Guidelines FOR USE OF Geosynthetics in Road Pavements and Associated Works

IRC:SP:59-2019
GUIDELINES FOR USE OF

GEOSYNTHETICS IN ROAD PAVEMENTS
AND ASSOCIATED WORKS
(First Revision)
INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

2019
IRC:SP:59-2019

GEOSYNTHETICS IN ROAD PAVEMENTS
AND ASSOCIATED WORKS
Published by:
INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

Kama Koti Marg,
Sector-6, R.K. Puram,
New Delhi-110 022
AUGUSX
Price : ? 900/-
(Plus Packing & Postage)
IRC:SP:59-2019
First Published August, 2002
Reprinted January, 2006
Reprinted August, 2008
Reprinted May, 2015
First Revision August, 2019
(All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication shall be reproduced,

translated or transmitted in any form or by any means without the
permission of the Indian Roads Congress)
Printed at India Offset Press, Delhi - 110 064

600 Copies
IRC:SP:59-2019
CONTENTS
S.No. Descriptoom Page No.

Personnel of the Highways Specifications and Standards Committee i-ii
Chapter 1 Introduction 3
1.1 Scope 3
1.2 Raw Materials and Classification of Geosynthetics 4
1.3 Functions of Geosynthetics 10
1.4 Separation/Filtration 10
1.5 Reinforcement 10
1.6 Drainage/ 11
1.7 Moisture Barrier 11
1.8 Erosion Control 12
1.9 Applicability and Benefits of Geosynthetics in Roadways 12
Chapter 2 Properties and Test Methods for Different Geosynthetic Materials 15
2.1 Typical and Minimum Average Roll Values of the Geosynthetics 15
2.2 Geotextile 16
2.3 Geogrid 18
2.4 \ Geomembrane 20
2.5 Geonet/Geospacer 22
2.6 Geocell 23
2.7 Geomat 25
2.8 Asphalt Reinforcement 25
2.9 Geocomposite 26
Chapter 3 Design Methodologies 28
3.1 Design for Reinforcement of Unbound Pavement Layers 28
3.2 Designing for Separation 34
3.3 Design for Filtration 35
3.4 Design for Drainage Applications 35
3.5 Geosynthetic Capillary Barrier Drain 39
3.6 Design for Asphalt Reinforcement 39
3.7 Subgrade Stabilization 40
3.8 Performance Evaluation of Reinforced Flexible Pavements 41
IRC:SP:59-2019
Chapter 4 Property Requirements & Selection Criteria of Geosynthetics 42
Based on Function
4.1 General 42
4.2 Construction Survivability 42
4.3 Ultraviolet Stability 42
4.4 Certificate 43
4.5 Separation/Filtration Requirements 43
4.6 Base/Subbase Reinforcement Requirements 43
4.7 Subsurface Drainage Requirements 46
4.8 Erosion Control Requirements 47
4.9 Asphalt Reinforcement Requirement 50
'4.10 Capillary Cut-off 52•
Chapter 5 Construction Guidelines for Use of Geosynthetics in Road Works 53
5.1 General 53
5.2 Construction Guidelines for Subsurface Drainage 53
5.3 Construction Guidelines for Separation/Filtration/Subgrade/ 55
Base/Subbase Reinforcement Function
5.4 Geosynthetic Overlaps 57
5.5 Seams 59
5.6 Construction Guidelines for Erosion Control 61
5.7 Construction Guidelines for Use of Asphalt Reinforcement 63
Chapter 6 Handling and Storage of Geosynthetics 67
6.1 General 67
6.2 Site Unloading 67
6.3 Site Handling 68
6.4 Site Storage 69
Annexure I Determination of Layer Coefficients 72
Annexure IS Development of the Layer Coefficient Ratio & Modulus Improvement 74
Factor
Annexure Ell Various Design Considerations for Different Asphalt Reinforcements ' 80
Annexure IV Worked-out Example illustrating the Design Methods 85
References 93
IRC:SP:59-2019
PERSONNEL OF THE HIGHWAYS SPECIFICATIONS

Al TO STANDARDS COMMITTEE
A. o- J A TOA A
Kumar, Manoj Director General (Road Development) & Special Secretary to Govt, of India,
1
(Convenor) Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi
Singh, B.N. Addl. Director General, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways,
2
(Co-Convenor) New Delhi
Verma, Dr. S.K. Chief Engineer (R) S,R & T, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways,
3
(Member Secretary) New Delhi
Members
4 Bamezai, Prof. (Dr.) Gita R&D, Indian Institute of Mass Communication, New Delhi
5 Basar, Toli Chief Engineer, PWD, Arunachal Pradesh
6 Bhanot, Balraj Chairman, TED, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
7 Bongirwar, P.L. Secretary (Retd.), PWD Maharashtra

DG(RD) & AS (Retd.), Ministry of Road Transport and Highways,
8 Gupta, D.P.
New Delhi
9 Jain, Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Professor, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
10 Jain, R.K. Chief Engineer (Retd.), PWD Haryana

I '
Chief Executive, L.R. Kadiyali & Associates, New Delhi
11 Kadiyali, Dr. L.R.
(Expired on 18.02.2076)
12 Lal, Bhure Chairman, Environment Pollution Control Authority, Delhi
13 Lal, Chaman Engineer-in-Chief, Gurugram Metropolitan Development Authority, Haryana

14 Narain, Sunita DG, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi
15 Nashikkar, J.T. Secretary (Retd.), PWD Maharashtra
16 Pandey, R.K. Member (Projects), National Highways Authority of India, New Delhi
17 Parida, Prof. (Dr.) M. Dean, SRIC, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
18 Pateriya, Dr. LK. Director (Tech), National Rural Roads Development Agency, New Delhi
19 Pawar, Ajit Secretary (Retd.), PWD Maharashtra
20 Porwal, Dr. S.S. (VSM) ADG (Retd.), Border Roads Organisation, New Delhi
21 Raju, Dr. G.V.S. Engineer-in-Chief (Retd.), Roads & Building, Andhra Pradesh
22 Rawat, M.S. Executive Director, AECOM India Pvt. Ltd.
23 Sarangi, D. CGM, National Highways Authority of India, New Delhi
24 Sharma, M.P. Chief Engineer, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi
DG(RD) & SS (Retd.), Ministry of Road Transport and Highways,
25 Sharma, S.C.
New Delhi
26 Sheokand, Balbir Singh Executive Engineer, PWD Haryana
27 Singh, Nirmaljit
New Delhi
IRC:SP:59-2019
28 Singh, Pawan Kumar GM, 3M India Ltd.

29 Sinha, A.V.
New Delhi
30 Tawade, D.O. Member (T), National Highways Authority of India, New Delhi
The Director,
31 Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi
(Chandra, Dr. Satish)
The Director General,
32 Border Roads Organisation, New Delhi
(Shrivastava, Lt. Gen. S.K.)
The Director General,
33 Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers, New Delhi
(Mathur, Vishnu)
The Engineer-in-Chief,
34 Military Engineer Services, New Delhi
(Sharma, Lt. Gen. Suresh)
35 Tickoo, Bimal Secretary (T), PWD Jammu
36 Tiwari, Prof. (Dr.) Geetam Professor, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi
Superintending Engineer, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways,
37 Varshney, Sharad
New Delhi
38 Verma, G.L. MD, Engg and Planning Consultants Ltd., New Delhi
Corresponding Members
1 Baluja, Dr. Rohit President, Institute of Road Traffic Education, New Delhi
2 Bhowmik, Sunil Engineer-in-Chief (Retd.), Tripura
3 Kandasamy, C
New Delhi
The Director,
4 (Patil, Capt. (Dr.) Rajendra B. Central Institute of Road Transport, Pune
Saner)
Ex-Officio Members
■iI President, (Pradhan, N.K.), Engineer-in-Chief cum Secretary, Works Department,

Indian Roads Congress Odisha
Director General (Road
2 Development) & Special (Kumar, Manoj), Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi
Secretary to Govt, of India
Secretary General,
3 Nirmal, Sanjay Kumar
Indian Roads Congress
IRC:SP:59-2019

GEOSYNTHETICS IN ROAD PAVEMENTS AND ASSOCIATED WORKS
|RC:SP:59 “Guidelines for Use of Geotextiles in Road Pavements and Associated Works” was
first published in the year 2002. Thereafter, considerable changes have taken place in the
construction material, technology for construction of road pavements. Thus need was felt to
further update this document and accordingly the task of revision of this document was assigned
to Embankment, Ground Improvement and Drainage Committee (H-4) during the tenure
2015-17. The H-4 Committee constituted a sub-group headed by Ms. Minimol Korulla, comprising
Late Shri P.J. Rao, Shri U.K. Guru Vittal, Shri Shahrokh P. Bagli, Prof. (Dr.) S.K. Ghosh,
Prof. (Dr.) J.T. Shahu, Shri Saurabh D. Vyas, Ms. Atasi Das, Shri Sudhir Mathur, Prof. (Dr.) G.V. Rao
and Ms. Padmaja Gurram to prepare initial draft. The initial draft prepared by the sub-group was
deliberated in various meetings of H-4 Committee and finally approved in its meeting held on
02.08.2017 for placing before HSS Committee.
The composition of H-4 Committee for the tenure 2015-17 is as given below:
Nashikkar, J.T. Convenor

Nirmal, Sanjay Kumar Co-Convenor
Havanagi, Dr. Vasant G. Member-Secretary
Members
Adhikari, Atanu Kaushik, Shiv

Bagli, Shahrokh R Khan, Shabana
Chand, Faqir Korulla, Minimol
Das, Atasi Kumar, Anil
Gajria, Maj. Gen. (Retd.) K.T. Raheja, H.S.
Ghosh, Prof. (Dr.) S.K. Ranjan, Gopal
Gupta, Sanjay Rao, RJ. (Late)
Guru Vittal, U.K. Seehra, Dr. S.S.
Jain, N.C. Shahu, Prof. (Dr.) J.T.
Jain, N.S. Shaikh, Imran
Jalota, Dr. A.V. Singh, Kuldip
Katara, U.C. Vyas, Saurabh D.
Madhav, Prof. (Dr.) M.R. Sen, Samiran
Rajagopal, Prof. (Dr.) K. Thomas, Dr. Jimmy
Rao, Prof. (Dr.) G.V.
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IRC:SP:59-2019
Ex-Officio Members
President, (Pradhan, N.K.), Engineer-in-Chief cum
Indian Roads Congress Secretary, Works Department, Odisha
Director General (Kumar, Manoj), Ministry of Road
(Road Development) & Special Transport & Highways
Secretary General, Nirmal, Sanjay Kumar
The revised draft was considered by the Highways Specifications and Standards Committee
(HSS) in its meeting held on 13th October, 2017. The Council in its 213th meeting held on 3rd
November, 2017 at Bengaluru considered and authorized Executive Committee (EC) to take final
call about printing of this document. EC in its meeting held on 29.01.2018 decided to refer back
this document to H-4 Committee for carrying out modifications in light of observations made during
the meeting and further decided that H-4 Committee may finalize this document in consultation
with Shri Sanjeev Kumar, CE, SR&T, MoRTH. Accordingly, the draft was again discussed during
the meetings of newly constituted H-4 Committee for the tenure 2018-20. The H-4 Committee
finalised the draft document in its meeting held on 11.05.2018 and the same was again placed
before the EC. The EC in its meeting held on 26.06.2018 approved this document for publishing.
The composition of H-4 Committee for the tenure 2018-20 is as given below:
Nashikkar, J.T. Convenor

Pandey, R.K. Co-Convenor
Havanagi, Dr. Vasant G. Member-Secretary
Members
Adhikari, Atanu Kumar, Dr. Mahesh
Babu, Prof. (Dr.) G.L. Sivakumar Maheshwari, Prof. (Dr.) B.K.
Bagli, Shahrokh P. Mathur, H.C.
Chakraborty, Raj Mathur, Sudhir
Chand, Faqir Rao, Prof. (Dr.) G.V.
Das, Atasi Reddy, Prof. (Dr.) C.N.V. Satyanarayana
Guru Vittal, U.K. Vyas, Saurabh D.
Shahu, Prof. (Dr.) J.T DGBR (Mishra, A.K.)
Korulla, Minimol MoRTH (Kumar, Sanjeev)
Krenn, Dr. Florian
Gajria, Maj. Gen. (Retd.) K.T. Rajagopal, Prof. (Dr.) K.
Hotwani, R.N. Seehra, Dr. S.S.
Madhav, Prof. (Dr.) M.R.
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IRC:SP:59-2019
Ex-Officio Members
President, (Reddy, Dr. K.S. Krishna), Secretary,
Indian Roads Congress Public Works, Ports & Inland Water
Transport Department, Karnataka
Director General (Singh, B.N.), Ministry of Road
(Road Development) & Special Transport & Highways
Secretary General, Nirmal, Sanjay Kumar
CHAPTER -1
INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetic is defined as a planar product manufactured from a polymeric material which are
used with soil, rock, or other geotechnical-related material as an integral part of a road project, to
improve its performance. Synthetic materials in the form of strong flexible sheets either woven or
nonwoven, permeable or water tight, 2-dimensional or 3-dimensional have been used for several
years to improve soil quality and performance in different pavement related facets of geotechnical
engineering, e.g. base and sub base stabilization, reinforcement, drainage, protection of slopes
and embankments. Specific products such as, geotextiles, geogrids, geocell, geomembranes,
geocomposite etc., have been progressively developed for various applications. A common
generic name ‘Geosynthetics’ is being used to refer the different materials mentioned above.
Several detrimental factors affect the service life of roads and pavements including environmental
factors, subgrade conditions, traffic loading, utility cuts, and ageing. Pavement distresses such
as surface cracks, joints, and subgrade failures cause the rapid reflection/propagation ofcracks
up through the pavement layers and increase the maintenance cost. Therefore, the preferred
strategy for long term road and pavement performance is to build in safeguards during initial
construction. These performance safeguards include stabilizing the subgrade against moisture
intrusion and associated weakening, strengthening the road base and sub-base by allowing the
efficient drainage of infiltrated water, and enhancing the stress absorption and moisture proofing
capabilities.
1.1 Scope
This publication contains information on Geosynthetics made from polymeric materials and their
use in road pavements and other associated works. This document provides detailed design
methodology, specifications, construction guidelines, standard test methods, handling and
storage of all the geosynthetics for road pavement applications. The applications addressed in
the document include:
Stabilization and reinforcing of pavement layers

Separation and filtration
Subsurface and surface drainage
Erosion control of road embankments
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The document however excludes other possible applications of geosynthetics such as reinforced
soil walls & slopes, containment of landslides and geosynthetics made from natural fibres.
These guidelines may require revision from time-to-time based on future developments and
experience in the field. Towards this end, it is suggested to all the organizations using the
guidelines to keep a detailed record of the year of construction, subgrade CBR, soil characteristics
including resilient modulus, pavement composition and specifications, reinforcement details,
traffic, pavement performance, type and thickness of overlay performance, climatic condition,
periodical measurements (both before and after strengthening) etc. and provide feedback to the
Indian Roads Congress for further revision.
Chapters in this publication are organized in a way that followed sequence gives a better
understanding of the objective of the publication.
Chapter-1 “Introduction” provides details of different geosynthetic materials, their composition,

functions and applications in road pavement works.
Chapter-2 “Properties and Test methods” addresses all the required tests to be performed to
evaluate the Geosynthetic function and applications. It gives detailed testing procedures and the
properties required as per the available ISO, IRC, BIS, ASTM and BS.
Chapter-3 “Design methodology” explains the mechanism, design methodology using different
geosynthetic materials and analysis for different applications.
Chapter-4 “Geosynthetic Selection Criteria” provides guidance and helps design engineers
and specification writers with the selection of geosynthetics based on the required function,
application, site conditions, and other economical technical feasibilities.
Chapter-5 “Construction guidelines” brings out the installation aspects and methodologies to be
practiced while executing and installing geosynthetics.
Chapter-6 “Handling, storage and Installation” gives information on safe handling and
transportation of geosynthetics without any damage before installation.
This document also includes the solved numerical example in Annexure IV for easy understanding
of the design methodologies explained in Chapter-3.
1.2 Raw Materials and Classification of Geosynthetics
1.2.1 Raw materials
Polymers are the major raw materials for manufacturing geosynthetics. The polymers used are
polypropylene, polyester, polyethylene, polyamides, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride. Some types
of geosynthetics are made from carbon fibre, glass fibre and natural fibres also.
1.2.2 Classification of geosynthetics
Geosynthetics can be classified in many ways based on manufacturing process, materials used
or function. Genera! classification of geosynthetics for the applications in pavements is given
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in Fig. 1.1. The classification is based on the spatial aspects of the geosynthetic material. For
example, one dimensional material will have only one spatial character as length compared
to other dimensions (ropes, straps and cables). Two dimensional materials will have only two
spatial characteristics either length or width or height (Geogrids, Geotextiles, Geocomposites and
Geomembranes), whereas three dimensional materials will possess the spatial characteristics
in all three dimensions i.e. length, width and height (geocell, geomats, geonets, geospacers and
three dimensional geogrids).
I GEOSYNTHETICS I
| ONE DIMENSIONAL | I TWO DIMENSIONAL | [THREE DIMENSIONAL!
[STRAPS | | CABLES | | GEOMATS~| | GEOCELL-[ | GEONETS-1 [MATTRESSES] |GEO SPACE~r] 3 DIMENSIONAL

GEOGRID
[geotextile] I GEOGRJD I |GEOCOMPOSlTE| | GEOMEMBRANE |
| KNITTED | | WOVEN | |NON WOVEN] | KNITTED I [EXTRUDED I | WOVEN | | BONDED | | WELDED |
[mono filament] [multi Fl lament] I TAPE I THERMAL CHEMICAL NEEDLE

BONDED BONDED PUNCHED
Fig. 1.1 Classification of Geosynthetics
1.2.3 Types of geosynthetics for pavement applications
1.2.3.1 Geotextile: Geotextiles can be defined as any permeable synthetic textile used with
foundation, soil, rock, earth, or any other geotechnical engineering-related material as an integral
part of an infrastructure project, structure, or system. The geotextiles are generally classified by
the manufacturing process and are often separated into two sub-categories, namely, woven
and non-woven. Another type of geotextile includes (i) Knitted geotextiles and (ii) Composite
geotextiles (Fig. 1.2).
Woven geotextiles are manufactured by weaving weft threads through warp threads. Strength of
geotextile in machine direction is usually larger than cross machine direction.
Non-woven geotextiles are produced from randomly distributed continuous filaments or staple
fibres, which are bonded together chemically, thermally or mechanically.
Knitted geotextiles consists of a single strand systematically intertwined with itself and is
manufactured with a knitting machine, instead of a weaving loom.
Composite geotextiles (Multi-layered geotextiles) are manufactured by combining layers of

different types of geotextiles. The components can be combined by needling, stitching, chemical
bonding or heat bonding. (IRC HRB Special Report No. 12, ‘State-of-the-Art: Application of
Geotextiles in Highway Engineering’).
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Fig. 1.2 Geotextile
1.2.3.2 Geogrid: Geogrids are polymers formed into a very open, grid like configuration,
i.e., they have apertures between individual ribs in the transverse and longitudinal directions.
Geogrids are mainly made from polymeric materials, typically polypropylene (PP), high
density polyethylene (HDPE) and polyester (PET). Geogrids can be classified according to (a)
manufacturing process(woven, knitted, bonded, welded, extruded), (b) directional behaviour
(uniaxial, biaxial, etc.), (c) bonding between ribs and (d) Polymer (polypropylene, polyester,
PVC etc). Biaxial geogrids have significant strength in both the machine and cross machine
directions.
Fig. 1.3 Geogrids
1.2.3.3 Geomembranes: Geomembrane is a very low permeability/impervious synthetic

membrane liner or barrier used to control fluid migration across the plane. These are made from
relatively thin continuous polymeric sheets, but they can also be made from the impregnation of
geotextiles with bitumen, polymer sprays or as multilayered bitumen geocomposites. Continuous
polymer sheet geomembranes are by far the most common.
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Fig. 1.4 Geomembranes

/
1.2.3.4 Geonets: Geosynthetic material consisting of integrally connected parallel sets of ribs
overlying similar sets at various angles formed by a continuous extrusion into a net like configuration
for in plane drainage of liquids. Geonets are often laminated with geotextiles on one or both
surfaces and are referred to as drainage composites. There are three categories of geonets.
Bi-planar geonets: These are the original and most common types and consist of two
sets of intersecting ribs at different angles and spacing’s. The ribs themselves are of
different sizes and shapes for different styles.
Tri-planar geonets: These have parallel central ribs with smaller sets of ribs above
and beneath mainly for geometric stability.
Other geonets: These newer geonet structures have either box shaped channels or
protruding columns from an underlying support network.
Fig. 1.5 Geonet
1.2.3.5 Geospacer: Geospacer is a three-dimensional geosynthetic extruded from polymeric

materials such as HDPE. It provides separation and a void between layers to provide in
plane drainage. Typical geospacers are formed in continuous sheets which can be used as an
impermeable layer or perforated to allow water migration. The material is UV stabilised with
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carbon black. Geospacer are often laminated with geotextiles on one or both sides and are
referred to as drainage geocomposites increasingly being used to replace traditional gravel
drainage layers.
Fig. 1.6 Geospacers
1,2.3.6 Geocell: Geocells (also known as Cellular Confinement Systems) are three-
dimensional honeycombed cellular structures that form a confinement system when in-filled
with compacted soil or aggregate. Extruded from polymeric materials such as HDPE, into strips
welded together ultrasonically in series or in continuous process capable to create the cells
without any subsequent welding, the geocell structures, the strips are expanded to form the stiff
(and typically textured and perforated) walls of a flexible 3D cellular mattress. The material is UV
stabilised with carbon black.
(a) closed form (b) open form
Fig. 1.7 Geocell
1.2.3.7 Geomats: These are two dimensional or three dimensional mats with specified
thickness, made of multi-filaments, layers of geogrids folded and knitted or bonded together with
apertures to allow vegetation growth for erosion control application. !RC:56-2011 (Clause 5.8 &
5.9) provides detailed information on types, test method and property requirements of geomats.
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(a) Unreinforced Geomats (b) Reinforced Geomats
Fig. 1.8 Geomat
1.2.3.8 Asphalt Reinforcement: There are three products for strengthening of asphaltic layer
for pavement, which are described below:
1. Paving Fabric: Paving Fabric is made from the fibres with non-weaving process
(needle punch and heat bonded) and applied by providing tack coat with asphaltic
layer.
2. Paving Grids/Glass-Fibre Grid: The paving grid used with this specification shall
be manufactured from a glass fibre roving or polymeric grid pattern; resistant to
chemical attack (from flux oils, paraffin’s or any other solvents used in bituminous
binders), mildew and rot, and shall meet the physical requirements listed in
Chapter 4 of this guidelines.
3. Asphalt Interlayer Composites (AIC)/Composite Paving gird: A Grid
combined with a Paving Fabric it is called a Composite. AIC is made from
Nonwoven Geotextile knitted with Fibre Glass rovings, will provide dual
functions.
Fig. 1.9 (a) Paving Fabric (b) Paving Grid
1.2.3.9 Geocomposite: Geocomposites are formed by combining geotextiles or geomembranes

with a core of geonet.
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(a) Drainage Composite (b) Reinforced Geocomposite
Fig. 1.10 Geocomposite
1.3 Functions of Geosynthetics
In a given application, a geosynthetic can perform one or several functions to improve the
mechanical and/or hydraulic behaviour of the structure in which it is incorporated. The basic
functions performed by a geosynthetic are as follows:
1. Separation/Filtration
2. Reinforcement
3. Drainage
4. Moisture Barrier
5. Erosion Control
Each of these functions can be defined in terms of the role they fulfil in the installation. Definitions
and description of each of these functions are explained below.
Properties, testing methods and the selection guidelines for each geosynthetic material for
various functions listed above are given in Chapters 2 and 4 respectively.
1.4 Separation/Filtration
The separation function refers prevention of intermixing of the two layers of dissimilar materials
throughout the design life of the material. Normally, geotextiles provide for separation between
layers in pavement. It prevents intrusion/pumping of soil particles into the base/sub-base course.
Simultaneously, it performs the function of filtration by dissipating the pore water pressure and
allowing the passage of fluids into or across the plane of the geotextiles while preventing the
uncontrolled passage of soil particles.
1.5 Reinforcement
Reinforcement function of geosynthetics is defined as use of the stress-strain behaviour of a

geosynthetic material to improve the mechanical properties of soil or other construction materials.
Different types of geogrids and woven geotextiles have high tensile strength can be used as
reinforcing materials in pavements. The combined use of soil (good in compression and poor in
tension) and geotextiles/geogrids (good in tension and poor in compression) suggests a number
of situations in which they have made existing design work better or developed entirely new
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applications. In base reinforcement applications, geogrids are placed within or at the bottom
of unbound layers of a flexible pavement system and improve the load-carrying capacity of the
pavement under repeated traffic.
Asphalt reinforcement reduces the reflective cracking and improves moisture retention by
impregnating with bitumen in tack coat. In general paving fabric, paving grids and Asphalt
Interlayer Composite (AIC) or composite paving grids are used for asphalt reinforcement in
pavements.
With moisture barrier function of paving fabric, it will not allow moisture to reach granular layers
and which also prevents propagation of crack and also acts as (Stress Absorbing Membrane
Interlayer) SAMI layer.
Paving grids are with square apertures and laid with minimum cover of bituminous layers. Paving
Grid strengths are decided, considering the stresses to be absorbed.
Considering above two generic products, for combined benefit of moisture barrier and stress
absorbing functions, composites are needed. A Grid combined with a Paving Fabric it is called
a Composite (Geocomposite). Composites provide the membrane and also high strength
reinforcement. Asphalt Interlayer composite is made from Nonwoven Geotextile knitted with
Fibre Glass yarn, will provide dual functions. Composites are stiffer materials with less or minimal
elongation and require slower installation speeds.
Table 1.1 Comparison between Paving Fabric, Fibre-Glass Grid and AIC
Sr. Ho. Property Paving Fabric Fibre-Glass Grid AIC
1. Tensile Strength Low High High
2. Moisture Barrier High Low High
3. Stress Absorbing Member High Low High

Interlayer (SAMI)
4. Bitumen Retention High Low High
1.6 Drainage
Drainage is collecting and transporting of precipitation, ground water, and/or other fluids in
the plane of a geosynthetic material. A suitable permeable geosynthetic material provides
a filtration function which serves the same role in soil structures as the various gradation of
granular material.
1.7 llohiiw® Barrier
The barrier function refers to the prevention or limits the migration of fluid across the plane of
the geosynthetic material. This geosynthetic function has wide application in asphalt pavement
overlays and encapsulation of swelling soils. A nonwoven geotextile provides a barrier function
when saturated with an impermeable material like, bitumen. In this application, the geotextile is
saturated with a bitumen-based material (tack coat) and the new overlay is placed directly onto
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the geotextile. The geotextile-tack coat combination prevents the movement of water from the
surface of the overlay into the pavement layers and vice-versa.
1.8 Erosion ControQ
Use of a geosynthetic material is to prevent or limit soil or other particle movements at the
surface of a slope due to water run-off and/or wind forces.
In addition to the primary function, Geosynthetics usually perform one or more secondary
functions. The primary and secondary functions of geosynthetic make up the total contribution
material in better way to a particular application. It is important to consider both the primary and
secondary functions in the design computations and specifications.
Table 1.2 Primary Functions of Geosynthetics
Primary Functions of Geosynthetics

Type of
Geosynthetic Impermeable Erosion
Separation Reinforcement Filtration Drainage
Barrier Control
Geotextile ■V ■/ z z z
Geogrid z
Geo z
Membrane
Z
Geonets z z
Geospacer z z z
Geocell z
Geomat z z
Paving Fabric z
Paving Grid
Geo z
s y z z z
Composite
Note: The given matrix of primary functions is indicative only; each product can have multiple functions
as per site conditions.
Use and selection of geosynthetics in pavements has to be analysed based on site conditions,
applicability and project specific requirements with judgement of Engineer in Charge. However,
before actually begin with design, a designer must give due consideration to “Engineering” and
“Economic” factors involved in design.
1.9 Applicability and Benefits of Geosynthetics on Roadways
1.9.1 Areas of Application of Geosynthetics in Roads and Pavements
The four main applications for geosynthetics in roads are subgrade separation, stabilization,
base or subbase reinforcement, and overlay stabilization. Subgrade stabilization and base or
subbase reinforcement involve improving the road structure as it is constructed by inserting an
appropriate geosynthetic material.
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Conventional construction material like aggregates is becoming progressively scarce on account

of environmental concerns as well as legal restrictions on quarrying while the construction
activity has expanded phenomenally. This has shifted focus from large scale use of conventional
aggregates to use of local, recycled and engineered marginal aggregates in construction.
Geosynthetics can enhance the properties of such recycled and engineered marginal aggregates
in construction.
Geosynthetics are also helpful in rehabilitating the distressed road surfaces. The application of
a layer of bituminous concrete called an overlay is often the solution for damaged pavement.
Geosynthetics can be used as inter-layers by placing them below or within the overlay. Some
geosynthetics relieve stress and others are able to reinforce the overlay. The products may also
provide a moisture barrier. The following are the applications of geosynthetics in roadways and
pavements in brief:
• Subgrade separation and stabilization
• Base or subbase stabilization by reinforcement
0 Overlay stress absorption and reinforcement
> In Subsurface Drainage
° Subgrade dewatering
® Base or subbase drainage
> In Erosion and Sediment Control
• Beneath the hard armor systems, revetments
> In Seepage Control Systems
• Structure water proofing
® ’ Environmental protection
Table 1.3 Application Areas of Geosynthetics
s. Application
1 Pavement Pavement stabilization and reinforcement involves stabilizing and
stabilization reinforcing different layers of the pavement to provide subgrade
and restraint, to stabilize the base and/or sub base, to reinforce the bound
reinforcement layers i.e. surface course to increase the service life of the pavement
by preventing fatigue and reflective cracks.
2 Drainage Draining out of water ingressed through the pavement structure and
prevention of capillary action and moisture control need to be taken
care
3 Moisture It is related to enhance and lengthen pavement performance by
Control reducing the influence of moisture on pavement materials
4 Erosion It refers to the protection of the top surface of the exposed slopes,
control surfaces.
1.9.2 Temporary roads, diversions and working piatforms in roadway and pavement systems
Geosynthetics are used in temporary roads to reduce rutting of the gravel surface and/or to
decrease the amount of gravel required to support the anticipated traffic. Furthermore, the
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geosynthetic helps to maintain the aggregate thickness over the life of the temporary road.
Where the soils are normally too weak to support the initial construction work, geosynthetics
in combination with gravel provide a working platform to allow construction equipments access
to sites. This is one of the most important uses of geosynthetics. Even if the finished roadway
can be supported by the subgrade, it may be virtually impossible to begin construction of the
embankment or roadway. Such sites require stabilization by dewatering, de-mucking, excavation
and replacement with selected granular materials, utilization of stabilization aggregate, chemical
stabilization, etc. Geosynthetics can often be a cost effective alternate to these expensive
foundation treatment procedures.
1.9.3 Permanent paved and unpaved roads
For permanent road construction, a temporary working platform can be constructed to provide
an improved roadbed using geogrid reinforcements with an aggregate layer to provide a form
of mechanical stabilization. This mechanically stabilized aggregate layer enables contractors
to meet minimum compaction specifications for the first two or three aggregate lifts. This is
especially true on very soft, wet subgrade, where the use of ordinary compaction equipment
is very difficult or even impossible. Long term, a geogrid or, in some cases, a geocomposite
acts to maintain the roadway design section and the base course material integrity. Thus, the
geosynthetic will ultimately increase the life of the roadway.
Another geogrid application in roadways is to place the geogrid or geocomposite at the

bottom or within the base course to provide reinforcement through lateral confinement of the
aggregate layer. Lateral confinement arises from the development of interface shear stresses
between the aggregate and the reinforcement and occurs during placement, compaction, and
traffic loading. A small residual restraint remains after each load application, thus increasing
the lateral confinement of the aggregate with increasing load applications. Base reinforcement
thus improves the long-term structural support for the base materials and reduces permanent
deformation in the roadway section and has beeri found under certain conditions to provide
significant improvement in pavement performance.
Fig 1.11 Potential Applications and Typical Location of Geosynthetics in Layered Pavement System
Note: The location of Geosynthetics would depend on other factors such as terrain, its application and
type of geotextile material.
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CHAPTER - 2
PROPERTIES AND TEST METHODS FOR D0FFERENT GEOSYNTHETIC MATERIALS
Geosynthetic Materials shall be Tested and Certified in the following manner:

• The manufacturer shall have ISO or CE certification for manufacturing process and
quality control.
• The manufacturer shall provide manufacturer’s test certificate for every lot supplied
from the factory.
• The supplier shall provide third party test reports from an independent laboratory with
valid accreditation for all the test values in Manufacturer’s test certificate.
Geosynthetics shall be tested in accordance with tests prescribed by relevant BIS, ISO, ASTM,
EN or BS shall be conducted.
2A Typical and Minimum Average Roll Values of the Geosynthetics
2AA The term ‘Typical Value’ and Minimum Average Roll Value; both relate to the variability
inherent in geosynthetic material properties. This variability stems from the manufacturing
process and is similar to that which occurs with all construction materials, including concrete
and steel. Geosynthetics manufacturers continuously perform Quality Control (QC) testing to
monitor the physical properties of their products. Using the result of this testing, manufacturer
can represent physical properties statistically in normal distribution curves as shown in Fig. 2.1.
i '■
2.1.2 The “typical” value refers to the average or mean value and is valid for any geosynthetic
material. As shown in Fig. 2.1 (a) 50 per cent of the test results can be expected to exceed this
value and 50 per cent can be expected to fall below this value. The ‘minimum average roll value”
(MARV) is 97.7 per cent as per clause no. 3.1 IS 16362 as shown in Fig. 2.1 (b). The MARV is
derived statistically as the average value minus two standard deviations.
, ____ , b) MINIMUM AVERAGE

a) TYPICAL VALUE ROLL VALUE (MARV)
Fog. 2.1 Statistical Distribution of the Geosynthetic Material Properties
2.1.3 Specification sheet of a geosynthetic material should list the physical properties
required to serve its intended function. The civil engineering community has adopted standards
for verifying the physical properties of geosynthetic material in accordance with the MARV. A
specification based on the MARV means that 97.7 per cent of the product is required to meet or
exceed the specified values. In contrast, if a manufacturer certifies to higher “typical” values only
lesser percentage of the product would meet the specified values.
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2.1.4 Designers must rely on a statistical basis for assuring that the geosynthetic materials
delivered to the job meet the specifications. On any given project, the minimum average roll
value must meet or exceed the designer’s specified value for the product to be acceptable.
2.2 GsGsote
This section gives an insight into various properties of geotextiles and test methods in use or
currently favoured for testing of geotextiles as per existing worldwide standards. This section
has been subdivided into following three major categories:
• Physical properties
* Mechanical properties
• Hydraulic properties
2.2.1 Physical properties: The properties, discussed in the subsection, refer to fabric in its
manufactured or as received condition. Physical properties are considered to be index properties
of geotextiles.
22.1.1 Specific gravity: Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of material’s unit volume weight
(without any voids) to that of distilled, de-aired water at 27°C. The specific gravity of fibres from
which geotextiles are made is actually the specific gravity of the polymer raw material (ISO
1183, ASTM D792 or ASTM D1505). Some typical values of specific gravity of commonly used
polymeric materials made into geotextiles are as follows:
Polypropylene 0.91
Polyester 1.22 to 1.38
Nylon 1.05 to 1.14
Polyethylene 0.90 to 0.96
Polyvinyl chloride 1.69
22.7.2 Mass per unit area (weight): Mass per unit area governs the fabric cost and normally
mechanical properties are directly related to it. Test wise, the mass (weight) should be measured
to the nearest 0.01 per cent of the total specimen mass. Length and width should be measured
under zero tension induced in geotextile. Methods for this test are based on ISO 9864, IS 14716
and ASTM D5261. The geotextiles mass per unit area is given in grams per square meter. The
range of typical values for most geotextiles is from 100 to 1000 gm/m2.
2.2 7.3 Thickness: Thickness is measured as the distance between the upper and the lower
surface of the fabric, measured at a specified pressure. ISO 9863-1, IS 13162 (Part 3) and
ASTM D5199 stipulates that thickness is to be measured to an accuracy of at least 0.01 mm
under a pressure of 2 kPa. According to ISO the thickness should be measured after 30 seconds
of application of full force, where, as per ASTM the duration is 5 seconds only. The thickness of
the commonly used geotextiles ranges from 0.25 to 7.5 mm.
2.2.2 Mechanical properties: The mechanical properties to be discussed here indicate the
geotextiles resistance to tensile stresses mobilized under applied loads and/or installation conditions.
The index tests such as wide width tensile strength, grab strength, puncture strength and sewn seam
strength are used for determining the mechanical properties of the geotextiles.
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2.2.2.1 Tensile strength: ISO 10319 or IS 13325 or ASTM D4595 gives test method for the
determination of the tensile properties of geotextile and related products, using a wide-width
strip. This test is applicable to most of the geotextile families including woven, non-woven, geo
composites, knitted fabrics and felts. The reason wide-width specimens are necessary that
geotextiles when tensioned tend to have a severe necking effect under increasing stress and
they rope up, giving artificially high values. Thus, the tendency for design-related tests is to use
wide-width specimens.
Grab strength test will also be applicable for the determination of tensile properties of geotextiles.
ISO 13934 or IS 16342 or ASTM D4632 shall be used to evaluate the grab strength of geotextiles.
Narrow Strip Test as per ASTM D751 is another tensile test method.
2.2.2.2 Puncture strength: This test is conducted to make an assessment of geotextile

resistance to objects, such as, rocks or pieces of wood under quasi-static conditions and reported
as N or kN. Such a test described under ISO 12236, IS:13162 (Part 4) and ASTM D6241, IS
16078 shall be used to evaluate the CBR puncture strength of geotextiles.
2.2.2.3 Sewn seam strength: Seam strength is typically evaluated in the laboratory using ISO
10321 “Geosynthetics- Tensile test for joints/seams by wide-width strip method” or IS 15060
or ASTM D4884, “Test Method for Seam Strength of Sewn or Thermally Bonded Seams of
Geotextiles”. This method tests 200 mm wide specimen and the results have been shown to
correlate accurately to anticipated field seam strength.
2.2.3 Hydraulic properties
Filter system flow capacity or flow rate, q is the quantity of water, which will pass through the
system in a given period of time. Flow capacity is usually expressed in cm3/sec or cm3/sec/
m2. Properties of both the soil and geotextile influence the hydraulic characteristics of the soil/
geotextile system. Two important properties are soil permeability and geotextile permittivity.
Other properties are listed in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Soil/Geotextile Filter System Properties
Soil Geotextile
Permeability Permittivity
Grain size distribution Apparent opening size
Plasticity Per cent open area
Dispersivity Structure
Compaction and confinement Durability
2.2.3.1 Apparent opening size (AOS): The Apparent Opening Size (AOS) or the Equivalent
Opening Size (EOS) is a measure of the largest effective opening in a geotextile. It can be
measured using the procedure described below:
Standard Test Methods for Determining Apparent Opening Size of a Geotextile are ISO 12956
(using the wet sieving principle), IS: 14294 and ASTM D4751 (using the dry sieving principle).
This test method covers the determination the Apparent Opening Size (AOS) of a geotextile by
sieving glass beads through a geotextile.
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Table 2.2 Geotextile Properties and Testing Methods
Property Test Method

Specific gravity ASTM D792 or ASTM D1505
Mass per unit area IS:14716, ISO 9864, ASTM D5261
Thickness IS:13162 (Part 3), ISO 9863, ASTM D5199
Tensile strength IS:13325, ISO 10319, ASTM D4595
i. Grab strength test IS: 16342, ISO 13934, ASTM D4632, ASTM
ii. Narrow strip test D751
Puncture strength IS:13162 (Part 4), IS:16078 (For CBR
Puncture strength), IS0 12236, ASTM D6241
Sewn seam strength ASTM D4884
Apparent Opening Size (AOS)/Characteristic IS:14294, ISO 12956, ASTM D4751
Opening Size (COS)
Permittivity IS:14324, ISO 11058, ASTM D4491
Clogging potential IS:16389
i. Gradient ratio test ASTM D5101
ii. Hydraulic conductivity ratio test ASTM D5567
2.2.3.2 Geotextile permittivity: Permittivity qj is laboratory measured characteristic of the

geotextile. Permittivity is measured using the index test method ISO 11058, IS: 14324 and ASTM
D4491.
2.2.3.3 Determination of clogging potential of geotextile: IS: 16389 “Geosynthetics - Method

of Test for Biological Clogging of Geotextile or Soil/Geotextile Filters” shall be used to determine
clogging potential of geotextiles. There are two test methods available to evaluate flow capacity
of a soil/geotextile system: first one by ASTM D5101, the “Gradient Ratio” and the other by
“Hydraulic Conductivity Ratio (HCR) Test”. In this test, the soil is compacted and is placed under
a confining pressure to simulate field conditions. The HCR testing of soil/geotextile systems can
be conducted using ASTM D5567 method.
2J
The primary function of geogrid is improving the geotechnical material property by reinforcing
and stabilizing. Based on the function and applications of geogrid, its properties are classified
generally into three categories like, physical, mechanical and endurance properties.
2.3.1 Physical properties: Many of the physical properties of geogrids-including the type of
structure, rib dimensions, junction type, aperture size and thickness can be measured directly
and are relatively straightforward.
2.3.2 Mechanical properties: As reinforcing is the main function of geogrid, the tensile
strength of single rib or at junction of geogrid is considered as mechanical properties of geogrid.
The tensile strength is the maximum resistance to tensile stresses mobilized under applied loads
and/or installation conditions. Nodal strength test and wide width strength tests are general tests
to be conducted to determine the tensile strength of geogrids.
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2.3.2.1 Single rib and junction (nodal strength): The initial tendency when assessing a
geogrid’s tensile strength is to pull a single rib in tension until failure and then to note its
behaviour. A single rib tension strength test merely uses a constant rate-of-extension testing
machine to pull a single rib to failure, as described in ASTM D6637. For unidirectional geogrids,
this would most likely be a longitudinal rib. For bidirectional geogrids, both longitudinal and
transverse ribs require evaluation. By knowing the repeat pattern of the ribs, equivalent wide-
width strength can be calculated. Alternatively, a number of ribs can be tested simultaneously
to obtain a more statistically accurate value for the wide-width strength. Geogrid for use as
reinforcement of base and sub-base layers of flexible pavements shall be tested according to
the references mentioned in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Test Methods of Geogrid for Base and Subbase Stabilization of Flexible Pavement
Property Beit ho di
Tensile strength and/or stiffness ISO 10319
@ 0.5 % strain
Tensile strength @ 2% strain ISO 10319
Tensile strength @ 5% strain ISO 10319
Junction strength ASTM D7737
Geogrid aperture MD/CMD Direct scale measurement by
using scale or ruler
2.3.2.2 Wide-width tensile strength: Clearly the wide-width tensile strength of a geogrid, in its
machine direction for unidirectional geogrids and in both machine and cross-machine directions
for bidirectional geogrids, is of prime importance. ISO 10319 or IS 13325 or ASTM D6637 wide-
width strength testing of geogrids can be referred to determine the tensile strength of geogrids.
2.3.3 Endurance properties: As geogrids are used in critical reinforcement applications, some
of which require long service lifetime; it is generally necessary to evaluate selected endurance
properties. Installation damage, creep and accelerated test methods will be addressed in this section.
2.3.3.1 Installation damage: As with all geosynthetic, the placement of geogrids in the field
requires a considerable degree of planning and care. As happens all too often ’with careless field
construction crews and heavy machinery, installation damage of the geogrid can occur. Other
uncertainties in this same area are coarse soil impingement, falling objects and other accidents
that may occur before the geogrid is covered. There is a formalized procedure available to
assess installation damage as per ISO 10722. ASTM D5818-06 may be referred for exposure
and retrieval of sample to evaluate installation damage of geosynthetics.
Generally, the higher strength-loss values come about where large, poorly graded, quarried
aggregate is used and heavy construction equipment performs the placement and compaction.
If it is necessary to use such materials and methods; it is prudent to first place a cushioning layer
of sand above and sometimes below the geogrid.
2.3.3.2 Tensile creep behaviour: Sustained-load deformation or tensioned creep is one of

the major endurance properties of geogrid. Since geogrids are manufactured from polymers
consisting of long-molecules arranged in crystalline regions with interspersed amorphous
regions, the creep response reflects upon the per cent crystallinity.
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Creep is predominantly a function of stress level, time, temperature and a number of environmental
factors. The tensile creep test has been adopted from ISO 13431, ASTM D6992 and ASTM
D5262. Consideration of creep reduction factor for reinforcement application of geosynthetics in
reinforced soil systems reference may be made to IRC:SP:102, MoRTH Section 3100.
2.3.4 Degradation issues: For all types of geogrids being used in permanent reinforcement
applications, it is generally necessary to evaluate selected degradation considerations. This
section briefly discusses some of these issues.
2.3.4.1 Temperature effects: Given the temperature ranges of typical environments,

temperature extremes (hot or cold) should have no serious adverse effects on geogrids. The one
caution is that high temperature can exhibit strains arising from tension creep, creep rupture,
and/or stress relaxation.
2.3.4.2 Oxidation effects: EN ISO 13438 test method can be used for determining the
resistance to oxidation (ISO 13438).This method for screening the resistance to oxidation, in
particular applicable to polypropylene and polyethylene based products.
2.4 Geomembrane
2.4 J Physical properties: Physical properties have to do with the geomembranes in an

manufactured and/or as-received state. They are important for quality control, quality assurance
and proper identification.
2.4.1.1 Thickness: Depending on the type of geomembranes, there are three types of
thickness to be considered: (1) Thickness of smooth sheet, (2) The core thickness of textured
sheet, and (3) Thickness (or height) of the asperities of textured sheet.
Smooth Sheet: The determination of the thickness of a smooth geomembranes is performed by

a straightforward measurement. The test uses an enlarged-area micrometer under a specified
pressure, resulting in the desired value. ISO 09863 and ASTM D5199 is the test methods
generally used for measuring geomembranes thickness.
Textured Sheet: The roughened surface of a textured geomembranes results in a significant

increase in its interface friction with adjacent materials versus the same geomembranes
with a smooth surface. The thickness of such textured sheets is measured as the minimum
core thickness between the roughened peaks or asperities. To measure the core thickness,
a tapered-point micrometer for measuring machine screw threads is recommended.
The tapered point dimensions as per ASTM D5994 are a 60° angle with the extreme tip at
0.08 mm diameter. The normal load on tapered point is 0.56N.
Asperity Height: For textured geomembranes, the height of the asperity is of interest, inso far as
it relates to mobilizing the desired amount of interface shear strength with the opposing surface.
Less involved, but still useful as a quality control and quality assurance method, is to merely
measure the height of the asperities per ASTM D7466.
2.4.1.2 Melt (flow) index: The melt-flow index or melt index (Ml) test should be used by
geomembranes manufacturers as a method of controlling polymer uniformity and process ability.
The test method often used for geomembranes polymers is ASTM D1238.
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2.4.1.3 Mass per unit area (weight): This test is straightforward to perform and usually follows
ISO 9864 or ASTM D3776 procedures.
2.4.2 Mechanical properties
2.4.2.1 Tensile behaviour: The test procedures generally used are covered in ISO 527-3,
ASTM D6693 or as well as ASTM D6392, D882, D751, and D413.
2.4.2.2 Tear resistance: The measurement of tear resistance of a geomembrane can be done
using ASTM D1004. ASTM D1004 uses a template to form a test specimen shaped such as to
have a 90° angle where tear can begin to propagate.
2.4.2.3 Puncture resistance: To measure puncture resistance ASTM D4833 is often used
since it is the test method used by manufacturers for quality control purposes.
2.4.3 Endurance properties
2.4.3.1 Oxidation: There are two related test methods that are used to track the amount and/
or depletion of antioxidants. They are called Oxidative Induction Time (OIT) tests.
Standard OIT (ISO 11357 or ASTM D3895): The oxidation is conducted at 35 kPa and 200°C.
This test appears to misrepresent antioxidant packages containing thiosynergists and/or hindered
amines due to the relatively high test temperature.
High Pressure OIT (ASTM D5885): The oxidation is conducted at 3500 kPa and 150°C. This
test can be used for all types of antioxidant packages and is the preferred test.
A summary of properties of geomembranes and testing procedure is listed in Table 2.4 below:
Table 2.4 Properties and Test Method Standards for Geomembranes
Test Tost Hethod

Density ASTM D792
Melt flow index ASTM D1238
Carbon black content i STM D 603
Carbon black dispersion ASTM D5596
Oxidative Induction Time (OIT) ISO 11357, ASTM D3895,
Standard OIT ASTM D5855
High Pressure OIT
Low temperature brittleness UNE 104302
Water absorption EN ISO 62
Asperity height GR] GM 12
Thickness ISO 9863, ASTM D5199
Puncture resistance ASTM D4833/ASTM D5494
Tear Resistance ASTM DI 304
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Test Test Method

Dimensional stability ASTM D1204
Tensile strength and elongation ISO 527-3, ASTM D6693/
ASTM D638
Tensile strength ASTM D4885
(Wide Width Strip Method)
Integrity ASTM D4437/ASTM D6392
2=5 Geonet/Geospacer
The primary function of a geonet/geospacer is to convey liquid within the plane of its structure.
The inplane flow rate or Transmissivity is an important design parameter. However, other features,
which may influence this value over the service lifetime of the geonet, are also of importance.
Thus a number of physical, mechanical, endurance, and environmental properties will also be
presented in this section.
2=5=1 Physical properties
2.5.1.1 Density: The density or specific gravity of the polymer is an important property and it
can be evaluated either by ASTM D1505 or D792.
2.5.1.2 Thickness: Thickness can be determined using ISO 9863/IS 13162 Part-3, ASTM
D5199.
2.5.1.3 Mass per unit area: This can be determined using ISO 9864/ASTM D3776. Other
physical properties such as rib dimensions, planar angles made by the intersecting ribs, cross-
planar angles made at the juncture locations, aperture size and shape can be measured directly.
2=5=2 Mechanical properties
2.5.2.1 Tensile strength and elongation: ISO 10319 or IS 13325 or ASTM D4595 gives index
test method for the determination of the tensile properties of geonet/geospacer, using a wide-
width strip.
2.5.2.2 Compressive strength and deformation: ASTM D6364, “Standard method for
determining the short-term compressive strength of geosynthetic” is used to evaluate the short
term compressive strength parameters of geonet.
2.5.2.3 Shear strength: The appropriate interface shear test method is ISO 12957-1 or ASTM
D5321, and it is obviously a product-specific and site-specific test that must be performed for
each set of conditions that arise.
2=5=3 Hydraulic properties
The in-plane hydraulic test to determine planar flow rate, or transmissivity, of geonets should be
performed using ISO 12958 and ASTM D4716. Both test methods use a planar transmissivity
device and not the radial transmissivity device this is necessary because the flow regime in a
geonet is surely turbulent (consisting of irregular flow paths and eddies).
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2.5.4 Endurance properties: The major endurance properties of concern when using
geonets have to do with the long-term sustained deformation of the material and its ability to
continue to transmit the required in-plane flow rate.
Type of polyethylene resin: Depending upon the type of polyethylene resin, primarily
characterized by its density, the geonet will have different mechanical and endurance properties.
The high density resins (e.g., greater than 0.950 mg/l), will result in relatively high modulus, high
strength and high creep resistance. Conversely, lower density resins (e.g., less than 0.945 mg/l)
will be more flexible and can deform under high compressive stresses more easily.
Intrusion of adjacent materials into the geonet’s apertures: All geospacers or geonets will
necessarily be covered on their upper and lower surfaces with geotextiles, geomembranes,
concrete wall surface, or some other material. If the geonet’s surfaces are not covered, the
adjacent soil will invade its apertures, rendering flow impossible. For this reason all flow tests
should be conducted with soft foam rubber platens on both sides to simulate soil intrusion,
unless the designer can demonstrate that hard platens on one or both sides are representative
of the conditions that the drainage core will encounter during operations. Intrusion refers to
the deformation of the flexible covering materials, primarily geotextiles, occupying some of the
geonet’s void space.
Table 2.5 Geonet Properties and Test Methods
Test Test Method

l
Density (g/cm3) ASTM D792
Mass per Unit Area ASTM D3776
Wide width Tensile Strength (MD) ISO 10319/ASTM D4595
Flow capacity ISO 12958/ASTM D4716
Thickness at 20kPa EN ISO 9863-1
2.6 Geocell
Geocell is the three dimensional structure element with interconnected cells made of polyester/
polypropylene/high density polyethylene stabilized with carbon black. Stabilization by providing
lateral confinement is the main function of Geocell. It has various properties classified as
physical, mechanical and chemical properties. Table 2.6 represents the different properties and
test methods for the Geocell.
Table 2.6 Material Test Methods for Geocell
Test Properties Test Method

Wall Thickness Nominal ASTM D5199
Seam Efficiency (min. avg) GRI-GS13
Densih ' nin a g ) __ ASTM D1505/D792
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Test Properties Test Method

Tensile Properties (min. avg.) (1)
yield strength
break strength ASTM D6693
yield elongation
break elongation
Seam Peel Strength US-ACE GL-86
i. Method A - 19 ISO 13426-1
ii. Method B (Method B)
Seam Hang Strength (Pass on temperature variation from
ASTM D751
23°C-54°C with dead weight of 72.5 kg for 7 days)
Tear Resistance (min. avg.) ASTM D1004
Puncture Resistance (min. avg.) ASTM D4833
Carbon Black Content (range) (2) ASTM D4218
Carbon Black Dispersion (3) ASTM D5596
Direct Shear Friction Angle (4) ASTM D5321
Oxidative Induction Time (OIT) (min. avg.) (5)
ASTM D3895
(a) Standard OIT
or
— or —
ASTM D5885
(b) High Pressure OIT
Oven Aging at 85°C (5) ASTM D5721
(a) Standard OIT (min. avg.) - % retained after 90 days ASTM D3895
(b) High Pressure OIT (min. avg.) - % retained after 90 days ASTM D5885
UV Resistance (6)
ASTM D7238
(a) Standard OIT (min. avg.)
ASTM D3895
— or —
ASTM D5885
(b) High Pressure OIT (min. avg.) - % retained after 1600 hrs (8)
Environmental Stress Crack Resistance ASTM D1693
NCTL stress crack resistance ASTM D5397
Resistance to weathering (Min. 95% retained strength) EN ISO 12224
Resistance to oxidation (min. 28 days) EN ISO 13438
Note:
(1) Machine Direction (MD) and Cross Machine Direction (CMD) average values should be on the
basis of five test specimens each direction. Yield elongation is calculated using a gauge length of
33 mm. Break elongation is calculated using a gauge length of 50 mm.
(2) Other methods such as D1603 (tube furnace) or D6370 (TGA) are acceptable if an appropriate
correlation to D4218 (muffle furnace) can be established.
(3) Carbon black dispersion (only near spherical agglomerates) for 10 different views: 9 in Categories
1 or 2 and 1 in Category 3
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(4) Actual geocell strip against well graded sand
(5) The manufacturer has the option to select either one of the OIT (oxidative induction time) methods
listed to evaluate the antioxidant content in the geomembranes.
(6) The condition of the test should be 20 hr. UV cycle at 75°C followed by 4 hr. Condensation at
60°C.
(7) Not recommended since the high temperature of the Std-OIT test produces an unrealistic result
for some of the antioxidants in the UV exposed samples.
(8) UV resistance is based on per cent retained value regardless of the original HP-OIT value.
2.7 Geomat
Geomats are permeable material made of bonded filaments, layers of geogrids (folded and
knitted or bonded together). They can be used for permanent erosion control problems. The
roots of grass and small plants act as reinforcement for vegetation. These are two-dimensional
or three-dimensional mats with specified thickness, made of multi-filaments, layers of geogrids
(folded and knitted or bonded together), with apertures to allow vegetation growth for erosion
control application.
I
2.7.1 Physical properties
2.7.1.1 Thickness: The thickness of geosynthetic mats can be determined using ISO 9863 or
ASTM D5261, “Standard method for measuring nominal thickness of permanent rolled erosion
control products”.
2.7.1.2 Mass per unit area: This can be determined using ISO 9864/ASTM D3776.
2.7.2.1 Tensile strength: Tensile strength of geosynthetic mats can be determined using ISO
10319 or ASTM D4595, for wide width tensile test. In this method, a test specimen is clamped in
a tensile testing machine and a force applied to the specimen until it breaks.
2.8 AsphaQt Reinforcement
2.8 J Physical properties
2.8.1.1 Thickness: The thickness of paving fabric can be determined using ISO 09863, ASTM
D5199.
2.8.1.2 Weight: Methods for the determination of weight are ISO 9864 and ASTM D5261. The
paving fabric’s mass per unit area is given in grams per square meter.
2.8.2.1 Tensile strength: Wide width tensile tests as per EN ISO 10319 or ASTM D4595 or
are used to determine the tensile strength of paving fabric. Other properties of paving fabric are
represented in Table 2.7.
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Table 2.7 Different Properties and Test Methods of Paving Fabric
Property Test Standard Unit
Static Puncture (CBR-test) EN ISO 12236/ASTM D6241 N
Dynamic Perforation (Cone Drop) EN ISO 13433 mm
Bitumen Retention ASTM D6140 kg/m2
Melting point EN ISO 3146/ASTM D276 °C
2.8.2.2 Tensile properties: The tensile properties of asphalt reinforcing geogrid’s shall be
determined as per ISO 10319 or ASTM D4595, “Standard test method for determining tensile
properties of geogrids by the single or multi-rib tensile method”.
2.8.2.3 Melting point: Melting point can be determined as per ASTM D276, “Standard Test
Methods for Identification of Fibres in Textiles”.
Table 2.8 Different Properties and Test Methods of Asphalt Reinforcing Geogrid
Property Units Cori®
Tensile strength kN/m ISO 10319/ASTM D6637
% Elongation at break % ISO 10319/ASTM D6637
Mesh Opening Size mm
Melting Point °C ISO 3146/ASTM D276
Tensile Resistance @ 2% Strain kN/m ASTM D6637/ISO 10319
Secant Stiffness EA @1% strain N/mm ASTM D6637/EN ISO 10319
Young Modulus E (MPa) (For Glass Fibre) MPa
2.9 Geocomposite
As geocomposite is a combination of two or more different geosynthetic materials, the

properties confirming to the individual geosynthetic constituting a geocomposite will be valid for
geocomposite also. Table 2.9 presents the different properties and corresponding test methods
of Geocomposites.
Table 2.9 Different Properties and Test Methods of Geocomposite for Drainage
Properties Reference Standard Unit of

Measurement
Geotextile Properties
Pore Size O90/AOS EN ISO 12956/ASTM D4751/IS 14294 mm
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IRC:SP:59-2019
Properties ; irmmm S^nda rd Onrj: mr

Measurement
Permeability/Permittivity EN ISO 11058/ASTM D4491/IS 14324 l/m2.sec
Tensile Strength EN ISO 10319/ASTM D4595 kN/m
Thickness at 2kPa EN ISO 9863-1 mm
CBR puncture resistance EN ISO 12236 N
Dynamic perforation cone drop EN ISO 13433 mm
Property of Drainage Core
Mass per Unit Area EN ISO 9864/ASTM D3776 g/m2
Long Term Creep ASTM D7361 %
Thickness at 20kPa EN ISO 9863-1 mm

1
Property of composite material
Wide width Tensile Strength EN ISO 10319/ASTM D4595 kN/m
CBR Puncture Resistance EN ISO 12236/ASTM D6241/IS 13162 kN
Mass per Unit Area EN ISO 9864/ASTM D3776 g/m2
Inplane flow capacity (i=1)
@ 20 kPa l/m.sec
@ 50 kPa l/m.sec
EN ISO 12958
@ 100 kPa l/m.sec
@ 200 kPa l/m.sec
@ 400 kPa l/m.sec
Thickness at 20 kPa EN ISO 9863/ASTM D5199 mm
In-plane flow capacity (i=0.T
@ 20 kPa l/rn.sec
@50 kPa l/m.sec

EN ISO 12958
@ 100 kPa l/m.sec
@ 200 kPa l/m.sec
@ 400 kPa l/m.sec
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IRC:SP:59-2019
CHAPTER - 3
DESIGN METHODOLOGIES
General
The performance of reinforced road structures relies heavily on the condition of surrounding
materials and on the traffic loads and therefore each design requires specific analysis and
calculations.
Proposed design methods for different functions of geosynthetics such as reinforcement,

separation, drainage, filtration in pavement section are either based on empirical and analytical
considerations or analytical models modified by experimental data. To date, a general analytical
design solution has not been found that addresses all of the many variables that impact
performance. All empirical design methods are limited by the conditions associated with the
experiments of the study. Several methods are based on obtaining a performance level (Traffic
Benefit Ratio [TBR] or Base Course Reduction [BCR]) from a laboratory model test. The lab
test results must be extrapolated to field conditions for application to design. For a given set of
conditions, many of the methods produce reliable results. This chapter provides the currently
available and generally used design methodologies for several functions described in these
guidelines.
Material properties, specifications and minimum thickness requirements of each pavement layer
will remain same as specified in other relevant codes, guidelines for pavement construction
(IRC:37 and other relevant codes). The surface and subsurface drainage of the pavement shall
comply with provisions of IRC:SP:42.
3.1 Design for Reinforcement of Unbound Pavement Layers
Pavement reinforcement involves reinforcing different layers of the pavement. Geosynthetics

are incorporated into base and subbase section for following reasons:
1. To provide subgrade restraint for construction of the road over weak subgrade
conditions.
2. To reinforce the base and/or sub base
3. 1.1 Basic mechanism
Basic mechanism of reinforcement can be identified as (a) lateral restraint, (b) improved bearing
capacity, and (c) tensioned membrane effect.
Lateral restraint (Fig. 3.1(a)) refers to the confinement of the aggregate material during loading,
which restricts lateral flow of the material from beneath the load. Since most aggregates used
in pavement systems are stress-dependent materials, improved lateral confinement results in
an increase in the modulus of the base course material. The effect of increasing the modulus
of the base course is an improved vertical stress distribution applied to the subgrade and a
corresponding reduction in the vertical strain on the top of the subgrade. Improved bearing
capacity is achieved by shifting the failure envelope of the pavement system from the relatively
weak subgrade to the relatively strong base course material (Fig. 3.1(b)), The third fundamental
reinforcement mechanism has been termed the “tensioned membrane effect.” The tensioned
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IRC:SP:59-2019
membrane effect (Fig. 3.1 (c)) is based upon the concept of an improved vertical stress distribution
resulting from tensile stress in a deformed membrane.
Lateral ReMrauit D«e tv Friction
(a)
Fig. 3.1 Mechanism of Reinforcement: (a) Lateral Restrain Effect, (b) improved Bearing Capacity,
(c) Tension Membrane Effect
3.1 -2 Design of geogrid reinforced flexible pavements
Geogrid reinforced flexible pavement section can be designed based on two design approaches
i.e. MEPDG (Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide) method following MIF (Modulus
Improvement Factor) and Modified AASHTO method following LCR (Layer Coefficient Ratio).
I he approach to flexible pavement design according to modified AASHTO method is similar for
reinforced and unreinforced pavements and can be divided into two steps:
1. Determination of structural numberfor a given traffic load, project conditions and
arriving unreinforced section thickness for individual pavement layers.
2. \ Determination of reduced thickness by incorporating the effect of geosynthetic
in the form of improvement factor in the obtained SN.
3.1.2.1 AASHTO design method
The basic design equation for flexible pavements according to AASHTO 1993 design guide has
the following form:
, ( kpsi A
°g|° 4 ? - I S
log,0(^,)=Z,xS„+9.36xlog„,(55V+l)-0.20+------- V 1094 > +2.32xlog,0K)-8.07
where: Io
predicted number of 80 kN ESALs
zR stanc a d c-rn a se iate (e amp e: ZR = “1.645 for 95 % reliability)
So combined standard error of the traffic prediction and performance
prediction
SIN ructi ra I .ember (a i inde that s indlcati ec i the tc al pa sme t
thIc mess reeu ired) [isenes]
ANSI difference between the initial design serviceability index, po, and the
design terminal serviceability index, pt
MR subgrade resilient modulus (in psi)
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IRC:SP:59-2019
TheAASHTO method utilizes the term Structural Number (SN) to quantify the structural strength
of a pavement required for a given combination of soil support, total traffic, reliability, and
serviceability level. The required SN is converted to actual thickness of surfacing, base and
sub base, by means of appropriate layer coefficients representing the relative strength of the
construction materials. The design equation used is as follows:
SN = a.D. + a„D9m„ + aTm +... (2)
Where: a = ith layer coefficient
D=ith layer thickness (inches), and
m = ith layer drainage coefficient (drainage effect on the asphalt layer is not considered
in the AASHTO 93 guide)
The subscripts 1,2 and 3 refer to the bituminous concrete course, aggregate base course and sub
base course (if applicable) respectively. For detailed design methodologies refer AASHTO 1993.
3.1.2.2 Modified AASHTO method with geogrids for base/sub base stabilization
The structural contribution of a geogrid on a flexible pavement system can be quantified by

an empirical term defined as layer coefficient ratio (LCR). Hence the equation 2 is modified as
below.
SN = a. x D + LCFL xa9x D„xm + LCFt x a„ D„ m + ... (3)
Where: LCR is the Layer Coefficient Ratio, with a value higher than one
Layer coefficient ratio represents the improvement/enhancement provided by a specific geogrid

to the layer coefficient of the layer in which the geogrid is placed (most commonly a base course
and subbase course or both).
This value is back-calculated, based upon the number of load cycles on a reinforced section
to the number of load cycles on an unreinforced section, with the same geometry to reach
the defined failure state. Appropriate empirical value of LCR may be used. Such values are
normally provided by the manufacturer based on their field and laboratory testing for various
materials. These factors may differ from product to product. Agency-Specific evaluation
to select appropriate empirical ratio is recommended. Such evaluation shall be tailored
to local materials, practice, costs. Furthermore, agency specific evaluation should provide
the designers with guidance on value of reliability for reinforced pavement. A general
procedure for the determination of LCR by extensive laboratory and filed testing is provided
in Annexure II.
According to FHWANHI-07-092, based on the AASHTO, 1993 design guide, the overall structural
contribution of geosynthetic reinforcement is considered in the design through either of the
following factors that are derived from empirical product specific data:
Traffic Benefit Ratio (TBR) - the ratio of the number of load applications necessary to
reach a specific failure state in a geosynthetic-reinforced pavement to the number of
load applications required to reach the same failure state in an unreinforced section
(i.e., the same pavement section but without reinforcement).
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IRC:SP:59-2019
Base Course Reduction Factor (BCR) - the per cent reduction in the thickness of
base or subbase material in a reinforced pavement compared to an unreinforced one,
given that the traffic capacity for a defined failure state remains the same.
3.1.2.3 Design procedure for geogrid reinforced flexible pavement
|RC:37 provides design procedure for unreinforced section. As many of the parameters used
are still empirical, the equation requires modification to include the benefit of reinforcement
in the pavement layers. Hence to take the advantage of empirical and mechanistic empirical
methodologies, reinforced pavement design shall be done in the following procedure. Design for
geogrid reinforced pavement design procedure shall be done in two parts:
a) Determine the conventional unreinforced pavement section as per IRC:37 for given
sub grade CBR, design traffic.
b) Determine the improved layer parameters by inclusion of geogrid in different layers.
Using these improved parameters, reinforced section shall be designed with same
methodology as per IRC:37 and calculation of fatigue and rutting resistance of geogrid
reinforced pavement section.
The detailed design procedure for geogrid reinforced pavement section.
1. Determine the sub grade CBR and design traffic load for which the flexible pavement
is to be designed. Unreinforced section thickness shall be determined according to
the IRC:37 for specified sub grade CBR and Design Traffic.
2. Resilient moduli MD and IVL ^QR are evaluated for the base and sub-base.
3. The tensile horizontal and vertical strains are evaluated for the conventional section
at Points A and B for the given subgrade CBR and traffic/pavement life.
4. Structural layer coefficients a2, a3for granular base and subbase layer of unreinforced
section shall be determined from its resilient modulus using following equations from
AASHTO 1993.
a2 = 0.249 (fo£?10MRSB)- 0.977 (4)
a3 = 0.227 (tog,0 MR GSB) - 0.839 (5)
Where M. and M„ „Dare resilient modulus of base and subbase layers
5. Benefit of inclusion of geogrid reinforcement in the pavement layers will be represented
in improvement of resilient modulus of respective layer. Consider the layer within
which,the geogrid is placed, base, or sub-base, or both. Accordingly the corresponding
structural layer coefficient(s) is/are modified by multiplying by the corresponding linear
coefficient ratios.
LCR2a2 = 0.249 (log10 M\ GB) - 0.977 (6)
LCR3a3 = 0.227 (logt0 M1R ess) - 0.839 (7)
Where M1_ ..and M1_ „o are modified resilient modulus of base and subbase layers.
6. From equation
1
(6) and/or (7),7 M1DK_U
f
nn and/or M1Dr\_boD
d
„QRare evaluated.
7. M1d and/or M1R rQR are then used to determine the reduced thicknesses of the
pavement components.
8. Further, these values are imposed in the IRC recommended IITPAVE software and
evaluated for the strain values as shown in below Fig. 3.2.
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IRC:SP:59-2019
Fig. 3.2 Critical Points for Evaluation of Horizontal and Vertical strains
9. By using critical tensile strain and compressive strain induced at the bottom of the
bituminous course and top of the sub grade respectively, the allowable traffic should
be determined for fatigue and rutting failures using equations from IRC:37.
10. If obtained strain values are less than the permissible strain values the section is safe
for pavement life in rutting and fatigue and may be adopted for the construction.
In this way the advantages of both, Mechanist Empirical method from IRC:37 (for unreinforced
road design) and modified AASHTO 1993 method (for reinforced road design) are taken into
consideration in designing geogrid reinforced section. This design procedure for geogrid
reinforced flexible pavements can be adopted for any subgrade CBR values and any traffic
values.
Value of LCR depends on stiffness of geogrid, CBR of subgrade, and depth of placement of
reinforcement. Table 3.1 below gives recommended range of LCR values that may be adopted
in design. In the absence of LCR value for a particular geogrid reinforced pavement system, LCR
equal to 1.2 may be taken as a default value for design. If the manufacturer/designer intends
to use higher LCR values in the design, then such values shall be based on proper testing/
evaluations. Annexure I provide procedure for determination of layer coefficients from Falling
Weight Deflectometer (FWD) and CBR values. Such higher values obtained through testing
shall be verified and certified by an independent third-party agency/institution.
Table 3.1 Indicative Range of LCR Values
a. Mo. CBR Indicative Range of LCR* for geogrid

1 <3% 1.2-1.8
2 >3% 1.2-1.6
Note:* These values are the indicative range of improvement ratios. Recommended LCR is based on
extensive review of studies available in the literature. These values may differ from product to
product, subgrade and granular layer properties. However actual certified values shall be used in
the design subject to the maximum value in the table.
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IRC:SP:59-2019
* It may be noted for CBR <3, geogrids of higher strengths and stiffness higher LCR may be
considered.
Default minimum values are applicable for the stabilized layer using geogrid i.e. base, subbase
and subgrade layers of the pavement section. For properties of geogrid and test methods, Section
4.6.2 and Table 2.3 shall be referred to.
Haas et al. (1988) after performing laboratory experiments concluded the importance of
variables such as geogrid placement position, base course thickness, and subgrade strength.
The optimum geogrid location for lower thicknesses (< 150 mm) shall be at the bottom of the
layer and for the higher thicknesses (> 150 mm) it shall be at 1 /3rd to half of thickness from top.
For very soft subgrades (CBR<3%), optimum performance occurs with two layers of geogrids
when geosynthetic shall be used in separate layers of base and sub base.
Drainage coefficients: The drainage characteristics of the pavement are accounted for the use of
modified layer coefficients. AASHTO 1993 (Pg. No. II- 22) presents the definitions of suggested
drainage levels. The drainage characteristic of the bituminous layer (Layer 1) is not considered
in design. For accounting the m. values in the design of pavement, ASSHTO 1993 (Table 2.4,
Pg. No. II-25) presents the recommended rn values as a function of the drainage quality and
the percentage of time during the year the pavement structure would normally be exposed to
moisture levels approaching saturation.
3.1.3 Design of geosynthetic (geocell/geogrid) reinforced flexible pavement using Modulus

improvement factor (MIF)
Geocell/Geogrid reinforced/stabilised flexible pavement design is based on Mechanistic

Empirical approach as given in IRC:37. This design procedure can be adopted for any subgrade
CBR values and any traffic values.
Step wise design procedure for geocell/geogrid reinforced flexible pavement is as follows:
1. Determine the soaked subgrade CBR as per IS 2720-Part 16 design traffic load from
traffic survey.
2. Selection of conventional pavement as per IRC:37 for specific subgrade CBR and
design traffic.
3. Since geocell/geogrid can be used in base/subbase layer and so the elastic modulus
of corresponding layer shall increase due to confinement action of Geocell and
confinement, tension membrane action and bearing capacity improvement action of
geogrid. This increased modulus of confined base/subbase layers may be computed
by applying a Modulus Improvement Factor (MIF) to the unconfined modulus of base
material.
E reinforced base/subbase layer
= MIF x E unreinforced base/subbase layer
4. Based on this increased modulus of base layer the strain at the bottom of the asphalt
layer shall be again calculated. By trial and error method thickness of surface layer
shall be reduced in a manner that the tensile strain at the bottom of surface layer is
less or equal to that of conventional section.
5. For this reinforced section with reduced surface layer thickness, determine the
compressive strain at the top of subgrade.
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6. Based on tensile strain and compressive strain calculate the fatigue and rutting
resistance (NF and NR respectively) from equations given in IRC:37. The fatigue and
rutting resistance must be greater or equal to design traffic load.
This MIF has a very crucial role in design and must be evaluated from field and laboratory
testing. MIF depends on geosynthetic material type and their properties and stiffness and shear
strength of different fill soil. Precise MIF can be taken from manufacturer based on their field and
laboratory testing for specific size and material. However, it is recommended to ensure correct
MIF for proper optimized design and MIF must be verified by appropriate testing for some trial
patch before full fledge execution of the work. Only third party validated MIF values must be
used for the design. The indicative range of MIF values for geogrid to be used in the design shall
be 1.2 to 2, and for geocell these ranges shall be as per Table 3.2.
fable 3.2 Indicative Range of MIF Values
S. No. CBR indicative Range of MIF* for geoceii

1 <3 2 to 2.75
2 >3 1.4 to 2
Note:* These values are the indicative range of improvement ratios. Recommended MIF is based on
extensive review of studies available in the literature.
These values may differ from product to product, subgrade and granular layer properties. Higher
MIF values may also be considered subjected to actual certified values as per test results subject
to the maximum value in the Table 3.2.
Design of geosynthetic reinforced flexible pavement can be followed by either LCR approach
or MIF approach, based on the availability of coefficient values which represents the benefit of
geosynthetic in pavement layers.
3.1.4 Material properties
Regardless of the design procedure, it is essential that the material properties are adopted only
after conducting relevant tests on the materials. Grade of bitumen and recommended modulus
values, poison ratios, minimum thickness requirements, reliability specified in IRC:37 shall also
be applicable for geosynthetic reinforced pavement design.
3.2 Designing for Separation
Separation is the major function of geotextile. In the pavement applications, the best use of
geotextile as separators illustrates when it is placed between a reasonably firm soil subgrade
(beneath) and a stone base course, or aggregate, or ballast above the geotextile. Subgrade
shall be “reasonably firm” because it is assumed that the subgrade deformation is not sufficiently
large to mobilize uniformly high-tensile stress in the geotextile. Thus, for a separation function
to occur, the geotextile has to be placed on the soil subgrade and then have aggregate Base/
Subbase course spread over the geotextile and compacted on top of it (as shown in Fag. 3.3).
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IRC:SP:59-2019
Geotextile
Geotextile prevents intermixing Geotextile allows controlled passage
of soil layers of excess pore water
Fcg. 3.3 Separation Function of Geotextile
For separation design, the base and subbase course thickness required to adequately carry the
design traffic loads for the design life of the pavement and these thickness not reduced due to the
use of a geosynthetic. Recall that geotextile separators help prevent pavement failures due to the
intrusion of finer subgrade soil fractions into the granular base layer(s). Geotextiles separation
layers may also be used between dense and open graded base layers. Mostly any geotextile
will work in this application as long as it is strong enough to survive construction. As indicated
earlier, filtration is a secondary function in this application. Therefore, the geotextile should have
small enough openings to prevent contamination of the base and subbase pavement layers from
the subgrade materials and be sufficiently permeable (i.e., more permeable than the subgrade)
to prevent the development of pore water pressure in the subgrade. AASHTO M288, Table 4
explains the degree of survivability of geotextile for different subgrade conditions.
3.3 Design for Filtration
The geotextile must prevent in-situ soil from being washed into the system without clogging over
time. FHWANHI-070-092 Section 2.3 presents the basic principles, geotextile filter design and
selection.
3.4 Design for Drainage Applications
Water in pavement systems is one of the principal causes of pavement distress. It is well known
that improved roadway drainage extends the life of a roadway system. Modern roadways
incorporating good drainage are predicted to have a design life of up to two to three times
over that of undrained pavement sections. This section provides design guidance for a new
alternative drainage method, which incorporates a Geo Composite drainage layer tied directly
and continuously into an edge drain system. This Geo Composite drainage layer can be used
to directly replace drainable aggregate layers in modern rigid or flexible pavement systems. The
layer can also be used to significantly enhance the drainage of dense graded aggregate layers.
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IRC:SP:59-2019
3.4.1 Design requirements
In order to perform in this application, the geocomposite must have the stiffness required to
withstand compaction and support traffic without experiencing significant damage due to
compaction and deformation under cyclic traffic loading. At the same time, the geocomposite must
have the flow capacity required to rapidly drain the pavement section and prevent saturation of
the base. As discussed in the previous section, in order to provide optimum drainage, the outflow
capacity of the drainage layer must be sufficient to drain the pavement section within a few
hours of a moisture event. The geocomposite must have a high crush resistance to withstand
construction loading and compaction stresses. A factor of safety of 5 between the anticipated
load and geocomposite crush resistance as determined by quick load tests is recommended by
the FHWAto resist creep in geocomposite drains (Christopher et al., 2001). Considering the high
cost of pavement replacement, it is prudent to consider only high modulus, high compressive
resistance materials such as geonet drainage composites.
The design of a geocomposite drainage system is carried out as follows:
Identify/set all the design conditions, including (but not limited to):
* Types of soil involved (stones, gravel, clay etc.) and their grading curves.
* Environment (aggressive for landfill bottom, medium for landfill capping, ordinary for
roof gardens etc.).
• Chemical and physical properties of the materials in contact with the geocomposite
(pH, chemical and biological content, hardness, stiffness etc.) and of the liquid to be
drained (pH, chemical and biological content, density, viscosity, turbidity etc.).
° Set the boundary conditions (that is the type of materials in contact with the two faces
of the geocomposite).
• Calculate the maximum applied pressure, the hydraulic gradient and the design input
flow rate for the geocomposite.
* Select one or more geocomposites and for each of them calculate the available flow
rate for the design conditions of materials in contact with the two faces, maximum
applied pressure, and hydraulic gradient.
• Compare the available flow rate with the design input flow rate and consider only the
geocomposites for which the former is larger than the latter.
® Make the final selection of the geocomposite.
• Provide design specifications and details, in particular the method for fixing the
geocomposites on the supporting surface and the connections/overlaps between
geocomposite rolls and between the geocomposites and other elements of the
drainage system (manholes, perforated pipes etc.).
3.4.2 Calculation of Input flow rate
The calculation of the input flow rate is project specific.
The generalized equation for input flow rate in the geocomposite is:
Q D = FSQ • [(QF / L) + Qs]
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IRC:SP:59-2019
Where:
Qf = Total rainfall flow on the catchment zone (m3/s or l/s)

A = Horizontal area of the catchment zone (m2)
L = Running length of the geocomposite drain (m)
Qs = Input flow rate due to additional surficial flow (m3/s/m or l/s/m)
FSQ = Factor of Safety on input flow rate
Qd = Input flow rate in the geocomposite (m3/s/m or l/s/m)
A3 Calculation of a vailable flow rate
The flow velocity inside a geocomposite is proportional to the hydraulic gradient (i) which is
defined as:
i = 6h / L
Where: 5h = Hydraulic head loss along the distance L for the fluid flow in the geosynthetic (m)
L = Distance between two points along the average direction of flow in the geosynthetic (m)
Since the design of the drainage system ensures that the available flow rate of the geocomposite
is always larger than the design input flow rate, pressure flow will never occur and the flow will
always occur at atmospheric pressure.
The available flow rate of a geocomposite will depend on the types of material in contact with its
two faces.
It is evident that a very rigid material (concrete slabs in case of rigid pavements etc.) will compress
and deform the geocomposite evenly, imparting a homogeneous decrease in its thickness, but
without pushing the geotextile into the channels of the draining core; rigid materials produce
negligible geotextile intrusion into the core. Conversely, a soft material (like a soil, gravel, ballast)
in contact with the geocomposite will deform the geotextile, forcing the textile to intrude into
the draining core with a resulting reduction in the cross-sectional area of the draining core
and commensurate decrease of the draining capacity. Therefore, the available flow rate of a
geocomposite with a given structure will be a function of:
9 Thickness of the geocomposite (H)
* Distance (L) between the support points of the geotextile filter
• Pressure (P) on the filter
* Strength, modulus and tensile creep of the geotextile filter
® Deformability of the material in contact with the geocomposite
* Roughness of the geotextile filter
For all applications, the available flow rate of the geocomposite shall be obtained by applying
a set of reduction factors which take into account all the phenomena that may decrease the
flow rate over the entire design life compared to the short term flow rate measured in the tests
according to ED A 073 or ASAD B4716 - 08(20 3: standard:
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IRC:SP:59-2019
“ RFin ■ RFcr ■ RFCC ■ RFbc
Where:
Qa = available long term flow rate for the geocomposite
Ql = short term flow rate obtained from laboratory tests
RFin = Reduction Factor for the intrusion of filter geotextiles into the draining core
RFcr = Reduction Factor for the compressive creep of the geocomposite
RFcc = Reduction Factor for chemical clogging of the draining core
RFbc = Reduction Factor for biological clogging of the draining core
Table 3.3 Suggested Range of Values of the Different RFs for Geo Composites
Term Description Suggested range for

geocomposites
RF|„ Reduction Factor for intrusion of the filter geotextile into the 1.0 - 1.5
drainage core
RFcr Reduction Factor for thickness change due to compressive 1.2 - 1.5
creep of the core
RFcc Reduction Factor for pore/volume reduction due to chemical 1.0- 1.3
clogging*
RFbc Reduction Factor for pore/volume reduction due to biological 1.0- 1.3
clogging**
n rf Product of all Reduction Factors for the site-specific conditions 1.20-4.0
* values can change according to the type of the core and also according to the type of filtering geotextile
used
* * values are related to the type of the liquid/fluid to be drained and to its nature (clean water, polluted
water, leachate, etc)
Once the design input flow QD has been calculated, the available input flow Qa shall be calculated
for one or more geocomposite.
The final Factor of Safety of Geocomposite FSG afforded by the design with each geocomposite
is given by:
FSG = Qa/QD
The final selection of the geocomposite shall be done among the geocomposite for which:
FSg > 1.00 taking into consideration also costs and availability
Once the core is designed to carry the required flow, geotextiles on either side of the core shall
be designed for separation and filtration as per the requirements. Geotextile separation design
as per section 3.2 and filter design shall be same as explained in section 3.3. This method of
drainage is applicable to all types of road construction (whether rigid or flexible) and should be
preferred wherever economically feasible based on the site conditions.
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3.5 Geosynthetic Capillary Barrier Drain
Water can travel up to 10 m vertically in silty soils because of capillary action. Two forces affect
water movement through soils, gravity and capillary action. A capillary barrier forms and restricts
water flow when two porous materials with differing hydraulic conductivities are in contact.
Filtration/Separation geotextile
(laminated to capillary barrier/drainage layer)
Geocomposite Capillary Capillary barrier/drainage layer

Barrier Drain (GCBD) (geospacer or geonet)
Protection/Separation geotextile
(laminated to capillary barrier/drainage layer)
Fig. 3.4 GCBD Between Base Course and Subgrade Illustrating

how Water Laterally Drains in Transport Layer
Utilizing a GCBD for pavement drainage explicitly accounts for unsaturated flow, and will result
in greater drainage efficiency compared to conventional drainage system. With a GCBD, the
base and subgrade will contain less water than a pavement without a GCBD at any point of time.
This is important because the strength of both the base course and subgrade degrades with
increased moisture content and ultimately reduces pavement structural durability. Thus, a GCBD
will result in increased longevity of the pavement. Expected benefits of the GCBD include:
» Reduced equilibrium water content in base

• Prevent positive pressures in base
• Prevent wetting of underlying subgrade due to infiltration
9 Prevent capillary rise of water from subgrade into base
• Provide complementary separation and stabilization
Design of geocomposite barrier drain is similar to the design of drainage composite that is
outlined in the above section 3.4. IRC:34 and IRC:SP:42 shall be referred for detailed design
procedure and specifications/properties of geocomposite for capillary barrier drain.
3.6 Design for Asphalt Reinforcement
Reinforcement in asphalt layers such as fabrics, grids or composites can enhance cracking
and rutting resistance of the asphalt layers significantly if properly applied. This has lead to
increased use of reinforcement in asphalt layers over the past years throughout the world. Asphalt
reinforcement prevents reflective cracking, by acting as a barrier against crack propagation.
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Tensile Reinforcement smoothes

V out stress and strain
Peaks of strain 1 strain
concentrations in the asphalt
Unreinforced Reinforced
Fig. 3.5 Reinforcement Action
The crack starts to propagate (due to thermal and traffic loading or uneven soil movements) from
its original position upward until it reaches the stabilized layer; If the interlayer is stiff enough
(stiffer than the surrounding materials), the crack will turn laterally and move along the interface
until its energy is exhausted. Based on this mechanism, a stabilized interlayer may contribute to
the structural capacity of the pavement.
3.7 Subgrade Stabilization
The purpose of subgrade modification is to enhance the strength of the subgrade, create a
working platform for construction equipment. This increased strength is then taken into account
in the pavement design process. Soil properties such as strength, compressibility, hydraulic
conductivity, workability, swelling potential, and volume change tendencies may be altered by
various soil modification or stabilization methods.
The methods of subgrade modification or stabilization include physical processes such as soil
densification, blending with granular material, use of reinforcements (geosynthetic inclusions),
undercutting and replacement etc.
Chemical processes such as mixing with cement, fly ash, lime, lime by products, and blends of
any one of these materials. Details of cement stabilization are covered in IRC:SP:89 “Guidelines
for Soil and Granular Material Stabilization Using Cement Lime and Fly Ash”.
For improving the subgrade, several ground improvement methods may also be adopted based
on available subgrade CBR and the required CBR to be achieved and as per the site feasibilities
and project requirement. Suitable type of ground improvement shall be chosen accordingly.
For details regarding several ground improvement methods reference may be made to the
documents mentioned therein IRC:75, IRC:113, IRC-HRB: SR-13, SR-14.
State of art reports IRC-HRB: SR-13, SR-14 deal with different ground improvements SR-14
deals with various ground improvement methods including vertical drains (PVDs), lime columns,
stone columns, geosynthetics and dynamic consolidation.
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The purpose of this section is to assist pavement design engineers in the selection and design
of a Subgrade Enhancement Geosynthetic (SEG).
SEG is a geosynthetic placed between the pavement structure and the subgrade (the subgrade
is usually untreated). The placement of SEG below the pavement will provide subgrade
enhancement by bridging soft areas.
Different types of geosynthetics that are used in subgrade stabilization are geotextiles, geogrids
and geocell. Geocell, geotextile, geogrid and geosynthetic composites achieve mechanical
stabilization through slightly different mechanisms.
Subgrade Enhancement Geogrid (SEGG): A geogrid’s primary stabilization mechanism is lateral

restraint of the subbase or base materials through a process of interlocking the aggregate and the
apertures of the geogrid. The level of lateral restraint that is achieved is a function of the type of
geogrid and the quality and gradation of the base or subbase material placed on the geogrid. To
maximize performance of the geogrid, a well-graded granular base or subbase material should
be selected that is sized appropriately for the aperture size of the geogrid. When aggregate is
placed over geogrid, it quickly becomes confined within the apertures and is restrained from
punching into the soft subgrade and shoving laterally. This results in a “stiffened” aggregate
platform over the geogrid. Very little deformation of the geogrid is needed to achieve the lateral
restraint and reinforcement. For longer life, a separator geotextile should be used. Requirement
of geogrids for stabilization applications shall be as per Table 4=5.
Subgrade Enhancement Geocell (SEGC): Geocell serves as load spreader when loads are
imposed upon the system. This 3D mattress reduces vertical differential settlement into soft
subgrades, improves shear strength, and enhances load-bearing capacity, while reducing the
amount of aggregate material required extending the service life of roads. As a composite system,
cellular confinement strengthens the aggregate in fill, thereby simultaneously enabling the use
of poorly graded inferior material (e.g. local native soils, quarry waste or recycled materials)
for infill as well as reducing the structural support layer thickness. Requirement of geocells for
stabilization applications shall be as per Table 4=6.
Subgrade Enhancement Geotextile (SEGT): A geotextile’s primary stabilization mechanism is

filtration and separation of a soft subgrade and the subbase or base materials. The sheet-like
structure provides a physical barrier between these materials to prevent the aggregate and
subgrade from mixing. It can also reduce excess pore water pressure through a mechanism
of filtration and drainage. Secondary mechanisms of a geotextile are lateral restraint and
reinforcement. Lateral restraint is achieved through friction between the surface of the geotextile
and the subbase .or base materials. Reinforcement mechanism requires deformation of the
subgrade and stretching of the geotextile to engage the tensile strength and create a “tensioned
membrane”. Stabilization function of geotextile is applicable to pavement structures constructed
over soils with a CBR between 1 and 3 (IS 16362). Requirement of geotextiles for stabilization
applications shall be as per Table 1, IS: 16362.
3.8 Performance Evaluation off Reinforced Flexible Pavements
Performance of reinforced flexible pavements can be evaluated by applying loads on the

pavements that simulate the traffic loading by measuring the elastic deflection under such loads,
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IRC:SP:59-2019
and analysing these data duly considering the factors influencing the performance such as
subgrade strength, thickness and quality of each of the pavement layers, drainage conditions,
pavement surface temperature etc.
Among the equipment’s available for structural evaluation of pavements, the Falling Weight
Deflectometer (FWD) is extensively used world-wide because it simulates, to a large extent, the
actual loading conditions of the pavement IRC: 115 explains the structural evaluation of flexible
road pavements using deflection data from Falling Weight Deflectometer.
CHAPTER - 4
PROPERTY REQUIREMENTS & SELECTION CRITERIA OF
GEOSYNTHETICS BASED ON FUNCTION
4.1 General
4.1.1 This section of the document covers the criteria for selection of a particular type of
geosynthetic material and its property requirement based on its function and application in road
works for different project conditions. Specific design and site conditions often require individual
geosynthetic properties and construction recommendations to be taken care to ensure that the
chosen geosynthetics are consistent with project needs.
4.2 Construction Survivability
This section talks about the necessity of provision of geosynthetic and selection of geosynthetic
material according to the site condition and application of intended. AASHT01990 (After Taskforce
25) provides different cover thicknesses adopted for different site soil CBR and different ground
contact pressures.
4.3 Ultraviolet Stability
4.3.1 Ultraviolet light degradation is a process where a particular property of a geosynthetic

is damaged or reduced through its exposure to U-V Rays (sunlight). Typical reductions can be
seen in the physical properties of geosynthetic material after exposure for a certain period of
time to sunlight. The rate of deterioration varies with the product, the exposure environment and
the time of exposure. Atmospheric exposure of geosynthetic material following lay down shall
be a maximum of 14 days to minimize the damage potential. Table 4.1 gives specifications for
ultraviolet light degradation.
Table: 4.1 Requirements for Ultra Violet Stability
Requirements
Properties ©f Fabric
(Retained Strength)
1 Grab Strength UV Stability as per IS
2 Tear Strength 13162 Part 2/ASTM D 4355 Not less than 70% after
3 Puncture Strength 500 hours of exposure
4 Burst Strength
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4.4 Certificate
4.4.1 The supplier of any geosynthetic material should provide a certificate to the engineer
stating the name of the manufacturer, product name, style number, roll number, chemical
composition of the filaments or yarns and other pertinent information regarding property values
of individual roll to fully describe the specific geosynthetic material.
4.4.2 The manufacturer is responsible for establishing and maintaining a quality control
program to assure compliance with the requirements of the specifications. Documentation
describing the quality control program shall be made available upon request. The manufacturer’s
certificate shall state that the furnished geosynthetic material meets MARV requirements of
the specifications as evaluated under the Manufacturer’s quality control program and are in
conformance as per ASTM D4759 or equivalent standards/procedures. The certificate shall be
attested by a person having legal authority to bind the manufacturer.
Any misrepresentation or mislabelling of materials shall become a sufficient reason to

reject the geosynthetic products.
4.5 Separation/Filtration Requirements
In roads and pavements works geotextile is the most preferred geosynthetic material which
satisfies the function of separation/filtration which prevents intermixing of subgrade soil and
aggregate cover material (Base/Subbase) with sufficient filtration. Table 4.2 and 4.3 explains the
geotextile property requirements for separation function.
Table 4.2 Geotextile Requirements for Separation (Subgrades Soaked CBR >3)
Sb Ho.. Geotext lite Property Requirement

1. Permittivity as per IS 14324/ASTM D 4491 0.02 sec1 (per sec)
2. Maximum Apparent Opening Size as per IS 14294/ 0.60 mm
ASTM D 4751
Table 4.3 Geotextile Requirements for Separation (Subgrades Soaked CBR <3)
SG. Ho. Geotextile Property Requirement

1. Permittivity as per IS 14324/ASTM D 4491 0.05 sec1 (per sec)
2. Maximum Apparent Opening Size as per IS 14294/ 0.43 mm
ASTM D 4751
4.6 Base/Subbase Reinforcement Requirements
Geosynthetics have been found to be a cost-effective alternative to improve poor sub-soils in

adverse locations, in almost all geotechnical engineering projects such as airport and highway
pavements. For pavement application geotextile, geogrids and geocells will perform this function
primarily.
4.6.1 Geotextile requirements: In some installations, the geotextile can also provide the
function of reinforcement along with separation and filtration. The geotextile shall meet the
strength property requirements as specified in Table 4.4a and 4.4b.
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Table 4.4a Minimum Geotextile Strength Property Requirements
Installation Type Strength Property Requirement (MARV)

condition Grab Strength m Tear Strength in
Newton (N) as per BS Newton (N) as per DS Bn Newton (N) as per
i । l :. 44 D 4534 H J - - I’’ , !
AS / A D 6241
Elongation at FaoHure
<50% >50% <50% >50% <50% >50%
Harsh Type I 1400 900 500 350 2800 2000
installation
condition
Moderate Type II 1100 700 400 250 2250 1400
Installation
condition
Less Severe Type III 800 500 300 180 1700 1000
Installation
condition
Note:
(1) All numeric values in the above table represent Minimum Average Roll Value (MARV) in weaker
principal direction. The MARV is derived statistically as the average value minus two standard
deviations.
(2) When the geotextiles are joined together by field sewing, the seam strength shall be at least
60 per cent of the material’s tensile strength. All field seams shall be sewn with thread as strong
as the material in the fabric.
(3) Table 4.4b provides required degree of survivability as a function of ground conditions, construction
equipment, and lift thickness of Type 1,2 and 3 as given in Table 4.4a.
Table 4.4b Required Degree of Survivability
Low Ground Medium Ground High Ground

Pressure Pressure Pressure
Equipment Equipment >25 to Equipment
<25 kPa (3j3 AA kPa <AA A >50 kPa (>7.3 psi)
<7.3 psi)
Subsoil has been cleared of all Low Moderate High
obstacles except grass, weeds, (Type 3) (Type 2) (Type 1)
leaves, and fine wood debris,
surface is smooth, and level so
than any shallow depressions
and humps do not exceed 450
mm (18 in.) in depth or height.
All larger depressions are filled,
Alternatively, a smooth working
table may be placed.
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Low Ground Medium Ground High Ground

(Pressure Pressure Pressure
Equipment Equipment >25 1© Equipment
52© ikPa pjs psp <50 kPa (>3=® ■'© >50 PPa (>7.3 psp
<7 J ysji
Subsoil has been cleared of Moderate High Very high
obstacles larger than small to (Type 2) (Type 1) (Type 1+)
moderate sized tree limbs and
rock. Tree trunks and stumps
should be removed or covered
with a partial working table.
Depressions and humps should

not exceed 450 mm (18 in.)
in depth or height. Larger
depressions should be filled.
Minimal size preparation is High Very high Not recommended
required. Trees may be felled, (Type 1) (Type 1+)
delimbed, and left in place,
stumps should he cut to project
not more than ±150 mm
(±6 in.) above subgrade.
Geotextile may be draped
directly over the tree trunks,
stumps, large depressions and
humps, holes, stream channels,
and large boulders, items should
be removed only if placing the
geotextile and cover material
over them will distort the finished
road surface.
Recommendations are for 150 to 300 mm (6 to 12 in.) initial lift thickness.
For initial lift thicknesses:
300 to 450 mm (12 to 18 in.): reduce survivability requirement one level;
450 to 600 mm (18 to 24 in.): reduce survivability requirement two level;
>600 mm (24 in.): reduce survivability requirement three level;
For special construction techniques such as prerutting, increase the geotextile survivability requirement
one level. Placement of excessive initial cover material thickness may cause bearing failure of the soft
subgrade.
4.6=2 Geogrid requirements: Reinforcement is the primary function of geogrids. It

performs better than geotextiles in base layer reinforcement mainly because of grid interlock
with aggregate particles. Poor friction properties of geotextiles do not allow good interlock with
aggregate particles. The geogrid for use in both base and sub base, shall meet the requirements
of Table 4.5.
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Table 4.5 Minimum Requirements of Geogrid for Base & Sub-base
Stabilization of Flexible Pavement
Property Test Method Umt Requirement

Stiffness at 0.5% IS 13162 Part 5/ISO 10319 kN/m >350; both in machine and cross
strain machine direction
Tensile strength IS 13162 Part 5/ISO 10319/ kN/m >15 % of Tulu■ both in machine
@2% strain ASTM D6637 and cross-machine direction
Tensile strength IS 13162 Part 5/ISO 10319/ kN/m >20 % of Tult; both in machine
@5% strain ASTM D6637 and cross-machine direction
Junction efficiency GRI-GG2-87 orASTM-WK - 90 % of rib ultimate tensile
for extruded geogrids 14256 strength
Ultraviolet stability IS 13162 Part 2/ASTM - 70% after 500 hrs exposure
D4355
Note:
(1) All numerical values in the Table represent MARV in the specified direction.
(2) All geogrids shall be placed along machine direction parallel to the centre line of roadway
alignment.
4.6 .3 Geocell requirement: Geocell is a honey comb shaped cellular structure made of
polymers such as high density polyethylene, polypropylene or alloy material to suit the harsh
environmental conditions, especially increased temperate in case of flexible pavements where the
asphalt layers are subjected to very elevated temperatures during installation. Geocell property
requirements would remain same as given in Table 4.10, except for the cell wall thickness.
Minimum 1.5 mm cell wall thickness is recommended considering the load bearing application
of geocell in base and subbase reinforcement.
4.7 Subsurface Dramage Requirements
4.7.1 Geotextile property requirements: Geotextiles will become integral part of any structure,
wherever they are being used. So, it is necessary that the geotextile should possess sufficient
strength to withstand the construction and other stresses which a fabric is likely to bear during its
life span. Table 4.6 provides the geotextile property requirements for subsurface drainage. The
specifications are applicable for placing a geotextile against the soil to allow long term passage
of water into a subsurface drain system retaining the in-situ soil. For drainage purpose, woven
slit film geotextiles (i.e. geotextiles made from yarns of a flat, tape like character) should not be
allowed.
Table 4.6 Geotextile Requirements for Subsurface Drainage
iln-sata Passing Permittivity, per sec, as per lAmmyrnm Afp^mmA'

0-075 mm Samm 7mJ B 14370/AS^A 74451 Opening Size, mm IS 14294/
ASIA “ A Bi
< 15 0.5 0.43
15 to 50 0.2 0.25
> 50 0.1 0.22
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4.7.2 Geocomposite property requirement: Geocomposite shall be able to meet the

drainage and protection requirements in structurally demanding water draining application. It
should be able to effectively eliminate hydrostatic pressure against below grade structures and
aid in dewatering saturated soil by collecting and conveying groundwater to a drain pipe for
discharge. Geosynthetic drainage composite (drainage composite/Geonet/Geospacer between
one or two Geotextile layers) shall also satisfy the requirements of subsurface drainage as per
the site requirement.
Geotextile used in drainage composite shall meet the requirements as specified in Table 4.7.
The properties of the Geocomposite shall meet the requirements as indicated in Table 4.8.
Table 4.7 Geotextile Requirements for Fin Drains
In-situ Soil Passing Permittivity, per sec Maximum Apparent

0.075 mm sieve (%) IS 14324/ASTM D 4491 Opening Size, mm as per
iS 14294/ASTM D 4751
< 15 0.5 0.43
15 to 50 0.2 0.25
> 50 0.1 0.22
Table 4.8 Properties of Geocomposite
Property Test Method Units Minimum Average

Roll Value
Tensile strength EN ISO 10319 kN/m 16
Static puncture test (CBR test) EN ISO 12236 kN 3
Mass per unit area EN ISO 9864 g/m2 710
Thickness of Composite EN ISO 9863 mm 4.5
In-plane Hydraulic Gradient, i=1 at EN ISO 12958 l/m/s 0.55
permeability 100 kPa pressure
Hydraulic Gradient, i=1 at 0.45
200 kPa pressure
4.8 Erosion Control Requirements
Geotextile, geocell, geogrids and geosynthetic mats are different geosynthetics which will
perform erosion control function effectively in different applications in roads and pavement works.
Engineer can select any product based on the project requirement and experience.
4.8.1 Geotextile requirement: This specification is applicable to the use of a geo-textile

between energy absorbing armor systems and the in-situ soil to prevent soil loss resulting in
excessive scour and to prevent hydraulic uplift pressures causing instability of the permanent
erosion control system. The primary function of the geotextile in erosion control application is
filtration. Geotextile filtration properties are a function of site hydraulic conditions, in-situ soil
gradation, density and plasticity. The geotextile requirements for the above applications are
given in Tablie 4.9.
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Table 4.9 Geotextile Requirements for Erosion Control
In-situ Soil Passing Permittivity, per sec Maximum Apparent

0.075 mm Steve (%) L t ] -.J.’T'TLu IL J 1 l Opening Size, mm
OS 142'-- SSTM D 47511
<15 0.7 0.43
15 to 50 0.2 0.25
>50 0.1 0.22
4.8.2 Geoceil requirement: For the steep slope vegetation may be difficult to establish and
it also may not be possible to mitigate potential erosive forces that are likely to overcome the
strength of the root system. In that cases geocells are effective solution by preventing soil slippage
and thereby encourage vegetation. Geocell forms a 3 dimensional honey comb structure with
geocell height of 75 mm to 150 mm when it expanded. Geocells placed on the slope are secured
to adjoining cell at suitable intervals by using a clip arrangement and these expanded cells
should be secured to the slope using steel staples typically 300 mm long and 9.5 mm diameter.
Geocell requirements for erosion control are given in Table 4.10.
Table 4.10 Requirements of Geocell for Slope Protection
Property Test Method Unit Min. Required Value

Density IS 13360-Part 3-1/ g/cm3 0.9
ASTM D792
Environmental Stress Crack ASTM D1693 Hrs 3000
Resistance (ESCR)
Carbon Black Content ASTM D4218 % by Weight 1.5 to 2
Strip/Cell Wall thickness ASTM D5199 mm 1.20
Seam Peel-Strength Test N per 25 mm 350
of cell depth
Creep Rupture Strength ASTM D2990 Creep Rupture Load at
10,000 hours shall be
1 kN minimum obtained
from the 95% prediction
interval at 10,000 hours
considering a logarithmic
time/creep rupture model.
4.8.3 Geogrid requirement: With the provision of polymer geogrid mesh for root
reinforcement, extremely high density of grass growth can be achieved. Geogrid reinforcement
slope protection has been shown to provide erosion protection equivalent to 250 mm thick
revetment and is treated as an attractive cost-effective alternative solution. Geogrid requirements
for erosion control shall be in accordance with IRC:56 (Clause No. 5.8).
4.8.4 Geomat requirement: Vegetation growth for slope protection is very unpredictable
and unreliable as it may be extremely difficult to achieve 100 per cent vegetation coverage.
Reinforced vegetation (or reinforced grass) is a better alternative for enhancing slope stability
and erosion control. The synthetic materials can be of two dimensional polymeric meshes or
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IRC:SP:59-2019
three dimensional mats. Three dimensional geosynthetic materials with multi filaments, layers
of geogrids folded and knitted or bonded together, with specific thickness are effective in this
application which also known as Rolled Erosion Control Products (RECPs). These geomats
(3-D mats) are made exclusively from UV stabilized synthetic fibres and filaments processed
into permanent, high strength, three dimensional matrices. A tension element, i.e., a reinforcing
element like geogrid or steel wire mesh shall be included along with the three dimensional
polymeric mats to provide strength against erosive forces, if specified in the contract in case of
severe environmental conditions.
Table 4.11 and 4=12 provides the property requirements of geosynthetic mats for erosion control
applications.
Table 4.11 Tensile Strength Requirement for Normal (Non-Reinforced) Three Dimensional
Geosynthetic Mat for Erosion Control Application (Less Severe Environmental Condition)
Property Fest Method □note Minimum

Average Roll
Value
Tensile strength requirement (For slopes less ISO 10319 kN/m 2
than 60°)
Ultraviolet stability at 500h, Retained strength IS 13162 Part 2/ % 80
percentage with respect to original strength ASTM D4355
Thickness ISO 9863 Part-1/ mm 6.5
ASTM D 6525
Mass per unit area ISO 9864/ASTM D g/m2 250
3776
Table 4.12 Tensile Strength Requirement for Reinforced Three Dimensional Geosynthetic Mat for
Erosion Control Application (Severe Environmental Conditions)
Property Test Method Units Minimum Average

Roll Value
Tensile For Slopes up to 60° ISO 10319 kN/m 10
strength For Slopes up to 80° 35
requirement
Ultraviolet stability at 500h, IS 13162 Part2/ASTM % 80
Retained strength percentage with D4355
respect to original strength
Thickness ISO 9863 Part-1/ASTM mm 12
D 6525
Mass per unit area of the ISO 9864/ASTM D 3776 g/m2 500
composite
4.8.5 Selection criteria for erosion control
4.8.5.1 The primary function of geotextile used for permanent erosion control is to protect
the soil beneath it from erosion due to water flowing over the protected soil. The need for a
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IRC:SP:59-2019
permanent erosion control geotextile depends on the type and magnitude of water flow over
the soil being considered for protection, the soil type in terms of its erodability, and the type and
amount of vegetative cover present.
4.8.5.2 Geocells can be used where heavy runoff or channel scouring is anticipated. Geocells
filled with concrete can be used to protect bridge aprons, guide bunds and pier areas, abutting
waterfront as revetment as an alternative to conventional stone/boulder pitching. Geocells can
be adopted, for the steep slopes where vegetation growth may be difficult and mitigation of
potential erosive forces to overcome the strength of root system is not possible.
4.8.5.3 Under erratic weather conditions, successful vegetation growth and its maintenance
depends on unseasonal rainfall and hence longer life of reinforcing material would be required for
ensuring vegetation growth apart from contribution of the mesh towards reduction in velocity of surface
runoff. Use of polymer geogrid mesh provides a permanent protection as it is not biodegradable.
Because of its longer life and almost unfailing success rate for vegetation growth rate per year,
polymer geogrid mesh is very favourable over other reinforcing concepts by using natural fibres.
4.8.5.4 Vegetation along with reinforcement is a better method for enhancing slope stability
and erosion control where unreliable vegetation growth with 100 per cent coverage is extremely
difficult. Geosynthetic mats with specific thickness are required to hold the seed mix and polymer
mat to last for long time. Steel wire mesh is also included in these mats sometimes optionally
when high strength against erosive forces is required such as in steeper slopes and heavy
rainfall areas.
4.9 Asphalt Reinforcement Requirement
Geosynthetics such as geotextiles, geogrids and geocomposites provide the widest range of
products used for asphalt reinforcement as they are able to withstand high stiffness demand,
installation damage and loadings.
4.9.1 Paving fabric requirements: The paving fabric shall be specifically designed for asphalt
pavement applications and be non-woven, heat bonded on one side. The fabric shall satisfy the
requirements given in Table 4.13. These specifications are applicable to the use of paving fabric,
saturated with bitumen, between two bituminous pavement layers. The function of the paving fabric
is to act as a water barrier and stress relieving membrane within the pavement structure.
Table 4.13 Physical Requirements for Paving Fabrics (Minimum Average Roll Value)
Property Units Standard Test Method

Requirements
Grab Tensile Strength N 450 ASTM D 4632
Elongation % >50 ASTM D 4632
Mass per unit area gm/m2 140 IS 14716/ISO 9864/ASTM D 3776
Asphalt Retention Kg/10 sq.m 10* ASTM D6140
Melting Point °C 160 ' TM D 276
Surface Texture - Heat bonded on Visual Inspection
One side only
Notes: *the product asphalt retention property must meet MARV provided by the manufacturer
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4.9.2 Glass fibre geo-grid requirements: Glass fibre geogrid are a flexible reinforcement
made of high modulus glass fibre yarns which are connected to each other by a special knitting
process so that an open mesh structure results. These grids are coated with a special PVC
material/modified polymer that is compatible with bitumen and should be self-adhesive and these
are generally are supplied with a pressure sensitive adhesive backing. These glass fibre geogrid
acts as stress relieving interlayer for the purpose of reinforcing asphalt overlay. Table 4.14
provides the typical specifications of glass fibre geogrid which shall be manufactured from a
glass fibre roving, resistant to chemical attack (from flux oils, paraffin’s or any other solvents
used in bituminous binders), mildew and rot.
Table 4.14 Properties of Glass Fibre Geogrids
TmmTmmsrrrii:
Property
Tensile Strength on Both Median and Cross-Machine Direction
ISO 10319/
Tensile Strength kN/m 50 100 200
ASTM D6637
% Elongation
at the ultimate % - <4 <4 <4
strength
Minimum Mesh
mm 25x25 12.5 x 12.5 12.5 x 12.5
Size <
Melting Point °C >250 >250 > 250
4.9.3 Composite paving grids: This composites combine the positive effects of paving grid
such as high strength, high modulus, low creep which affects longevity and performance and
positive effects of a nonwoven paving fabric. The stabilizing effect of the high strength, low
strain component in combination with the sealing, stress relieving and uniform adhesive bonding
properties of the nonwoven paving fabric fleece leads to a dramatic reduction of reflective
cracking. Specifications for composite paving grid shall meet the requirements given in Tables
4.15 and 4.16.
Table 4.15 Properties of Asphalt Fibre Composite
Property Omim Test Method Requirement
Tensile Strength in Voth MD and CD,

I not less than
Tensile strength kN/m ISO 10319/ 25 50 100

ASTM D4595
% Elongation at % <4 <4 <4

break
Minimum mesh mm 15x 15 15x 15 15 x 15

Size
Melting Point °C > 160 > 160 > 160
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Table 4.16 Properties of Polyester Yam Composite
Property Units Requirements
Tensile Strength in Both Machine and Cross-Machine Direction
Tensile strength kN/m ASTM D 4595 25 50 100

ISO 10319
-
% Elongation at % 12.5 12.5 12.5
break
Minimum mesh mm 35x35 35x35 35x35

Size 20x20 20x20 20x20
Melting Point °C >180 >180 >180
4.9.4 Selection criteria for asphalt reinforcement: Three main types of asphalt reinforcements
with variations thereof are covered in this section, namely, paving fabrics, paving grids (glass fibre
and polymeric) and composites. Their benefit in the use of joint and localized (spot) pavement
repairs; full width (curb-to-curb) coverage to provide a moisture barrier for the pavement structure
and retard reflective cracking in asphalt overlays. Selection of specific asphalt reinforcement is
particular conditions are based on several design considerations given in Annexure III.
4/.I0 Capillary CuVoff
A capillary cut-off could be provided to arrest the capillary rise of water in embankment. Drainage
composite can be considered as suitable alternatives for capillary cut-off over conventional sand/
granular material.
The drainage composite for capillary cut-off (plastic spacer encased between impermeable layer
of low density polyethylene geomembrane and non-woven geotextile) of adequate thickness
over the full width of embankment is recommended as a capillary cut off. By using this drainage
composite, use of sand blanket can be avoided as generally provided in any other method of
capillary cut off mentioned as per clause 4.1 to 4.6 of IRC:34. The specifications mentioned as in
clause 7.2.2.1, IRC:34 are suitable for capillary cut off applications as an alternative fordrainage
and other conventional measures of capillary cut off.
4.10.1 Geocomposite requirements: Geocomposite capillary break is comprised of a tri-

planar geonet core/Geospacer consisting of thick supporting ribs with diagonally placed top
and bottom ribs and with thermally bonded nonwoven geotextiles on both sides for Geonet and
one side for Geospacer. This product is capable of quickly remove surface water infiltrating or
ground water seeping into the soil base. The product provides a void-maintaining system under
high normal loads to work as a capillary break; it also works as a separation and sub-base
reinforcement layer and will have properties conforming to the values and test methods listed in
IRC:34 (Section 7.2.2.1).
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CHAPTER - 5
CONSTRUCTION GUIDELINES FOR USE OF GEOSYNTHETICS IN ROAD WORKS
5.1 General
The material properties are only one factor in a successful installation using geosynthetics.
Proper construction and installation techniques are essential in order to ensure that the intended
function of geosynthetics is fulfilled. Though, the installation techniques appear fairly simple,
most geosynthetic problems in roadways occur as a result of improper construction techniques.
If the geosynthetic is ripped or punctured or tore during construction activities, it will not perform
as desired. If the geosynthetic is placed with lot of wrinkles or folds, it will not be in tension and,
therefore, cannot provide a reinforcing effect. The following step-by-step procedure should be
followed in different construction activities with geosynthetics.
The geosynthetics shall not be placed when weather conditions, in the opinion of the engineer,
are not suitable to allow placement or installation. This will normally be at times of wet conditions,
heavy rainfall, extreme cold or frost conditions, or extreme heat.
These are general guidelines for the construction and installation; however, manufacturer
specific installation guidelines and quality control shall be followed subject to the concurrence of
Engineer-in-charge and project specific requirements.
5.2 Construction Guidelines for Subsurface Drainage

'i
5.2.1 Trench excavation shall be done in accordance with details of the project plans. In all
instances, excavation shall be done in such a way so as to prevent large voids from occurring
in the sides and bottom of the trench. The graded surfaces shall be smooth and free of debris,
depression or obstructions.
5.2.2 The geosynthetic material shall be placed loosely with no wrinkles or folds, and
with no void spaces between the geosynthetic and the ground surface. Successive sheets of
geosynthetics shall be overlapped a minimum of 300 mm with the upstream sheet overlapping
the downstream sheet.
5.2.3 In trenches equal to or greater than 300 mm in width, after placing the design filter
material, the geosynthetic shall be folded over the top of the backfill material in a manner to
produce a minimum overlap of 300 mm. In trenches less than 300 mm but greater than 100 mm
wide, the overlap shall be equal to the width of the trench. Where the trench is less than 100 mm,
the geosynthetic overlap shall be sewn or otherwise bonded. All seems shall be subject to the
approval of the Engineer. In case the geosynthetic gets damaged during installation or drainage
aggregate placement, a geosynthetic patch shall be placed over the damaged area with minimum
300 mm overlap all around or the specified seam overlap, whichever is greater.
5.2.4 Placement of design filter material (as per MoRTH 702.2.3) should proceed immediately
after placement of the geosynthetic material. The geosynthetic should be covered with a minimum
of 300 mm of loosely placed aggregate prior to compaction. If a perforated collector pipe is to be
installed in the trench, a bedding layer of drainage aggregate should be placed below the pipe,
with the remainder of the aggregate placed to the minimum required construction depth.
5.2.5 The aggregate should be compacted to a minimum of 90 per cent of standard proctor
density. Fogs. 5.1 to 5.3 illustrate various geosynthetic drainage application details.
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a) Conventional pipe under drain b) Geotextile Wrapped Pipe

with Geotextile around stone under drain with sand backfill
c) Geotextile Wrapped stone (no d) Geotextile Wrapped stone

Pipe) Rectangular Section (no Pipe) Trapezoidal Section
Fig. 5.1 Various Arrangements for Trench Drains
Cut Slope
Rip rap for UV
SeeP3ge and ditch runoff
protection
flow
Securing pin Note: Check slope structural

stability before cutting
Engineering fabric
a) Trench interceptor drain for cut slope seepage b) Rock loe interceptor drain for cut slope seepage
Fig. 5.2 Trench and Toe [Interceptor Drain for Cut Slope Seepage
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1 .Excavated trench 2. Place Fabric 3. Add Bedding and Pipe
4. place / compact 5. Wrap Fabric over Top 6. Compact back fill

filter material
Fig. 5.3 Sequence of Construction Procedure for Drains
5.3 Construction Guidelines for Separation/Filtration/Subgrade/Base/Subbase

Reinforcement Function
These construction guidelines are related to placing a geosynthetic material between base or
subbase and subgrade for any of the following applications:
• Base or Subbase Separation

e Base or Subbase Stabilization
• Base or Subbase Capillary Barrier
° Base or Subbase Reinforcement
5.3.1 The site should be cleared, grubbed and excavated to design grade, stripping all
topsoil, or any other unsuitable materials. If moderate site conditions exist, i.e., CBR greater than
1, lightweight profiling operations should be considered to locate unsuitable materials. Isolated
pockets where additional excavation is required should be backfilled.
5.3.2 During stripping operations, care should be taken not to excessively disturb the
subgrade. This may require the use of lightweight dozers or graders for low strength, saturated,
non-cohesive and low-cohesive soils. In this case, all vegetation should be cut at the ground
surface. Sawdust or sand can be placed over stumps or roots that extend above the ground
surface to cushion the geosynthetic. The subgrade preparation must correspond to the
survivability properties of the geosynthetic.
5.3.3 Once the subgrade along a particular segment of the road alignment has been
prepared, the geosynthetic should be rolled in line with the placement of the aggregate. Field
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operations can be expedited if the geosynthetic is pre-sewn to design widths in the factory or on
firm ground so it can be unrolied on site in one continuous sheet The geosynthetic should not
be dragged across the subgrade. The entire roll should be placed and rolled out as smoothly
as possible. Wrinkles and folds in the fabric should be removed by stretching and stacking as
required.
533 Adjacent rolls of geosynthetic should be overlapped. For curves, the geosynthetic
should be folded or cut and overlapped in the direction of construction. For separation, drainage
and capillary barrier applications, geosynthetics shall be sewn or joined as required. Folds in the
geosynthetic should be stapled or pinned approximately 0.6 m centre-to-centre as shown in Fig.
5.4 (a) and (b).
(a)
Fig. 5.4 Folding of Geosynthetics
5.3.5 Before covering, the condition of the geosynthetic should be checked for damage (i.e.,
holes, nips, tears, etc.) by an Engineer experienced in the use of these materials. If excessive
defects are observed, the section of the geosynthetic material containing the defect should be
repaired by placing a new layer of geosynthetic over the damaged area in case of geotextiles
and geomembrane for separation, drainage and capillary barrier applications. The minimum
required overlap for adjacent rolls should extend beyond the defect in all directions. Alternatively,
the entire defective section can be replaced. In case of geogrids and geocells for reinforcement
and stabilization function, if the material is damaged, placing a new layer over damaged portion
won’t provide membrane effect and intended function may not fulfil. In those cases replacing
with a new material for entire design role length of geosynthetic material in transverse direction
is advisable.
5.3.6 The first lift of aggregate should be spread and graded to 300 mm, or to design
thickness if less than 300 mm prior to compaction. At no time should traffic be allowed on a soft
roadway with less than 200 mm of aggregate over the geosynthetic.
53.7 Any ruts that form during construction should be filled to maintain adequate cover
over the geosynthetic. In no case should ruts be bladed down, as this would decrease the
amount of aggregate cover over the geosynthetic.
5.3.8 All remaining base aggregates should be placed in lifts not exceeding 250 mm in
loose thickness and compacted to the specified density. Different operation sequences for
construction are shown in Fig. 5.5.
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a. PREPARE THE GROUND BY b. UNROLL THE GEOTEXTILE DIRECTLY

REMOVING STUMPS, BOULDERS, OVER THE GROUND TO BE STABILIZED.
ETC; FILL IN LOW SPORTS IF MORE THAN ONE ROLL IS
REQUIRED, OVERLAP ROLLS. INSPECT
GEOTEXTILES
Prepare the Ground Unroll the Geotextile
c. BACK DUMP AGGREGATE ON TO d. SPREAD THE AGGREGATE OVER

PREVIOUSLY PLACED AGGREGATE. THE GEOTEXTILE TO THE DESIGN
DO NOT DRIVE ON THE GEOTEXTILE. THICKNESS
MAINTAIN 150mm TO 300mm COVER
BETWEEN TRUCK TYRES AND
GEOTEXTILE
Back Dump Aggregate Spread the Aggregate
e. COMPACT THE AGGREGATE USING

DOZER TRUCK OR SMOOTH DRUM
VIBRATORY ROLLER
Fig. 5.5 Construction Sequence
5.4 Geosynthetic Overlaps
5.4=1 When geosynthetic material is used the overlaps can be used to provide continuity
between adjacent geosynthetic rolls through frictional resistance between the overlaps. Also,
a sufficient overlap is required to prevent soil from squeezing into the aggregate at the joint.
The amount and type of overlap depends primarily on the soil conditions, type of geosynthetics
their function and application. If the subgrade does not rut under construction activities, only
a minimum overlap is required to provide some pull-out resistance. As the potential for rutting
and squeezing of soil increases, the required overlap increases. Since rutting potential can be
related to CBR, it can be used as a guideline for the minimum overlap required.
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Table 5.1 Overlap Requirement of Geotextile for Different CBR Values (IS 16345)
Soil Strength (CBR) Overlap Unsewn, cm Overlap Sewn, cm

Greater than 3 and above 60 -
2-3 76 8
1-2 97 20
Less than 1 - 23
All Roll Ends 100 25
Table 5.2 Overlap Requirement of Geogrid for Different CBR Values (IS 16349)
Soil Strength (CBR) Method of doming (mm)

Greater than 3 300-450
1-3 600-1000
0.5-1 1000 or sewn
Less than 0.5 sewn
All Roll Ends 1000 or sewn
5.4.2 The geosynthetic can be stapled or pinned at the overlaps to maintain their positions
during construction activities. For the separation and filtration applications using geotextiles the
overlap requirements are given in Fig. 5.6. For underwater applications, 5 mm dia and 450 mm
long steel pins should be placed at a maximum of 1.0 m centre-to-centre.
1m. minimum
Geosynthetics overlap
300mm minimum
Geosynthetics overlap
1.5 m minimum
offset between
adjacent roll end
Machine direction of
Geosynthetics
Overlap requirement of Geosynthetics Cross direction of

Geosynthetics
Fig 5.6 Overlap Requirement of Geosynthetics
5.4.3 Since manufactured rolls of geocomposite drainage materials must cover large areas,
field constructed connections along their sides and ends are necessary. This guide addresses
such connections. Even further, the ends of the geocomposite must eventually terminate by
attachment to pipes, sumps or swales. These are also made in the field by construction personnel.
The following situations are presented in this section illustrating various connections.
Connection of Overlapping Geocomposite on their ends and sides; Fig. 5.7 shows an overlapped
geocomposite with the up-gradient end overlapping the down gradient end. For the sides of the
rolls which is placed, upper or lower, is not important. The recommended lengths of overlap (“L”)
are 300-450 mm for ends and 100-150 mm for sides. One other consideration has to do with the
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roll ends being factory supplied or cut in the field. The manufacturers of geocomposite usually
leave an excess of 300 mm of un-bonded geotextile for complete coverage purposes. Field cut
geocomposite have no such excess geotextile.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.7 (a) Field Cut Geocomposite, (b) Factory Ends with Excess Geotextile
Geocomposite to Horizontal Pipe Connection: Geocomposite drainage core should wrap

around the entire pipe with no intervening geotextile in the flow transfer area (Fog. 5.8a) The
geocomposites upper geotextile must be stripped off the drainage core, greatly trimmed, and
then bonded to the reverse side of the geocomposite with its geotextile intact after wrapping
around the pipe. The overlap distance “L” should be approximately three times the encapsulated
drainage pipe diameter. Also note that plastic electrical ties are necessary to hold the geonet
together particularly for thick bi-planar and all tri-planar geonet composites. Generally, two ties
are necessary to minimize the air space around the encapsulated pipe. This same detail can
also be followed if the drainage pipe is located in a trench at a lower elevation than the exiting
geocomposite drain; see Fig. 5.8b.
Fig. 5.8 (a) Drainage Pipe on a Slope, (b) Drainage Pipe in a Trench
5.5 Seams
5.5.1 When seams are required for separation applications using geotextile, there should be
minimum of 90 per cent of the material’s tensile strength requirements of survivability (Table 5.1).
All factory or field seams should be sewn with thread as strong and durable as the material in the
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fabric.
5.5.2 When field-sewing geotextiles, a number of details must be addressed. They are:
Thread type: The choices are polyester, polypropylene and polyamides. Consideration
should be given to using the same thread type as geotextile fibre.
Thread tension: This is usually adjusted in the field so as to be sufficiently tight without
cutting the geotextiles.
Stitch density: Two, three or four stitches per 25 mm are customary.
Stoteh type: The choices are prayer, J-type, or butterfly. Fog. 5.9 shows typical seams for
geotextiles. The strongest being the butterfly type.
Number of rows: One, two or three are customary; generally two are recommended.
"Butterfly" Seam
Fig. 5.9 Typical Seams for Geotextiles
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5.6 Construction Guidelines for Erosion Control
5.6.1 The geosynthetic shall be placed in intimate contact with the soils under slight tension,
without wrinkles or folds and anchored on a smooth graded surface approved by the Engineer.
The geosynthetic shall be placed in such a manner that placement of the overlying materials will
not excessively stretch so as to tear the geosynthetic. Using geotextiles, geomats, biodegradable
mats anchoring of the terminal ends shall be accomplished through the use of key trenches or
aprons at the crest and toe of slope.
The following anchoring recommendations are provided as a guide and needs to be adjusted
based on specific site conditions and manufacturer’s instructions.
Anchoring the edges of the erosion control mat in a trench approximately 150-200 mm deep by
150 mm wide prevents water flowing under the mat and provides maximum erosion protection.
When installing mat down a slope, it is recommended, the upstream edge is anchored in a trench
to provide better protection from stream flow. Mat should have good contact with the soil surface
and be secured with an appropriate number of pins for degree of slope. As a general rule, mat
should be secured with pins at 0.5-1 m intervals along the length of the mat and staggering
pins 400-600 mm across the mat. Pins should be driven flush with the soil surface and be long
enough to ensure sufficient ground penetration to resist pullout. If the degree of slope is greater
than 1V:3H it is recommended the anchor trench be installed at least 1 m from the crest of the
slope.
I '
Type of Slope Gradient Minimum Pins/sq.m
Steep slopes 1:1 - 1:2 or greater 6 to 8
Moderate slopes 1:2- 1:3 4 to 6
Gentle slopes 1:4 or less
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SECURE WITH
PROPERLY
PREPARED
SLOPE
ANCHOR
TRENCH
150 x 150mm
ANCHOR
TRENCH
Fig. 5.10 (b) Anchoring Details of Erosion Control Mats
5.6.2 The geosynthetic shall be placed with the machine direction parallel to the direction of
water flow which is normally parallel to the slope for erosion control runoff and wave action and
parallel to the stream or channel in the case of stream bank and channel protection. Adjacent
geosynthetic sheets shall be joined by either sewing or overlapping or joining. Overlap at roll
ends and at adjacent sheets shall be minimum of 300 mm, except when placed under water. In
such instances, the overlap shall be minimum of 1 m.
Pin and bury the top of the

Overlap mats by at mat into a slot along the
least 100 mm and top of the bank
pin together
Seed bank prior to

laying the mat
Roll the mat down
the bank on slopes
greater than 35?
Lay mat along the

bank on slopes
less than 35°
Roll blankets out in the
direction of the water flow
In high velocity zones, bury the mat

in slots about 10 to 15 metres apart,
with the mat pinned to the bed
Fig. 5.10 (c) Orientation of Matting on Slopes and Channels
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5.6.3 In cases where wave action or multi-directional flow is anticipated, all seams
perpendicular to the direction of flow shall be sewn.
5.6.4 Care shall be taken during installation so as to avoid damage occurring to the
geosynthetics as a result of the installation process. Should the geosynthetic be damaged
during installation, a geosynthetic patch shall be placed over the damaged area extending
1 m beyond the perimeter of the damage.
5.6-5 The armour system placement shall begin at the toe and proceed up the slope.
Placement shall take place so as to avoid stretching and subsequent tearing of the geosynthetic.
Riprap and heavy stone filling shall not be dropped from a height of more than 300 mm. Stone
with a mass of more than 100 kg shall not be allowed to roll down the slope.
5.6.6 Slope protection and smaller sizes of stone filling shall not be dropped from a height
exceeding 1 m, or a field trial should be undertaken to verify that the placement procedures will
not damage the geosynthetic. In underwater applications, the geosynthetic and backfill material
shall be placed the same day. All void spaces in the armour stone shall be backfilled with small
stone to ensure full coverage.
5.6.7 Following placement of the armour stone, grading of the slope shall not be permitted
if the grading results in movement of the stone directly above the geosynthetic.
5.6.8 Field monitoring shall be performed to verify that the armour system placement
does not damage the geosynthetic. Any geotextile damaged during backfill placement shall be
replaced as directed by the Engineer-in-charge.
5.7 Construction Guidelines for Use off Asphalt Reinforcement
5.7.1 General preparation work prior to paving: The existing pavement must show no
significant signs of pumping, movement or structural instability. All patches, pothole repairs
and crack sealing should be done prior to paving. Bituminous reinforcement adheres best to a
smooth, flat bituminous surface.
5.7.2 Therefore a bituminous levelling layer may be necessary:
6 On a coarsely milled or very rough surface

9 On a very uneven (rutted) surface
A levelling layer is not normally necessary:
• For an overlay on an old surface that is smooth and flat
° On a finely milled surface
5.7.3 The surface must be clean and dry before placing the asphalt reinforcement
• Clean for good adhesion

• Dry (of moisture) also for adhesion
• Dry bitumen (tack or fresh bituminous) to avoid pick-up on construction vehicle tyres
that may in turn lift the asphalt reinforcement.
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Fig. 5.11 Glass Fibre Grid placed on Levelling Layer Prior Paving
5.7.4 Repair of defects prior to paving: The degree and extent of surfacing defects and
failures necessitate certain methods of repair to render the road surface serviceable again.
Bituminous Reinforcement is an alternative to the reworking of pavement layers and usually
applied before a road surface is resealed or overlaid with bituminous.
5.7.4.1 Pothole patching: All loose materials of the damaged surfacing and base layers must
be removed to the full depth and backfilled with approved bituminous mixtures as described in
various handbooks or as specified. The shape of the repair area should be square or rectangular
and the surfacing cut 75 to 100 mm wider than the cleaned - out area.
5.7.4.2 Seal cracks: The repair of seal cracks shall follow the provisions of MoRTH section
3000.
5.7.5 Certain types of bituminous reinforcement do not require cracks to be sealed

beforehand.
5.7.5.1 Levelling course: When required to remove unacceptable irregularities, bumps or

slacks, a screed of densely graded bituminous should be placed. It is also possible to remove
high spots and ridges by planning, in which case it is recommended that the milled surface be
left rough.
5.7.5.2 Rut filling: Rut depths of up to 15 mm, or as specified, can be filled with coarse
slurry. It is recommended that rapid setting slurry be used. Rut depths up to 25 mm can be filled
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with hot, densely graded bituminous. Ruts deeper than 25 mm should be removed by surface
patching methods.
5.7.6 This work shall consist of lying of geotextile (paving fabric) between two bituminous
layers as part of pavement strengthening to provide a water resistant membrane and crack
retarding layer. Fig. 5.9 shows layer arrangement for using paving fabric. It is recommended that
paving fabric should be used over the entire pavement area affected by cracking and not in the
form of strips over the pavement cracks.
5.7.7 On existing cement concrete pavements, a layer of DBM/Bituminous Concrete should

be provided before laying the paving fabric.
5.7.8 The tack coat used to impregnate the fabric and bond the fabric to the pavement shall
be as per the provisions of Section 503 of MoRTH.
5.7.9 Minimum air and pavement temperature shall be at least 10°C or more for placement
of tack coat. Neither tack coat nor paving fabric shall be placed when weather conditions, in the
opinion of the Engineer, are not suitable.
5.7.10 The pavement surface shall be thoroughly cleaned of all dirt, water and oil to the
satisfaction of the Engineer. Cracks wider than 3 mm shall be cleaned and filled with suitable
bituminous material by a method approved by the Engineer. Crack filling material shall be allowed
to cure prior to application of tack coat. Potholes and other pavement distress shall be repaired.
Repairs shall be performed as directed by the Engineer. A profile correction course shall be laid,
wherever required, before placing the paving fabric.
5.7.11 The tack coat shall be sprayed preferably by means of a calibrated distributor spray
bar. Hand spraying and brush application may be used in locations of fabric overlap. Every effort
shall be made to keep hand spraying to a minimum. The tack coat shall be applied uniformly to
the prepared dry pavement surface at the rate governed by the following equation:
Qd = 0.36 + Qs + Qc
Where,
Qd = Design tack coat quantity
Qs = Saturation content of the geotextile being used (kg/m2) to be provided by the manufacturer
Qc = Correction based on tack coat demand of the existing pavement surface (kg/m2)
Table 5.2 gives typical values of tack coat demand of existing bituminous pavement surfaces.
Within street intersections, on steep grades or in other zones where vehicle speed changes, the
normal application rate shall be reduced by about 20 per cent or as directed by the Engineer.
Table 5.2 Tack Coat Demand of Existing Bituminous Pavement Surfaces
Type of Surface Quantity of Liquid Bituminous

Material in kg/sq.m area
Normal bituminous surface 0.20 to 0.25
Dry and hungry bituminous surface 0.25 to 0.30
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5.7.12 The temperature of the tack coat shall be sufficiently high (140°C) to permit a
uniform spray pattern. To avoid damage to the fabric, distributor tank temperature shall not
exceed 160°C.
ST. 13 The target width of tack coat application shall be equal to the paving fabric width
application plus 150 mm. The tack coat shall be applied only as far in advance of paving fabric
installation as is appropriate to ensure a tacky surface at the time of paving fabric placement.
Traffic shall not be allowed on the tack coat. Any spillage or excess tack coat should either be
removed or sand be sprayed over it.
0.14 Paving fabric shall be placed on a dry surface. In case it rains after installing the
paving fabric, but before placing the overlay over it, all excess water should be removed and the
fabric should be allowed to dry up sufficiently before placing the overlay.
5.7 J 5 The paving fabric shall be placed with heat set side facing up, onto the tack coat
using mechanical or manual lay down equipment capable of providing a smooth installation
with a minimum amount of wrinkling or folding. The paving fabric shall be placed prior to
the tack coat cooling and losing tackiness. Paving fabric shall not be installed in areas
where the overlay bituminous layer tapers to a thickness of less than 40 mm. Excess
paving fabric, which extends beyond the edge of existing pavement or areas of tack coat
applications shall be trimmed and removed. Wrinkles or folds in excess of 25 mm shall be
slit and laid flat. Brooming and/or pneumatic rolling will be required to maximize paving
fabric contact with the pavement surface. All areas with paving fabrics placed will be paved
the same day. No traffic except necessary construction equipment will be allowed to drive
on the paving fabric. Additional tack coat shall be placed between the overlap to satisfy
saturation requirements of the fabric. Overlap shall be sufficient to ensure full closure of the
joint but not exceed 150 mm. Overlaps of adjacent rolls shall be staggered by a minimum
of one meter.
5.7 J After laying the paving fabric, some loose bituminous concrete should be sprinkled on
it in the wheel path of the paver and the tipper to ensure that the fabric is not picked up between
the wheels.
5.7.17 Turning of the paver and other vehicles shall be done gradually and kept to a minimum
to avoid movement and damage to the paving fabric. Abrupt starts and stops shall also be
avoided. Damaged fabric shall be removed and replaced with the same type of fabric.
5.7.18 Bituminous overlay construction shall closely follow fabric placement. All areas in
which paving fabric has been placed will be paved the same day. Excess bitumen, which bleeds
through the paving fabric, shall be removed by spreading hot mix or sand on the paving fabric.
The hot mix should be placed between a temperature range of 130°C to 145°C so as to given
enough heat to the bitumen in the tack coat to rise up into the fabric.
5.7.19 The introduction of paving fabrics have been reported to reduce the required design
overlay thickness. However, these guidelines do not recommend any reduction in design overlay
thickness; rather its introduction is to enhance the performance of the pavement.
In general, installation of geotextiles as pavement fabric shall follow IS 16343.
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CHAPTER - 6
HANDLING AND STORAGE OF GEOSYNTHETICS
6.1 General
6.1.1 Geosynthetics are durable products, which provide cost-effective solutions to a variety
of civil engineering design/construction related problems. As with any construction material,
geosynthetics must be handled and stored properly to ensure that the specified physical properties
are retained to serve project needs. The damages caused on this account can significantly
reduce the geosynthetic ability to perform its intended function in some applications.
The objective of geosynthetic handling and storage is to safely transport and store the geosynthetic
rolls or panels at the project site without damaging the geosynthetic or unduly exposing it to
sunlight (ultraviolet light), moisture or other contamination. The following are some of the general
recommendations to be followed while working with geosynthetic materials at site. Handling and
storage of geosynthetics can be as per product manufacturer’s suggestions and instructions.
6.2 Site Unloading
6.2.1 A fork-lift or front-end loader fitted with a long, tapered pole is recommended for
unloading of geosynthetic rolls. The pole, shown in Fig. 6.1, is often referred to as a ‘carpet
pole’ or ‘stinger’. The carpet pole is inserted into the geosynthetic roll core and the roll is lifted
off the truck bed. The pole should be long enough to extend at least two third of the way into the
geosynthetic roll core to avoid the possibility of breaking or damaging the roll core.
Fig. 6.1 Hydro Crane Shifting the Geosynthetic Roll to the Location
6.2.2 Geosynthetic rolls may also be lifted from flatbed trailers using nylon straps or rope
and a crane, backhoe, or bulldozer. Not more than three geosynthetic rolls should be lifted at a
time. Exceeding this number may cause damage to the roll core and hamper while geosynthetic
deployment. Chains and cables should not be used to lift geosynthetic rolls. The equipment
recommended to unload geosynthetic roils may not be always available at construction sites, in
such cases, unloading and handling is invariably done by other locally available methods or with
labours. If unloaded with care, the geosynthetic will remain suitable for easy laying. A roll puller,
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nylon strap, or rope can be used to unload geosynthetic rolls from an enclosed trailer if a carpet
pole is not available. Roll pullers are devices, which are inserted into the roll core and attached
via a chain or strap to a loader, bulldozer, or other vehicle as shown in Fngc 6=2. As the vehicle
pulls, the roll puller expands against the inside of the roll core and drags the roll to the edge
of the truck bed and down to the ground surface. Nylon straps or ropes may also be wrapped
around the geosynthetic roll using a slip knot. Again the roll is dragged to the edge of the truck
and down to the ground surface. A tarpaulin, sheet of plastic or fabric should be placed on the
ground where the geosynthetic rolls are to be unloaded.
Fig. 6.2 Unrolling of Geosynthetic Roll
Fig. 6.3a Geocell Panels at Site Fig. 6.3b Geogrid Rolls at Site
Fig. 6.3a & b Geocell Panels and Geogrid Rolls Readied for Placement
6.3 Site Handling
Rolls of geosynthetic should always be lifted off the ground surface prior to moving. Dragging the
geosynthetic and operating equipment on the geosynthetic, which results in physical damage,
should be avoided at all times. Geocell panels are packed in a collapsed form [Fag. 6.4].
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(b)
Fig. 6.4 (a) Folded Geocell Panels on Fork Lift Pallet,

(b) Packaged Geocell Panels in th® factory on Fork Lift Pallet
6.4 Site Storage
6.4.1 The geosynthetic rolls should be adequately protected from ultraviolet light exposure
during storage at site. A protective wrapping should be kept on rolls until the geosynthetics are
installed. If stored outside, the geosynthetic should be elevated from the ground surface and
adequately covered to protect them from the following; site construction damage, precipitation,
ultraviolet radiation including sun light, chemicals that are strong acid/bases, flames including
welding sparks, temperature in excess of 71 °C and any other environmental condition that may
damage the geosynthetic. Fig. 6.5 illustrates the mode of covering of geotextile before use at
site.
Fig. 6.5 Covering of Geosynthetic Rolls before Use at Site
To the extent possible, geocells shall be stored with the packaging intact. This is essential for the
following reasons:
a) Easy identification of the material type, batch no. and other details;
b) Protection against any damage during storage;
c) Protection against damage during onward handling
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Heavy equipment may be moved on the panels only after in filling as may be seen in the
Fig. 6.6 (a) In Filling from Side, (b) Equipment Run on Geocell Filled with Soil
6.4.2 Steps to be taken if geosynthetic roll or protective wrapping is damaged
6.4.2.1 In most cases, damage to a roll of geosynthetics is limited to the protective wrapping.
If the wrapping is damaged, proper storage of the geosynthetic is particularly critical. The rolls
must be elevated off the ground surface and securely covered with a tarpaulin or opaque plastic
sheet. If the outer layer of the geosynthetic itself is damaged, it is necessary during installations
to remove the outermost wraps of the roll and discard the damaged material. The remaining
undamaged material is suitable for use. Removing the outermost wrap of geosynthetic is called for
when a roll is exposed to sunlight for a period beyond that permitted by the project specifications.
The remaining unexposed material is suitable for construction.
1 । ' 1
6.4.2.2 Exposing geosynthetic rolls to moisture or water prior to installation can lead to serious
handling problems. Non-woven geosynthetics in particular can absorb water up to three times
their weight. In addition, the cores on which the geosynthetic rolls are wound are manufactured
from laminated paper. When wet, the strength of these cores is seriously diminished to the point
where the core will not support the weight of the geosynthetic. Consequently, it can be extremely
difficult to install wet rolls of geosynthetic. In addition, it is nearly impossible to unroll wet, frozen
geosynthetic without first allowing it to thaw.
6.4.3 Steps to be taken if geosynthetic rolls become wet
If geosynthetic rolls become wet, it is permissible to remove the waterproof cover to allow for a
few days of exposure to wind in order to dry the geosynthetic material. It is essential that the rolls
be elevated during the process. It is also permissible to remove the protective wrapping from one
end of the roll and elevate the opposite end of the roll. Then the majority of excess water will flow
out of the geosynthetic. In most cases, these procedures will not allow the geosynthetic material
to dry completely. Once unrolled during installation, the geosynthetic will dry very quickly in the
sun and wind. However, it should be noted that non-woven geosynthetics used in conjunction
with asphalt overlays of existing pavements must be completely dry prior to installation.
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6.4.4 Protection from sunlight (ultraviolet light) degradation
6.4.4.1 Geosynthetic materials slowly degrade in the presence of ultraviolet light. Though some
geosynthetics contain ultraviolet stabilizing chemicals to keep this degradation to a minimum,
it is advisable to limit geosynthetic exposure to sunlight until just before installation. Acceptable
limits of exposure to ultraviolet light depend upon site environmental conditions (temperature,
latitude, time of year, wind, etc.) and the assumptions used by the Engineer during design.
6.4.4.2 The geosynthetic material should always be installed within the period required by
the project specifications. If no time requirements are specified, it is generally recommended
that geosynthetic exposure to ultraviolet light be limited to a period of approximately two weeks.
Excessive cold temperatures normally found at construction sites, even in the coldest climates,
do not pose a threat to geosynthetics.
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Annexure fl
DETERWATDON OF LAYER COEFFCD EhfTS
Layer coefficients are empirical relationships between Structural Number (SN) and layer
thicknesses which expresses the relative ability of a material to function as a structural component
of the pavement. They are typically determined empirically based on the performance of the
material. Clear information on determining of the layer coefficients are provided in 2.3.5 of Part
II, AASHTO 1993. Determination of layer coefficients from FWD and CBR values shall be as
follows:
Determination of layer coefficient from FWD data (Layer coefficients for NHDOT pavement
materials, Vincent - C. Janoo -1994)
Rohde (1994) developed a method for determining the SN of a pavement structure using the
FWD measurements. The SN equation used is the one modified by TRL in 1975 and used in
the World Bank Highway Design and Maintenance Pavement Performance Model (HDM-111
model). The modified Structural Number (SNC) is defined as
n
SNC = 0.0394 J" at ht + SNSG
t=i
Where, SNSG is that portion of the structural number contributed by the subgrade. The following
relationship for SNSG in terms of CBR has been used:
SNSG = 3.51 log10 CBR - 0.85 (log10 CBR)2 - 1.43
Where CBR = in-situ California Bearing Ratio of the subgrade (%)
Based on Irwin’s (1983), “ two thirds rule” of stress distribution under pavement structure, Rohde
assumed that the deflection (D15h) measured at a distance on the surface equal to 1.5 times the
structural section thickness (h) is due to the subgrade only. He then developed the Structural
Index of the Pavement (SIP). SIP is associated with the deflection above the subgrade only:
SIP=D0-D15h
The hypothesis is that SIP should be strongly correlated with stiffness of the pavement structure
and thus to SN. Based on the regression analysis, Rohde developed a relationship between SN
and SIP:
SN = k1 SIPk2 IT3
The following values, 0.1165, -0.3248 and 0.8241 were used for Kr K2 and K3 (Reclaimed
Stabilized Base layers (RSB) at 2%, 3% and 4%) for all the base courses with the exception of
the asphalt layer. For the asphalt layer, 0.4728, -0.4810 and 0.7581 were used as recommended
by Rohde, respectively. For a two-layer system, the layer coefficient was calculated using
_ SNC- SNSG
ai = 0.0394 * h
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He developed another index called Structural Index of Subgrade (SIS):
SIS=D 1.5h -D s
Where Ds is the deflection measured at a distance of 762 mm from the center plate. The subgrade
modulus is
E sg = 10k4SISk5hk6
The following recommended values of 23138, -1.236 and -1.903 (Rohde 1994) were used for k4,
k5 and k6. The CBR% of the subgrade was back calculated from
Esg = [1500 x CBR073] / 6.9, (kPa)
The subgrade moduli obtained from the modified Boussinesq equation were also used in place
of E and layer coefficient can be back calculated.
Determination of layer coefficients using CBR results
Field CBR data were obtained from the Clegg hammer and in-situ CBR testing. Dynamic Cone
Penetrometer (DCP) data also can be converted to CBR. The DCP data are converted to
penetration per blow rate. The Corps of Engineers use the following relationship to convert the
DCP rate to CBR:
292
; . cbr(%) = 5^
where DCP = millimetres/blow
The World Bank Highway Design and Maintenance (HDM-111) pavement performance model,
provided a correlation between CBR and as as given below
a. = (29.14 x CBR - 0.1977 CBR2 + 0.00045 CBR3) 10 4
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Annexure 01
DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAYER COEFFICIENT RATIO &

MODULUS IMPROVEMENT FACTOR
1 Layer Coefficient Ratio
General
Layer Coefficient Ratio (LCR) represents impact provided by a specific geogrid to the layer coefficient
of the layer in which the geogrid is placed. The LCR approach applies and limits the geosynthetic
benefit derived from trials to the specific layer improved by inclusion of reinforcement (granular
layers). Using the LCR approach, a designer may quantify the benefits of geogrid reinforcement
either through increased pavement life or reduced layer thickness or a combination of both.
Typical LCR determination procedure through full scale traffic tests and laboratory tests on
geogrid reinforced and unreinforced flexible pavements are as follows:
1.1 Full Scale Traffic Tests
1.1.1 Test section layout and design
The full scale traffic tests shall be performed outdoors and subject to local environmental
conditions just as any other road or pavement with the following features:
a Full scale highway construction equipment and practices
* Extended exposure to weather over multiple seasons
« Incorporation of local subgrade soils, aggregate and paving material
* A driven traffic vehicle capable of applying 80 kN standard axle loads to eliminate the
steering axle effect; “super-single” tires
* Channelized traffic with minimal wander
• Laser profiling of the rutting pattern
The test tracks are usually laid out as an oval as shown in Fig. 11-1, to provide a one-directional
wheel loading pattern during continuous traffic. Straight sections used for testing should be
sufficiently long to accommodate multiple, full lane width test sections. Atypical test cross section
accommodating two wheel paths is shown in Fig. II-2.
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Fig. II-2 Typical Cross Section of Test Area
Test sections shall be constructed in groups having different target subgrade CBR values
indicating different subgrade strength. All test sections shall be designed to reach at least 25
mm of permanent centreline deflection before reaching target traffic load in terms of Equivalent
Single Axle Loads (ESALs). All sections shall be subjected to identical compactive effort on all
the surface, base and subbase layers. Fog. 11-3 illustrates construction of a typical set of test
sections.
Fig. 11-3 Construction of Typical Test Sections
In order to maintain realistic conditions, pavement sections shall be prepared with standard local
pavement materials (BC, DBM, WMM, GSB, and subgrade soils). High quality control standards
and a rigorous quality assurance regimen must be applied to the construction process. Measured
as-constructed section properties for several tests shall be taken note.
1.1.2 Traffic
A commercial truck may be modified for use as the loading vehicle for test sections. Modifications
include adding carefully distributed weight to the vehicle such that each axle applied a load of
80-kN. In addition, all tires with tyre pressure of 0.56 MPa should be used during testing. The
tires shall be aligned from front to rear such that each travelled in the same path when the
vehicle is driving straight.
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These modifications ensure that each passage of the loading vehicle applies two identical loads
to the test sections thereby negating the complicating effects of a steering/load axle combination
often associated with full scale testing. A loading vehicle used for traffic is shown in Fig. II-4. The
truck shall be made to run along the test sections for a predetermined number of passes before
stopping for surface rut depth measurements.
Wheel path centreline and transverse profile rut data shall be collected at the centre point of
each test section using a stiff beam placed on the measurement posts which is shown in Fig.
II-4. A laser distance measuring device, accurate to one mm, shall be placed at predetermined
points along the measurement beam to gather these measurements as illustrated in Figs.
11-4 and 11-5. A full transverse surface profile shall be collected on each test section before
allowing traffic and at various intervals during traffic. Centreline deflection data are collected
more frequently to assess ongoing deformation.
FWD (Falling Weight Deflectometer) technique can be used to evaluate the layer moduli of
pavement test sections. This FWD deflection data from unreinforced and reinforced pavement
sections shall be used to analyse the pavement for critical strains which are indicators of pavement
performance in terms of rutting and fatigue cracking. Difference in modulus values obtained from
FWD test data may be used to determine improvement by using geogrid in pavement layers.
Fig. 11-4 Loading Vehicle and Beam for Surface Rut Measurements during Traffic
Fig. 11-5 Positioning of Laser Distance Measuring Device for Profiling
Traffic is applied to the test sections until each of the individual test paved sections reaches 25
mm of permanent centreline deflection before reaching target traffic load in terms of Equivalent
Single Axle Loads (ESALs).
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Test sections that fail early are repaired to maintain traffic ability of the vehicle and limit carryover
damage to adjacent test sections. This repair is accomplished by adding extra base course
aggregate in the rutted areas and smoothing the area out with a light weight skid steer loader.
Standard axle passages for each test section to reach predetermined levels of permanent
deformation are determined, followed by application of a normalization procedure to the data,
which is required to eliminate the section to section variability in full scale, realistic test sections.
All values are interpolated using a best fit line of data near the 25 mm threshold.
1.2 Laboratory Tests
Large scale experimental program in lab can be conducted to evaluate and understand
the structural contribution of geogrid to flexible pavement systems under simulated traffic
conditions. Geogrid shall be placed in one half of the box section, while the other half may
be left unreinforced to be used as control section for comparison. Geogrid shall be placed in
flat prepared bed as per the requirements and then folded at 90° at the box sides. Geogrid
is folded to metal box sides to model the anchorage effect in a typical wide road base. Load
in the form of sinusoidal cycles shall be applied through circular loading plate having 300
mm diameter. Loading may range from 0 to 40kN with an equivalent applied pressure of
560kPa. Vertical settlements (ruts) have to be recorded as a function of number of cycles
together with the permanent deformation in the road section. Test sections may be constructed
and loaded in either a test-box facility or a facility allowing for the construction of a test-track.
Minimum dimensions for the geometry of a test-box are given in Fig. II-6.
1.5 rn (minimum)
(AC, Base, Subgrade)
Fig. II-6 Typical Schematic of Laboratory Test-Box Pavement Test Facility/Set up Showing
Minimum Box Dimensions, Plate Load and Plate Dimensions (GMA White Paper-ll)
Settlements and elastic rebounds of the asphalt layers shall also be measured during the tests,
under the loading plate for every 100 cycles but not limited to, interval may be chosen based on
the requirements. Distribution of the permanent deformation on the aggregate during the tests
determined by measuring the displacements of the asphalt surface in several locations, and
of the bitumen aggregate and aggregate/subgrade interfaces at the end of each test. Series
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of tests should be done with several subgrade shear strengths with different CBR values for
different densities. Rut geometry for reinforced and unreinforced sections shall be analyzed to
determine differences in depth and shape of the deformed sections.
LCR can be determined using the equation below, by results obtained from tests on flexible
pavement system with and without reinforcement.
ar (SNr — a± * d^d-u
au (SNU — * d^dr
Where a/ au = layer coefficient ratio LCR
SNr and SNu are the structural numbers for reinforced and unreinforced pavement
systems.
2 Modulus Improvement Factor for Geogrid and Geocell
Modulus of the system with or without geosynthetic material is essentially the slope of the stress
versus strain curve. The Modulus Improvement Factor (MIF) is the ratio of improvement of the
modulus of a system where geosynthetic materials are incorporated, as compared to the system
without geosynthetic materials. This factor is evaluated by conducting plate load tests on soil
subgrade and evaluating the respective moduli without and with geosynthetic materials and
comparing the two moduli to estimate the MIF.
Determination of MIF for Geocell
Two sections, viz. unreinforced section and geosynthetic reinforced section are considered for
analysis. Schematics of both sections are shown in Fig. II-7 below. Strain gauges are placed
in position to monitor deformations. Earth pressure cells are placed in position below the
geosynthetic materials to monitor pressures. This is highlighted in the section view in Fig. II-7.
Sectional View
Geocell Reinforced GSB Section Unreinforced GSB Section
10 m
Pian View
Fig. II-7 Schematic of Unreinforced and Reinforced Section
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MIF is defined as:

Modulus of reinforced section at a given settlement
MIF -------------------------------------------------------- —----------- --------------
Modulus of unreinforced section for a given settlement
For future enhancement of the design procedure, Research has started focus on Mechanistic-
Empirical (ME) design procedures—specifically, how to incorporate the AASHTO Mechanical-
Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) procedures (AASHTO 2008). Discrete element
modelling of geogrid and aggregate, mechanistic response modelling with finite element method
analyses, full scale testing, and laboratory testing are being employed to develop/refine an M-E
design procedure.
MIF for geogrid can also be determined in the similar procedure.
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Annexure OH
Table 111-1 Various Design Considerations for Different Asphalt Reinforcements

(Technical Guideline-Asphalt Reinforcement for Road Construction, 2008)
Issues to Paving Fabric Paving Grids Composite Paving Grids

consider a) Polyester or a) Glass fibre grids2* b) Polyester grids3* a) Stitched or Wrap b) Bonded5*
Polypropylene1* knitted4*
Photos
of Typical
Products
Overlay 1. Act as stress 1. Modulus ratio of upto 1. Increases tensile 1. High stiffness 1.' Increase fatigue life
Stress absorbing interlayers 20; 1 over Asphalt strength of asphalt redirects crack of pavement with
Absorption 2. Prevent ingress of 2. High stiffness layer energy weak foundations
water into pavement redirects crack 2. Reduces tensile 2. Reduces peak 2. Used in above
oo layers energy peak stress tensile stress application, reduces
3. Bridge shrinkage 3. Assists with Asphalt 3. Improve asphalt rutting and control
cracks fatigue fatigue cracking
4. Provides increased 4. Reduces formation 3. Susceptible to creep
overlay performance of ruts
by 20 to 40 %
Overlay 1. Generally 35 mm but 1. Minimum overlay 1. 50 mm with paver 1. 40 mm minimum 1. Stiff bi-axial grids
Thickness can be as little as 25 thickness of 40 mm 2. 25 mm used used in 70 mm
mm 2. 25 mm overlay successfully in light overlays
thickness achieved trafficked areas with 2. Thinner composite
under controlled low loadings polyester grids used
conditions in 60 mm overlays
consider a) Polyester or a) Glass fibre grids2’ b) Polyester grids3’ a) Stitched or Wrap b) Bonded5’
Polypropylene1’ knitted4’
Compatibility 1. Paving fabrics 1. Melting point 1000°C 1. Polyester heat 1. No pre-dressing or 1. No pre-dressing or
Bond with resistant to shrinkage 2. Polymer modified resistance upto tensioning require tensioning require
Asphalt 2. Polyester heat bitumen coat of 210°C 2. Fabric impregnated 2. Fabric impregnated
resistance at 210°C grid has good 2. Good compatibility with bitumen with bitumen
and perform better compatibility with with tack coat and 3. Impregnated layer 3. Impregnated layer
than polypropylenes tack coat and asphalt asphalt provides moisture provides moisture
which are sensitive proofing proofing
at temperature 4. Non woven fleece 4. May increase
>145°C good compatibility pavement life by a
3. Rough texture with tack coat and factor of 3
provides interlock asphalt
adhesion 5. Check stability
4. Robustness which of reinforcement
withstands high when subjected
installation damage to operation heat.
Glass 1000°C,
00 Polyester 260°C,
Polypropylene 165°C
Durability and 1. Polyester or 1. Non corrodible 1. Non corrodible 1. Non corrodible 1. Non corrodible
corrosion polypropylene are 2. Resistance to oil 2. Resistance to oil and 2. Resistance to oil and 2. Resistance to oil and
non corrodible and and fuel spillage, fuel spillage fuel spillage fuel spillage
resistant to most biological attack, UV 3. Thermally stable 3. Thermally stable
chemicals light, weather upto 165°C upto 165°C
IRC:SP:59-2019
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Melting and 1. Hot milling and heat 1. Fibre broken down 1. Easily milled 1. Cold milling does not 1. Strong plastic grids
Recycling scarification can during milling (including hot milling) present problems may interfere with
cause problems process and easily by chisel teeth and 2. Hot milling and milling operations
2. Cold milling does recycled recycled heat scarification 2. Aggressive milling
not usually present may cause problem require due to thick
problems where geosynthetic and hard extruded
3. Fabrics in excess is present polymer strands
of 150 g/m2 may 3. Cognisance should 3. Nonwoven milled as
interfere with milling be taken of the mentioned in woven
process different behaviour of paving fabrics
4. Polyester fabrics less the paving fabric as 4. Recycling unlikely as
susceptible to hot opposed to the gird contamination of mix
milling or mesh component is high
5. Chisel teeth 4. Chisel teeth
preferred over preferred
conical teeth 5. Milling speeds of 3-6
6. Milling speed range m/min
3-6 m/min 6. Glass fibre strands
easily mixed into
new asphalt fabric
will determine mixed
design which may
contain up to 0.5%
paving fabric pieces
by weight
Boundary De-lamination of the fabric 1. Glass grids with 1. Tack coat applied De-lamination of the grid De-lamination of the fabric
Operating could occur if: adhesive surface to clean dry sub could occur due to: could occur if:
Conditions/ 1. Presence of water in cannot be applied in structure 1. Presence of water in 1. Presence of water in
Limitations base wet conditions 2. Poor resistance to base base
and 2. Insufficient tack-coat 2. Tack coat must be creep 2. Insufficient tack coat 2. Insufficient tack coat
Constrains or saturation of the cured or saturation of the or saturation of the
fabric 3. Glass fibre is skin fabric fabric
3. Fabric load in rain or irritant, worker must 3. Fabric laid in rain or 3. Fabric laid in rain or
wet conditions wear PPE wet conditions wet conditions
4. Fuel leakage or 4. Laid glass fibre 4. Fuel leakage or 4. Fuel leakage or
contamination paved same day contamination contamination
between fabric and 5. Sensitive to between fabric and between fabric and
overlay mechanical abrasion overlay overlay
when exposed
Shoving or heaving could Shoving or heaving could Shoving or heaving could

occur; due slippage on an occur; due slippage on an occur; due slippage on an
old, rich surface old, rich surface old, rich surface
Bleeding could occur if: Bleeding could occur if: Bleeding could occur if:
1. Too much binder 1. Too much binder 1. Too much binder
applied as a tack or applied as a tack or applied as a tack or
saturation coat saturation coat saturation coat
2. Volatiles from 2. Volatiles from 2. Volatiles from
cutback or winter cutback or winter cutback or winter
grade bitumens grade bitumens grade bitumens
cannot applying cannot applying cannot applying
overlay. overlay. overlay.
3. If cut or winter 3. If cut or winter 3. If cut or winter
grades have to be grades have to be grades have to be
used. Avoid using used. Avoid using used. Avoid using
IRC:SP:59-2019
them in the tack coat. them in the tack coat. them in the tack coat.
IRC:SP:59-2019
Polypropylene1) knitted4’
Boundary Mechanical failure if;
Operating 1. Crack movement is
Conditions/ excessive and tears
Limitations fabric
and 2. Insufficient or no
Constrains overlap of fabric
(Continued)
3. Laid in areas of
extreme shear stress
conditions
4. Patholes not
repeated
5. Cracks>7 mm not
pre-filled
Notes:
1) Nonwoven polyester or polypropylene filaments either needle-punched or thermally bonded
2) Coated multi filament woven or warp knit glass fibre grids
3) Coated multi filament woven or warp knit polyester grids
4) A glass fibre or polymeric grid structure stitched or knitted toa nonwoven paving fabric
5) An extruded or woven polymer grid bonded to a light nonwoven fabric
IRC:SP:59-2019
Annexlire SV
WORKED-OUT EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING THE DESSGN METHODS
Example 1: Design the Pavement for Construction of a New Flexible Pavement with the
following Data:
input data:
Design traffic: 50 msa
Subgrade CBR = 6%
Solution:
i. Design resilient modulus of the compacted subgrade

Mr (MPa) = 10 x CBR ; for CBR 5
= 17.6 x (CBR)0 64 ; for CBR >5
Where MR = Resilient modulus of subgrade soil
Mr subgrade =17.6 x 6°64= 55.4 MPa
ii. Thickness of unreinforced granular layers: For design traffic of 50 msa and obtained
CBR of 6 per cent, the thickness values are taken as below with reference to design plates
(Assume Plate 4) from IRC:37.
Thickness of granular base (D2) = 250 mm,

Thickness of granular sub-base (D3) = 260 mm
\ M =0.2xh°-45xMR h .
R_G R_subgrade
Where h= thickness of granular base and sub-base layers, mm
Therefore, resilient modulus of granular layer = 0.2 x (510)045 x 55.4= 183.20 MPa.
Thickness of proposed bituminous layer with VG 40 bitumen with bottom DBM layer having air
void of 3 per cent (0.5 per cent to 0.6 per cent additional bitumen over OBC) over WMM and
GSB mm at reliability of 90 per cent.
(A) Design calculations of bitumen pavement with geogrid reinforced granuDar
base and subbase layers using LCR of geogrid
Reducing thickness of pavement section
In this case the effect of reinforcement is shown as the reduction in the pavement section
thickness.
i. Design Traffic = 50 msa
ii. Subgrade CBR = 6 per cent
iii. Reliability = 90 per cent
iv. Resilient Modulus of Subgrade (MR):
Mr (MPa) = 17.6x6°64= 55.40 MPa
Resilient modulus of Subbase and Base layers:
Granular sub-base thickness (MR GSB) = 260 mm
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M R_GSB= 0.2xh°-45xiVL . .
R_subgrade
Where h= thickness of granular sub-base layer, mm
MRof unreinforced subbase layer=0.2 x (260)°45 x 55.4 = 136 MPa = 19724.624 Psi
Granular Base thickness = 250 mm
MV R_GB =0 2xh°-
11 45xM
VIR_GSB
Where h = thickness of granular base layer, mm

MR of unreinforced base layer = 0.2 x (250)°45 x 136 = 327MPa = 47426.118Psi
Resilient modulus of Bituminous Mixes = 3000 MPa=435102 Psi
v. Structural layer coefficient of each layer:
Layer coefficient for bituminous layer (aj = 0.171 x (LN (MR))-1.784
= 0.171 x (LN (435102))-1.784=0.436
a) Structural Layer coefficient for base layer shall be taken from the equations
given in AASTHO 1993.
Structural layer coefficient for base layer
a2 = 0.249 x (log10MR BC) - 0.977 = 0.249 x (|Og10 47426.118) - 0.977 =
0.188
b) Structural layer coefficient for subbase layer
a3 = 0.227 (log10MRSB) - 0.839 = 0.227 x (log1019724.624) - 0.839
= 0.136
Therefore,
Layer coefficient for base layer (a2) = 0.188
Layer coefficient for sub base layer (a3) =0.136
vi. Layer Coefficient Ratio: Layer coefficient for geogrid is taken on the basis on the
laboratory tests/filed tests; or it can be provided by the manufacturer.
(LCRbase) for geogrid used in base layer = 1.4
(LCRSubbase) for geogrid used in sub base layer = 1.61
(BJ H (iw »Hr i iihDcknsss wDues forr remforced secwoos by IliiTF/WE
Thickness of sub base layer = 180 mm
Thickness of base layer = 160 mm
Resilient modulus of reinforced Snobbase and Base layers
Granular sub-base thickness = 180 mm
M R_GSB=0 2xh045 xM
v R_subgrade
Where h= thickness of granular sub-base layer, mm

Mr of reinforced subbase layer = 0.2 x (180)0-45 x 55.40 = 115 MPa =
16678.91 Psi
Granular Base thickness = 160 mm
r =0.2xh045 xMr\_uoD
MR K_Ub R
Where h = thickness of granular base layer, mm
Mr of reinforced base layer = 0.2 x (160)045 x 115 = 225 MPa
= 32632.65 Psi
Layer coefficient for bituminous layer (aj = 0.436
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c) Structural Layer coefficient for base layer shall be taken from b equations
given in AASTHO 1993.
Structural layer coefficient for base layer
a = 0.249 x (log M rR) - 0.977 = 0.249 x (|og 32632.65) - 0.977
= 0.147
d) Structural layer coefficient for subbase layer
a = 0.227 (logJVI R) - 0.839 = 0.227 x (log 16678.91) - 0.839
= 0.120
Therefore,
Modified Layer coefficient for base layer (a2) = 0.147
Modified Layer coefficient for sub base layer (a3) = 0.120
Modified layer coefficient for base layer (a2>) = LCRbase x a2
= 1.4*0.147= 0.2058
Modified layer coefficient for sub-base layer (aJ = LCR-.. x aQ
= 1.61*0.120= 0.1932
With the improved layer coefficients, improved elastic modulus of respective layers shall be back
calculated using below equations.
a21 = 0.249x (log10M„ GB)- 0.977
Mr GB1 = 393 MPa
a31 = 0.227 (log10MR GSB) - 0.839
rRR1I = 244 MPa
M„r<_UoD
Using above improved elastic modulus corresponding improved layer coefficients, reinforced
layer thickness shall be determined.
Reinforced base layer thickness = 160 mm
Reinforced subbase layer thickness = 180 mm
Surface layer (BC+DBM) =150 mm
(a) Conventional Unreinforced Pavement Section (b) Geogrid Reinforced Pavement Section
Fig. IV-1 Pavement Sections with and without Reinforcement
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IRC:SP:59-2019
This reinforced pavement section shall be designed as per IRC:37 i.e. section shall be checked
for fatigue and rutting failure criterion by inputting this improved elastic modulus into IITPAVE.
Fig. IV-4, shows the input parameters in IITPAVE, in which improved E values are used. Fig. IV-5
represents the vertical and tensile strains induced in the pavement layers. Obtained vertical
strain at subgrade level is 360.4x10-6 which is less than the permissible vertical strain 372x1 Q-
6 obtained as per Eq 6.5 in IRC:37 and obtained tensile strain at bottom of bitumen layer is
146.7*10'6 is less than permissible 155*10‘6 tensile strain obtained as per Eq 6.2 of IRC:37.
Hence the reduced section with geogrid reinforcement in base and subbase layers is acceptable
for design traffic 50 msa.
Fig. IV-2 Input Parameters in QITPAVE for Unreinforced Section
Ho. of layers 4
E values (MPa) 3000.00 329.00 137.0056.00
Mu values 0.350.350.380.35
thicknesses fsnsnj 150.00 250.00 260.00
single wheel load (N) 20000.00
tyre pressure (MPa) 0.55
Dual Wheel
Z R SigraaZ SigmaT SigmaR TacRZ Disp2 epZ epT epR
150.00 0.00-0.1198E+00 0.5816E+00 0.4636E+00-0.1981E-01 0.4012E+00-0.1618E-03 0.1S37E-03 0.1006E-03
150.001 0.00-0.1195E+00 0.6504B-02-0,6433E-02-0.1981E-01 0.4012E+00-0.3632E-03 0.1537E-03 0.1006E-03
150.00 155.00-0.1C14E+00 0.S0S7E+00 0.2313E+00-0-6357E-01 0.4102E+00-0.1198E-03 0.1S34E-03 0.2992E-04
150.00L 155.00-0.10145+00 0.6848E-02-0.2325E-01-0.63S7E-01 0.4102E+00-0.2908E-03 0.1534E-03 0.2992E-04
660.00 0.00-0.1387E-01 0.1498E-01 0.1336E-01-0.2034E-02 0.2915E+00-0.1736E-03 0.1106E-03 0.9470E-04
660.00L 0.00-0.1387E-01 0.1726E-02 0.1032E-02-0.2034E-02 0.2915E+00-0.2649E-03 0.1110E-03 0.9430E-04
Fig. IV-3 Vertical and Tensile Strains Induced in the Pavement Layers for
Unreinforced Section
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No of Layers HOME
Layer: 1 Elastic Modu!us(MPa) 3000 Poison Ra So 0.35 i Thidsiess(mm} 150
Layer: 2 Elastic Modu!us(MPa) 393 Poison Rato Thickness(fnm) 160
Layer: 3 Basse Modulus(MPa) 2+4 Poison Ra So fo.3S ; Thidtness(mtnj 130
Layer: 4 Sasbc Modul'jsfMPa) 55.4 Poison Ratio ;0.35
Wheel Load(Newton) i 20000 Tyre Pressure(MPa) 0.56
Analysis Points 3
Point:! Depth (mm): ISO Radfus(nvn): .0
Point:2 Depth(mm): 150 Radius (mm): S
Point: 3 Depth(mm): 490 . Radius(mm):
Wheel Set
Submit Reset
Fig. IV-4 Input Parameters in QITPAVE for Reinforced Section
Ho. <sf layers 4

2 values (MPa) 3000.00 393.00 244.00 S3.40.
Mu values ' 0.350.350.350.38
thicknesses (sat) 150.00 160.00 180.00
single wheel load <K) 20000.00
Dual Wheel
Z 5 SigroaZ SigstaT Sigma?. TaoP.Z Disp2 epZ epX epR
150.00 0.00-0.12392+00 0.55123+00 0.44082+00-0.22513-01 0.41942+00-0.15702-03 0.14683-03 0.97092-04
ISO.001 0.00-0.12392+00 0.14243-01-0.21182-03-0.22513-01 0.41942+00-0.32772-03 0.14672-03 0.97092-04
150.00 1S5.00-0.1012S+00 0.4789E+00 0.21782+00-0.72922-01 0.42.973+00-0.11303-03 0.14613-03 0.28432-04
180.00L 155.00-0.10123+00 0.13382-01-0.18833-01-0.72932-01 0.42873+00-0.25442-03 0.14612-03 0.28453-04
490.00 0.00-0.18923-01 0.43973-01 0.38573-01-0.30313-02 0.34652+00-0.19592-03 0.18202-03 0.12212-03
490.001 0.00-0.18922-01 0.21112-02 0.88012-03-0.30802-02 0.34653+00-0.36043-03 0.15212-03 0.12212-03
Fig. IV-5 Vertical and Tensile Strains Induced in the Pavement Layers for Reinforced Section
Example 2: Design Example for Flexible Pavement using Geocell
Consider a pavement to be constructed on marine clay with a CBR of 2%. The design life of the
structure, reflected as million standard axles (msa), as 100 msa.
Solution:
As a matter of good practice and as per IRC:37 Clause 5.1, it would be prudent to provide a
500 mm thick layer of select earth over the dressed clay surface. With the soft marine clay
below, the CBR of the earth fill may not be considered greater than 3%, which is also the lowest
CBR considered by IRC:37. On the basis of the Plate shown in Fig. IV-6, the section of the
conventional pavement for 100 msa traffic is as per Fig. IV-7.
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IRC:SP:59-2019
Fig. IV-6 Plate 1 from IRC:37
In Fig. IV-7, it may be noted that nonwoven geotextile is provided at the interface between the
marine clay and the select earth fill as a separation layer.
MARINE CLAY CBR * 2%
CONVENTIONAL SECTION
Fig. IV-7 Conventional Pavement Section as per IRC:37
Considering Design Traffic as 100 msa and for 90% reliability,
1. Determination of Vertical Subgrade strain (ev):

4.5337
Nr = 1.41 x IO"08 x (—)
\£v/
। 4.5337
100 x 106 = 1.41 x IO-08 x ( —)
\SV/
ev= 319.0 x io-6 micro-strain units.
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IRC:SP:59-2019
2. Determination Horizontal Tensile strain (et):

/1\3'89 / 1 \0-854
Nf = 0.711 x 10-4 x (-) x (—)
I 3.89 0.854
100 X 106 = 0.711 X 10“4 X (-) X | —--)
\et7 \3000/
Et= 129.94 x 10’6 micro-strain units.
Hence for the recommended conventional pavement section, permissible vertical subgrade
strain and horizontal tensile strain are 319.0x1 O'6 and 129.94* 10-6 respectively.
These values will form the basis of checking the reduced thicknesses of pavement components
with the introduction of geocells within the appropriate pavement layer. For the reduced section
with geocells, the strains should be equal to or less than those for the conventional section at the
corresponding locations. These criteria must be satisfied for the various options using geocells
as discussed below.
The Geocell Options
The geocell panels are placed within either Granular Base layer or Granular Sub-base layer.
Modulus of the portion of the layer within which the geocells are placed is increased by a Modulus
Improvement Factor. With the geocell layer in place, thickness of the costliest layer may be first
selected for reduction.
Computations are repeated with IITPAVE with the appropriate moduli values. Varying the
thicknesses by trial and error, two sections were arrived at as shown in the Fig. IV-8. These
were compared separately with the conventional section.
Option-1: Geocell placed within Option-2: Geocell placed within

GSB and overall thickness of GSB reduced to Granular Base and overall thickness of Granular Base
200 mm and DBM reduced to 140 mm reduced to 200 mm and GSB reduced to 25© mm
Fig. IV-8 Design Sections using Geocells

Note:
1. In all cases, Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete (SDBC) thickness has been retained as 50 mm.
2. If DBM is maintained at 50 mm, the strains exceed those for Conventional Section.
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IRC:SP:59-2019
Option 1
Material properties for the geocell section are shown in Fig. IV-9 are as following:
i. CBR of Subgrade soil = 3%
ii. Traffic = 100 msa.
iii. Geocell Style = Weld spacing = 356 mm; Depth of geocell = 150 mm
(l-Sng's wheel
VWieei Set 2 » 2.
Submit
Fig. IV-9 Material Properties for the Analysis of Geocell Section
Results of the corresponding stress strain analysis are shown in Fig. IV-10.
No. of layers 5
E values (MFa) 3000.00 3000.00 332.00 138.30 30.00
Mu values 0.400.400.350.350.35
chicknesses (m) 50.00 140.00 250.00 200.00
single wheel load (M) 20400.00
Dual Wheel
Z R SigwaZ SigmaT SigmaR TaoRZ DispZ epZ ‘ epT epR
50.00 417.61-0.2234E+00-0.2769E+0&-0.3057E+00-0.2031E+00 0.5157E+00 0.3217E-05-0.2176E-04-0.3520E-04
50.001 417.61-0.2234E+00-0.2769E+00-0.3057E+00-0.2031E+00 0.5157E+00 0.3217E-05-0.2176E-04-0.3520E-04
190.00 417.61-0.5746E-01 0.3815E+00 0.2557E+00-0.3466E-01 0.5092E+00-0.1041E-03 G.1007E-03 0.4202E-04
190.001 417.61-0.5746E-01 0.1273E-01-0.1706E-02-0.3466E-01 0.5092E+00-G.1S47E-03 0.,1007E-03 0.4202E-04
440.00 417.61-0.16S5E-01 0.4477E-01 0.3655E-01-0.S715E-02 0.4734E+00-0.13S6E-03 O.'1137E-O3 0.8035E-04
440.001 417.61-0.1655E-01 0.1345E-01 0.1003E-01-0.S715E-02 0.4734E+00-0.1791E-03 0.1137E-03 0.8035E-04
640.00 417.61-0.8744E-02 0.2198E-01 0.1900E-01-0.1953E-02 0.4405E+00-0.1669E-03 0.1330E-03 0.1039E-03
640.001 417.61-0.3743E-02 0.1080E-02 0.4359E-03-0.1950E-02 0.44OSE+OO-O.3091E-03 0.1329E-03 0.1039E-03
Fig. IV-10 Stress Strain Values from the Analysis
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Vertical strain at the interface with the subgrade is 309.1 x 10-6 micro-strain units. The
corresponding strain for the Conventional Section is 100.7 x 10-6 micro-strain units. Hence the
thinner section with geocells is acceptable. Furthermore, considering the rutting model the as
per IRC:37, the number of standard axles over the pavement with the new moduli with geocells
works out to 115 msa with 90% reliability.
In the similar way, geocell placed in granular base shall be computed.
REFERENCES
Indian Codes
1. IRC:34 “Recommendations for Road Construction in Areas Affected by Water Logging
Flooding and/or Salts Infestation”.
2. IRC:37 “Guidelines for Design of Flexible Pavements”.
3. IRC:115 “Guidelines for Structural Evaluation and Strengthening of Flexible Road
Pavements Using Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) Technique”.
4. IRC HRB Special Report No. 12, “State-of-the-Art: Application of Geotextiles in
Highway Engineering”.
5. IS:2720: Part-7 “Methods of Test for Soils-Determination of Water Content-Dry Density
Relation using Light Compaction”.
6. IS: 13162 (Part 2) “Geotextiles-Methods of Test-Determination of Resistance to
Exposure of Ultraviolet light and Water (Xenon Arc Type Apparatus)”.
7. IS: 13162 (Part 3) “Geotextiles-Methods of Test-Determination of Thickness at
Specified Pressures”.
8. IS: 13162 (Part 4) “Geotextiles-Methods of Test-Determination of Puncture Resistance
by Falling Cone Method”.
9. IS:13162 (Part 5) “Geotextiles-Methods of Test-Determination of Tensile Properties
Using A Wide Width Strip”.
10. IS: 13325 “Determination of Tensile Properties of Extruded Polymer Geogrids Using
the Wide Strip-Test Method”.
11. IS: 13360 (Part 3)-1 “Plastics-Methods of Testing-Physical and Dimensional Properties-
Determination of Density and Relative Density of Non-Cellular Plastics”.
12. IS: 16342 “Geosynthetics - Method of Test for Grab Breaking Load and Elongation of
Geotextiles”.
13. IS: 14293 “Geotextiles - Method of test for trapezoid tearing strength”.
14. IS: 16078 “Geosynthetics - Static Puncture Test (CBR Test)”.
15. IS: 14294 “Geotextiles - Method for Determination of Apparent Opening Size by Dry
Sieving Technique”.
16. IS: 14324 “Geotextiles-Methods for Test for Determination of Water Permeability
Permittivity”.
17. IS: 14716 “Geotextiles-Determination of Mass per Unit Area”.
18. IS: 16389 “Geosynthetics - Method of Test for Biological Clogging of Geotextile or Soil/
Geotextile Filters”.
19. IS: 16362 “Geosynthetics - Geotextiles used in Sub-Grade Stabilization in Pavement
Structures”.
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IRC:SP:59-2019
20. IS: 16078 “Geosynthetics - Static Puncture Test (CBR Test)”.

21. IS: 16391 “Geosynthetics - Geotextiles used in Sub-Grade Separation in Pavement
Structures - Specification”.
22. IS: 15910 “Geosynthetics for Highways-Specifications”.
23. IS:16345 “Geosynthetics - Guidelines for Installation of Geotextile used in Sub-Grade
Separation in Pavement Structures”.
24 IS: 16343 “Geosynthetics - Guidelines for Installation of Geotextiles as Pavement Fabric”.
International Codes
1. AASHTO M288 “Standard Specification for Geotextiles Specification for Highway
Applications”.
2. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 1993, “AASHTO
Guide for Design of Pavement Structures”, Washington, DC, USA.
3. ASTM D413-98 (2013) “Standard Test Methods for Rubber Property—Adhesion to
Flexible Substrate”.
4. ASTM D521-92 (2009) “Standard Test Method for Measuring Mass per Unit Area of
Geotextiles”.
5. ASTM D638 “Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics”.
6. ASTM D751-06 (2011) “Standard Test Methods for Coated Fabrics”.
7. ASTM D792 “Standard Test Methods for Density and Specific Gravity (Relative
Density) of Plastics by Displacement”.
8. ASTM D882 “Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Thin Plastic Sheeting”.
9. ASTM D1004 “Standard Test Method for Tear Resistance (Graves Tear) of Plastic
Film and Sheeting”.
10. ASTM D1204 “Standard Test Method for Linear Dimensional Changes of Nonrigid
Thermoplastic Sheeting or Film at Elevated Temperature”.
11. ASTM D1238 “Standard Test Method for Melt Flow Rates of Thermoplastics by
Extrusion Plastometer”.
12. ASTM D1505 “Standard Test Method for Density of Plastics by the Density-Gradient Technique”.
13. ASTM D1603 “Standard Test Method for Carbon Black Content in Olefin Plastics”.
14. ASTM D1693 “Standard Test Method for Environmental Stress-Cracking of Ethylene
Plastics”.
15. ASTM D3776 “Standard Test Methods for Mass per Unit Area (Weight) of Fabric”.
16. ASTM D3895 “Standard Test Method for Oxidative-induction Time of Polyolefins by
Differential Scanning Calorimetry”.
17. ASTM D4218 “Standard Test Method for Determination of Carbon Black Content in
Polyethylene Compounds By the Muffle-Furnace Technique”.
18. ASTM D4355 “Standard Test Method for Deterioration of Geotextiles by Exposure to
Light, Moisture and Heat in a Xenon Arc Type Apparatus”.
19. ASTM D4437 “Standard Practice for Non-destructive Testing (NDT) for Determining
the Integrity of Seams Used in Joining Flexible Polymeric Sheet Geomembranes”.
20. ASTM D4491 “Standard Test Methods for Water Permeability of Geotextiles by
Permittivity”.
21. ASTM D4595 “Standard Test Method for Tensile properties of Geotextiles by the
Wide-Width Strip Method”.
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IRC:SP:59-2019
22. ASTM D4632 “Standard Test Method for Grab Breaking Load and Elongation of
Geotextiles”.
23. ASTM D4643 “Standard Test Method for Determination of Water Content of Soil and
Rock by Microwave Oven Heating”.
24. ASTM D4716 “Standard Test Method for Determining the (In-plane) Flow Rate per
Unit Width and Hydraulic Transmissivity of a Geosynthetic Using a Constant Head”.
25. ASTM D4751 “Standard Test Methods for Determining Apparent Opening Size of a
Geotextile”.
26. ASTM D4833 “Standard Test Method for Index Puncture Resistance of Geomembranes
and Related Products”.
27. ASTM D4884 “Standard Test Method for Strength of Sewn or Bonded Seams of
Geotextiles”.
28. ASTM D4885 “Standard Test Method for Determining Performance Strength of
Geomembranes by the Wide Strip Tensile Method”.
29. ASTM D5035 “Standard Test Method for Breaking Force and Elongation of Textile
Fabrics (Strip Method)”.
30. ASTM D5101“Standard Test Methods for Measuring the Filtration Compatibility of
Soil-Geotextile Systems”.
31. ASTM D5101 “Standard Test Method for Determining Tensile Properties of Geogrids
by the Single or Multi-Rib tensile Method”.
32. ASTM D5199 “Standard Test Method for Measuring the Nominal Thickness of
Geosynthetics”.
33. ASTM D5261 “Standard Test Methods for Determining Apparent Opening Size of a
Geotextile”.
34. ASTM D5262 “Standard Test Method for Evaluating the Unconfined Tension Creep
and Creep Rupture Behavior of Geosynthetics”.
35. ASTM D5321 “Standard Test Method for Determining the Shear Strength of Soil-
Geosynthetic and Geosynthetic-Geosynthetic Interfaces by Direct Shear”.
36. ASTM D5397 “Standard Test Method for Evaluation of Stress Crack Resistance of
Polyolefin Geomembranes Using Notched Constant Tensile Load Test”.
37. ASTM D5567-94 “Standard test Method for Hydraulic Conductivity Ratio (HCR)-
Testing of Soil/Geotextile Systems”.
38. ASTM D5596 “Standard Test Method for Microscopic Evaluation of the Dispersion of
Csrcon Black h Polyolefin Geosynthetics”.
39. ASTM D5494 “Standard Test Method for the Determination of Pyramid Puncture
Resistance of Unprotected and Protected Geomembranes”.
40. ASTM D5721 “Standard Practice for Air-Oven Aging of Polyolefin Geomembranes”.
41 ASTM D5885 “Standard Test Method for Oxidative Induction Time of Polyolefin
Geosynthetics by High-Pressure Differential Scanning Calorimetry”.
42. ASTM D5887 “Standard Test Method for Measurement of Index Flux through Saturated
Geosynthetic Clay Liner Specimens Using a Flexible Wall Permeameter”.
43. ASTM D5993 “Standard Test Method for Measuring Mass Per Unit of Geosynthetic
Clay Liners”.
j ASTM D5994 “Standard Test Method for Measuring Core Thickness of Textured
Geomembranes”.
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IRC:SP:59-2019
45. ASTM D6140 “Standard Test Method to Determine Asphalt Retention of Paving
Fabrics Used in Asphalt Paving for Full-Width Applications”.
46. ASTM D6241-14 “Standard Test Method for Static Puncture Strength of Geotextiles
and Geotextile Related Products Using a 50 mm Probe”.
47. ASTM D6525 “Standard Test Method for Measuring Nominal Thickness of Rolled
Erosion Control Products”.
48. ASTM D6637 “Standard Test method for Determining Tensile Properties of Geogrids
by Single or Multi-Rib Tensile Method”.
49. ASTM D6392 “Standard Test Method for Determining the Integrity of Nonreinforced
Geomembrane Seams Produced Using Thermo-Fusion Methods”.
50. ASTMD6693“StandardTestMethodforDeterminingTensilePropertiesofNonreinforced
Polyethylene and Nonreinforced Flexible Polypropylene Geomembranes”.
51. ASTM D6766 “Standard Test Method for Evaluation of Hydraulic Properties of
Geosynthetic Clay Liners Permeated with Potentially IncompatibleAqueous Solutions”.
52. ASTM D6992 “Standard Test Method for Accelerated Tensile Creep-Creep Rupture
of Geosynthetic Materials Based on Time-Temperature Superposition Using the
Stepped Isothermal Method”.
53. ASTM D7238 “Standard Test Method for Effect of Exposure of Unreinforced Polyolefin
Geomembrane Using Fluorescent UV Condensation Apparatus”.
54. ASTM D7466 “Standard Test Method for Measuring Asperity Height of Textured
Geomembranes”.
55. ASTM D7737 “Standard Test Method for Individual Geogrid Junction Strength”.
56. ISO 527-3: 1995 “Plastics- Determination of Tensile Properties-Test Conditions for
Films and Sheets”.
57. ISO 1183-1 “Plastics-Methods for Determining the Density of Non-Cellular Plastics”.
58. ISO 3146 “Plastics-Determination of Melting Behavior of Semi Crystalline Polymers
by Capillary Tube and Polarizing-Microscope Methods”.
59. ISO 9864 “Geosynthetics-Test Method for the Determination of Mass per Unit Area of
Geotextiles and Geotextile Related Products”.
60. ISO 9863-1 “Geosynthetics-Determination of Thickness at Specified Pressures-Part
1: Single Layers”.
61. ISO 9863-1 “Geosynthetics-Determination of Thickness at Specified Pressures-
Single Layers”.
62. ISO 10319 “Geosynthetics-Wide Width Tensile Test”.
63. ISO 10321 “Geosynthetic-Tensile Test for Joints/Seams by Wide-Width Strip Method”.
64. ISO 10722 “Geosynthetics-Index Test Procedure for the Evaluation of Mechanical
Damage under Repeated Loading-Damage caused by Granular Material”.
65. ISO 11058 “Geotextiles and Geotextile Related Products-Determination of Water
Permeability Characteristics Normal to the Plane, without Load”.
66. ISO 11357-1 "Plastics- Differential Scanning Calorimetry-General Principles”.
67. ISO 12236 “Geosynthetics-Static Puncture Strength”.
68. ISO 12956 “Geotextiles and Geotextile Related Products-Determination of
Characteristic Opening Size”.
69. ISO 12958 “Geotextiles and Geotextile Related products-Determination of Water
Flow Capacity in Their Plane”.
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70. ISO 13438 “Geotextile-Geotextile Related Products-Screening Test Method for
Determining the Resistance to Oxidation”.
71. ISO 13934-1 “Textiles-Tensile properties of Fabrics-Determination of Maximum Force
and Elongation at Maximum Force Using the Strip Method”.
Others
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2. Abusaid, A.H.,(2006),“Development of a Method to Test Geogrid Reinforcement of
Base Materials in Flexible Pavements”, M.S. Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering,
The University of Texas at Austin.
3. Al-Qadi, I.L., Dessouky, S.H., Kwon, J., and Tutumluer, E., (2007), “Accelerated Full-
Scale Testing of Geogrid-Reinforced Flexible Pavements’” Transportation Research
Board, 86th Annua! Meeting, Washington, DC, USA, CD-ROM, 27 p.
4. Anderson, P., Killeavy, M., (1989),“Geotextiles and Geogrids-cost Effective
Alternate Materials for Pavement Design and Construction,” SanDiego, USA,
vol. 2, pp. 353-364.
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in Flexible Pavement System”, National Cooperative Highway Research Program,
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of Unpaved Rural Road Using Jute Synthetic Blended Woven Geotextile - a Case
Study,” Geotextiles and Geomembranes 27, 506-512.
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of Geotextile-Reinforced Soil Retaining Walls”, Geosynthetics International Journal,
April, Vol.14, No. 1.
8. Berg, R.R., Christopher, B.R., and Perkins, S.W., 2000 “Geosynthetic Reinforcement
of the Aggregate Base/Subbase Courses of Flexible Pavement Structures-GMA White
Paper II”, Geosynthetic Materials Association, Roseville, MN, USA, 176p.
9. Cancelli, A., Montanelli, F., Rimoldi, R, and Zhao, A., (1996),“Full Scale Laboratory
Testing on Geosynthetics Reinforced Paved Roads,” In: International Symposium on
Earth Reinforcement, IS-Kyushu 1996, Kyushu, Japan, vol. 1, pp. 573-578.
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Reinforced Flexible Pavements”, Highway Research Journal, New Delhi.
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Flexible Pavement Systems with Geogrid Reinforced Base Courses”, Geosynthetics
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Level Pavement Management”. Lecture Session 1a: PMS to support New MEPDG
Norfolk, VA, May 7, 2007.
13. Fannin, R.J., and Sigurdsson, O., (1996), “Field Observations on Stabilization of
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IRC:SP:59-2019

GUIDELINES FOR USE OF

INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

GUIDELINES FOR USE OF

INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS

(All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication shall be reproduced,

Printed at India Offset Press, Delhi - 110 064

S.No. Descriptoom Page No.

PERSONNEL OF THE HIGHWAYS SPECIFICATIONS

5 Basar, Toli Chief Engineer, PWD, Arunachal Pradesh

6 Bhanot, Balraj Chairman, TED, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi

7 Bongirwar, P.L. Secretary (Retd.), PWD Maharashtra

9 Jain, Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Professor, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

10 Jain, R.K. Chief Engineer (Retd.), PWD Haryana

13 Lal, Chaman Engineer-in-Chief, Gurugram Metropolitan Development Authority, Haryana

17 Parida, Prof. (Dr.) M. Dean, SRIC, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

19 Pawar, Ajit Secretary (Retd.), PWD Maharashtra

22 Rawat, M.S. Executive Director, AECOM India Pvt. Ltd.

23 Sarangi, D. CGM, National Highways Authority of India, New Delhi

28 Singh, Pawan Kumar GM, 3M India Ltd.

■iI President, (Pradhan, N.K.), Engineer-in-Chief cum Secretary, Works Department,

GUIDELINES FOR USE OF

Nashikkar, J.T. Convenor

Adhikari, Atanu Kaushik, Shiv

Nashikkar, J.T. Convenor

Stabilization and reinforcing of pavement layers

Chapter-1 “Introduction” provides details of different geosynthetic materials, their composition,

1.2 Raw Materials and Classification of Geosynthetics

1.2.1 Raw materials

1.2.2 Classification of geosynthetics

| ONE DIMENSIONAL | I TWO DIMENSIONAL | [THREE DIMENSIONAL!

[STRAPS | | CABLES | | GEOMATS~| | GEOCELL-[ | GEONETS-1 [MATTRESSES] |GEO SPACE~r] 3 DIMENSIONAL

[geotextile] I GEOGRJD I |GEOCOMPOSlTE| | GEOMEMBRANE |

| KNITTED | | WOVEN | |NON WOVEN] | KNITTED I [EXTRUDED I | WOVEN | | BONDED | | WELDED |

[mono filament] [multi Fl lament] I TAPE I THERMAL CHEMICAL NEEDLE

Fig. 1.1 Classification of Geosynthetics

1.2.3 Types of geosynthetics for pavement applications

Composite geotextiles (Multi-layered geotextiles) are manufactured by combining layers of

Fig. 1.2 Geotextile

Fig. 1.3 Geogrids

1.2.3.3 Geomembranes: Geomembrane is a very low permeability/impervious synthetic

Fig. 1.4 Geomembranes

Fig. 1.5 Geonet

1.2.3.5 Geospacer: Geospacer is a three-dimensional geosynthetic extruded from polymeric

Fig. 1.6 Geospacers

(a) closed form (b) open form

Fig. 1.7 Geocell

(a) Unreinforced Geomats (b) Reinforced Geomats

Fig. 1.8 Geomat

Fig. 1.9 (a) Paving Fabric (b) Paving Grid

1.2.3.9 Geocomposite: Geocomposites are formed by combining geotextiles or geomembranes

(a) Drainage Composite (b) Reinforced Geocomposite

Fig. 1.10 Geocomposite

1.3 Functions of Geosynthetics

Reinforcement function of geosynthetics is defined as use of the stress-strain behaviour of a

Sr. Ho. Property Paving Fabric Fibre-Glass Grid AIC

1. Tensile Strength Low High High

2. Moisture Barrier High Low High

3. Stress Absorbing Member High Low High