduced by BOSCO BOSCO (1985a) noticed a negative rela-
(1985b), and SANDS & co-workers (1996) tionship between the development of max-
corroborated his results. Their work indicated imal strength and special strength in elite
that special weighted clothes bring impor- Italian jumpers. Even though he did not
tant benefits to power events specialists, suggest eliminating maximal strength
which gives support to the inclusion of this training, he recommended limiting the
procedure in the preparation of jumpers. duration of this training period to a maxi-
mum of 8 weeks. He justified that by the
Motor units recruitment during fact that after 8 weeks, undesired ultra-
training for strength and muscle structural changes in the muscles can be
power seen, such as a hypertrophy of Type I fibres
It has been clearly shown that motor units which will hamper elite performance (Fig-
recruitment follows a sequence where the ure 6). Before such changes happen, other
small units (type 1 fibres) are recruited first, training methods able to develop type II
and they are then progressively followed by fibres (mainly IIb) should replace maximal
bigger units (types IIa and IIb). Even at the strength methods.
early stages of a maximal muscle action, type High velocity eccentric activity shows a
1 fibres are recruited first. (Figure 5). Howev- recruitment pattern that is exactly the oppo-
site to what is explained
70 above, something that is
Firing rates impulses. s.1

also true for trained ballistic

60
activities. It seems type II
50 fibres are first recruited in
40 these cases because they
30 need less time to relax after
the action, which is neces-
20
sary for better control dur-
10 ing fast eccentric actions
0 (HOWELL, 1995). Plyometric
0 20 40 60 80 100 training offers a way to
improve strength and mus-
% Max. contraction
cle power with a selective
recruitment of type IIb
I IIa IIb fibres, so it has an impor-
tant place in our pro-
Figure 5: Size principle. Modified from SALE (1992) gramme.

fast A B C
New Studies in Athletics • no. 4/2001

slow v = 0,0 m/s v = 5 m/s v = 8 m/s

Figure 6: Interactions between slow and fast fibres during dynamic and static action.
Reproduced from BOSCO (1985a).
55
 Training principles for jumpers: implications for special strength development

Strength and muscle power train- define a protocol for MVC during competi-
ing: responses and adaptations tion warm-up, but this offers some exciting
Usually, training leads to a rapid gain in possibilities for the specialists in power
strength in the early stages, without increas- events.
es in muscle mass. This initial adaptation can
be explained by better recruitment patterns Plyometrics
of motor units, and is called neural adapta- Since the 60s, coaches and scientists
tion (learning). The selective recruitment of a around the world have been searching for
higher number of motor units (mostly Type training means and methods to improve the
IIb), activated at a higher frequency, and storage and reuse of elastic energy in skele-
with good synchronisation, is the answer tal muscle during the stretch-shortening
neurologically to gaining greater strength cycle (SSC). The so-called plyometric exercis-
and muscle power (SALE, 1992). es are able to do that. They are defined as
Structural adaptation (hypertrophy) occurs exercises that “activate the stretch-shorten-
later, as a result of prolonged strength train- ing cycle of skeletal muscles, inducing the
ing. Hypertrophy can be selective (only in elastic, reflex and mechanical potentiation”
certain types of motor units, accordingly (MOURA, 1988). Several factors interfere
with training emphasis), and can be the with this potentiation, changing the capaci-
result of increased amounts of non-contrac- ty to generate positive work during SSC.
tile (sarcoplasmatic) and/or contractile pro- Among them, the most important are the
teins (myofibrillar) (SIFF & VERKHOSHANSKY, amplitude and speed of the eccentric phase,
1998) (Figure 7). as well as the coupling time between the

sacroplasm myofibrils

myofibrils sarcoplasmatic miofibrillar

hypertrophy hypertrophy

Figure 7: Different kinds of hypertrophy. Modified from SIFF & VERKHOSHANSKY, 1998.

We can find in the literature an interesting eccentric and concentric phases (CAVAGNA,
response to maximal voluntary contractions 1977). The most favourable situation in track
New Studies in Athletics • no. 4/2001

(MVC) known as post-tetanic potentiation and field combines a small amplitude with
(SIFF & VERKHOSHANSKY, 1998; GÜLLICH & high speed in the eccentric phase and a short
SCHMIDTBLEICHER, 1996). When a muscle coupling time.
does a maximal isometric action for about 5 Depth jumping, and its many variations,
seconds, there is a reduction in its explosive are the most popular plyometric exercises
strength that lasts a few minutes. After that, designed to improve explosive strength in
a facilitating phenomenon occurs, and the the lower limbs (Figure 8).
explosive strength potential is significantly The drop height determines the eccentric
increased. New studies are necessary to load, and its control is very important. Even
56
 Training principles for jumpers: implications for special strength development

though recommendations of drop heights after the fall ceases to increase. The optimal
from 0.38m to more than 2.00m can be height for training is considered to be the
found in the literature (LUNDIN, 1985), most one that allows the best jump after the free
authors believe in the concept of “optimal fall (BOSCO, 1985a). Figure 9 shows the
height”. NASSER (1990) claims that drop results of a female long jumper (personal
jump tests are usually applied by coaches, record = 6.20 m) doing drop jumps from
whereby they successively increase the fall heights of 20, 40, 60 and 80 cm. In this situ-
height and stop when the height of the jump ation, a fall from 60 cm was optimal for a
traditional depth jump, and 80 cm for the
modified depth jump (MOURA, 1993). How-
ever, other issues should be taken in account
when we choose the best eccentric load for
each athlete.
Figure 10 shows two curves of ground
reaction forces (GRF) obtained during depth
jumps. Curve A was generated by the jumper
mentioned above and curve B by a beginner.
We can notice that the shapes of these two
curves are very different from each other.
The most important difference is the first
peak showed in the beginner’s curve. This
peak represents the passive forces, and is not
seen in the elite jumper’s curve. High passive
forces have a great potential to lead to
injury, and do not contribute to perform-
ance. The second peak represents the active
Figure 8: Traditional depth jump (SPT). forces. The passive peak in depth jumps is

Jump height (cm)

39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
20 cm 40 cm 60 cm 80 cm
Drop height
New Studies in Athletics • no. 4/2001

TDJ (Best) TDJ (Mean) MDJ (Best) MDJ (Mean)

Figure 9: Jump heights after falling from different heights, with two techniques. The subject was
a female long jumper of international level (PB = 6,20m). TDJ = Traditional Depth Jump; MDJ =
Modified Depth Jump.
57
 Training principles for jumpers: implications for special strength development

associated with heel contact with the Even though plyometric training should not
ground so, if the athlete touches the ground replace weight training (actually, both should
with the heel after the drop, the height co-exist in the special strength development
achieved will be reduced. When this measure of jumpers), its variations are far more effec-
is not enough to guarantee that the heels do tive to develop the RFD (rate of force devel-
not touch the ground, the use of depth opment) – one of the most important compo-
jumps in training should be postponed. nents of special strength for this population –
(MOURA, 1994). than the use of heavy weights (Figure 11).

(N) (N)

(s) (s)
A B
Figure 10: GRF’s curves during depth jumps. A: elite jumper; B: beginner

PF 27%
PF 11%
isometric force
isometric force

New Studies in Athletics • no. 4/2001

Max. RFD 24% Max. RFD 0,4%

Figure 11: Effects of jumping training and heavy weight training on Maximal Strength (PF) and
Rate of Force Development (RFD). Partially reproduced from SALE (1992).
58
 Training principles for jumpers: implications for special strength development

Force-velocity curve Force and power production with

The classical work done by Hill shows the different loads
inverse relationship between force produced Strength training with jumps event spe-
by the muscle and its shortening speed, both cialists should have the aim of developing
in isolated and “in-vivo” muscle. Figure12 maximal power within a very short time
shows this curve, easily reproduced through frame. Figure 13 shows the force-velocity-
the use of vertical jumps with increasing power relationships, and makes clear that in
loads. Three long jumpers, of national and order to develop power, loads must be opti-
international level (personal bests: 8.00m, mal, not maximal. BOSCO (1991) suggests
7.44m and 7.44m) performed vertical jumps the use of loads equivalent to 35-40% of 1
with loads from 0 to 30 kg. It is clearly shown RM, which allows the expression of 35-45%
that performance decreases when the load of the maximal velocity of the same
increases, which is absolutely predictable. unloaded movement. When heavy loads are
On closer observation, even
more interesting information
Peak Power
emerges. Both FRW and MRC are 1
Power (P/PM) & Velocity (V/VM)
in inverted positions at the two
extremes of the curve, showing Power
they have different characteris- 0.3 Vm
tics of explosive strength. Indi- Force (F/FM)
vidual characteristics or a differ- Velocity
ent training orientation can 0
0.3 Fm 1 2
explain this difference. It is
known that training displaces
each point of the curve upward
and to the right, but it also mod-
ifies the shape of the curve,
-1
changing some aspects more
than others. A longitudinal fol-
low-up can show if training is Figure 13: Force - velocity - power relationship for skeletal
balanced or if it is influencing muscle. Vm, Pm, and Fm are maximal movement velocity,
any of the components of explo- maximal power output, and maximal isometric force output,
sive strength in the wrong way. respectively. Reproduced from KRAMMER and NEWTON, 1994.

60
55
Jump height (cm)

50 FRW
45
MRC
40
New Studies in Athletics • no. 4/2001

35
RBS
30
0 10 20 30
Load (kg.)

Figure 12: Force-velocity curve for three male long jumpers, built with vertical jumps data (see
text for explanation).
59
 Training principles for jumpers: implications for special strength development

used, and the bar velocity is low, it is impor- Conclusion

tant to try to move the bar as fast as possi- Different methods of training organisation
ble. YOUNG and BILBY (1993) have demon- can lead to high level performances. There are
strated that the intention to move the bar also many means and methods to develop
fast, is as important as the actual speed of strength for jumpers, all of them able to cre-
the bar if our aim is to develop power. ate the prerequisites of elite performance. We
wanted to present here our interpretation of
External pull support: facilitation to current scientific and methodological knowl-
create a new motor programme edge, and to briefly show how we use this
RITZDORF (1998) suggests that decreasing knowledge in our daily training sessions. We
the external loads when performing jumps is believe that it is more important to clearly
a good stimulus to develop the velocity define principles and concepts than to give
component of explosive strength. He says detailed information about the day-by-day
that new, predominantly fast, motor pro- procedures and decisions based on them. To
grammes can be developed with the system- stress them once again, the most important
atic use of some specific facilitation meth- principles we have put forward are:
ods (like external pull supports), and that 1. Short cycles in preference to longer ones
these speed based programmes can then be in the annual training programme;
reproduced when the facilitation is removed. 2. Special strength training being done
Even athletes who are predominantly fast, throughout the season, because training
(but without a good level of strength), could effects are absolutely specific;
lose some characteristics of their fast motor 3. Quality of training (technique and power
programmes if they do not have the oppor- produced in each repetition) is far more
tunity to train them, due to a poor level of important than quantity (tons lifted, or
physical conditioning. We use surgical tubes number of jumps performed).
attached to belts to create a vertical traction
that decreases the weight of the jumper, so * This article is based on a lecture presented at
he can jump with very short contact times the I. Congress of South American Coaches
and produce high muscle shortening speed. Association, Manaus, May 2001.
This is a method that provokes a central
nervous learning effect and so can be bene-
ficially used by athletes of all age groups –
it is a special method but should not be
CONTA C T
Contact:
[email protected]
restricted to elite athletes.

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