Comprehensive Guidelines AND Specifications FOR Railway Formation

For official use only
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
MINISTRY OF RAILWAYS
COMPREHENSIVE GUIDELINES
AND
SPECIFICATIONS
FOR
RAILWAY FORMATION
Specification No. RDSO/2020/GE: IRS-0004
September - 2020
Geo-technical Engineering Directorate,

Research Designs and Standards Organisation
Manak Nagar, Lucknow – 226011
i
PREAMBLE
The existing formation for most of the routes of Indian Railways was constructed by
conventional methods and meant to carry lighter axle load with less number of trains
and lower speed, as compared to present scenario. Over the years, increase in axle
load, speeds and traffic have placed a greater demand on the formation. Unlike
replacement of track components and ballast, the rehabilitation /improvement of
formation is costly, time consuming and causes traffic disruption. As a result, lot of
stretches are continuing under severe speed restrictions over the years.
With an aim to construct the formation for future needs, it was decided in 2009, that
the formation on Indian Railways will be constructed for 25T axle load.
Guidelines for earth work in Railway Projects No.GE: G-1, July 2003 and Guidelines &
Specifications for design of formation for Heavy Axle Load GE: G-14, November 2009,
cater for construction of formation along with other Guidelines i.e. erosion control,
widening of formation in gauge conversion etc. Guidelines GE: G-1 were issued for
22.5T axle load mainly, whereas Guidelines GE: G-14 caters for the specification for top
layers of the formation for 25T, 30T and 32.5T axle load. There are over-lapping
provisions in these two Guidelines and 30T axle load is not envisaged for the future, as
32.5T axle load trains are planned to be run on DFC routes. Thus there was a need for
comprehensive unified instructions for construction of Railway Formation for the present
and future needs of the traffic.
In view of above, Railway Board vide letter No.2011/CE-II/Form/Spec. dated

01.03.2018 instructed to prepare comprehensive guidelines by merging various existing
guidelines regarding earthwork issued from time to time by RDSO and updating with
latest technical developments in the related areas with following terms of reference:
i. To prepare comprehensive Specifications for construction of Railway Formation

covering all aspects of execution of earthwork in Construction and Open Line.
Various guidelines related to earthwork issued by RDSO should be incorporated
as appendices to the specifications.
ii. The present Guidelines i.e. GE:G-14 contains Guidelines for Construction of
Formation for 30T Axle Load in addition to 25T Axle Load and 32.5T Axle Load.
The new specifications should contain Provisions for Construction of Formation
for 25T and 32.5T Axle Load only as further Standards/Operation are not being
contemplated for 30T Axle Load on projects.
iii. The specification should contain provisions for widening of Formation such as in
Doubling and Gauge Conversion projects.
iv. The specifications should contain methodology for repair of cess, widening of
cess/formation in open line maintenance.
v. The specifications should cover guidelines for formation treatment for existing
formation.
vi. The specifications should contain fitness of type of formation w.r.t. speed.
vii. The details of modern equipments required for construction and testing of
formation in large projects should be incorporated as appendix.
viii. The testing methodology to adjudge suitability of soil for formation and quality of
construction should be incorporated in the specifications.
ii
iii
INDEX
Chapter CONTENTS PAGE

Terminology
1.0 Soil Exploration & Survey
1.1 Objectives of Soil Exploration 1
1.2 Soil survey and exploration/investigation for 1
construction projects
1.3 Soil Survey & Exploration for Conversion, Doubling & 4
Rehabilitation Work
1.4 Soil Classification system 6
2.0 Suitability of sub-soil & Ground Improvement Techniques
2.1 General 7
2.2 Suitability of sub-soil 7
2.3 Ground Improvement Techniques/ Methods for Soft 7
soil
2.4 Stabilization & Ground Improvement Methods Using 12
Geo-synthetics
3.0 Design of Formation & Specifications for Formation Layers
3.1 General 16
3.2 Pressure on Formation and sub-soil 16
3.3 Top Width of Formation 17
3.4 Cross Slope of Formation 17
3.5 Erosion control system 17
3.6 Location of borrow pits 17
3.7 Soils to be Normally avoided 17
3.8 Blanket Layer 18
3.9 Soil Quality 19
3.10 Specifications and Thickness of Formation Layers 19
3.11 Height of Embankment and Formation Layer 28
thickness
4.0 Applications of Geo-synthetics In Railway Formation
4.1 General 29
4.2 Functions of Geo-synthetics 29
4.3 Types of Geo-synthetics 31
4.4 Scope of Use of Geo-synthetics In Railway 34
Embankments
5.0 Slope Stability Analysis
5.1 General 41
5.2 Slope in cutting 41
5.3 Software’s for Slope Stability Analysis 41
5.4 Method of slope stability analysis 41
5.5 Computation procedure 42
5.6 Side slopes of Embankments 43
5.7 Design Parameters & Computation Tables 43
5.8 Design Examples for Calculation for Slope Stability 51
Analysis
6.0 Execution of Earthwork
6.1 General 54
6.2 The activities involved in execution of earthwork 54
7.0 Quality Control of Earthwork
7.1 General 68
7.2 Quality Control test on Construction Material 68
7.3 Suitability tests at source 68
7.4 Quality Control Checks on Finished Earthwork 69
7.5 Qualifying and Quality assurance Tests 72
iv
7.6 Formation Level 74
7.7 Cross Slope 74
7.8 Side Slopes 74
7.9 Formation Width 74
7.10 Quality Control Records 74
7.11 Setting up of GE Lab at Construction/Rehabilitation Site 74
7.12 Certification for quality of earthwork 74
7.13 Checklist for certification of quality of earthwork 74
7.14 Special design problems related with construction of 74
Formation
8.0 Erosion Control of Slopes
8.1 General 75
8.2 Selection of Erosion control method 75
8.3 Erosion control method 75
8.4 Protection of Slopes in Cutting 82
9.0 Widening of Embankment And Raising of Formation, Including
Cess Repair
9.1 Widening of Embankment 83

9.2 Widening/Repair of Cess for Open Line maintenance 86
10.0 Formation Rehabilitation
10.1 General 89
10.2 Type of Formation Failure 89
10.3 Summary of various probable failures and their 90
remedies
10.4 Identification, inspection of weak formation 91
10.5 Methods of Formation Rehabilitation 92
10.6 Methods of Laying Blanket Layer 96
Bibliography & References 98
APPENDICES
APPENDIX-A Mechanical Production of Blanket material 100
APPENDIX-B Illustrative Examples for providing minimum thickness of 104
Formation Layers
APPENDIX-C Specifications of Geosynthetics Products 111
APPENDIX-D Field compaction trial observations & computation sheets 131
APPENDIX-E Modern Equipment’s for Earth Work 138
APPENDIX-F Typical compaction characteristics of Natural soil & Rocks 148
APPENDIX-G Quality check Proformas 150
APPENDIX-H Quality Assurance Tests (Standard Test Procedures) 154
APPENDIX-I Fitment of Existing Railway Formation 176
APPENDIX-J Proforma For Reporting Unstable Formation 182
APPENDIX-K List of Equipment’s for Field Lab 186
APPENDIX-L Soil Classification as per IS code 188
APPENDIX-M Checklist For Certification of Quality of Earthwork in Railway 191
Projects
APPENDIX-N List of Relevant I.S. Codes 209
APPENDIX-O Railway Board’s Approval Letter 213
v
Terminology
Commonly used terms in context of the subject and in this document, with their
specific meanings are mentioned as under:
1.0 Formation: In a general way, collectively refers to the layers comprising
blanket, prepared subgrade/Subgrade.
2.0 Formation Top: Boundary (interface) between ballast and top of blanket or
prepared subgrade/Subgrade (where blanket layer is not provided).
3.0 Track Foundation: Constitutes ballast, blanket, Prepared subgrade/Subgrade,
which is placed / exist below track structure to transmit load to subsoil.
4.0 Cess: Portion at top of formation level, extending from toe of ballast to edge of
formation.
5.0 Ballast: Crushed stones with desired specifications placed directly below the
sleepers.
6.0 Blanket: Blanket is a layer of coarse, granular material of designed thickness &
specification provided over full width of formation between subgrade and ballast.
7.0 Prepared Subgrade: In case of two layer system, it is provided over the
subgrade and below the blanket layer with a view to economise the thickness of
blanket layer.
8.0 Sub-grade: It is the upper part of Railway Embankment constructed by borrowed
soil of suitable quality upto bottom of blanket/prepared subgrade. It is divided
into top layer and lower layer (fill).
9.0 Subsoil: The existing soil below natural ground level.
10.0 Cohesive Subgrade: Subgrade constructed with soils having cohesive behaviour
i.e., shear strength is predominantly derived from cohesion of the soil is termed
as cohesive subgrade. Normally, soils having particles finer than 75 micron
exceeding 12% exhibit cohesive behaviour.
11.0 Cohesionless Subgrade: Subgrade constructed with cohesion-less, coarse-
grained soils i.e., shear strength is predominantly derived from internal friction of
the soil are termed as cohesion-less subgrade. Normally, soils having particles
finer than 75 micron less than 5% exhibit cohesion-less behaviour.
12.0 Dispersive Soil: Dispersive soils are those, which normally deflocculate when
exposed to water of low salt content. Generally, dispersive soils are clays which
are highly erosive and have high shrink and swell potential. These soils can be
identified by Crumb, Double Hydrometer, Pin Hole and Chemical Tests.
13.0 Unstable Formation: It is yielding formation with continued settlement
including slope failure, which requires excessive maintenance efforts.
14.0 Shear Strength: Shear strength of soil is its ability to resist shearing at a
shearing surface (plane) under direct stress (vertical pressure)
15.0 Soil Pressure Units, equivalence: 1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2 and 1 Mega Pascal
(MPa) = 1 N/mm2
100 kPa = 10 t/m2 = 1 Kg/cm2 = 1/10 N/mm2 = 1/10 MPa
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16.0 Deformation Modulus (Ev2) : It is modulus of elasticity (also deformation) in
the second cycle of loading in the cyclic plate load test. It is determined by cyclic
Plate Load Test on top of compacted blanket layer/prepared
subgrade/Embankment fill in accordance with DIN:18134-2012 (Ref :Appendix-
H).
17.0 Geosynthetic: A planar product manufactured from polymeric material used
with soil, rock, earth, or other geotechnical engineering related material as an
integral part of a man-made project, structure, or system.
18.0 Geogrid:Geogrid is a planar, polymeric structure consisting of a regular open
network of integrally connected tensile elements, which may be linked by
extrusion, bonding or interlacing. They have open grid like configuration with
large apertures between individual ribs.
19.0 Geotextile: Geotextiles are planar and permeable members which are used in
contact with soil/rock and/or any other geotechnical material for civil engineering
applications. They are basically textiles manufactured from synthetic fibers.
20.0 Geonet: A geosynthetic consisting of integrally connected parallel sets of ribs
overlying similar sets at various angles for planar drainage of liquids or gases.
21.0 Geocomposite Drain: Geocomposite drains, consisting of a geonet bonded with
non-woven geotextile layer(s) on one or both sides are used for drainage
22.0 Pre-Fabricated Vertical Drain (PVD): A geocomposite consisting of geotextile
cover and drainage core installed vertically into soil to provide drainage for
accelerating consolidation of soils. Also known as band or wick drain.
23.0 Formation components:

Formation comprises of granula r layer (blanket) over prepared
subgrade and subgrade. General profile of formation given below.
CL of Track
SLEEPER
CESS V BALLAST CUSHION
:1
FORMATION TOP
5H
1. BALLAST
BLANKET
1 : 30 1 : 30
1 : 30 1 : 30 PREPARED SUBGRADE
V
:1
2H
IN. SUBGRADE
EM 1 : 30 1 : 30
OP
SL
G. L.
NATURAL GROUND/SUBSOIL
Typical cross -s ection representing formation component
vii
CHAPTER-1
SOIL EXPLORATION & SURVEY

Objectives of constructing a stable formation can only be achieved if soil exploration, as
envisaged in “Indian Railways Code For The Engineering Department” (Engineering
Code) Paras 409, 425 and 528, is undertaken in right earnest and precautions are taken to
design embankment & cutting against likely causes which could render it troublesome during
service. Adequate provision for soil surveys & explorations at different stages, as per
requirements of the terrain, should be made in the project estimates to cover the cost for this
activity.
1.1 Objectives of Soil Exploration:
Main objectives of soil survey and exploration work are:
a) To determine soil type with a view to identify their suitability for earthwork and to
design the foundation for other structures.
b) To avoid known troublesome spots, unstable hill sides, swampy areas, soft rock
areas, peat lands, etc.
c) To determine method of handling and compaction of subgrade.
d) To identify suitable alignment for Embankment and cutting from stability, safety,
economy in construction and maintenance considerations.
e) To identify suitable borrow areas for desired quality and quantity of subgrade and
blanket material.
f) To determine depth of various strata of sub-soil and bedrock level.
g) To determine ground water table position and its seasonal variation and general
hydrology of the area such as flood plains, river streams, etc.
h) To determine behaviour of existing track or road structure nature and causes of geo-
technical problems in them, if any.
1.2 Soil survey and exploration/investigation for construction projects should be

carried out in following three stages:
1.2.1 During Reconnaissance Survey

a) The main objective of soil survey during Reconnaissance is to collect maximum
surface and sub-surface information without drilling exploratory boring/ test pits
to avoid obviously weak locations such as unstable hillsides, talus
formation/scree (accumulation of broken rock debris, as at the base of a cliff or
other high place), swampy areas, peat grounds, very soft rocks or highly
weathered rocks, etc.
b) At the reconnaissance stage, available data from geological and topological
maps and other soil surveys done in the past, existing soil profiles in nearby
cuts, quarries are scrutinized. Water table is recorded from local observation and
inquiry. The involved soils are classified by visual examination and if necessary,
few field/ laboratory tests are conducted for this purpose.
c) Survey reports available from other Departments/Agencies such as Geological

Survey of India, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Central Board of
Irrigation and Power, CPWD, State Irrigation, PWD, etc. can be acquired to
1
obtain information on the accessibility, geology and soils, subsurface
information, etc.
d) Areas of prospective borrow soil and blanket material should also be surveyed to
give idea of quality and quantity of materials to be used for construction of
Railway Embankment.
e) Above collection of data should be incorporated in the Feasibility Report required

to be submitted as per “Indian Railways Code For The Engineering Department”
(Engineering Code) Paras 555 and 576 in chapter of Project Engineering under
heading of formation (para 528 of Engineering Code).
f) The data and information collected during survey should be presented in suitable
format such as graphs, bar charts or in tabular or statement form.
1.2.2 During Preliminary Survey

a) Primary objective of preliminary exploration is to obtain sufficient subsurface
data to permit selection of the type, location and principal dimensions of all
major structures and estimation of earthwork and design of formation. The
scope of preliminary survey is restricted to determination of depths, thickness
and composition of each soil stratum, location of rock and ground water and also
to obtain appropriate information regarding strength and compressibility
characteristics of various soil strata.
b) As stated in Para 409 of “Indian Railways Code For The Engineering

Department”, the field work in Preliminary Survey includes a compass traverse
along one or more routes with transverse and longitudinal levels to prepare an
L- section of routes proposed. This fieldwork shall also cover a soil survey by
sampling at suitable intervals in order to obtain a fair idea of the soil
classification and characteristics of soils on proposed routes. Testing of disturbed
soil samples is usually adequate; however core drilling will be necessary in
rocks. This will help in determining the thickness of the blanket layer on
different sections and total quantity of blanket material to be required.
c) Exploratory boring with hand/ auger samplers and soil sampling should be
undertaken along the alignment and soil samples also should be collected from
borrow pit area, at an interval of 500 meter or at a closer interval, wherever
change of soil strata occurs. The boring should be done upto 1.5 to 2.0 m depth
below existing ground level. In case of Embankments more than 4m height and
embankments with problematic substrata, the boring should be taken down to a
depth equal to twice the height of Embankment. Samples should be collected
from each stratum found in each boring.
d) Bore logs are prepared based on laboratory test results of disturbed samples
obtained by auguring or split spoon sampler. Particle size distribution, soil
classification and index properties of the soils are determined from laboratory
tests.
2
e) In case of soft clays and sensitive clays, in-situ vane shear tests should be
conducted to determine its shear strength and depth of underlying compressible
clay layer. Undisturbed samples should also be collected to know actual
moisture content, natural dry density and shear and consolidation parameters of
the soil.
f) Geo-physical investigations for bedrock profile, sub-surface strata and soil

properties are required to be carried out for foundation of major structures such
as bridges. Methods such as Seismic Refraction Method (IS: 1892-1979)
(Reaffirmed 2016), Standard Penetration Test (IS: 2131- 1981) (Reaffirmed
2016), Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (IS: 4968-1976) (Reaffirmed 2016) etc.,
will be required to be carried out to ascertain constituents of substrata and their
properties and design foundation of such structures. In alluvial strata, deep
auger boring upto 6m may be deployed for subsurface exploration and sampling.
g) The data and information collected during survey should be presented in suitable
1.2.3 During Final Location Survey
a) During Final Location survey, detailed investigations are done at locations where
important structures viz. high embankment, deep cuttings, major bridges etc.
are to be located and where weak sub-soil, swampy ground, marshy land exist.
Undisturbed soil samples with the help of deep auger sampler or Split spoon
samplers are collected for conducting detailed tests viz. shear strength tests &
consolidation test to design safe and economical structure and predict
settlements. However, if some tests during preliminary survey are deficient, the
same should also be covered.
b) Assistance may be taken from Geologists, in case of rocky strata, known

unstable hill slopes, earthquake prone area and geological fault.
c) Detailed subsoil exploration is necessary to check stability of structures against

failure and to predict anticipated settlement. Bores are made along alignment
normally at 200 m to 300m apart in case of uniform type of soil and closely
spaced in critical zones. Soil samples within the boreholes are obtained at every
change of stratum and interval not exceeding 1.5 m. In case of sandy and
gravely soils, Standard Penetration Test may be adequate, as taking out
samples in these types of strata is difficult.
d) Besides classification tests, soil samples should be tested for shear strength and
consolidation properties. In case of very soft clays, vane shear test should be
conducted for each boring site. Free swell index test should also be carried out
in case of expansive soil and organic contents of soil should be determined if soil
is suspected to be having large organic contents.
e) Availability of naturally occurring source of blanket material conforming to the

laid down specification shall be explored during the survey. Sources of blanket
material of specified quality and its availability around the project site needs to
be located to assess its realistic costs for inclusion in project estimates. The
source identification should cover various logistics involved in its utilization.
3
f) The data and information collected during survey should be presented in suitable
1.2.4 The availability of borrow soil sources shall be explored during the survey. As
formation design will primarily depend upon the type of the soil being used in
construction, it is essential that soil classification and assessment of bearing
capacity is done during soil exploration.
The results of soil exploration shall be reviewed and finally approved at the
level of the CAO/Construction as this will be the basis of further design. In case of
PSUs the powers of PCE/CAO shall be exercised at appropriate level of authority as
nominated by CMD/MD of the PSU.
1.3 Soil Survey & Exploration for Gauge Conversion, Doubling & Rehabilitation
Work
For these projects, additional information required will be as follows:
1.3.1 A statement listing out problematic stretches on existing track should be
prepared/obtained after scrutiny of gang charts for identifying locations requiring
frequent attention, having unsatisfactory TRC results, past history of stretches
having failure like slips, subsidence, pre-mature ballast recoupment, ballast
penetration etc.
1.3.2 Failure of existing formation is accompanied by signs of distress/instability. The

identified and suspected locations shall be subjected to detailed examination as per
symptoms of failures. Recommended scheme of soil exploration and testing is
given in table 1.1 below:
Table: 1.1 Recommended Scheme for soil exploration and data collection & testing
S. No. Symptoms Type of Recommended Scheme Soil testing

failure for soil exploration and
data collection
1 2 3 4 5
1 i) Embankment Base i) Recording of i) Classification
settlement - failure embankment tests
loss of profiles and ballast ii) Consolidation
longitudinal profile in x-section tests
profile ii) Undisturbed iii) Natural moisture
ii) Heaving of soil sampling content and
beyond toe iii) Field tests- Vane Natural dry
iii) Leaning of shear DCP/SPT density tests.
telegraph posts, iv) Peak and
trees, etc. on residual shear
the strength tests
embankment
and at the toe
2 i) Flattening of Slope i) Recording of i) Classification
Embankment/ failure embankment profile and swell tests
slope and x-section of ii) Peak and
ii) Bulging of slope ballast profile. Residual Shear
4
surface. ii) Survey and strength tests
iii) Longitudinal recording of surface iii) Natural moisture
cracks on cracks content and
cess/slopes iii) Undisturbed Natural dry
iv) Leaning of OHE sampling density tests.
masts
3 i) Soil heaving on Subgrade i) Recording of i) Classification
cess and on failure embankment profile and swell tests
slopes (by shear) and ballast ii) Shear strength
ii) Ballast penetration profiles tests
penetration inside subgrade iii) Natural Moisture
exceeding 30 ii) Collection of data content and
cm below a. Track geometry Natural Dry
formation variations Density tests
iii) Excessive – b. Excessive iv) CBR test
cross level maintenance
variations inputs
c. Quantum of
ballast
recoupment
d. Speed restrictions
imposed
iii) Undisturbed and
Disturbed soil
samples below the
ballast penetration
4 i) Fouling of Subgrade i) Recording of i) Classification
ballast with failure (by embankment profile and swell tests
subgrade fines mud and ballast ii) Shear tests
ii) Ballast pumping) penetration inside iii) Natural Moisture
penetration subgrade Content and
below formation ii) Collection of data – Natural Dry
– 30 cm or less a. Track geometry Density tests
iii) Impaired variations iv) CBR Test
drainage b. Excessive
iv) Excessive cross maintenance
level variations inputs
in Monsoon c. Speed restrictions
v) Hard running imposed
during summer iii) Undisturbed &
Disturbed soil
samples from below
the ballast
penetration
5 i) Reduced cess & Erosion i) Recording of i) Classification
denuded failure of embankment profile tests
slopes- loss of Slopes ii) Undisturbed soil ii) Field crumb test
soil/absence of leading to samples for soil
vegetation. ballast dispersivity
ii) Formation of penetration iii) Pinhole test
5
rills/ gullies and and slope iv) Double
pot holes on Failure hydrometer
slopes & on tests
cess v) Natural Moisture
Content and
Natural Dry
Density tests
6 i) Cut slope Failure of i) Recording of profile i) Classification of
failures Cuttings side slope, soils
ii) Choked side longitudinal drain ii) Natural Moisture
drains sections, HFL and Content and
iii) Seepage of Ground water table Natural Dry
water ii) Cross-section and Density tests
iv) Saturated Ballast penetration iii) Lab. Shear tests
subgrade profile
iii) Undisturbed soil
sample
Note: a) In practice generally more than one type of failure is encountered.

b) Recommended scheme and soil tests are for general guidance.
1.3.3 Frequency of soil sampling shall depend on the extent and type of problems in the
troublesome stretches. However, samples should be taken at 500m intervals for
determination of natural dry density and soil type only where no formation problem
is reported.
1.3.4 In order to ensure proper bonding of earthwork and soil compatibility behaviour of
old and new earthwork, samples of soils from mid-slope of existing bank at about 1
m depth and 500m length or closer intervals should be collected and tested for
particle size, natural moisture content, natural dry density and consistency limits.
1.3.5 In case of doubling, where existing formation is troublesome as described in Para

1.3.2 above, soil investigation shall be planned for remedial measures to be
undertaken before execution of doubling work and additional possibility of
construction of new line away from centre line of the existing track may also be
explored in such cases.
1.4 Soil Classification system as per Indian Standard 1498 is also explained in
brief in Appendix: L for reference.
6
CHAPTER-2
SUITABIL ITY OF SUBSOIL & GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES
2.1 General
Field tests are required to be conducted on sub-soil strata, i.e. Plate load test for
determination of Elastic Modulus in second cycle of loading (Ev2), Standard Penetration
test to determine N-value, and Unconfined Compression Test or Vane Shear Test to
determine unconfined compressive strength or undrained cohesion, cu. If any of these
parameters, as specified in following para do not meet with specified requirement then
ground improvement needs to be undertaken.
2.2 Suitability of sub-soil
Strengthening of sub soil, including in cutting shall be required when;

(i) Ev2 value less than 20 MPa, or
(ii) Undrained cohesion (cu) < 25 kPa, only for soils having particles finer than 75
microns exceeding 12%, or
(iii) N-value < 5,
In such cases Ground Improvement Techniques mentioned below can be adopted.
However, these are suggestive in nature and depend on site conditions before
implementing these techniques, proper planning and investigation is required.
2.3 Ground Improvement Techniques/ Methods for Soft soil
Soil at a construction site may not always be totally suitable for supporting structures in
its natural state. In such a case, the soil needs to be improved to increase its bearing
capacity and decrease the expected settlement. These techniques can be adopted to
improve the ground strength on which the Embankment/fills is constructed.
2.3.1 Removal and replacement of weak sub-soil
Soil replacement is one of the oldest and simplest methods for Ground improvement.
The foundation condition can be improved by replacing poor soil (e.g. organic soils
and medium or soft clay) with more competent materials which can improve the
bearing capacity of subsoil.
The removal and replacement may be required even in ‘cutting’ areas where the
naturally occurring soils are found to be of low shear strength. Subsurface drainage
may have to be introduced in most of such areas. Excavation and replacement can be
carried out for soft soil up to the depth of 1.5 to 2 m as per site condition.
2.3.2 Preloading
The preloading technique is a simple and economical method for accelerating
consolidation railway fills on soft clays, since; the material can stay in place and need
not be relocated. Preloading is especially attractive when fill material is subsequently
used on the same project for site preparation.
For low Embankment over soft compressible soil where the poor ground is of limited
thickness (short drainage path) or is capable of compressing rapidly under the load of
7
excess preload fill due to presence of sand lenses, preloading may be resorted.
Preloading of soft soils is based on the consolidation concepts, whereby pore water is
squeezed from the voids until the water content and the volume of the soil are in
equilibrium under the loading stresses imposed by the surcharge. This is usually
accompanied by gain in shear strength of soil. To a certain extent, the primary
consolidation under final loading can be achieved during construction and hence post
construction settlement reduces.
The pre-loading technique takes two forms:
i) Overloading
ii) Stage construction
(i) Overloading
In the overloading process, a surcharge (overload) is placed temporarily on the
ground and after a pre-determined time lapse, the intended structure can be built
with occurrence of little or no additional settlement. The ratio of surcharge load to
design load is known as overload coefficient. The charge is normally a uniformly
distributed surface load which is placed prior to the construction of the intended
structure. A part or the entire surcharge may be removed before the construction
commences, depending on the requirements. The magnitude of the surcharge load
and its duration of application are determined by the conventional settlement
calculations. The settlement which occur under overloading results in an increase
in the undrained shear strength of the clay. The principle of overloading method is
shown in fig-2.1.
Fig-2.1: Principle of overloading
(ii) Stage Construction (Improvement of Shear Parameters)

This technique enhances the bearing capacity of the sub-soil and provides the site
for construction of Embankment up to the design height in the phases/stages,
with a designed strength of the soil & calculated waiting period for the next
loading after the previous loading.
Stage construction is employed mainly as a means of gradually increasing the

shear strength of soft clay which would otherwise be inadequate to carry the
8
intended Embankment load. In stage construction, advantage of increase in
shear strength of sub-soil strata due to consolidation by surcharge load of
Embankment is taken into account. Work on next stage filling can be permitted
only after it is ascertained that the strength gain needed for building the next
stage has been reached. The principle of stage construction method is shown in
Fig-2.2 below-
Fig-2.2: stage construction method

Theoretical basis of design using stage construction method, solved practical
examples and instrumentation scheme for monitoring the behavior of
Embankment on soft soil are covered in “RDSO Guidelines on Soft Soils-Stage
Construction Method (Guideline No: GE:G–5)-April 2005”.
2.3.3 Ground improvement using Vertical drains
Because of low permeability the consolidation settlement of soft clay takes long time to
complete. Wherever in such case if preloading is not sufficient, to shorten the
consolidation time vertical drain are installed together with preloading. Vertical drain
are artificially created drainage path which are inserted in soft clay In order to
accelerate the process of consolidation settlement for the construction of structure.
The Sand drain is one of such method being used for this purpose.
Sand drains (Fig-2.3) are constructed by driving down casing or hollow mandrels in to
the soil and then the holes are filled with sand and casing is taken out. When the
surcharge is applied on the ground surface the pore water pressure in the soil
increases and the drainage in vertical and horizontal direction starts. Process of
dissipation of excess pore water pressure created by loading is accelerated and hence
the settlement rate. Top of sand drain are connected to granular sand blanket to allow
the pore water to flow out.
Now days mostly PVD are being used for this purpose as they are easy to install and
less time consuming. PVD have been explained in para 2.4 Stabilization & Ground
Improvement Methods Using Geosynthetics of this chapter.
9
Fig-2.3 Ground improvements using sand drain
2.3.4 Ground improvement using Stone Columns
Stone column method of ground improvement is an efficient method of improving the
strength parameter like bearing capacity and it also reduces the consolidation
settlement time. Stone column consist of compacted crushed stone or well graded
gravel of 75 mm to 2mm size and can be extended through the most compressible
strata that contribute the settlement to foundation. The stone should be chemically
inert, hard and resistant to breakage.
Stone column will transmit some load to soil by shear stress and end bearing
but the predominant load transfer mechanism is due to the lateral bulging into the
surrounding soil. Generally, column bulging will be closer to the top of column where
the over burden pressure is lowest thus distributes the stresses at the upper portion
of the soil profile rather than transferring the stresses in to the deeper layer, thus
causing the soil to support it. Along with this rapid consolidation due to accelerated
dissipation of pore water pressure into the drainage path formed by stone column. Due
to this combined effect construction can be started soon after instillation of stone
column completed.
Stone column provides rapid consolidation and immediate increase in shear
strength hence there is no waiting period is required (such as in case of ground
improvement by PVD/sand drain) and construction of embankment can be begin soon
after the installation up to full height with non-compressible fill without further stage
construction.
Subsurface conditions for which stone columns are generally not suited include
sensitive clays and silts (sensitivity is > 4) which lose strength when vibrated and also
where suitable bearing strata for resting the toe of the column are not available under
the weak strata.
Stone column can be installed by Non-Displacement method (Fig-2.4) or by
Displacement method. In case of displacement installation, the soil is laterally
displaced while making the hole due to driving of tube or a casing, while in case of
non-displacement method soil is taken out during boring. Compacted crushed coarse
aggregate of various sizes fed in to the hole created and on top of stone column a
clean medium to coarse sand layer is laid; it should be exposed to atmosphere at its
periphery for dissipation of pore water pressure.
10
Fig- 2.4: Ground improvement using stone column
2.3.5 Ground Improvement for expansive soils using CNS material
Using a layer of Cohesive Non-Swelling soil (CNS) is one of the effective methods of
ground improvement in expansive soils area. CNS layer shall be provided below the
bottom layer of Embankment fill in case of Embankment and below
subgrade/prepared subgrade level in case of cuttings, of suitably designed thickness
and width, compacted to 97% of MDD at optimum moisture content (OMC).The width
of treatment should be extended minimum 3.0m beyond the toe line on both sides.
The CNS material possesses the property of cohesion of varying degree and non-
expanding type clay minerals such as illite and kaolinite, having low plasticity with
liquid limit not exceeding 50 percent.
The properties of CNS material are defined below (Ref- IS 9451: 1994):
Grain Size Distribution

Clay (less than 2 micron) : 15-20 %
Silt (0.06 mm to 0.002 mm) : 30-40 %
Sand (2 mm to 0.06 mm) : 30-40%
Gravel (greater than 2 mm) : 0-10%
Liquid Limit : >30 but less than 50

Plasticity Index : >15 but less than 30
Swelling Pressure : <10kN/m2
Unconfined Compression strength : >10kN/m2
The thickness of CNS materials required for balancing the different swelling pressures
are as follows:
Table-1
Swelling Pressure of Soil Thickness of CNS Materials (cm)
(KN/m2) (Min)
50 to 150 75
150 to 300 85
300 to 500 100
11
In case naturally occurring, soil do not meet the parameters of CNS soil, same can be
produced by blending suitable combination of locally available materials. Such
artificial CNS should satisfy all the parameters of CNS soil.
2.4 Stabilization & Ground Improvement Methods Using Geo-synthetics
Some of the ground improvement methods (list is not exhaustive), wherein geo-
synthetics are used, are as under:
2.4.1 Use of Geo-composite drain for Construction of new embankment over soft
subsoil
In case of embankments over weak/fine grained sub-soils (which are mostly soft
clays) and having water table at higher level (shallow depth), it is a good practice to
provide a “separator-cum-drainage layer” of Geo-composite drain layer, sandwiched
between two layers of sand of about 75mm thickness (Fig-2.5), at the ground level
to provide adequate drainage path for the water coming from sub-soil (reducing
excess pore water pressure in embankment and thereby increasing its’ stability) and
to prevent fouling of subgrade by the fine grained subsoil. Alternatively, a 1000mm
thick sand layer can be provided. Its thickness may be varied depending on the bank
height, characteristics of sub-soil and water table. The sand layer to be used in both
the cases should be clean medium to coarse sand with minimum permeability of the
order of 10-5 m/second.
Specification for Geo-composite drains to be used at the base of the

Embankment for Railway Formation, for Embankment height upto 8m (Specification
No. RDSO/2018/GE: IRS-0004-Part-II) is given in APPENDIX-C. These
specifications have been issued to Zonal Railway/PSU’s initially for trial purpose. On
satisfactory performance report from the field, the mandating of its usage will be
decided.
Fig- 2.5: Use of Geo-Composite Drain in bank over soft subsoil
2.4.2 Use of Geocell

Geocell is another form of Geosynthetics used as basal mattress in embankments for
ground improvement [Fig-2.6(a)].
12
Fig-2.6(a): Application of Geocell for ground improvement
Fig-2.6(b): Geocell and it’s applications

Geocell is a three dimensional honeycomb like cellular structure, consisting of a
regular open network of synthetic strips, linked by extrusion or adhesion or other
methods [Fig-2.6(b)].On site, the Geocell sections are fastened together and placed
directly on the subsoil or on a Non-woven Geotextile filter placed on the subgrade
surface and propped open in an accordion-like fashion with an external stretcher
assembly.
They are then filled with various infill materials, such as soil, sand, aggregate or
recycled materials and then compacted using vibratory compactors.
When the soil contained within Geocell is subjected to pressure, it causes lateral
stresses on cell perimeter walls. The 3D zone of confinement reduces the lateral
movement of soil particles while vertical loading on the contained infill results in high
lateral stress and resistance on the cell-soil interface. This increases the shear
strength of the confined soil, which creates a stiff mattress/slab to distribute the load
over a wider area, reduces punching of soft soil, increases shear resistance and
bearing capacity and decreases deformation. Confinement from adjacent cells
provides additional resistance against the loaded cell through passive resistance,
while lateral expansion of the infill is restricted by high hoop strength. Compaction is
maintained by the confinement, resulting in long-term reinforcement.
In Railway Embankment applications, Geocell can improve the load support
capacity of soft subsoil. It is often recommended for swampy conditions where the
ground water is close to the surface.
13
2.4.3 Use of Prefabricated vertical drain (PVD):
Prefabricated vertical drains consist of channeled synthetics core wrapped in Non-
woven geotextile fabric known as filter (Fig-2.7). Prefabricated Vertical drains are
used where preloading alone is not sufficient.
Prefabricated Vertical drains in soft clay accelerate the primary consolidation of
clay since they bring about rapid dissipation of excess pore water pressure.
Therefore, the structures or Embankments can be put to use earlier than it would be
possible otherwise. The accelerated rate of gain in shear strength of clay enables the
loads to be applied more rapidly than would otherwise be possible.
The effectiveness of Prefabricated Vertical drains depends mainly on the
engineering properties of soils, namely, soil permeability and coefficient of
consolidation and their variations in space and time. They are, however, ineffective in
organic soils and highly stratified soils.
For installation, PVD is placed into steel mandrel and the mandrel is pushed into
the ground to the determined depth with a mast mounted on back hoe. Anchor plate
is attached to the wick material to hold it in place as mandrel is removed. Then the
PVD is cut off a little above the ground (Fig-2.7). Top of PVD drain are connected to
granular sand blanket to allow the pore water to flow out.
Fig-2.7: PVDs and their Installation
2.4.4 Geosynthetic encapsulated Stone column:

When stone columns are installed in soft clays, over a period of time, the gaps in the
stones are filled by soft clays which decrease the load carrying capacity and lead to
increase in the vertical deformation. Also, soft clay can provide a limited lateral
pressure. To overcome this problem, the idea of placing a Geosynthetic
(geotextile/geogrid) encasement around the granular material has been developed
recently. By this, the granular material that wants to expand sideways is not only
restricted by the cohesive soil, but also by the Geosynthetic reinforcement (Fig-2.8).
The encapsulation in geosynthetics makes stone column more ductile than normal
stone column. The specifications of geogrid and geotextile included in Appendix-C will
not be applicable in this case. It can be suitably designed with suitable type of
geosynthetics.
14
Fig-2.8: Geosynthetics Encapsulated Stone column
Note: All the above methods are suggestive in nature and final methodology to be adopted
will depends on site condition and topography, soil type, drainage condition etc.
15
CHAPTER-3
DESIGN OF FORMATION & SPECIFICATIONS FOR FORMATION LAYERS

3.1 General
Formation comprises of Blanket and, Prepared subgrade/Subgrade. Depending upon
techno-economic considerations, it can be Single layer or Two-layer construction as
shown in Fig-3.1 & 3.2 below. For construction of a new line, it is important to ensure
that the track bed layers (Blanket/Prepared subgrade/Subgrade) have the appropriate
mechanical characteristics and are of adequate thickness. For Indian Railway Formation,
it has been stipulated & described in detail in Para 3.10 of this Chapter.
CL of Track
V
:1
5H
1. BLANKET
1 : 30 1 : 30
1 : 30 1 : 30 SUBGRADE
V
:1 TOP LAYER OF SUBGRADE
H
.2
IN
EM
L OP
S
LOWER LAYER OF SUBGRADE
G. L.
Fig-3.1: Single layer construction
CL of Track
V
:1
5H
1. BLANKET
1 : 30 1 : 30
V 1 : 30 1 : 30 PREPARED SUBGRADE
:1
H
.2
IN
PEM 1 : 30 1 : 30 SUBGRADE
O TOP LAYER OF SUBGRADE
SL
LOWER LAYER OF SUBGRADE G. L.
NATURAL GROUND/SUB SOIL
Fig-3.2: Two layer construction
3.2. Pressure on Formation and sub-soil

As good design practice, typical values for the maximum pressure on formation at
bottom of ballast should not exceed 0.3MN/m2 or 3 kg/cm2, and the pressure on sub-soil
should not exceed 0.1MN/m2 or 1 kg/cm2 generally.
16
3.3 Top Width of Formation
a) It should be adequate enough to accommodate tracks laid with concrete sleepers
and standard ballast section (minimum 35cm depth) and have minimum cess width
of 90cm on either side.
b) Additional Width of formation will have to be provided to cater for increase in extra
widening of ballast shoulder and extra clearances required on curves.
It shall be regulated/provided in accordance with extant instructions as per Indian

Railway Schedule of Dimensions (IRSOD) & Indian Railway permanent Way manual
(IRPWM).
3.4 Cross Slope of Formation
Top of formation should have a cross slope of 1 in 30 from centre of formation towards
both sides for single line/multiple line in new construction. In case of doubling or
multiple line construction work in existing lines, the cross slope of 1 in 30 should
continue from the edge of existing formation towards cess/drain side (single slope) to
avoid any stagnation of water between two tracks. However, if the cross slope of
existing embankment is steeper than 1 in 30 due to any reason, the configuration of 1 in
30 cross slope shall be maintained in the new line while ensuring proper drainage
conditions at the same time so as to avoid any stagnation of water in between tracks, by
adopting appropriate measures as per site conditions.
Further elaboration on drainage is given in Chapter 6 for Execution of Earthwork.
3.5 Erosion Control System
The design should provide for a suitable and cost-effective erosion control system
considering soil matrix, topography and hydrological conditions. Further elaborations
given in chapter-8 (Erosion control of slopes).
3.6 Borrow Pits
It will be necessary to keep borrow pits sufficiently away from the toe of the
embankments as far as possible at the extreme of Railway land but normally not less
than 3m plus height of the embankment to prevent base failures due to lateral
escapement of the soil. Existing borrow pits, close to the toe of bank may be filled or its
depth should be taken into account in analysing slope stability of the bank.
3.7 Soils to be normally avoided

a) There are some soils, which are normally unsuitable for construction of formation as
listed below:
i) Organic clays, organic silts, peat, chalks, marl, dispersive soils and soil
containing soluble material (e.g. rock salt or gypsum).
ii) Poorly graded sand and gravel with Cu < 2.0, should not be used to safeguard
against liquefaction. Generally, most liquefiable soils as falling in gradation
zone as indicated in the Fig-L1 of Appendix-L & having coefficient of
uniformity, Cu < 2 shall not be used. (Reference Sketch given in Appendix-L).
iii) Clays and Silts of high plasticity (CH & MH) in top 3m of Embankment.
17
iv) Shales and soft rocks which become muddy after coming into contact with
water.
b) There may be some typical situations in construction of formation & cuttings, where
it is not possible to avoid conditions as given below, for economical or any other
reason, then Railway may decide special investigations and other measures to
formulate suitable scheme of construction.
i) Cuttings passing through unsuitable soils as defined in para 3.7 (a).
ii) Construction of embankment on subsoil of unsuitable types of soils.
3.8 Blanket Layer
3.8.1 Need and functions of Blanket Layer
a) It reduces traffic-induced stresses to a tolerable limit (i.e. threshold stress) on the
top of subgrade, thereby, prevents subgrade failures.
b) It prevents penetration of ballast into the subgrade and also prevents upward
migration of fine particles from subgrade into the ballast under adverse
conditions, during service. This prevents mud pumping by separating the ballast
and subgrade soil.
c) It results in increased track modulus and thereby reduces the track stresses &
deformations.
d) It facilitates drainage of surface water and reduces moisture variations in
subgrade, thereby reducing track maintenance problems.
e) It facilitates dissipation of excess pore water pressure developed in subgrade on
account of cyclic loading and leads to increase in shear strength of subgrade soil.
3.8.2 Blanketing Material
It is difficult to get natural blanket material. Normally, the blanket material shall be
produced mechanically by crushing the stones and/or by mixing, naturally available
materials using suitable equipment/plants like pug mill, wet mix plant, crusher etc.
However, if naturally available material conforms to the specifications, the same can
also be used. The type of blanket material to be used whether natural or
manufactured (mechanical crushing and/or blending) may be indicated clearly before
start of the work and should be indicated in tender document. Some Typical methods
used for mechanised production of blanket material are given in Appendix-A.
Decisions to use natural blanket material or manufactured blanket material shall
be taken on the basis of site conditions or final location survey report.
3.8.3 Requirement of Blanket Layer
a) The provision of blanket layer shall not be needed when formation/earth fill
embankment have:
i) Rocky beds except those, which are very susceptible to weathering e.g.
rocks consisting of shale and other soft rocks, which become muddy after
coming into contact with water.
18
ii) Soils conforming to specifications of Blanket layer as given in Table 3.3 to
3.6.
b) For other conditions, the system of layered construction of embankment (Single
layer/ Two layer) shall normally be followed.
3.9 Soil Quality
For Design of Railway Formation, the soils for their use in Indian Railway Embankment
have been grouped based on percentage of fines present in the soil, as given below:
Description of Soil Quality Class
Description w.r.t. Fine-Particles Soil Quality
(size less than 75 micron) Class,
Soils containing fines > 50 % SQ1
Soils containing fines from 12% to 50% SQ2
Soils containing fines < 12% SQ3
3.10 Specifications and Thickness of Formation Layers:

(A) The Railway Formation may be constructed with Single Layer System or Two Layer
System based on availability of local soils/materials and on economic
considerations. The thickness of the prepared sub-grade and blanket layer has
been rationalized based on UIC-719R calculation for ballast cushion of 350 mm.
The specifications and thickness of Blanket layer, Prepared subgrade, Subgrade
(Top Layer & Lower layer) and Sub-Soil are tabulated for Single layer system and
Two-layer system for 25T and 32.5T Axle load as below:-
Table-3.1: For 25 T Axle Load
S. No. Soil type Prepared Sub-grade Recommended Remarks

Category in Blanket
Sub-grade Soil Type Thickness Thickness
(mm) (mm)
1. SQ1 SQ1* -- 550 Single layer
2. SQ1 SQ2 500 400 Two layer
* Subgrade soil is continued upto blanket layer
19
Table-3.2: For 32.5 T Axle Load
S. No. Soil type Prepared Sub-grade Recommended Remarks

Category in Blanket
Sub-grade Soil Type Thickness Thickness (mm)
(mm)
* Subgrade soil is continued upto blanket layer
(B) Formation for 25T axle load
Table 3.3: Specification and Thickness of Formation Layers for 25T axle load:
Single layer system
Layers Specification Thickness

Blanket i) CU> 7 and CC between 1 and 3. 30 cm over SQ3 sub-
ii) Fines (passing 75 microns) :3% to 10% grade
iii) Minimum soaked CBR value ≥ 25, (Soil 40 cm over SQ2 sub-
compacted at 100% of MDD * in Lab) grade
iv) Los Angeles Abrasion value < 40% 55 cm over SQ1 sub-
v) Field Compaction :Min. 100% of MDD * in grade
field trial
vi) Minimum Ev2 **= 100 MPa
vii) Size gradation – within specified range (as
table-3.7) or should lie more or less within
enveloping curves (as Fig-3.8)
viii) Filter criteria (***Optional) should be
satisfied with sub-grade layer as given
below:
Criteria-1: D15 (blanket) < 5xD85 (sub-grade)
Criteria-2: D15 (blanket) > 4 to 5xD15 (sub-
grade)
Criteria-3: D50 (blanket) < 25xD50 (sub-grade)
Sub-grade SQ1/SQ2/SQ3 soil

Top Layer SQ1 soils (To be used only with dispensation of
PCE/ CAO)
i) For SQ2/SQ3 soil, CBR ≥6 ( soil compacted at 100 cm
98% of MDD *)
ii) For SQ1 soil, CBR ≥4 soil compacted at 98% of

MDD *
20
iii) Field Compaction : Min. 98% of MDD *
iv) Minimum Ev2 = 45 MPa (for SQ1)
60 MPa (for SQ2/SQ3)
Lower SQ1/SQ2/SQ3 soil (+)
layer (fill) As per Embankment
i) CBR≥ 3 (soil compacted at 97% of MDD *) height
ii) Field Compaction :Min. 97% of MDD *
Ground i) Undrained Cohesion of soil (cu) ≥ 25 KPa (only --

Soil/Sub- for soils having particles finer than 75 micron
soil Strata exceeding 12%)
ii) Ev2 (determined from PLT) ≥ 20 MPa
iii) N (determined from SPT) ≥ 5
Ground Improvement is required, if any of the

above parameters not complied with
* MDD mentioned in the above table
(a) For determination of CBR - MDD achieved in Lab
(b) For field compaction - MDD achieved in field compaction trials which should not be less
than 98% of MDD in lab.
**Ev2 is Modulus of deformation (Para 2.0 of Appendix-H)
*** With the application of Non-woven Geotextile as a separator layer below the blanket,
filter criteria will not be required or mandatory.
+ No dispensation of PCE/CAO required for use of SQ1 soil in Lower layer (fill) of Subgrade.
CL of Track
V
35 cm Ballast Cushion
:1 Top of Formation
5H
1.
1 : 30 Blanket Thickness - 30 cm over SQ3,

BLANKET 1 : 30
40 cm over SQ2, 55 cm over SQ1
1 : 30 1 : 30
V 100 cm Top Layer of Subgrade
:1
2H (SQ1, SQ2, SQ3)
N.
SUBGRADE MI
E
OP
SL Lower Layer of Subgrade
(SQ1, SQ2, SQ3)
G. L.
Fig-3.4: Track Formation for 25 T Axle Load (Single layer system)
21
Table 3.4: Specification and Thickness of Formation Layers for 25T axle load:
Two layer system

Blanket i) CU> 7 and CC between 1 and 3. 30 cm over
ii) Fines (passing 75 microns) : 3% to 10% SQ3 Prepared
iii) Los Angeles Abrasion value < 40% Sub-grade
40 cm over
iv) Minimum soaked CBR value ≥ 25, (soil compacted at SQ2 Prepared
100% of MDD * in lab) Sub-grade
v) Field compaction: 100% of MDD* in field trial
vi) Minimum Ev2 **= 100 MPa
vii) Size gradation – within specified range
(as table-3.7) or should lie more or less within
enveloping curves (as fig.-3.8)
viii) Filter criteria (***Optional) should be satisfied
with prepared sub-grade layer as given below:
Criteria-1: D15 (blanket)<5xD85 (prepared sub-grade)

Criteria-2: D15 (blanket) > 4 to 5xD15 (prepared sub-
grade)
Criteria-3: D50 (blanket) < 25xD50 (prepared sub-
grade)
Prepared SQ2/SQ3 50 cm over
Subgrade i) CBR ≥ 8 (soil compacted upto 98% of MDD *) SQ1 fill
35 cm over
ii) Plasticity Index ≤ 12 SQ2 fill
iii) Field Compaction :Min. 98% of MDD *
iv) Minimum Ev2 = 60 MPa
Subgrade SQ1/SQ2/SQ3 50 cm
Top Layer (SQ1 soils (To be used only with dispensation of
PCE/ CAO)
i) CBR ≥ 5 ( soil compacted at 97% of MDD *)
for SQ2/SQ3 soils
ii) For SQ1 soil, CBR ≥ 4 ( soil compacted at 97% of

MDD *)
iii) Field Compaction : Min. 97% of MDD *
iv) Minimum Ev2 = 30 MPa (for SQ1)
Lower layer SQ1/SQ2/SQ3 soil (+) As per

(fill) i) CBR≥ 3 (soil compacted at 97% of MDD *) Embankment
ii) Field Compaction :Min. 97% of MDD * height
22
Ground i) Undrained Cohesion of soil (cu) ≥ 25 KPa (only for --
Soil/Sub- soils having particles finer than 75 micron exceeding
soil Strata 12%)
Ground Improvement is required, if any of the above
parameters not complied with
* MDD mentioned in above table
a) For determination of CBR - MDD achieved in Lab,
b) For field compaction - MDD achieved in field compaction trials which should not
be less than 98% of MDD in lab.
**Ev2 is Modulus of deformation (Para 2.0 of Appendix-H)
CL of Track
V
:1 Top of Formation
5H
1.
BLANKET 1 : 30 1 : 30 Blanket Thickness - 30 cm over SQ3, 40 cm over SQ2
1 : 30 1 : 30 Prepared Subgrade Thickness - 50 cm over SQ1,

PREPARED SUBGRADE (SQ2, SQ3)
V 35 cm over SQ2
:1
. 2H
IN 1 : 30 50 cm Top Layer of Subgrade 1 : 30
EM (SQ1, SQ2, SQ3)
SUBGRADE OP
SL
Lower Layer of subgrade
(SQ1, SQ2, SQ3)
G. L.
Fig-3.5: Track Formation for Two layer system (for 25 T Axle load)
(C) Formation for 32.5T Axle load
Table 3.5: Specification and Thickness of Formation Layers for 32.5T axle
load: Single layer system

Blanket i) CU> 7 and CC between 1 and 3. 45cm over SQ3
ii) Fines (passing 75 microns) :3% to 10% sub-grade
iii) Size gradation within specified range as 55cm over SQ2
specified in Table 3.7 or should lie within sub-grade
enveloping curves given in fig 3.8. 70cmover SQ1
iv) Los Angeles Abrasion value< 40% sub-grade
(v) Minimum CBR value ≥ 25 (Soil compacted at 100%
23
of MDD * in Lab.)
(vi) Field Compaction: 100% of MDD * in field

trial
(vii) Minimum EV2 ** = 120Mpa
(viii) Filter Criteria (***Optional) should be
satisfied with subgrade layer, as given below :
Criteria–1: D15 (blanket) < 5 x D85 (sub-grade)
Criteria–2: D15(blanket) >4to5 D15 (sub-grade)
Criteria–3: D50(blanket) < 25 x D50 (sub-grade)
Subgrade SQ1/SQ2/SQ3 soil 100 cm
(SQ1 soils (To be used only with dispensation of
Top Layer
PCE/ CAO)
i) CBR ≥ 6, for SQ2/SQ3 soil compacted at 98% of MDD *)
ii) CBR≥ 4, for SQ1 (soil compacted at 98% of MDD *)
iii) Field Compaction : Min. 98% of MDD*
iv) Minimum Ev2 ** = 45 MPa (for SQ1 soil)
Lower layer SQ1/SQ2/SQ3 soil (+) As per
(fill) i) CBR ≥ 3 (soil compacted at 97% of MDD*) Embankment
ii) Field Compaction: min 97% of MDD* height
Ground i) Undrained Cohesion of soil (cu) ≥ 25 KPa (only
Soil/Sub-soil
for soils having particles finer than 75 micron --
exceeding 12%)
Ground Improvement is required, if any of the
above parameters not complied with
b) For field compaction - MDD achieved in field compaction trials which should not be
less than 98% of MDD in lab.
** Ev2 is Modulus of deformation (Para 2.0 of Appendix-H)
24
CL of Track
V
:1 Top of Formation
5H
1.
1 : 30 Blanket Thickness - 45 cm over SQ3,

BLANKET 1 : 30
55cm over SQ2, 70 cm over SQ1
1 : 30 1 : 30
V 100 cm Top Layer of Subgrade
:1
2H (SQ1, SQ2, SQ3)
N.
SUBGRADE MI
PE
SLO Lower Layer of Subgrade
(SQ1, SQ2, SQ3)
G. L.
Fig-3.6: Track Formation for single layer system (for 32.5 T Axle load)
Table 3.6: Specification and Thickness of Formation Layers for 32.5T axle
load: Two layer system
Blanket i) CU> 7 and CC between 1 and 3. 45cm over SQ3 prepared

ii)Fines (passing 75 microns) :3% to 10% subgrade
55cm over SQ2 prepared
iii) Size gradation – within specified range as
subgrade
given in Table 3.7or should lie within
enveloping curves as given in Fig. 3.8
iv) Los Angeles Abrasion value< 40%
(v) Minimum soaked CBR value ≥ 25 (Soil
compacted at 100% of MDD* in Lab.)
(vi) Field Compaction: 100% of MDD* in field
trial
(vii) Minimum EV2 ** = 120MPa
(viii) Filter Criteria (***Optional) should be
satisfied with subgrade layer, as given below
:
Criteria–1: D15 (blanket) <5xD85 (prepared
sub-grade)
Criteria–2: D15(blanket) >4 to 5 D15 (prepared
sub-grade)
Criteria–3: D50(blanket) <25xD50 (prepared
sub-grade)
Prepared SQ2/SQ3 Soil 50 cm over SQ1 fill
Subgrade 35 cm over SQ2 fill
i) CBR ≥ 8 (soil compacted at 98% of MDD*)
ii) Field Compaction :Min. 98% of MDD*
iii) Plasticity Index ≤ 12
iv) Minimum EV2 = 60 MPa
Subgrade SQ1/SQ2/SQ3 Soil
Top layer (SQ1 soils (To be used only with dispensation 50 cm
25
of PCE/ CAO)
i) CBR ≥ 5 ( soil compacted at 97% of MDD *)
for SQ2/SQ3 soil

ii) CBR≥ 4, for SQ1 (soil compacted at 97% of MDD
*)
iii) Field Compaction : Min. 97% of MDD*
iv) Minimum Ev2** = 30 MPa (for SQ1 soil)
Lower layer As per Embankment height
(fill) SQ1/SQ2/SQ3 Soil (+)
i) CBR ≥ 3, (soil compacted at 97% of MDD*)
ii) Field Compaction : Min. 97% of MDD*
Ground i) Undrained Cohesion of soil (cu) ≥ 25 KPa
Soil/Sub-soil --
(only for soils having particles finer than 75
Strata
micron exceeding 12%)
Ground Improvement is required, if any of
the above parameters not complied with

b) For field compaction - MDD achieved in field compaction trials which should not be
less than 98% of MDD in lab.
** Ev2 is Modulus of deformation (Para 2.0 of Appendix-H)
CL of Track
V
:1 Top of Formation
5H
1.
BLANKET 1 : 30 1 : 30 Blanket Thickness - 45 cm over SQ3, 55 cm over SQ2
PREPARED SUBGRADE 1 : 30 1 : 30 Prepared Subgrade Thickness - 50 cm over SQ1,

V (SQ2, SQ3) 35 cm over SQ2
:1
2H
N. 50 cm Top Layer of Subgrade
E MI 1 : 30 1 : 30
(SQ1, SQ2, SQ3)
SUBGRADE OP
SL
Lower Layer of Subgrade
(SQ1, SQ2, SQ3)
G. L.
Fig-3.7: Track Formation for Two layer system (for 32.5 T Axle load)
26
Table-3.7: Gradation Percentage of Blanket Material
SL IS Sieve Size Percent Passing (by weight)

1. 40 mm 100
2. 20 mm 80 – 100
3. 10 mm 63 – 85
4. 4.75 mm 42 – 68
5. 2 mm 27 – 52
6. 600 micron 13 – 35
7. 425 micron 10 – 32
8. 212 micron 6 – 22
9. 75 micron 3 – 10
Fig-3.8: Enveloping Curves for Blanket Material
(D) When the subgrade/prepared subgrade is of SQ1 or SQ2 category soil (in table 3.3 to
3.6), a suitable non-woven geo-textile layer may be used as “separator layer” on the
top of subgrade to prevent upward migration of the fines from subgrade/prepared
subgrade causing contamination of blanket layer on top of it and also to prevent
penetration of coarse particles of layer on top of subgrade into soft/fine grained
particles of sub-grade below. Specifications of Non-Woven Geotextile to be used as
“separator layer” given in APPENDIX-C.
(E) Design of formation, including adoption of single layer or two layer system, and use of
SQ1 soil (in top layer of subgrade) as given in above paras shall be decided by
PCE/CAO (Con) on the basis of soil investigation.
In case of the projects being executed by PSUs, the powers of PCE/CAO shall be
exercised at appropriate level of authority as nominated by CMD/MD of the PSU.
27
(F) In case of cutting also, blanketing shall be provided as required & as specified in this
Para 3.10, based on the type of soil just below the blanket.
3.11 Height of Embankment and Formation Layer thickness:
i) Minimum height of embankment above ground level or highest flood level (HFL)
whichever is higher should not be less than one meter to ensure proper drainage
and avoid trespassing.
ii) Total required thickness of formation layers as specified in Para 3.10 for blanket,
prepared sub-grade & Subgrade-Top Layer, should be provided/ensured uniformly
in embankment/cutting for effective stress dispersal.
iii) The specification of soil strata below the ground level (GL) must be ascertained
from the results of soil exploration.
iv) For effective stress dispersal, required total uniform thickness of formation layer
(Blanket, Prepared sub-grade & Subgrade/Top Layer) shall be ensured in cuttings
as well as in embankments, even where embankment height is less than about
1.5m or total uniform required thickness. It is further explained as below:
a) For Embankment (where height of embankment is less than required
total uniform thickness): If the specification of sub-soil meets the required
specification of blanket/prepared subgrade/subgrade-top layer, upto required
total depth of uniform thickness below ground level, then there will be no
need of excavation, else the excavations will be done below ground level as
per the requirement, to satisfy the provision of total uniform thickness for
effective stress dispersal. Detailed description & few examples are as given in
APPENDIX-B.
b) For Cutting: If the specification of sub-soil does not meet the required
specification of blanket/prepared subgrade/subgrade-top layer i.e. total
required uniform thickness, below the proposed level of excavation in
cuttings, the excavation level for cuttings shall be enhanced to the level so as
to satisfy the total required uniform thickness requirement. Detailed
description & few examples are as given in APPENDIX-B.
v) Suitable drainage arrangement shall be ensured.
28
CHAPTER-4
APPLICATIONS OF GEOSYNTHETICS IN RAILWAY FORMATION
4.1 General
Geo-synthetic is a generic term which includes different synthetic products used in
Geotechnical Engineering applications. Geo-synthetics are available in a wide range of
forms and materials.
They can be utilized to solve various issues related to railway roadbed stabilization, like
drainage, filtration, reinforcement, separation, erosion control etc. The raw materials
used in the manufacturing of Geosynthetics are polymers, which are non-
biodegradable.
4.2 Functions of Geo-synthetics
A properly designed Geosynthetic can serve various functions; some of them are as
given below:
4.2.1 Separation
A Geosynthetic placed at the interface between two dissimilar geotechnical
materials (fine and coarse grained soils) functions as a Separator when it prevents
intermixing of two soil types to maintain integrity of each material under the
applied loads (Fig-4.1). Non-woven geotextile layer is commonly used for
separation, in Railway formations, and it provides filtration and drainage also.
Fig-4.1: Separation
4.2.2 Filtration
In this function, the geosynthetics allows passage of fluids from the soil in either
direction while simultaneously prevents the uncontrolled passage of soil particles
(Fig-4.2)The pore size of the geosynthetic (mostly non-woven geotextile) is
chosen to aid against their blocking, binding and clogging. Non-woven geotextile
layer is commonly used for filtration in Railway formations and it normally
partnered with Separation.
29
Fig-4.2: Filtration
4.2.3 Drainage
In this function, the Geosynthetic collects the fluid and transports it in its own plane
[Fig-4.3 (a) & (b)]. This function is facilitated due to in-plane permeability of the
geosynthetic (called “transmissivity”) being far more than permeability across the
plane (called “permittivity”). Non-woven geotextile or Geocomsposite drains are
commonly used for drainage in Railway formations.
Fig-4.3(a): Drainage in Basal Layer
Fig-4.3(b): Drainage behind Bridge Abutment/Retaining Wall
4.2.4 Reinforcement
Geogrid can be used for reinforcement at the bottom of ballast or at the bottom of
blanket or within the blanket, which by its reinforcing/interlocking mechanism forms
30
a semi rigid mat that helps in reducing the stresses on the layer below. This can be
used to reduce the required blanket thickness.
Fig-4.4: Reinforcement of Layers in Embankment
4.3 Types of Geosynthetics

There are various types of Geosynthetics, as under:
i) Geotextiles
ii) Geogrids
iii) Geonets
iv) Geomembranes
v) Geocomposites
vi) Geocell &
vii) Others
Geosyhnthetics which are/can be used in Railway formations are described in brief, as

under:
4.3.1 Geotextile
Geotextiles are planar and permeable members which are manufactured from
synthetic fibers, yarns, filaments, tapes etc. The polymers used in manufacturing
geotextiles are Polypropylene, Polyester, High Density Polyethylene and Polyamide
(nylon) or a combination thereof, but a large majority of geotextiles are made from
Polypropylene.
Generally two types of geotextiles are used commonly, as given below:
(i) Woven Type
31
Fig-4.5 : Woven Geotextiles
These geotextiles are woven by interlacing two or more sets of yarns, fibers,
filaments, tapes or other elements (Fig-4.5). These threads are generally
woven straight and parallel to each other. Woven textiles exhibit high tensile
strength, high modulus, high permeability and low elongation.
(ii) Non-woven Type
Non-woven geotextiles are manufactured in the form of sheet or web of
directionally or randomly oriented fibres (Fig-4.6), produced by mechanical
and/or thermal and/or chemical bonding. Non-woven geotextiles have high
permeability and high elongation characteristics. In Railway application it acts as
a separator, drainage material, and filter.
Fig-4.6 : Non-woven Geotextiles
32
4.3.2 Geogrid
Geogrid is a planar, polymeric structure consisting of a regular open network of
integrally connected tensile elements, which may be linked by extrusion, bonding or
interlacing. They have an open grid like configuration with large apertures between
individual ribs. The key feature of all geogrids is that the apertures are large
enough to allow soil communication, or strike through, from one side of the geogrid
to the other. Geogrids have relatively high strength, high modulus and low-creep-
sensitive polymers.
Geogrids provide uniform distribution of loads over a larger area by increasing
stiffness of base, as the same resists flexural deformation.
Woven types of geogrids are manufactured by weaving together polypropylene
coated polyester fibers into longitudinal & transverse ribs and joining the crossovers
by knitting or intertwining before protecting the entire unit by a subsequent coating
(Fig-4.7). Extruded types of geogrids are produced by extruding polymers and by
stretching uniaxially or biaxially extruded integral structure (Fig-4.8). Bonded
geogrid is produced by bonding, usually at right angles, two or more sets of strands
or other elements (Fig-4.9).
Fig. 4.7 Woven Geogrid Fig. 4.8 Extruded Geogrid Fig. 4.9 Bonded Geogrid
Following types of geo-grids are generally available in the market:
(i) Geogrid with one axis: Also known as mono-oriented geogrids, it is a planar
grid, which possesses a much higher strength in one direction than in the
other direction (Fig-4.10).
(ii) Geogrid with two axes: Also known as bi-oriented geogrids, it is a planar
grid, which possesses similar strength in both ortho direction i.e. longitudinal
& transversal (Fig-4.11).
Fig-4.10 Geogrid with one Fig-4.11 Geogrid with Fig-4.12 Geogrid with
axis two axes three axes
33
(iii) Geogrid with three axes: A recent addition to the geogrid family, this
product is having ribs in triangular pattern or other shapes. These geogrids are
manufactured from a punched polypropylene sheet oriented in multiple,
equilateral directions to form triangular apertures. (Fig-4.12).
4.3.3 Geocomposite
Geocomposite a generic name used to define a geosynthetic product consisting of a
combination of two or more geosynthetic materials. The application areas of
geocomposites are numerous and growing steadily. The geocomposites used for
Raiwlay formations, are as following:
(i) Geocomposite Drain

Geocomposite drains, consisting of a geonet bonded with non-woven geotextile
layer(s) on one or both sides are used for drainage from a basal layer in case
of embankments and for drainage behind retaining walls and/or bridge
abutments.
Fig-4.13 Typical Geocomposite Drains

(ii) Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD)
Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVDs) are a geocomposites consisting of a
synthetic filter jacket surrounding a plastic core. Normally they are
manufactured in rolls of 200-300 m length and are inserted into ground to
required depths using special drain stitcher rigs.
4.3.4 Geocell
Geocell is a three dimensional honeycomb like cellular structure, consisting of a
regular open network of synthetic strips, linked by extrusion or adhesion or other
methods.
4.4 Scope of Use of Geosynthetics In Railway Embankments

The decision on use of geosynthetics shall be taken based on the techno-economic
considerations for every site of work, with the approval of PHOD in Open Line and
Construction departments of Zonal Railways and equivalent officer in PSUs.
34
Considering the various functionalities provided by the geosynthetics, they have been
used or can be used for following applications related to Railway Embankments:
a) Construction of new Embankment with fine grained soils
b) Ground Improvement in case of soft sub-soils
c) Construction of new Embankment over soft subsoil
d) Reduction in thickness of blanket layer
e) Rehabilitation/Strengthening of weak/unstable formation
f) Drainage behind Bridge Abutment/Retaining Wall.
4.4.1 Construction of new Embankment with fine grained soils
As given in Para 3.10, a non-woven Geo-textile layer is required to be used as

“separator layer” in the following cases:
(a) Below blanket layer, if SQ2 soil is used in prepared sub-grade in two layer
system.
(b) Below blanket layer, if SQ1 or SQ2 soil is used in sub-grade in single layer
system.
RDSO has developed the Specification for Non-woven geotextile to be used as

separator/filtration in Railway formation. The specifications have been issued to
Zonal Railway/PSU’s for trial application initially so as to improve upon the
specifications based on its satisfactory performance, before its general adoption.
Specification of Non-woven Geotextile to be used as separator /filtration in
Railway formation (Specification No. RDSO/2018/GE: IRS-0004- Part-I, March
2019) is given in APPENDIX -C.
Fig-4.14 (a): Use of non-woven geotextile for fine grained soil

(In Single Layer System)
35
Fig-4.14 (b): Use of non-woven geotextile for fine grained soil
(In Two Layer System)
4.4.2 Ground Improvement in case of soft sub-soils
For construction of embankment over soft sub-soils (which are mostly soft clays),
the sub-soil/ground has to be improved for –
a) Reducing the consolidation time (which otherwise can be very long spanning
months/year) & associated settlement so that bank can be constructed in faster
time; and
b) To increase the bearing capacity/ shear strength of the sub-soil so that the bank
constructed over it is stable.
For faster consolidation & associated settlement, Prefabricated Vertical Drain (PVD)
can be used. To improve the load support capacity of soft subsoil, Geocell is
another form of Geosynthetics which is used as a basal mattress in embankments
for ground improvement. For detailed description, Chapter-2 (Suitability of
Subsoil & Ground Improvement Techniques) can be referred.
Fig-4.15: Use of Geocell as basal mattress for Ground improvement in soft

subsoil
36
4.4.3 Construction of Embankment over soft subsoil
In case of embankments over weak/fine grained sub-soils (which are mostly soft
clays) and having water table at higher level, it is a good practice to provide a
“separator-cum-drainage layer” of Geocomposite drain layer, sandwiched between
two layers of sand of about 75mm thickness (Fig-4.16), at the ground level to
provide adequate drainage path for the water coming from sub-soil (reducing excess
pore water pressure in embankment and thereby increasing its’ stability) and to
prevent fouling of subgrade by the fine grained subsoil. Alternatively, a 1000mm
thick sand layer can be provided. Its thickness may be varied depending on the bank
height, characteristics of sub-soil and water table. The sand layer to be used in both
the cases should be clean medium to coarse sand with minimum permeability of the
order of 10-5 m/second.
Fig-4.16: Use of Geosynthetic (Geocomposite drain-horizontal) in

embankment over soft subsoil
RDSO has already developed the Specification for Geocomposite Drain (Horizontal)
at the base of the Embankment (for embankment height upto 8m). The
specifications have been issued to Zonal Railway/PSU’s for trial application initially
so as to improve upon the specifications based on its satisfactory performance,
before its general adoption.
Specification of Geocomposite Drain to be used at base of the Embankment
(Specification No. RDSO/2018/GE: IRS-0004- Part-II, March 2019) is given in
APPENDIX -C.
4.4.4 Reduction in thickness of blanket layer
To reduce the thickness of the Blanket Layer (which is costly granular material
obtained by quarrying or mining) in case of new constructions or for formation
rehabilitation, on techno-economic considerations and/or to reduce the adverse
impact on environment due to quarrying/mining, geogrid can be used. (Fig-4.17)
RDSO has developed the Specifications for Geogrid to be used as
Reinforcement/Stabilisation for Railway Formation. The specifications have been
issued to Zonal Railway/PSU’s for trial application initially so as to improve upon the
specifications based on its satisfactory performance, before its general adoption.
37
Specifications for Geogrid to be used as reinforcement/stabilisation for Railway
Formation (Specification No. RDSO/2018/GE: IRS-0004- Part-III, February 2020)
is given in APPENDIX -C.
Zonal Railways and Construction units must submit the design of reinforced
formation layer to RDSO along with design methodology for use and selection of
Geo-grid with minimum specifications as prescribed by RDSO for its approval.
Fig-4.17: Use of geogrid for reduction of blanket layer thicknesses
4.4.5 Rehabilitation/Strengthening of weak/unstable formation
The weak/unstable formations are mostly those formations where subsoil and/or
subgrade soil is expansive clay (e.g. Black Cotton Soil). The most significant
property of these soils is that when mixed with water they swell considerably,
losing their shear strength and on drying they shrink considerably. Because of this
swelling and shrinkage, due to ingress of water in rainy season, the track
parameters get disturbed and ballast penetrates in the formation. The problems
caused by expansive clays can be addressed to a large extent by reducing the
ingress of water (during rainy season) by provision of blanket layer of adequate
thickness in the top layer of formation. The blanket layer acts as a separator as
well as reinforcement layer reducing the pressure on the formation below. In case
providing blanket layer of large thickness in running traffic conditions is not
possible, its thickness can be reduced with provision of layer(s) of geogrid.
In addition to this by providing a non-woven geotextile, as
separator/filtration layer below blanket, will reduce the water from top entering into
the sub-grade & also prevents upward migration of fine particles from expansive
clays (which are very fine grained) into the top coarse layer.
The preferred method for strengthening/rehabilitation of weak/unstable
formations will be provision of a Blanket layer of suitable thickness as detailed
above. But in cases where it is not possible to adopt this method, and only shallow
depth of formation is considered to be affected/weak, another lesser preferred
alternative is laying a separator layer of non-woven geotextile and a reinforcement
layer of geogrid over it, just below the ballast along with deep screening work by
Ballast Cleaning Machine (BCM), with additional provision in machine for laying of
Geogrid/Geotextile. (Refer Para 10.5, Chapter 10).
However, before adopting the above method, detailed soil investigation must be
done ascertaining the root cause of the formation problem. If the nature of the
problems suggests that it cannot be solely rectified by adopting this method, then
38
conventional method of providing blanket layer or other appropriate method as
determined from investigation done shall be adopted.
Fig-4.18: Rehabilitation/Strengthening of weak/unstable formation using

geogrid & non-woven geotextile
4.4.6 Drainage behind Bridge abutment/Retaining wall
Geocomposite drain (Vertical) can replace the 600 mm thick natural graded filters
(consisting of different sizes of boulders and gravels), provided behind bridge
abutment and/or retaining walls for drainage, in places where availability of graded
filter material is matter of concern. It also eliminates the need for weep holes in
bridge abutment and/or retaining walls. The stages in installation of such a
synthetic drain are shown in Fig-4.19.
RDSO has developed the Specification for Geocomposite drain (vertical) to be

used behind the Bridge Abutment/Retaining wall for drainage purpose. The
specifications have been issued to Zonal Railway/PSU’s for trial application initially
so as to improve upon the specifications based on its satisfactory performance,
before its general adoption.
Specification for Geocomposite drains to be used behind Bridge
Abutment/Retaining wall (Specification No. RDSO/2018/GE: IRS-0006, March-
2019) is given in APPENDIX-C.
39
Fig 4.19: Installation of Geocomposite Drain
40
CHAPTER-5
SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
The side slopes of the embankment should be such that they are stable from Slope Stability
point of view.
5.1 General
Usually, side slopes of 2:1 would be safe for most of the soils up to Embankment
height of 4m. However, this analysis has to be carried out in detail for any height of
Embankment in following situations:
a) When subsoil is soft, compressible & marshy type for any depth.
b) When subgrade soil (fill material) has very low value of cohesion “C” such that C'/γH
(where ‘H’ is height of Embankment and γ is bulk density of soil) is negligible, i.e.,
in range of 0.01 or so.
5.1.1 In case of embankment of more than 6m height on soft sub-soil, a flatter slope
and/or with berm/sub-bank may be required. The same shall be provided as per the
results of the slope stability analysis done.
5.1.2 In case berm is required to be provided, the minimum width of berm may be kept as
2.0 m, which may be increased as per requirement of rolling equipment, to ensure
proper compaction, provision of drain on inner side of berm as required and use of
berm as road during maintenance etc. & also fulfilling design requirements.
5.1.3 When the highest water table is within 1.5xH (H is the height of Embankment),
below ground level, then submerged unit weight of soil below water level should be
taken.
5.2 Slope in Cutting
In cutting slope, softening of soil occurs with the passage of time, and therefore, long
term stability is the most critical, and should be taken into consideration while
designing the cuttings.
5.3 Software’s for Slope Stability Analysis
This procedure for slope stability analysis manually or with the help of suitable
Software like SLOPE/W (of Geo-Studio group), SLIDE (of Roc-Science group) and Slope
Stability (of GEO5 group) or equivalent will be adequate for most of the cases.
However, in certain situations, further detailed analysis may be required due to the
site conditions and the same may be done by an expert consultant.
Manual Slope stability analysis can be carried out using procedure given in Para 5.4. A
typical worked out example of slope stability analysis is given at Para 5.8 for
guidance.
5.4 Method of slope stability analysis

(Ref:-RDSO’s Circular No. GT/SPEC/007/Rev 0/1991 (earlier Circular No. 20 dt.4.9.91)
Based on experience gained, especially with the behavior of old embankments and
construction of new embankments over soft clays, it has been decided that effective
stress analysis shall be adopted for analysing end- of-construction and long – term -
41
stability conditions, adopting realistic values of shear strength and pore water pressure
parameters.
5.4.1 Conditions of analysis

Minimum factor of safety should be ensured for the following critical conditions:
i) In Embankments for a) End of construction, and b) Long term stability with

vitiated spoilt surface drainage such as when ballast is due for deep screening and
during monsoon when drains get choked.
ii) In cuttings, for long term stability with adverse conditions of drainage likely to
develop in conjunction with modified sub-surface drainage patterns due to change
of topography.
5.4.2 Factor of safety:
i) A factor of safety of 1.4 should normally be adopted against slope failure.
ii) At the end of construction stage, when pore water pressure dissipates partially, a
minimum factor of safety of 1.2 can be allowed to achieve economy but without
sacrificing safety for long term – stability. However, a minimum factor of safety of
1.4 must be ensured for the long term-stability.
iii) Moving train loads need not be considered in the slope stability analysis for
Embankments. In case of low height embankments, overstressing zones in soil
mass due to live loads would affect the slope stability adversely because the
bearing capacity failure mechanism gets mixed up with slope failure mechanism.
Hence, minimum FOS of 1.6 should be ensured for slope stability of smaller
Embankments of height upto 4m.
5.5 Computation procedure:

Computations shall be done using Bishop’s simplified method for determining factor of
safety against slips. For designing and checking slopes of Railway embankments and
cuttings, stability tables from Table no. 5.3 to Table no. 5.20 as given should be used.
These tables were developed by Bishop’s and Morgenstern 1960 with extension by O’
Conner & Mitchel, 1977 and further by Chandler & Peiris, 1989.
5.5.1 Formula to be used for the computation of factor of safety with Bishop’s simplified
method is:
F.O.S. = m – n .ru ------- (1)
Where: m & n are the stability co-efficient based on C/H,, depth factor and
assumed slopes. (See Table no. 5.3 to 5.20)
C = effective cohesion
 = effective angle of internal friction
 = saturated unit weight of soil(s)
H = height of Embankment
ru = pore pressure ratio
D = depth factor
42
Note: i) Above parameters are explained in Fig. – 5.1
ii) Linear interpolation/extrapolation should be done for intermediate values
of m & n
5.5.2 Pore pressure ratio, ru = U/  .h ------- (2)

Where:
U = pore water pressure
 = bulk density of soil
h = height of soil mass above the point where pore water pressure is being
measured
5.5.3 Depth factor, D = DH/H ------------ (3)
Where:
DH = total depth from the top of formation to hard stratum of sub-soil
H = height of Embankment
a) Determination of Depth Factor:

Work out critical pore pressure ratio (rue), for depth factors, D=1.0 & 1.25,as
given below.
rue = m1.25 - m1.00 / n1.25 - n1.00 ------------(4)
Where: m1.25, m1.00, n1.25& n1.00 are values of m & n at depth factors of 1.0 &
1.25
b) If rue> ru (eq. 2), depth factor, D = 1.0
If rue< ru (eq. 2), revised rue will be worked out as
rue = m1.50 - m1.25 / n1.50 - n1.25 ------------(5)
Where: m1.50, n1.50 etc. are values of m & n at depth factor of 1.50 etc.
ii) If this revised rue > ru (eq. 2), then D = 1.25
iii) If this revised rue < ru (eq. 2), then D = 1.50
Thus, depth factor will be taken 1.0, 1.25 or 1.5 depending upon conditions of
rue with respect to ru (eq. 2) as worked out from i), ii) & iii)
Note: 1. Maximum value of depth factor is taken equal to 1.5 even if hard strata is
not found up to 1.5H depth below formation level.
2. rue is worked out to decide depth factor only. For calculation of FOS, ru as
given in Table 5.2 will be used.
5.5.4 Determination of Shear Strength  and pore pressure parameters of sub-soils and
embankment soils for stability analysis shall be done as given in Fig-5.1 & Table-
5.1. However, for preliminary design or small projects,  and ru values for different
conditions can be taken from Fig-5.2 & Table –5.2.
5.6. Side Slope of Embankment: Side slopes of Embankments should not be steeper than
2:1.
5.7. Design Parameters & Computation Tables
Design parameters adopted for slope stability analysis should have the approval of the
competent authority at SAG level (i.e. Chief Engineer of Zonal Railway or equivalent).
Design calculations for each Embankment profile carried out should be recorded in the
43
Design Register, showing soil parameters & factor of safety as adopted. In case of soft
soils, the most critical circle with its center may also be indicated. Computation tables
for calculation of ‘m’ & ‘n’ factors for different soil parameters are shown from table 5.3
to 5.20.
Fig: 5.1
Fig-5.2: Determination of Ip & ϕ for Railway Embankment
Table – 5.1
Determination of shear strength parameters required for subsoil & embankment soil
Subsoil Embankment
CU – tests on undisturbed samples with CU – tests on remolded samples made from
pore-pressure measurements in a soils compacted to achieve similar densities
triaxial apparatus, at which placement of soil is contemplated
during construction in a triaxial apparatus as
per IS Specification.
IS: 2720 (pt. XII)-latest version. IS: 2720 (pt.XII) – latest version.
44
Note: Peak and residual effective stress parameters from undisturbed samples should be
determined both for subsoil and Embankment soil while dealing with old
embankments.
Table – 5.2
ru Values for Different Conditions
TABLE –5.3
Stability Coefficients m and n for C’/H = 0
 Slope 2:1 Slope 3:1 Slope 4:1 Slope 5:1

m n m n m n m n
10.0 0.353 0.441 0.529 0.588 0.705 0.749 0.882 0.917
12.5 0.443 0.554 0.665 0.739 0.887 0.943 1.109 1.153
15.0 0.516 0.670 0.804 0.893 1.72 1.139 1.340 1.393
17.5 0.631 0.789 0.946 1.051 1.261 1.340 1.577 1.639
20.0 0.632 0.728 0.910 1.092 1.213 1.456 1.820 1.892
22.5 0.828 1.035 1.243 1.381 1.657 1.761 2.071 2.153
25.0 0.933 1.166 1.399 1.554 1.864 1.982 2.332 2.424
27.5 1.041 1.301 1.562 1.736 2.082 2.213 2.603 2.706
30.0 1.155 1.444 1.732 1.924 2.309 2.454 2.887 3.001
32.5 1.274 1.593 1.911 2.123 2.548 2.708 3.185 3.311
45
35.0 1.400 1.750 2.101 2.334 2.801 2.877 3.501 3.639
37.5 1.535 1.919 2.302 2.558 3.069 3.261 3.837 3.989
40.0 1.678 2.098 2.517 2.797 3.356 3.566 4.196 4.362
TABLE –5.4
Stability Coefficients m and n for C’/H = 0.025 & D=1.00

m n m n m n m n
10.0 0.678 0.534 0.906 0.683 1.130 0.846 1.365 1.031
12.5 0.790 0.655 1.066 0.849 1.337 1.061 1.620 1.282
15.0 0.901 0.776 1.224 1.014 1.544 1.273 1.868 1.534
17.5 1.012 0.898 1.380 1.179 1.751 1.485 2.121 1.789
20.0 1.124 1.022 1.542 1.347 1.962 1.698 2.380 2.050
22.5 1.239 1.150 1.705 1.518 2.177 1.916 2.646 2.317
25.0 1.356 1.282 1.875 1.696 2.400 2.141 2.921 2.596
27.5 1.478 1.421 2.050 1.882 2.631 2.375 3.207 2.886
30.0 1.606 1.567 2.235 2.078 2.873 2.622 3.508 3.191
32.5 1.739 1.721 2.431 2.285 3.127 2.883 3.823 3.511
35.0 1.880 1.885 2.635 2.505 3.396 3.160 4.156 3.849
37.5 2.030 2.060 2.855 2.741 3.681 3.458 4.510 4.209
40.0 2.190 2.247 3.090 2.993 3.984 3.778 4.885 4.592
TABLE –5.5
Stability Coefficients m and n for C’/H = 0.025 & D=1.25

m n m n m n m n
10.0 0.737 0.614 0.901 0.728 1.283 0.887 1.288 1.014
12.5 0.878 0.759 1.076 0.908 1.299 1.089 1.543 1.278
15.0 1.019 0.907 1.253 1.093 1.515 1.312 1.803 1.545
17.5 1.162 1.059 1.433 1.282 1.736 1.541 2.065 1.814
20.0 1.309 1.216 1.618 1.478 1.926 1.776 2.334 2.060
22.5 1.461 1.379 1.808 1.680 2.194 2.017 2.610 2.373
25.0 1.619 1.547 2.007 1.891 2.437 2.269 2.897 2.660
27.5 1.783 1.728 2.213 2.111 2.609 2.531 3.193 2.976
30.0 1.957 1.915 2.431 2.342 2.953 2.808 3.511 3.299
32.5 2.139 2.112 2.659 2.585 3.231 3.095 3.841 3.638
35.0 2.331 2.321 2.901 2.841 3.624 3.400 4.191 3.998
37.5 2.536 2.541 3.158 3.112 3.835 3.723 4.563 4.379
40.0 2.753 2.775 3.431 3.399 4.164 4.064 4.958 4.784
46
TABLE –5.6
Stability Coefficients m and n for C'/H = 0.05 & D=1.00

m n m n m n m n
10.0 0.913 0.563 1.181 0.717 1.469 0.910 1.733 1.069
12.5 1.030 0.690 1.343 0.878 1.688 1.136 1.995 1.316
15.0 1.145 0.816 1.506 1.043 1.904 1.353 2.258 1.567
17.5 1.262 0.942 1.671 1.121 2.117 1.565 2.317 1.825
20.0 1.380 1.071 1.840 1.387 2.333 1.776 2.783 2.091
22.5 1.500 1.202 2.014 1.568 2.551 1.989 3.055 2.365
25.0 1.624 1.338 2.193 1.757 2.778 2.211 3.336 2.651
27.5 1.753 1.480 2.380 1.952 3.013 2.444 3.628 2.948
30.0 1.888 1.630 2.574 2.157 3.261 2.693 3.934 3.259
32.5 2.029 1.789 2.777 2.370 3.523 2.961 4.256 3.585
35.0 2.178 1.958 2.990 2.592 3.803 3.253 4.597 3.927
37.5 2.336 2.138 3.215 2.826 4.803 3.574 4.959 4.288
40.0 2.505 2.332 3.451 3.671 4.425 3.926 5.344 4.669
TABLE –5.7

m n m n m n m n
10.0 0.919 0.633 1.119 0.766 1.344 0.886 1.594 1.042
12.5 0.655 0.792 1.294 0.941 1.563 1.112 1.850 1.300
15.0 1.211 0.950 1.471 1.119 1.782 1.338 2.109 1.562
17.5 1.359 1.108 1.650 1.303 2.004 1.567 2.373 1.831
20.0 1.509 1.266 1.834 1.493 2.230 1.799 2.643 2.107
22.5 1.663 1.428 2.024 1.690 2.463 2.038 2.921 2.392
25.0 1.822 1.595 2.222 1.897 2.705 2.287 3.211 2.690
27.5 1.988 1.769 2.428 2.113 2.957 2.546 3.513 2.999
30.0 2.161 1.950 2.645 2.342 3.221 2.819 3.829 3.324
32.5 2.343 2.141 2.873 2.583 3.500 3.107 4.161 3.665
35.0 2.535 2.344 3.114 2.839 3.795 3.413 4.511 4.025
37.5 2.738 2.560 3.370 3.111 4.109 3.740 4.881 4.405
40.0 2.953 2.791 3.642 3.400 4.442 4.090 5.273 4.806
TABLE –5.8

m n m n m n m n
10.0 1.022 0.751 1.170 0.828 1.343 0.974 1.547 1.108
12.5 1.202 0.936 1.376 1.043 1.589 1.227 1.829 1.399
15.0 1.383 1.122 1.583 1.260 1.835 1.480 2.112 1.690
17.5 1.565 1.309 1.795 1.480 2.084 1.734 2.398 1.983
47
20.0 1.752 1.501 2.011 1.705 2.337 1.993 2.690 2.280
22.5 1.943 1.698 2.234 1.937 2.597 2.258 2.990 2.585
25.0 2.143 1.903 2.467 2.179 2.867 2.534 3.302 2.902
27.5 2.350 2.117 2.709 2.431 3.148 2.820 3.626 3.231
30.0 2.568 2.342 2.964 2.696 3.443 3.120 3.967 3.577
32.5 2.798 2.580 3.232 2.975 3.753 3.436 4.326 3.840
35.0 3.041 2.832 3.515 3.269 4.082 3.771 4.707 4.325
37.5 3.299 3.102 3.817 3.583 4.431 4.128 4.112 4.753
40.0 3.574 3.389 4.136 3.915 4.803 4.507 5.343 5.171
Further extensions to the Bishop & Morgenstern slope stability tables

The design charts for the effective stress stability analysis of slopes given by Bishop &
Morgenstern (1960) are extended up to C' / H=0.15, =20 to 40 by & Mitchell (1977) and
further by Chandler & Peiris (1989).
Table-5.9

m n m n m n m n
20.0 1.610 1.100 2.141 1.443 2.664 1.801 3.173 2.130
25.0 1.872 1.386 2.502 1.815 3.126 2.259 3.742 2.715
30.0 2.142 1.686 2.884 2.201 3.623 2.758 4.357 3.331
35.0 2.443 2.030 3.306 2.659 4.177 3.331 5.024 4.001
40.0 2.772 2.386 3.775 3.145 4.785 3.945 5.776 4.759
TABLE –5.10

m n m n m n m n
20.0 1.688 1.285 2.071 1.543 2.492 1.815 2.954 2.173
25.0 2.004 1.641 2.469 1.957 2.972 2.315 3.523 2.730
30.0 2.352 2.015 2.888 2.385 3.499 2.857 4.149 3.357
35.0 2.728 2.385 3.357 2.870 4.079 3.457 4.831 4.043
40.0 3.154 2.841 3.889 3.428 4.729 4.128 5.603 4.830
TABLE –5.11

m n m n m n m n
20.0 1.918 1.514 2.199 1.728 2.548 1.985 2.931 2.272
25.0 2.308 1.914 2.660 2.200 3.083 2.530 3.552 2.915
30.0 2.735 2.355 3.158 2.714 3.659 3.128 4.218 3.585
35.0 3.211 2.854 3.708 3.285 4.302 3.786 4.961 4.343
40.0 3.742 3.397 4.332 3.926 5.026 4.526 5.788 5.185
48
TABLE –5.12

m n m n m n m n
20.0 1.841 1.143 2.421 1.472 2.982 1.815 3.549 2.157
25.0 2.102 1.430 2.785 1.845 3.358 2.303 4.131 2.743
30.0 2.378 1.714 3.183 2.258 3.973 2.830 4.751 3.372
35.0 2.692 2.086 3.612 2.715 4.516 3.359 5.426 4.059
40.0 3.025 2.445 4.103 3.230 5.144 4.001 6.187 4.831
TABLE –5.13
Slope 2:1 Slope 3:1 Slope 4:1 Slope 5:1


m n m n m n m n
20.0 1.874 1.301 2.283 1.558 2.751 1.843 3.253 2.158
25.0 2.197 1.642 2.681 1.972 3.233 2.330 3.833 2.758
30.0 2.540 2.000 3.112 2.415 3.753 2.858 4.451 3.372
35.0 2.922 2.415 3.588 2.914 4.333 3.458 5.141 4.072
40.0 3.345 2.855 4.119 3.457 4.987 4.142 5.921 4.872
TABLE –5.14

m n m n m n m n
20.0 2.079 1.528 2.387 1.742 2.768 2.014 3.158 2.285
25.0 2.477 1.942 2.852 2.215 3.297 2.542 3.796 2.927
30.0 2.908 2.385 3.349 2.728 3.881 3.143 4.468 3.614
35.0 3.385 2.884 3.900 3.300 4.520 3.800 5.211 4.372
40.0 3.924 3.441 4.524 3.941 5.247 4.542 6.040 5.200
TABLE –5.15


m n m n m n m n
20.0 2.042 1.148 2.689 1.541 3.263 1.784 3.868 2.124
25.0 2.323 1.447 3.062 1.908 3.737 2.271 4.446 2.721
30.0 2.618 1.777 3.457 2.298 4.253 2.810 5.073 3.368
35.0 2.929 2.115 3.880 2.705 4.823 3.407 5.767 4.048
40.0 3.272 2.483 4.356 3.183 5.457 4.060 6.551 4.893
TABLE –5.16


m n m n m n m n
20.0 2.054 1.324 2.492 1.579 2.983 1.861 3.496 2.167
25.0 2.377 1.671 2.894 1.993 3.481 2.379 4.078 2.753
49
30.0 2.727 2.042 3.324 2.431 4.009 2.916 4.712 3.405
35.0 3.110 2.451 3.801 2.928 4.586 3.500 5.414 4.128
40.0 3.542 2.913 4.338 3.494 5.237 4.161 6.207 4.945
TABLE –5.17


m n m n m n m n
20.0 2.234 1.545 2.565 1.749 2.963 2.004 3.400 2.287
25.0 2.638 1.972 3.028 2.229 3.500 2.550 4.019 2.913
30.0 3.072 2.425 3.529 2.749 4.083 3.149 4.692 3.598
35.0 3.549 2.923 4.084 3.324 4.727 3.813 5.436 4.362
40.0 4.089 3.485 4.712 3.980 5.456 4.566 6.278 5.226
TABLE –5.18


m n m n m n m n
20.0 2.261 1.170 2.895 1.448 3.579 1.806 4.230 2.159
25.0 2.536 1.462 3.259 1.814 4.052 2.280 4.817 2.765
30.0 2.836 1.791 3.657 2.245 4.567 2.811 5.451 3.416
35.0 3.161 2.153 4.098 2.721 5.137 3.408 6.143 4.117
40.0 3.512 2.535 4.597 3.258 5.782 4.083 6.913 4.888
TABLE –5.19


m n m n m n m n
20.0 2.229 1.334 2.701 1.600 3.225 1.873 3.780 2.182
25.0 2.560 1.692 3.107 2.015 3.724 2.384 4.363 2.769
30.0 2.909 2.065 3.542 2.464 4.262 2.941 5.995 3.406
35.0 3.295 2.475 4.018 2.946 4.846 3.534 5.697 4.129
40.0 3.728 2.938 4.556 3.509 5.498 4.195 6.490 4.947
TABLE –5.20


m n m n m n m n
20.0 2.394 1.550 2.748 1.756 3.174 2.020 3.641 2.308
25.0 2.798 1.978 3.212 2.237 3.711 2.561 4.259 2.924
30.0 3.236 2.441 3.718 2.758 4.293 3.156 4.931 3.604
35.0 3.715 2.940 4.269 3.333 4.938 3.819 5.675 4.364
40.0 4.255 3.503 4.896 3.983 5.667 4.569 6.517 5.228
50
5.8 Design Examples for Calculation for Slope Stability Analysis
Example 1:-
Design Data:
a) Height of Embankment = 6 m (Given)
b) Effective cohesion, C’= 8.2 kN/m2 (Measured in lab.)
c) Effective angle of shear resistance, =25 (Measured in lab.)
d) Saturated density of soil, sat= 21.53 kN/m3 (Calculated from lab test results)
e) Pore pressure ratio, ru= 0.25 (For Side Slope 2H: 1V on new construction)-Ref. table-
5.2.
1. Value of C' / H = 8.2/21.53 x 6 = 0.063

There is no direct table for this value therefore linear interpolation would be required
between values of C' / H of 0.05 & 0.075.
2. For C' / H = 0.075 (as 0.063 is more closer to 0.075 than 0.05), = 25 and Side
Slope = 2H:1V
a) For D = 1.00; from table – 5.9

m = 1.872 & n = 1.386
b) For D = 1.25; from table – 5.10
m = 2.004 & n = 1.641
3. To decide depth factor, rue will be computed as:

rue = m1.25 - m1.00 / n1.25 - n1.00
= 2.004 – 1.872 / 1.641– 1.386
= 0.52 > 0.25 (ru)
Hence D = 1 will be considered as more critical (Ref. Para 5.5.3-b)
4. Therefore, FOS = m – n * ru will be calculated for the value of C' / H = 0.063 at D =

1.00 as follows:
(i) From table 5.6, FOS (for C’ / H = 0.05) = 1.624 – 1.338 x 0.25 = 1.289
(ii) From table 5.9, FOS (for C' / H = 0.075) = 1.872 – 1.386 x 0.25 = 1.525
(iii) Linear interpolation for C' / H = 0.063
FOS = (1.525– 1.289/ 0.075 – 0.05) x (0.063– 0.05) + 1.289

=1.41 > 1.4
Hence, the side slope of 2H: 1V is safe.
Example 2:-
Design Data:
a) Height of Embankment = 10m (Given)

b) Effective cohesion, C’= 10.5 kN/m2 (Measured in lab.)
51
c) Effective angle of shear resistance, =20 (Measured in lab.)
d) Saturated density of soil, sat = 22 kN/m3 (Calculated from lab test results)
e) Pore pressure ratio, ru = 0.25 (For Side Slope 2H:1V on new construction) Ref.
table-5.2
1. Value of C’ / H = 10.5/22 x 10 = 0.048

There is no direct table for this value therefore linear interpolation would be
required between values of C' / H of 0.025 & 0.05.
1. For C' / H = 0.05 (as 0.048 is more closer to 0.05 than 0.025), = 20 and Side
Slope = 2H:1V

m = 1.380 & n = 1.071
m = 1.509 & n = 1.226
2. To decide depth factor, rue will be computed as:

rue = m1.25 - m1.00 / n1.25 - n1.00
= 1.509 – 1.380 / 1.226– 1.071
= 0.66 > 0.25 (ru)
Hence D = 1 will be considered as more critical (Ref. Para 5.5.3-i)
3. Therefore, FOS = m – n * ru will be calculated for the value of C' / H = 0.048 at D

= 1.00 as follows:
(i) From table 5.4, FOS (for C’ / H = 0.025) = 1.124 – 1.022 x 0.25 = 0.868
(iii) Linear interpolation for C' / H = 0.048
FOS = (1.112– 0.868/ 0.05 – 0.025) x (0.048– 0.025) + 0.868

=1.09 < 1.4
Hence, the side slope of 2H: 1V is unsafe.

4. Therefore, FOS will be calculated for the Side Slope = 3H: 1V and the value of C' /
H = 0.048, = 20 remains the same. (Pore pressure ratio will changed to ru=
0.21 for the Side Slope = 3:1, from table -5.2)
5. For C' / H = 0.05, = 20 and Side Slope = 3:1

m = 1.840 & n = 1.387
m = 1.834 & n = 1.493
c) Calculate rue to decide depth factor.
rue = m1.25 - m1.00 / n1.25 - n1.00
= 1.834 – 1.840 / 1.493– 1.387
= -0.05 < 0.25 (ru)
52
Therefore, workout rue for D = 1.25 & 1.50
d) For D = 1.50; from table – 5.8

m = 2.011 & n = 1.705
e) Calculate rue again.

rue = m1.50 - m1.25 / n1.50 - n1.25
= 2.011 – 1.834 / 1.705 – 1.493
= 0.83 > 0.25 (ru)
Hence D=1.25 will be considered as more critical.
6. Therefore, FOS = m – n * ru will be calculated for the value of C' / H = 0.048 at D

= 1.25 as follows:
(i) From table 5.5, FOS (for C' / H = 0.025) = 1.618 – 1.478 x 0.21 = 1.308
(iii) Linear interpolation for C' / H = 0.048
FOS = (1.521 – 1.308/ 0.050 – 0.025) x (0.048– 0.025) + 1.308

= 1.50 > 1.4
Hence, the side slope of 3H: 1V is safe.
53
CHAPTER-6
EXECUTION OF EARTHWORK
6.1 General
Before taking up of actual execution of work, detailed drawings need to be prepared

for the entire length of the project to give alignment, formation levels, formation width
at ground level, cross sections of catch water drains & side drains, cross section &
levels of subgrade, blanket levels, etc. to facilitate smooth execution at site. Execution
of work has to be carried out in a systematic manner so as to construct formations of
satisfactory quality which would give trouble free service.
6.2 The activities and adoption of good practices involved in execution of

earthwork are covered under following headings
i) Preliminary works
ii) General aspects
iii) Compaction of earth work
iv) Sandwich Construction of Embankments with Cohesive Soils
v) Placement of Back-Fills on Bridge Approaches and Similar Locations
vi) Drainage Arrangement in Embankment/Cutting
vii) Finishing and Blanketing
viii) Setting up of GE lab at Construction Site
ix) Maintenance of Records
6.2.1 Preliminary Works
A. Preparation of Natural Ground

Preparation of natural ground surface may be carried out as follows:
(i) Site clearances: Full formation width at ground level plus additional extra
width of 1 m on both sides should be cleared of all obstructions viz.
vegetation, trees, bushes, building, fences, abandoned structures etc. and
thereafter it should be dressed and leveled. Depressions if any should be
filled with suitable soil duly compacted. Finally, the leveled surface should be
properly compacted by mechanical means to get a leveled and uniform
ground surface.
(ii) When Embankment is constructed on Ground having steep slope, then

the ground surface should be suitably benched so that new material of
embankment gets well bonded with the existing ground surface.
Surface drainage shall be constructed, wherever required, so as to
maintain the natural water drainage facilities and limit the introduction of
water into the earthworks.
54
B. Setting out of Construction Limits
Centerline of the alignment (@200 m c/c or so) and full construction width
should be demarcated with reference pegs/dug belling about 90 cm away from
proposed toe of the embankment. Care should be taken not to disturbed the
pegs during construction. Pegs should be preferably painted for identification.
C. Selection of Borrow Area
(i) Borrow area should be selected sufficiently away from the alignment, as for
as possible at the extreme of Railway land but normally not less than 3 m
plus height of the Embankment to prevent base failure due to lateral
escapement of the soil.
(ii) Borrow area should be selected for soil suitable to be used in construction.
Embankment is to be constructed normally with soil available in nearby area,
with properly designed slope. However, there are some soils, which are
normally unsuitable for construction of formation & hence it is to be normally
avoided (as described in Para 3.7 of Chapter 3).
6.2.2 General Aspects
(i) A field trial for compaction on a test section shall be conducted on fill material
to assess the optimum thickness of layer and optimum number of passes for
the type of roller planned to be used to arrive at desired density. It optimises
compaction efforts of earthwork while achieving desired level of density based
on lab tests. Procedure for field compaction trials is given in para 6.2.3 below.
(ii) If the soil has less than required moisture content, necessary amount of water
shall be added to it either in borrow pits or after the soil has been spread
loosely on the Embankment. Addition of water may be done through flooding
or irrigating the borrow areas or sprinkling the water on the Embankment
through a truck mounted water tank sprinkling system. Use of hose pipes for
water need to be avoided.
(iii) If the soil is too wet, it shall be allowed to dry till the moisture content reaches
acceptable level required for the compaction.
(iv) Placement moisture content of soil should be decided based on the field trial
and site conditions. The objective should be to compact near OMC to achieve
uniform compaction with specified density in the most efficient manner.
(v) Clods or hard lumps of soil of the borrow area shall be broken to 75 mm or
lesser size before placing on Embankment.
(vi) Each layer should be compacted with recommended type of roller upto
required level of compaction, commencing from the sides, before putting the
next upper layer.
55
(vii) Extra embankment width of 500mm on either side shall be rolled/compacted to
ensure proper compaction at the edges. The extra soil should be cut and
dressed mechanically to achieve regular side slope and the slope shall be
compacted with 6-8 passes of slope compactors (10-20 ton capacity). Details
of some of the slope compactors are annexed at Appendix-E.
(viii) Backfill behind abutments: To avoid differential settlement in the approaches

of bridges, compaction should be carried out with the help of vibratory plate
compactors.
(ix) In areas susceptible to flooding, the sides of an Embankment (except approach
bank of bridges) should be protected with a layer of rockfill or stones with an
intermediate granular layer upto 1 m above HFL. For other conventional
methods of Erosion Control of slopes in such cases, Para 8.3.1 of Chapter 8 of
this document shall be referred to.
6.2.3 Compaction of Earthwork
Performance of the Embankment would depend to large extent on the quality of

compaction done during execution.
A. Advantages of Compaction
(i) Compaction is the process of increasing the density of soil by mechanical

means by packing the soil particles closer together with reduction of air voids
and to obtain a homogeneous soil mass having improved soil properties.
Compaction brings many desirable changes in the soil properties as follows:
a) Helps soils to acquire increase in strength in both bearing resistance and

shear strength.
b) Reduces compressibility, thus minimising uneven settlement during
service.
c) Increases density and reduces permeability, thereby reducing
susceptibility to change in moisture content.
d) Reduction in Erodibility.
e) Results in homogenous uniform soil mass of known properties.
f) Reduction in frost susceptibility in cold regions
(ii) However, while compaction of earthwork is a necessary condition to achieve a

stable formation, it does not help in checking against the following causes
which needs to be taken care during the design of embankment or cutting:
a) Excessive creep or slipping of slopes.

b) Swelling and shrinkage characteristic of soils due to variation in moisture
content because physio-chemical properties of a soil do not change on
compaction.
c) Mud pumping at ballast - soil interface.
d) Settlements due to consolidation of embankment and subsoil that can
occur even for a few years after construction of the embankment.
56
B. Factors Affecting Compaction in the Field
Compaction of a particular soil is affected by moisture content, compacting effort,

type of roller etc as explained below:
(i) Compacting Effort: In modern construction projects, heavy compaction

machinery is deployed to provide compaction energy. Types of machinery
required are decided based on the type of soil to be compacted. The method
of compaction is primarily of four types i.e. kneading compaction, static
compaction, dynamic or impact compaction and vibratory compaction.
Different type of actions is effective in different type of soils such as for
cohesive soils, Sheepsfoot rollers or pneumatic rollers provide the kneading
action. Silty soil can be effectively compacted by Sheepsfoot
roller/pneumatic roller or smooth wheel roller. For compacting sandy and
gravelly soil, vibratory rollers are most effective. If granular soil has some
fines, both smooth wheeled and pneumatic rollers can be used.
(ii) Moisture Control: Proper control of moisture content in soil is necessary

for achieving desired density. Maximum density with minimum compacting
effort can be achieved by compaction of soil near its OMC (Optimum Moisture
Content). If natural moisture content of the soil is less than the OMC, a
calculated amount of water should be added with sprinkler attached to the
water tanker and mixed with soil by motor grader for uniform moisture
content. When soil is too wet it is required to be dried by aeration to reach
up to OMC.
(iii) Soil Type: Type of soil has a great influence on its compaction
characteristics. Normally, heavy clays, clays and silts offer higher resistance
to compaction, whereas, sandy soils and coarse grained or gravelly soils are
amenable for easy compaction. Coarse-grained soils yield higher densities
in comparison to clay. A well-graded soil can be compacted to higher
density.
(iv) Thickness of Layer: Suitable thickness of soil of each layer is necessary to

achieve uniform compaction. Layer thickness depends upon type of soil
involved and type of roller, its weight and contact pressure of its drums.
Normally, 200 – 300 mm layer thickness is optimum in the field for achieving
homogenous compaction.
(v) Number of Passes: Density of soil will increase with the number of passes
of roller but after optimum number of passes, further increase in density is
insignificant for additional number of passes. For determination of optimum
number of passes for given type of roller and optimum thickness of layer at a
predetermined moisture content, a field trial for compaction is necessary.
C. Field Compaction Trial
(i) General
Field compaction trial is carried out to optimize compaction efforts of
earthwork while achieving desired level of density based on Lab tests (Heavy
57
compaction test, IS:2720 (Part-8) and Relative Density Test, IS:2720 (Part -
14). Type of roller to be used for compaction has to be decided depending on
the type of soil to be compacted in execution of earthwork.
(ii) Determination of compaction efficiency
The increasing trend of density with increase in number of passes of a
compactor tends to diminish gradually and a ‘diminishing return stage’ is
reached. This will determine the type of compactor, optimum thickness of
layer, corresponding water contents and number of roller passes.
(iii) Methodology for conducting field compaction trial includes following steps:
Step 1: Construct a test ramp about 20-30m long, 10-12m wide & 0.15m
thick on one end & 0.55m on other end, preferably at the construction
site, over a level ground surface clear of bushes, depressions etc.
under nearly identical conditions as shown in Appendix-D (Fig-D1).
Step 2: Divide the ramp equally into the desired number, say, four segments,
longitudinally of about 2.5m width (more than width of roller). Each
strip will be used for conducting trials at specific moisture content,
viz. OMC (Lab test value), OMC ±4% and (PL - 2%) etc.
Note: Experience shows that most suitable water content falls within a small range
of 3% below to 1% above the OMC for most of the- soil.
Step 3: Start a compaction trial on the first segment at a particular moisture

content (Step 2).
Step 4: Fix four number sampling points on this strip at locations where layer
thickness of about 225, 300, 375 & 450 mm are to be obtained after
rolling. Appendix-D (Table-D4).
Step 5: Collect samples around the sampling points (Step 4). Determine
moisture content by any suitable standard method
Step 6: Compare the moisture content with that of the relevant desired
moisture content (Step-3).
Step 7: Wait for natural drying if moisture content is on higher side or sprinkle
appropriate amount of water uniformly followed by ploughing etc. and
leave for 5 to 30 minutes depending on type of soil, in case the
moisture content is on lower side (Step 3).
Step 8: Determine moisture content once again at sampling points before
rolling. Observations of determination of moisture content are
recorded as per Appendix-D (Table – D2).
Step 9: Roll the strip and measure the dry density (by any standard method)
of the soil after every two passes commencing from four roller passes.
The observations are recorded as per Appendix-D (Table–D3).
Note: Measurement of dry density and moisture content are taken after removing
the top 5 cm layer of earth with least possible disturbance. If the layer
thickness is small, density ring should be used.
Step 10: Carry out testing on each strip at different specific moisture content as
for the first strip explained above. Compile the results of trial of all
strips as per Appendix-D (Table–D3).
58
Step 11: From these test results, two sets of graph are plotted:
First set of graphs: Dry density v/s number of roller passes for each
water content and layer thickness. For each layer, there would be four
(depending on range of moisture content chosen) curves for
different moisture content. Appendix-D (Fig-D2).
Second set of graphs: Maximum dry density vs moisture content for
each layer thickness. Appendix-D (Fig-D3).
Step 12: Second set of graphs will give field moisture content, maximum
attainable field dry density and optimum layer thickness. From this
field values minimum no. of passes of particular roller Appendix-D
(Fig-D2) are read from the first set of graphs.
D. Compaction Procedures for Different Soils
The Embankments are constructed with locally available soils provided it fulfils the
specified requirements. Procedure of compaction to be adopted will depend on the
type of soil being used in construction. General guidelines to deal with compaction
of various types of soils for attaining optimum dry density/relative density at
minimum effort have been briefly given as under:
i) Compaction of Cohesionless Gravely and Sandy Soil
Sandy & gravely soils should be compacted with vibratory rollers. If fines are
less in these types of soils, it can be compacted with minimum number of
passes of vibratory rollers without strict control of moisture to achieve
desired Relative Density. With higher percentage fines, sandy and gravely
soils need to be brought to OMC level to get effective compaction. Uniformly
graded sand and gravel are difficult to be compacted. Top layer of sand and
gravel remains loose in vibrating compaction. Therefore, in final pass the
roller should move smoothly without vibration. Dry densities obtained in
field trials normally should be around MDD/ specified Relative Density as
obtained from laboratory tests and should form the basis for specification and
quality control.
ii) Compaction of Silty - Clayey Soils

Silty soil is a fine-grained soil. These can be plastic or non-plastic depending
upon the clay content in it. Silts and fine sands with high water content have
a tendency to undergo liquefaction under vibrating rolling due to the pore
water pressure generated by mechanical work. Silty soils can be compacted
satisfactorily near about OMC either with smooth rollers or vibratory rollers.
Vibratory roller will give high degree of compaction and higher lift.
Compaction of silty clays will have to be handled in a manner similar to clays.
iii) Compaction of Clays
a) Water content plays a very important role in compaction of clays. Main

objective of compacting predominantly clays is to achieve uniform mass
of soil with no voids between the lumps of clays. If moisture content is
too high, roller tends to sink into the soil and if too low the chunks would
59
not yield to rolling by rollers. Appropriate water content i.e. OMC of the
soil is in the range of about plastic limit plus two percent. Sheep foot
rollers are most effective in breaking the clods and filling large spaces.
b) Thickness of layer should not be more than depth of feet of roller plus 50
mm.
iv) In case of such soils, the MDD and OMC, as determined in the Laboratory
may not be very relevant and therefore achievable MDD and practicable
moisture content at which such soils can be compacted effectively should be
determined by conducting field trials.
v) Selection of Compacting Equipment: The performance of roller is

dependent mainly on the type of soil used in construction. Guidelines on
selection of compacting equipment are given in Appendix-F. Vibratory
rollers which can be used in static as well as dynamic mode with plain & pad
drum are now being manufactured by reputed Indian Companies also. Salient
features of some of the models are given in Appendix-E.
vi) Use of Construction Equipments for Execution of Earthwork

Any manual methods of construction cannot achieve the desired quality of
earthwork. It would be necessary to deploy modern equipment such as
earthmover, motor graders, scraper, dumpers, mobile water sprinklers,
vibratory rollers, sheep foot rollers etc. as per need, on all projects, so that
the quality of work is as per laid down standards. It would be desirable to
maintain records of work done by various equipment at a particular site to
assess the output and quality control.
6.2.4 Sandwich Construction of Embankments with Cohesive Soils

Sandwich type of construction may be adopted for construction of Embankments
with cohesive soils having very low permeability (less than or equal to 10 –2
cm/sec.) (As given in Fig-6.1) and where height of the embankment is greater
than 3m. In such situations, a layer of coarse sand (Cu > 2) of about 20 to 30
cm thick should be provided at embankment height intervals of 2 to 3m. Fig-
6.1 given below provides Guidelines for sandwich construction for different
heights to improve the factor of safety against slope failure, drainage and
dissipation of pore water pressure. It is desirable to have a bottom layer of
coarse sand in all cases where soils of low permeability are used even for depths
upto 3m. However, before adopting such construction, it may be necessary
to carry out a detailed technical study along with economics of sandwich
construction, depending on site conditions and availability of material, if
required, in consultation with RDSO.
60
Fig-6.1 Typical embankment profile for sandwich construction with cohesive soil
6.2.5 Placement of Back-Fills on Bridge Approaches and Similar Locations
i) The back fills resting on natural ground may settle in spite of heavy compaction
and may cause differential settlements, vis-a-vis, abutments, which rest on
comparatively much stiffer bases. To avoid such differential settlements, while on
one hand it is essential to compact the back fill in the properly laid layers of soil
for Settlements within tolerable limits so that Coefficient of subgrade reaction
should have gradual change from approach to the bridge.
ii) Back-fills on bridge approaches shall be placed in accordance to Para 7.5 of Bridge
Substructure code (including latest correction slips). Sketch for details given in
Fig-6.2 below.
61
Fig-6.2 Details of backfill behind bridge abutment
62
iii) Fill material being granular and sandy type soil, therefore need to be placed in
150mm or lesser thick layers and compacted with vibratory plate compactors.
iv) While placing backfill material benching should be made in approach Embankment
to provide proper bonding.
v) Geocomposite drain (vertical) can replace the natural graded filters (consisting of
600mm thick boulders/cobbles etc. as shown in Fig 6.2 above), provided behind
bridge abutment and/or retaining walls for drainage in places where availability of
graded filters is matter of concern. Detailed elaboration is given in Appendix-C.
6.2.6 Drainage Arrangement in Embankments and Cuttings
Drainage is the most important factor in the stability of embankment/cutting in

railway construction. Effective drainage of the rainwater in the monsoon season is
very important to safeguard embankment/cutting from failure. Railway formation
is designed for fully saturated soil condition. However, Stagnation of water for
long time on formation is not desirable. Therefore, the drainage system should be
efficient enough to prevent stagnation and allow quick flow of water. Some
guidelines on this aspect are given as follows:
i) Drainage of Embankment: In embankment cross slope is provided to drain

out surface water. Therefore, normally there is a need of side drains in case of
embankment.
Top of formation should have a cross slope of 1 in 30 from centre of
formation towards both sides for single line/multiple line in new construction.
In case of doubling or multiple line construction work in existing lines, the
cross slope of 1 in 30 should continue from the edge of existing formation
towards cess/drain side (single slope) to avoid any stagnation of water
between two tracks. However, if the cross slope of existing embankment is
steeper than 1 in 30 due to any reason, the configuration of 1 in 30 cross slope
shall be maintained in the new line while ensuring proper drainage conditions
at the same time so as to avoid any stagnation of water in between tracks, by
adopting various measures as per site conditions.
In case of double line construction, central drain between the tracks

should be avoided to extent possible (even if it means resorting to additional
earthwork to facilitate flow of water) as it is not only difficult to construct but
also difficult to maintain for continuous vibrations caused by moving traffic,
problem in proper curing of concrete etc. Only in very rare situations, when
drainage of water is not possible without construction of drain, suitable
arrangements for construction of drain with pre-cast concrete channel/ subsoil
drains along with proper outfall should be made. If the distance between
adjacent tracks is large enough, suitable slopes should be provided in the
ground to make rain water flow in a natural manner. Wherever, there is level
difference between two adjacent tracks, suitable non-load bearing dwarf walls
may be constructed to retain earth.
ii) Drainage in Cuttings
a) Side Drains: In case of cuttings, properly designed side drains of

required water carrying capacity are to be provided. If height of the
63
cutting is less (say up to 4m), normally only side drains on both sides of
the track are to be provided. In case of deep cuttings, catch water drains
of adequate water carrying capacity are also required along with side
drains. A typical sketch of side drain and catch water drain is given in Fig-
6.3 below. It is to be noted that blanket material is to be placed like
fill/embankment and top of side drains has to remain below the bottom of
blanket material.
FORMATION LAYERS
(AS REQUIRED)
G.L. G.L.
{{ { BLANKET
PREPARED SUBGRADE
TOP LAYER
Fig-6.3: Arrangement of drainage in cutting
64
b) Catch Water Drains: Surface water flowing from top of hill slope
towards the track in huge quantities needs to be controlled. It is also not
possible to allow water from the hillside to flow into the side drains, which
are not designed for carrying such huge quantity of water. Therefore, it is
essential to intercept and divert the water coming from the hill slopes;
accordingly, catch water drains are provided running almost parallel to
the track. Depending on site condition, water from the catch water drains
may require to be diverting by sloping drains and carrying across the
track by means of culvert. In some of the situations, depending on
topography of top of cutting, there may be requirement of construction of
net of small catch water drains which are subsequently connected to main
catch water drain so that there is no possibility of water
stagnation/ponding upto distance approximately three times depth of
cutting from its edge. Catch water drains should be made pucca/lined with
impervious flexible material locally available.
c) Considerations in Design of Catch Water Drains: These should be

properly designed, lined and maintained. If catch water drains are
kuchha/ broken pucca drains, water percolates down to the track through
cracks, dissolving the cementing material resulting into instability in the
cuttings. Catch water drains should be located slightly away (as per site
conditions) from the top edge of cutting and water flow should be led into
the nearby culvert or natural low ground. Some additional salient
features to be observed are as follows:
i) Catch water drains shall have adequate slope to ensure development

of self- cleansing velocity.
ii) Catch water drains shall not have any weep hole.
iii) The expansion joints, if provided, shall be sealed with bituminous
concrete.
iv) Regular inspection and maintenance work, specially before onset of
monsoon, should be carried out to plug seepage of water.
v) Catch water drains shall have well designed out fall with protection
against tail end erosion.
Though capacity and section will depend on terrain characteristics, rainfall

etc. but following parameters are important for design of catch water
drains:
i) Intensity and duration of rainfall.

ii) Catchment area- shape, size, rate of infiltration etc.
iii) Velocity of flow which should satisfy the Manning’s formula
iv) Minimum gradient of drain should be about 1 in 300.
v) Normally catch water drains should be of trapezoidal cross section.
vi) The catch water drain should not be given gradient more than about
1 in 50 (but in no case more than 1 in 33) to avoid high water
velocity and possibility of washout of lining material
vii) Rugosity coefficient should be about 0.03.
65
d) Alignment plan, longitudinal section and soil survey records of catch water
drain should be updated from time to time as per development in the area
of influence.
e) Stable slopes and adequate drainage arrangements in cutting areas

should be provided as per details given in ‘Guidelines for Cuttings in
Railway Formations - No. GE: G-2, August 2005’.
iii) Other Drainage Systems: Open Drainage system typical as shown in Fig-6.4
below, will facilitate collection of rainwater from embankment, cuttings and
side of cuttings and lead it away. Sub-soil Drain System typical as shown in
Fig-6.5 below are installed where the groundwater level has to be lowered
(from depth < 1.5 m below the rail top), where the soil surrounding the track
formation has to be drained or where percolating and layer water has to be
drained away. 

(All Dimensions of side drain in ‘m’)

Fig-6.4: Open Longitudinal Drain at Toe of Formation




 
(Dimensions of side drain in ‘m’)
Fig-6.5: Sub-soil Longitudinal Drainage System
66
6.2.7 Finishing and Blanketing
i) Providing Camber/Cross Slope below Blanketing: Top of the formation should
be finished to desired cross slope of 1 in 30. Cross slope should be within 1 in
28 to 1 in 30. Camber may be checked at site through use of a cross-section
camber board.
ii) Once the top surface of the formation has been finished to proper slope and
level, movement of material vehicle for transportation of ballast, sleepers etc.
should be avoided, these movements will cause development of unevenness,
ruts on the surface which will accumulate water and weaken the formation.
iii) Provision of Blanket Layer: The specifications for the material to be used as
Blanket and thickness of blanket layer shall be as per relevant provisions given
in Chapter 3.
6.2.8 Setting up of GE lab at Construction Site
A well-equipped Geo-technical Engineering (GE) Field Laboratory shall be set up at

all construction projects connected with new lines, doubling and gauge conversion
works as well as, where rehabilitation of failing formation is being undertaken.
Number of such GE labs to be established on a particular project/work site should be
so decided that all quality control checks can be performed effectively. The field lab
should be manned adequately by trained officials & staff capable of carrying out
required investigation, soil testing and quality control at site.
i) Aspects to be looked after by field GE lab are as under:

a) To ensure that the quality of supplied soil and blanket material conforms to the
accepted limits of gradation, classification, plasticity, etc.
b) To evaluate methods of compaction by conducting tests in connection with
field trials.
c) To exercise moisture and density control as the earthwork proceeds in layers
rolled with the suitable equipment.
ii) Field lab shall be equipped with minimum equipment as listed in Appendix-K, to
facilitate the following minimum tests:
a) Gradation Analysis-Sieve and Hydrometer.
b) Atterberg’s Limits - Liquid Limit & plastic Limit
c) Optimum Moisture Content (OMC), Maximum Dry Density (MDD) and Relative
Density.
d) Placement moisture content & in-situ Density.
e) CBR test
6.2.9 Maintenance of Records
At the work site, details of works along with materials being used are to be properly
recorded so that work of satisfactory quality can be achieved which can also be
verified at later stage. Records are also required to develop completion drawings
and other details, which would become permanent records of the section and could
be helpful in future to plan developmental activities and remedial measures if need
be.
67
CHAPTER-7
QUALITY CONTROL OF EARTHWORK
7.1 General
Quality of execution of formation earthwork shall be controlled through exercise of
checks on the borrow material, blanket material, compaction process, drainage
system, longitudinal & cross sectional profiles of the finished embankment. The details
of quality control procedure are as follows:
7.2 Quality Control test on Construction Material
This is required to ascertain the suitability of the material for construction of
Embankment and to decide the OMC/MDD and other relevant tests, which becomes the
quality control inputs. Quality control tests are required to be conducted on borrow
material as well as on blanket material.
7.3 Suitability tests at source
7.3.1 Borrow Material (Embankment fill as well as prepared subgrade)
a) Following specific tests to be conducted on borrow Material
i) Sieve analysis
ii) Hydrometer analysis
iii) Consistency limits
iv) CBR test
v) Test for organic content in soil
vi) Crumb test, double hydrometer test, pin hole & chemical test - for
Dispersive soil only
vii) OMC/MDD
Fill material proposed to be used either from Railway land or from outside would
have to be assessed for its suitability as well as to decide thickness of the
blanket layer after conducting soil classification and other relevant tests as per
site requirement. On the basis of the tests, areas for borrow material, especially
from outside the Railway land, need to be earmarked. Once the material has
been found fit for use as fill material for Embankment, further lab tests, to
assess OMC, MDD/ Relative Density, need to be conducted.
In case, slope stability analysis, as explained in Chapter - 5 is required, triaxial
shear test will also need to be done to find effective shear strength parameters.
b) Frequency of Testing: The frequency of testing before laying for borrow
material should be as detailed in table 7.2.
Note: It would be in the interest of the execution agency to have frequent tests
conducted at source/manufacturing point on his own to judge the suitability of
the material to avoid any complication at a later stage. However the final
acceptance of the borrow material should be at the site before laying.
68
7.3.2 Blanket Material: The source(s) of blanket material needs to be identified based
on the final location survey report, tests & studies conducted and conformity to the
Specification as stipulated in Table 3.3 to 3.6.
a) Method of Test: Blanket material should be tested as per IS: 2720 (Part 4) to
plot particle size distribution curve, so as to assess its suitability. It would be
necessary to carry out wet analysis to assess the actual percentage of fines.
b) Frequency of Tests: The frequency of testing at site before laying for blanket
material should be as detailed in Table 7.2.
c) Following tests/checks are to be conducted

i) Sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis to determine CC, CU & percentage
fines
ii) CBR test
iii) Los Angeles Abrasion value,
iv) Filter criteria, as required
v) Gradation Analysis,
vi) Check for conformity with enveloping curves
Note: It would be in the interest of the execution agency to have frequent tests
conducted at source/manufacturing point on his own to judge the suitability of
the material to avoid any complication at a later stage. However the final
acceptance of the blanket material should be at the site before laying.
7.4 Quality Control Checks on Finished Earthwork

7.4.1 Compacted Earth: Degree of compaction of each layer of compacted soil should
be ascertained by measurement of dry density/Relative Density of soil at locations
selected in specified pattern. The method of sampling, frequency of tests, method
of tests to be conducted and acceptance criteria to be adopted are as under
a) Method of Sampling
i) Various methods of selection of sample points for checking the field dry
density are in practice. These methods are shown in Fig-7.1. The
sampling method should be such that the effectiveness of compaction for
the entire area of compacted earthwork can be judged properly. The
Engineer in-charge should specify the sampling method depending on the
site conditions.
ii) For each layer, a minimum of one sample at a predetermined interval along
the centerline of the alignment would be taken in a staggered pattern so as
to attain a minimum frequency of tests as given in the note below table
7.2. For subsequent layer, the stagger should be such that the point of
sampling does not fall vertically on the earlier sampling points of the layer
immediately below. The process of sampling is explained in Fig-7.1 for
guidance. Additional sampling points can be taken, as considered
necessary.
iii) In case of embankment widening, sampling should be done at an interval of
minimum 200metres on the widened side(s) of Embankment.
69
Fig-7.1: Sampling pattern for compaction check
70
b) Methods of In-situ Dry Density Measurements: Any of the following
methods could be adopted as per the requirements at site.
Table–7.1
Method of Procedure Parameters to Remarks
measurement of test be measured
i) Sand As per IS- a) In-situ Dry May be adopted for all

Replacement 2720 (Part Density type of soils
Method 28) - latest b) Moisture
version Content
ii) Core Cutter As per IS- In some of the coarse-
Method 2720 (Part -do- grained soils (with little
29) - latest fines) taking core cutter
version samples is difficult. In
such cases, a sand
replacement method
may be used for density
measurement.
iii) Nuclear As per a) Bulk density It is a faster Method
Moisture Appendix-H b) Moisture and should be widely
Density Gauge Content used for large
c) Dry density
construction projects.
d) Degree of
compaction
c) Acceptance Criteria
i) Coarse grained soils which contain fines passing 75 micron IS Sieve, upto
5 percent should have the Density Index (Relative Density) a minimum of
70% as obtained in accordance with IS: 2720 (Part 14) – 1983 (Reaffirmed
2015).
ii) In field compaction trial, the maximum attainable dry density should not be
less than 98% of MDD value as obtained by Heavy Compaction Test (IS:
2720 (Part 8) – (Reaffirmed 2015) in the laboratory. In case, there are
difficulties in achieving 98% of the MDD values as obtained by Laboratory
test, in the field trials, the same may be relaxed upto 95% of MDD with the
specific approval of Chief Engineer/Construction, recording reasons for such
relaxation. The level of compaction to be achieved in field, as a percentage
of MDD value achieved in field compaction trial, for various layers shall be
as per Table 3.3 to 3.6 of Chapter 3. In case of PSU, existing provision of
Equivalent authority for acceptance criteria shall continue.
iii) During widening of embankment in case of gauge conversion and
rehabilitation of unstable formation, compaction of earthwork should be
minimum 95% of MDD as obtained by Laboratory test as per Heavy
Compaction Test (IS: 2720 Part 8 – 2013) or 70% Relative Density for
71
Coarse grained soils which contains fines (passing 75 micron IS Sieve) upto
5 percent (IS: 2720 (Part 14) –1983 (Reaffirmed 2015).
7.4.2 Deformation Modulus (Ev2) measurement
It is a parameter expressing the deformation characteristics of a soil. It is
calculated taking values from the load settlement curve obtained from the
second cycle of loading in the Plate Load Test (Details given in Appendix-H). It
is to be determined in the field on top of each formation layer i.e. at top of
compacted Blanket layer/Prepared sub-grade/Subgrade- Top & Lower layer in
accordance with DIN: 18134-2012.
7.4.3 Frequency of Tests
The frequency of testing at finished earthwork should be as specified in the
Table 7.2 given below.
7.5 Qualifying and Quality assurance Tests
Qualifying tests as part of pre-selection of good earth for Blanket, Prepared sub-grade,
Subgrade is required to be carried out. Also quality of execution of formation
earthwork shall be controlled through exercise of checks on the borrow material,
blanket material, compaction process to ensure good quality construction. The quality
control procedures are summarised in Table-7.2 below.
Table–7.2: Summary of quality control tests in Borrow material/ finished earth
work
Item Paramete Location IS Code Ref. Frequency of Acceptance

/ rs to be of (Latest test Criteria
Mate determin sampling version)
rial for quality
ed
control
(i) Borrow material
(i) Soil IS: 1498 Soil should
(a) Su classification not be
bgrade/ (ii) CBR IS: 2720-Part- At least one test “unsuitable
At site 16 type“ as
Prepared at every change
(iii) Plasticity before IS: 2720- Part- given in Para
Subgrade of subgrade/ 3.7 and
Index laying 5
prepared- should
(Prepared
subgrade conform to
Subgrade)
material subject specification
(iv) OMC & IS: 2720 –
to minimum of given in Para
MDD Part-8
one test for every 3.10 for
25T/32.5T
5000 cum.
Axle load of
Chapter 3
(b)Blanket (i) Gradation
material
(ii) Cc & Cu IS: 2720-
(iii) Fines Part-4
Minimum one test
(passing 75 μ) At site
for every 500
(iv) Abrasion before IS:2386 – Part-
value
cum or part
laying 4
thereof
(v) CBR IS: 2720-Part-
72
16
(vi) Filter IS:2720 – Part-
criteria 4
(vii) OMC & IS: 2720 –
MDD Part-8
(viii) γmax & IS:2720-Part-

γmin 14
(Determined
in Relative
Density test
If fines are
upto 5%)
(ii) Finished earthwork
(i) Ev2 Top of final DIN 18134 – One test per Acceptance
finished 2012 Km (*) Criteria as
(Subgrade surface of specified in
/Prepared Blanket/ Para 3.10 of
Subgrade/ Prepared Chapter 3
Blanket) subgrade &
Subgrade
(ii) Compaction Every IS: 2720 (Part-
compacted 28/29) or
layer NMDG( as per As per note given
Procedure below
issued by
RDSO)
(iii) Density Every IS: 2720 – Minimum
Index compacted Part-14 70%
(Relative layer
Density
if fines are
upto 5% )
* Additionally this test can also be done by third party (i.e. IIT, NIT, Govt. Labs or any
NABL approved Lab) having testing facilities, to cross check the results achieved at site.
Frequency of testing in this case shall be decided/approved at the level of Chief Engineer
(Con). In PSUs, frequency of such tests shall be decided as per existing delegations for
testing.
Note: Frequency of Tests: Density check would be done for every layer of compacted
fill/blanket material as per following minimum frequency:
i) At least one density check for every 30 m length for blanket layers and top one
metre of prepared subgrade/subgrade along the alignment in a staggered pattern
of each compacted layer.
ii) At least one density check for layers other than as specified in(i) above, every 500
m2 or 75 m c/c whichever occurs earlier along the alignment in a staggered pattern
of each compacted layer.
iii) In case of important bridge approaches (100 m length on either side), at least one
density check for every 25 m length shall be adopted.
73
7.6 Formation Level: Finished top of sub-grade level may have variation from design
level by ± 25 mm and finished top of blanket layer may also be permitted to have
variation from design level by plus 25 mm only. The ballast should be placed only on
level formation without ruts or low pockets.
7.7 Cross Slope: Cross slope should be within 1 in 28 to 1 in 30.
7.8 Side Slopes: Side slope should be 2H: 1V or flatter as per design.
7.9 Formation Width: Formation width should not be less than the specified width.
7.10 Quality Control Records: At least, following records of quality control as per
proforma given in Appendix- D & G needs to be maintained.
i) Characteristics of borrow materials as per proforma No. G-1.
ii) Quality of blanket materials as per proforma No. G-2.
iii) Field compaction trial computation sheet details as per Table D-4 of Appendix-D.
iv) Quality of compaction of earthwork including blanket material as per proforma no.
G-3 for core cutter method & proforma no. G-4 for sand replacement method.
v) Quality of material and its compaction for backfill behind bridge approaches etc. as
per proforma no. G1, G2, G3 & G4.
vi) Details of machineries engaged in execution of earth work including its output as
per proforma decided by field engineers.
7.11 Setting up of GE Lab at Construction/Rehabilitation Site
A well-equipped Geo-technical Engineering (GE) Field Laboratory shall be set up at all
construction projects connected with new lines, doubling and gauge conversion works
as well as, where rehabilitation of failing formation is being undertaken. (Details are
given in Para 6.2.8 of Chapter 6).
7.12 Certification for quality of earthwork

Certification for quality of earthwork in formation in respect of new lines, Gauge
Conversion and Doubling projects etc. will be done by Executive authority at SAG level
(i.e. CE/Con of respective projects). CE/Con will submit details for certification of
quality of earthwork to CRS as per RDSO checklist.
7.13 Checklist for certification of quality of earthwork
Checklist for certification of quality of earthwork in Railway projects was issued by
RDSO vide letter no RS/G/95/Main, dated: 11.06.2004. This Checklist has been
revised and placed at Appendix –M.
7.14 Special design problems related with construction of formations
Any special design problems related with construction of formations may be referred to
RDSO for guidance and advice, if required.
74
CHAPTER-8
EROSION CONTROL OF SLOPES

8.1 General
Exposed sloping surface of embankment/cutting experiences surficial erosion caused
due to the action of exogenous wind and water resulting into loss of soil, leading to
development of cuts, rills/gullies adversely affecting the cess width, soil matrix,
steepening of slopes etc. which depends on type of soil, climatic condition topography
of area etc.
8.2 Selection of Erosion control method
The following points may be considered while adopting suitable method for erosion
control on soil slopes:
i) Developing vegetation cover would be the best method to prevent soil erosion. This
may be attempted by using 'Simple Turfing Method'.
ii) At locations where a simple turfing method cannot ensure vegetation cover, natural
fibre based netting can be adopted to support vegetation growth.
When the site is located in a drought prone area and it is difficult to sustain green
cover throughout the year, geogrids can be adopted to provide long term
protection.
iii) Where vegetation cover alone is insufficient and soil surface needs to be protected in
the absence of vegetation cover in certain patches, root reinforcing geosynthetic
systems (3-D mats) can be used. Depending upon the duration for which protection
needed (short term - 2 to 3 years or for longer term), either natural fibre based or
polymer based 3-D mats can be adopted. For slope heights more than 5 m, root
reinforcing systems would be better suited.
iv) Organic mulch application (either manually or by using hydro seeding/hydro-
mulching) can be adopted to aid simple vegetative turfing. By using hydro
seeding/hydro-mulching method, inaccessible and near vertical slopes can be
successfully vegetated and hydro seeding method can be used in combination with
nettings/ mats to make them even more effective.
8.3 Erosion control method
The Erosion Control methods which have been suggested below are for guidance
purpose and application of these methods depends on techno-economic, topographical,
climatic and other considerations.
Erosion control measures are commonly classified in following categories:
i) Conventional non-agronomical system,
ii) Bio-technical system,
iii) Engineering system, and
iv) Non- conventional hydro-seeding/hydro-mulching system.
Most common methods used are the Bio-technical and Engineering System.
However, appropriate method needs to be decided depending on site conditions.
75
8.3.1 Conventional Non-agronomical System
This method is best utilized against seepage, erosion by wave action etc. Soil bank
or slopes exposed to constant concentrated flows, currents or waves does not
support vegetation and needs to be protected by this system. For the slopes having
inundation or continuous flooding for many days, slope protection system as
indicated can be adopted as per site condition.
i) Stone pitching on the slope to be protected.
ii) Retaining walls, toe-walls or break walls and sheet piles that are placed in such
a way to form a barrier between the shore and the waterfront.
iii) Gabion & revet mattresses, manufactured as per IS 16014, filled with stones of
specified size and provided on slopes.
iv) Geotextile Bags - Bags made from geotextile material, which are filled with
sand/suitable type of soil and are kept on the slopes in place of stone pitching.
With this system in place, water can seep in and out of the bank or slope, but
the force of water is resisted by the non-agronomical system in place discussed
above. To prevent possibility of any piping action in this system, traditionally a
graded filter layer between bank soil and non-agronomical system is used.
Geotextile can also be used in place of traditional filter layer with specific hydraulic
and soil retention properties. (Chapter-5 in ‘IRC: 56- For Different Methods to
Prevent Soil Erosion’ may be referred to.)
Note: The sides of an Embankment (except approach bank of bridges) shall be protected
upto 1 m above HFL (except for case-ii). For approach bank of bridges, ‘Indian
Railways Bridge Manual’ shall be followed.
8.3.2 Bio- Technical Solution

In this system, vegetation is provided on exposed slopes. It is suited for soil with
some clay fraction. It consists of preparing a slope area by grading it for sowing
seeds or planting root strips of locally available creeping grass. The root goes upto
50 to 75mm deep into the slopes serving as a soil anchor and offering added
resistance to erosion.
This technique has some limitations such as in case of highly erodible soil or in
case of infertile soil or in case soil having absence of initial binding in such cases
help from botanists/agronomists may be sought for developing vegetation.
However, some typical deep rooted species of grasses and shurbs suited to
different topographical area of our country are given under (table 8.1, 8.2 & 8.3)
based on altitude of area and type of soil in (Reference: Recommended Practices
Treatment of Embankment and Roadside slopes for Erosion Control, IRC:56- latest
version).
Table 8.1 Plains (including altitude upto 1500 m above sea level)
Grasses and Shrubs
1. Horticulture grass Cynodon dactylon
2. Cynodon plectostycum
3. Chloris gayana
4. Saccharum spontaneum Tall Pernicious Deep rooted Perennial
5. Sachharum munja ( Sarkanda)
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6. Ipomea carnea (Bacharum Booti)
7. Lantana species
8. Agave Americana
9. Erythrina indica
10 Prosopis species
11 Casuarina species
12 Goat foot creepers
13 Vetiver grass (vetiveriazizanioides)
Table 8.2 Hills
Grasses and Shrubs
1 Eragrostis curvula Love Grass (Kumaon -Central Himalaya)
2 Eragrostis superva (Locally known as Babia in Kumaon –Central
Himalayas)
3 Chrysopogon mountanus - Central Himalayas
4 Pennisctum orientale - Central Himalayas
5 Lolium perenne (Rai Grass - H.P. & Kumaon)
6 Poa pratensis (above 1800 m)
7 Imperata cylindrica
8 Robinia pseudoaccadia Cuttings as well as plants
9 Kudzu vine all over upto 2400 m (Pueraria thungbergia)
10 Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum
11 Jatropha curcas
12 Ficus caric
13 Philendus cuttings
14 Lemon grass (Cymbopogon flexudosus) for use in elevations
around1900 m)
Table 8.3 Selection of species vegetation based on soil type
(As per IS 15869)
SL Name of Species Suited for
1 Cyanodon dactylon For sandy soil
2 Cenchurs ciliaris Can be used for most type of soil
3 Dichanthium annulatum For alluvial soil
4 Pennisetum pedicellatum Sandy loam soil
5 Rochola glabra Laterite semi-arid soil
6 Stylosanthis gracilis Alluvial soils having less moisture
7 Pueraria hirsute Suited to alluvial soils and for the hills in
humid climate
8 Pennisetum purpureum For hill slopes
8.3.3 Engineering System

In this system, following methods discussed below are normally used. Help from
botanists/agronomists may be sought for developing vegetation & determining
requirements of soil cover, nutrients or other aspects, wherever required.
i) Jute netting for erosion control:
In this system Geojute is used for erosion problems. Geojute is eco-friendly
77
material made of jute yarn with a coarse open mesh structure and is
biodegradable. By using Geojute netting for erosion control the soil particles,
seed, grass root slips are held securely in their original locations without being
dislodged.
Jute netting is having high water absorbing capacity, which gives full
benefit of moisture for growth of vegetation. After the first rainy season, the
seeded and sprigged vegetation develops in the entire surface thus, protecting
the slopes against erosion. Jute netting has been observed to have a life of
about 1 to 2 years in the field, which is sufficient for fully promoting the
growth of vegetation cover on the denuded slopes.
Once vegetation growth has been established the purpose of providing
jute netting is accomplished. As jute netting is biodegradable, after the end of
its life it decomposes and, in the process, adds nutrients to the soil.
For laying, Geojute roll is unrolled loosely and evenly on slope and then
anchored at shoulder i.e. at the top and at the toe i.e. at bottom. It shall be
ensured that there is proper contact between the jute mat and surface of the
slope by use of steel nails or other appropriate anchorage pins on slope surface
at suitable distance, to secure it against displacement. Watering facilities
should be ensured during the initial period of sowing if the work is undertaken
during non-monsoon period.
For details about use of Jute Geo-textiles (JGT), their technical
specifications and laying methodology etc., RDSO Guidelines titled “Guidelines
for application of Jute Geo-textiles in Railway Embankment and Hill Slopes”
No. RDSO/2007/GE: G-0008, Feb-2007 may be referred.
Fig-8.1 (a): Slope erosion control using Geo jute
NAILING AND 50mm

STITCHING TOP END
JUTE NETTING
STEEL WIRE 150mm
STAPLES (NAIL)
150mm
BACKFILL
BACKFILL
BOTTOM END
PLACEMENT OF JUTE NETTING

Fig- 8.1: (b) Overlapping Of Jute Netting Fig- 8.1(c) Placement of Jute Netting
78
ii) Coir netting for erosion control
Coir netting (also known as 'Coir Bhoovastra') is another type of biodegradable
material which can be effectively used in a manner similar to jute netting. Coir
nettings degrade much slower than jute nettings (expected field life of about 2
to 3 years) and thus provide protection to the slopes for a longer time than jute
nettings.
Coir is also resistant to saline water and provides an ecological niche for a
rapid re-establishment of the vegetation cover. Coir resembles natural soil in
its capacity to absorb solar radiation. This means that there is no risk of
excessive heating. In a manner similar to jute nettings, coir netting also
breaks up runoff from heavy rains and dissipates the energy of flowing water.
Coir also promotes the growth of new vegetation by absorbing water and
preventing the top soil from drying out. In coir mats also, proper contact
between the mat and surface of the slope by use of steel nails or appropriate
anchorage pins on slope surface at suitable distance, to be secured against
displacement
However, compared to Jute nettings, drapability of coir netting is lesser
and their water absorption capability is also lower than jute nettings. The
length of the rolls would be 50 m and width can be between 1 to 4 m. For
more details, IS: 15869 'Open weave coir Bhoovastra-Specification' and IS
15872 'Application of Coir Geotextiles (coir woven Bhoovastra) for Rainwater
Erosion Control in Roads, Railway Embankments and Hill Slopes-Guidelines'
and IRC: 56-latest version may be referred to.
Fig- 8.2 Coir Netting

iii) Erosion Control Using Geogrids Mesh/Netting
Under unfavorable soil & erratic weather conditions, prolonged drought in
particular area, where vegetation growth is difficult and ordinary turfing as well
as agro based nettings may fail to provide erosion prevention, use of geogrid
mesh provides a permanent protection as it is not biodegradable.
A synthetic root reinforcement vegetation system using geogrids can
achieve high density of grass growth as it reduces the velocity of surface
runoff.
For laying geogrid mesh for erosion control, slope area should be dressed
with filling of cavities and potholes if any by light ramming. The net should be
unrolled ensuring uniform surface contact. Geogrid ends at top and bottom of
slopes should be suitably anchored by MS pins & soil filled back, this will act as
anchorage. With watering and implementation of grass seed/turf, the roots
establish quickly. For more details IRC: 56-latest version may be referred to.
79
Fig- 8.3 Installation of Geogrid Mesh
iv) Erosion Control Mat/Rolled Erosion Control Products
Relying upon vegetation growth alone may be sometimes very unpredictable
and unreliable as it may be extremely difficult to achieve 100 percent
vegetation coverage, leaving exposed areas vulnerable to erosion.
Furthermore, vegetation may sometimes dry up or become diseased, reducing
its erosion control capability. Reinforced vegetation using three-dimensional
erosion control Mat/rolled Erosion Control Products is another method that is
being practiced for enhancing slope stability and erosion control.
The 3-D mat increases the soil's resistance to erosion by providing an
environment that enhances the growth of vegetation through the mat. Initially
the mat works to shield the soil from washing out before the vegetation has a
chance to become established. Then as the vegetation matures, the roots
anchor the mat to the soil to provide superior soil reinforcement strength,
capable of handling greater volumes of runoff water and higher flow velocities.
These three-dimensional mats, being multi-filamented materials, have
specified thickness. 3-D Mats can also be made using biodegradable natural
fibers such as straw, jute, coir or wood shavings (used individually or in
combination) stuffed into polymeric or organic nettings on either side to form a
mat or blanket-like structure.
Mats which are made using natural fibres are biodegradable due to which
they don't provide everlasting protection. Such Mats are used in combination
with seed beds to enhance the growth of vegetation.
When geosynthetic mattings (3-D Mats) are made exclusively from
polymeric substances, they consist of UV stabilised synthetic fibres and
filaments processed into permanent, high strength, three dimensional (3-D)
matrices. These products are long lasting. Steel wire mesh is sometimes
included in these mats optionally where these mats are required to possess
more strength against erosive forces, like steeper slopes or in heavy rainfall
areas. For more details IRC: 56-latest version may be referred to.
80
Fig- 8.4 Three Dimensional Erosion Control Mat
v) Non- conventional hydro-seeding/hydro-mulching system
Hydro-seeding/hydro-mulching is a process which can be considered as
alternative to sodding. It involves seed application in water-based slurry via a
high pressure pump and hoses or a spray gun. The basic ingredients used in this
process are water, seeds, fertilizer, mulch, tackifier and bio-stimulant.
Mulch can be made from recycled paper or shredded wood or a mixture of both -
wooden mulch breathes while paper mulch forms a protective cover.
Chopped straw cut to a length of 10 to 20 mm can also be used as mulch.
Tackifier is required to make this mulch and seed stick to the soil surface to
which it is being applied.
Mulch protects the slope until the seed germinates and provides organic
nutrients as the vegetation grows. These mixed ingredients are stored in a tank
and applied using a pressure pump, on a barren land surface on which
vegetation is to be promoted.
Hydro-seeding/hydro-mulching method is especially suited for vertical or
near vertical soil slopes (steep slopes) on which 'simple vegetative turfing' or
manual application of mulch would not be successful. Hydro-seeding/hydro-
mulching jobs are specialised and expensive but for some inaccessible slopes, it
offers the only practical method. For more details IRC: 56-latest version may be
referred to.
81
Fig-8.5 Figure showing Hydro-seeding/hydro-mulching on slope
8.4 Protection of Slopes in Cutting

The causes and manifestations of surficial erosion of slopes of embankments and
cuttings with soil are almost similar hence erosion control measures can be adopted
same as that for embankment. For cuttings in rocks, slope protection measures to be
taken as per site condition. RDSO “Guidelines for cuttings In Railway formations”
Guidelines No. GE: G-2 (April-2005) may be referred to.
82
CHAPTER-9
WIDENING OF EMBANKMENT AND RAISING OF FORMATION, INCLUDING CESS

REPAIR
9.1 Widening of Embankment
9.1.1 Widening of Embankment for Gauge conversion

i) Before taking up widening of Embankment for gauge conversion, it should be
ensured that remedial measures for unstable formation have been taken.
ii) All vegetation shall be uprooted and taken away from the site of work. The loose
materials removed from the slope should be dumped to form the bottom most layer
on the ground in the width to be widened. If required, it shall be supplemented with
local granular soil.
iii) Starting from the toe, benching on the slope at every 30cm height shall be provided
on the slope surface as shown in Fig-9.1 below so as to provide proper
amalgamation between the old and new earthwork.
C
L
7.85m(BG)
DESIGNED PROFILE(BG)
1.485m 4.88m(MG) 1.485m
300mm THICK LAYERS OF
LOCAL GRANNULAR MATERIAL EXISTING PROFILE(MG)
BENCHING
1 IN 30
'X'
>3.0m
1 IN 30
>3.0m
GL GL
PROPOSED BANK SHOWN

EXISTING BANK SHOWN
300mm
300mm
Details at 'X'
Research Designs & Standards Organisation
COMPREHENSIVE GUIDELINES AND

SPECIFICATIONS FOR RAILWAY FORMATION
SCHEME FOR
BANK WIDENING
SHOWING
BENCHING
NOT TO SCALE DRG.NO: GE/GL/0259/Rev.2/2020
Fig-9.1: Scheme for bank widening showing benching
Earthwork shall be carried out in layers, each layer sloping out 1:30 and compacting
it mechanically using vibratory rollers of around 0.9m width (which are available in
the market); 6 to 8 passes of such rollers shall usually suffice to provide the
83
compaction to the specified level. Compaction on slope shall be ensured by using
slope vibratory roller of 10-20t. Preferably, this should be a separately payable item.
iv) The width of each layer of earthwork shall be in excess by 300mm of the designed
profile to enable compaction near the edges. The excess width, thereafter, be cut
and dressed, so as to achieve the required embankment profile.
In case of widening for gauge conversion, Earthwork shall be completed upto
design formation level with due allowance of provision of blanket (as per RDSO
specification) on entire formation width i.e. extended portion as well as in existing
formation. If blanket layer does not exist on the existing formation, top layer of
existing embankment shall be replaced with required depth of blanket layer in
pursuance to guideline for fitment of existing formation for running of 25T axle load
at 100 kmph (as per details given in Appendix-I).
9.1.2 Widening of Embankment for doubling

i) Before taking up widening of Embankment for doubling, it should be ensured
that remedial measures for existing unstable formation have been taken.
ii) All vegetation shall be uprooted and taken away from the site of work. The loose
materials removed from the slope should be dumped to form the bottom most
layer on the ground in the width to be widened. If required, it shall be
supplemented with local granular soil.
iii) Starting from the toe, benching on the slope at every 30cm height shall be
provided on the slope surface as given in fig. 9.2, so as to provide proper
Fig-9.2: Widening of Embankment for doubling

84
Note 1- In case of existing formation is of minimum 7.85m width, widening is
to be done only on one side as indicated in sketch above.
Note 2- In case of widening of existing formation (formation width 6.85 m or

below as per previous provisions of IRSOD), the requirement of
minimum formation width of 13.16 m & minimum cess width of 900
mm may not be fulfilled on other side of existing embankment which is
not widened. In that case, cess width of existing track is to be
increased on programmed basis as stipulated in para 9.2. The total
formation width i.e. existing plus widened of minimum 13.16m shall
have to be ensured as per latest provisions of IRSOD.
Note 3- Additional width of formation on curves should also be accounted for as

per relevant provisions of IRSOD/IRPWM.
iv) In case of doubling with widening of existing embankment, various provisions &
methodology for new construction as stipulated in Chapter 3 & 6, shall be
followed.
Note: Design and construction of any detours (for easing out of existing
sharp curves, rebuilding of important bridges etc.) shall be carried out
in accordance with provisions of new construction as stipulated in
Chapter 3 (Table 3.1 to 3.6).
v) In case, height of embankment (as per required top level of formation) is less
than the required depth of formation layers (Blanket/Prepared sub-grade/Top
layer of sub-grade), then also provision as stipulated for formation layer shall
have to be ensured for effective stress dispersal. If required, excavation below
ground level will have to be done as given in Para 3.11 of Chapter 3 &
Appendix-B.
vi) Suitable drainage arrangement as given in Chapter 6-Execution of Earthwork

is to be provided.
9.1.3 Raising of Existing Formation

After widening of the embankment to the level of the existing formation, raising
shall be done as under:
i) Raising less than 150mm shall be done with ballast, restricting total ballast
cushion to 350mm.
ii) Raising from 150mm to 1000mm: The existing ballast shall be taken out under
suitable speed restriction and raising should be done in suitable steps with the
material as per specification of blanket material. After raising to the desired
level, clean ballast shall be inserted. Limiting value of 1000mm may be reduced
depending on the site conditions.
iii) Raising of more than 1000mm, shall be done by laying temporary diversion for
passage of traffic.
85
9.2 Widening/Repair of Cess for Open Line maintenance
9.2.1 Introduction
Adequate formation width, ballast profile and cess width/height are required to
maintain desired track geometry. Minimum width of cess is needed for following
purposes:-
i) To provide adequate confinement and to minimize track settlement.

ii) For efficient and safe execution of track maintenance/renewal activities like
casual renewal of rails/sleepers
iii) Welding of rails
iv) De-stressing of LWR/CWR
v) Operation/placement/movement of Small track machines.
vi) Unloading/loading of free rails/rail panels/sleepers and placing them on cess
before and after the renewal.
9.2.2 Preliminary works

The work of cess repairs may be planned when the distance of edge of formation,
from center of track, becomes less than 3300 mm and the cess width should be
made minimum 1200mm during the cess repair work. Cess width for new
construction with formation width of 7.85m (single line) is around 1100mm, hence
considering additional extra margin for any shrinkage/settlement, 1200mm cess
width is required to be provided during cess repair works.
Before undertaking the cess repair work, a detailed field survey should be carried
out to plot the existing profile of track including embankment, identification of
suitable earth for carrying out cess repair and fixing Targeted Theoretical Profile
(TTP) of cess for proposed work. The TTP should include cess width to be made up,
proposed raising of cess if any and flattening of side slopes.
(i) Field survey to plot existing profile of track including embankment
a) Longitudinal level of rail at every 30m interval should be recorded along with
existing cess level.
b) Cross sectional profile including that of existing embankment should be taken
at every 30m. The distinctive points of reference in cross section are rail
level, toe of ballast, edge of cess and level at every 50cm interval (vertical
height) of slope of embankment.
Planned Cess width Existing ballast profile

Targeted theoretical Theoretical ballast profile
profile (TTP)
Existing
D Level every 0.5 m
embankment
profile vertcal interval
Level of locations to be captured in initial survey

Fig-9.3
86
c) The TTP with required longitudinal level of rail and cess at every 30m and
also cross section as mentioned in above para should also be plotted. These
levels should be recorded by SSE/SE and got approved by ADEN.
d) In case of existence of level crossings, bridges or any other prominent track
features, additional cross sections should be drawn based on site specific
requirements.
e) Location of Trolley Refuges etc. should also be identified and levels at these
locations should be taken in sufficient detail to work out the quantity of earth
required.
f) To the extent possible, railway earth if found suitable may be used for cess
repairs. The borrow pits should be dug along the edge of the railway
boundary, duly ensuring that no borrow pits are dug within (H+3) m distance
from the toe of the embankment, where “H” is the height of embankment. In
case of non-availability of railway earth, suitable contractor’s earth may be
used.
(ii) Identification of suitable earth
Soils which are normally unsuitable for construction are stipulated in Para 3.7 of
Chapter-3. Barring these, locally available soils of adequate strength can be
used.
(iii) Targeted Theoretical Profile (TTP)
a) In case, track renewal, deep screening, track lifting works are sanctioned,
targeted theoretical profile should be finalized taking into account proposed
longitudinal level of rail & cess, additional cess width required and sub bank if
any required.
b) Proposed TTP should be drawn for longitudinal levels of Rail/Cess and at
every cross section as taken in Para 9.2.2(i) above should be fixed.
c) Proposed rail level, cess level, edge of cess and level at every 50cm vertical
interval on slope for TTP should be calculated and plotted.
d) Due care should be taken while fixing TTP and must take into account any
future proposed lifting to improve track geometry.
e) On bridge approaches (up to the length of 50m on either side) where height
of bank is more than 3m, extra 300mm cess width should be provided in
addition to calculated above for cess repaired.
f) The TTP should also include any additional width of cess or milder slope of
embankment or sub-bank requirement based on site conditions and specific
requirements with approval of Sr. DEN/DEN in charge of section.
9.2.3 Execution
a) During earthwork on slopes, benching at the interval of 0.3m (vertical height

must be done).
87
300mm
300mm
Fig-9.4
b) Moisture to be added in the earth, to bring it near the Optimum Moisture

Content value, shall be calculated and added to the soil. The moisture shall be
mixed thoroughly using suitable means.
c) After the final layer’s compaction, the surface of earthwork executed must be as
per desired level and slope to the satisfaction of the engineer in charge’s
representative.
d) The earthwork shall be done in layers, compacting each layer with 10 passes of
small width vibratory rollers. In top layers, where the working of rollers is not
practical, suitable plate compactor may be used. After completing the earthwork
of full height, the slope may be dressed and compacted with 10 passes of slope
vibratory roller/compactor. The compaction on cess and slopes shall be kept as a
separately payable item.
e) For the repair work done on slope(s) of the embankment, suitable erosion
control measures shall be adopted.
f) Levels should be recorded at 30m length after completion of cess repair work
and “as done” profiles should be plotted on the same sheets. Payment of cess
repairs shall be based on the quantities worked out from the cross sectional
calculations.
g) Any excess repair work done beyond 10 cm of the TTP shall not be paid.
h) In cess repair work, field measurement of compaction such as density and
moisture content may not be insisted upon. Instead, record of compaction done,
with machinery used & number of passes shall be maintained for each layer of
earthwork done by concerned SSE, duly checked by ADEN/AXEN.
88
CHAPTER-10
FORMATION REHABILITATION
10.1 General
Railway formation may develop instability for reasons of poor bearing capacity of
formation, inadequate factor of safety against slope stability, excessive settlement and
loss of soil from formation on account of erosion, etc. Existence of one or more of these
causative factors may lead to development of others and ultimately leads to instability
of formation.
Formation failure due to poor bearing capacity alone or in combination comprises most
of the unstable stretches. Increase in axle load & GMT also have a significant effect on
adequacy of bearing capacity of formation. Therefore, strengthening of formation
against bearing capacity failure is an important rehabilitation work.
10.2 Type of Formation Failure
The railway formation generally fails on account of improper design of embankment
profile, lack of compaction of earthwork, poor subgrade material and construction of
embankment before consolidation of sub-soil. Once the failure sets in, further
deterioration is faster. The main forms of failure are given below:
i) Failures of the base or sub-soil strata: Sub-soil strata may fail in shear or
settle excessively and cause:
a) Slips,
b) Heave beyond toe, or
c) Excessive deformation.
ii) Failures of the fill material: Fill material may fail in shear which may cause:
a) Slips,
b) Bulging or creep of slopes, and
c) Excessive deformation.
iii) Failure of the formation top: This is due to poor sub-grade material, which
results in ballast penetration, mud pumping and cess heave. This generally occurs
during monsoons and the causes of the failures are:
a) Due to strength failure: This occurs due to low shear strength of top soil
causing settlement of track with a consequent heave of cess and ballast
penetration.
b) Pumping failure: This occurs due to presence of liquid slurry below the
bottom of the sleeper. This may be formed with fine particles derived from the
attrition of ballast, dust and water. Sometimes the residual negative pore
pressure developed in the formation soil after the passage of the trains tends to
cause softening of the soil and assists slurry formation. This slurry migrates
upwards to the underside of the sleeper due to contraction and dilation of the
ballast voids with passage of trains. This causes serious track irregularities
c) Due to development of cracks on the formation top during summer
months: Shrinkage cracks form in highly shrinkable soil during summer
89
through which sometimes ballast enters resulting in the settlement of the track.
The situation worsens in the rainy season when water enters into the formation
through these cracks and causes swelling, resulting in frequent cross level
variations.
d) Due to the formation of gel on the formation top in Thixotropic soils:
Some soils after coming in contact with water assume a gel-like consistency
and loose shear strength all together under the load by assuming a liquid like
consistency. When the loads are removed, these soils revert back to their
original gel-like consistency within a short period of time known as “gelation
time”. During the period the topsoil is having liquid-like consistency, there is
complete loss of shear strength resulting in penetration of ballast and
consequent settlement of track.
10.3 Summary of various probable failures and their remedies
Based on the site investigation and soil testing, the relevant remedial measures
should be formulated. Some of the remedial measures suggested for the formation
troubles generally encountered are listed below for guidance:
Table 10.1
S. No Type of problem Remedial Measures (*)
1. Inadequate drainage due to i) Improving side drainage by lowering

high cess, fouled ballast the cess and screening of ballast
2. i) Weak soil at formation top in i) Improve drainage,
contact with rain water
ii) Provision of blanket of suitable
resulting into mud pumping
thickness
under trains,
iii) Laying of Non-woven Geotextile
ii) Fouling of ballast with
below blanket
subgrade fines,
iii) Impaired drainage
3. i) Strength failure below i) Provision of blanket of suitable
ballast causing heaving up thickness,
of cess or in between
ii) Laying of Non-woven Geotextile
sleepers,
below blanket
ii) Ballast penetration
exceeding 30 cm in
formation
4. Seasonal variation in moisture i) Blanket of suitable thickness,
in formation top in expansive
ii) Thickness of blanket may be reduced
soils causing alternate heaving
with provision of Geogrid layer(s).
and shrinkage of formation
iii) Laying of Non-woven Geotextile
below blanket
5. Gradual consolidation of earth i) Sub-bank may be provided or
below embankment. (Bank
ii) Prefabricated vertical drain along with
settlement & heaving of soil
sand layer at top/ Geocomposite
90
beyond toe) drain (horizontal) or
iii) Stone columns in sub soil.
6. Creep of formation soil. Flattening of side slopes with

sandwiched construction.
7. i) Inadequate sides slopes, Flattening slopes with provision of berms
causing embankment slips (slopes analysed with slope stability
after prolonged rains, analysis) & proper drainage system.
ii) Longitudinal cracks on
cess/slopes
8. Hydrostatics pressure built up Draining out of ballast pockets by sand
under live loads in ballast or boulder drain.
pockets containing water
causing embankment slips
9. Erosion of slope/cess i) Repair of slope/cess,
ii) Provision of turfing, mats etc.
10. Cut slope failure i) Adequacy of slope/slope protection
measure as required,
ii) Provision of adequate drainage
arrangement (Side drain/Pucca catch
water drain etc. and ensure their
proper functioning).
* The above measures suggested are only indicative in nature and final remedial
measures shall be decided based on the site investigation, soil testing, past failure
history (if any) etc. RDSO’s help wherever necessary, may be taken for formulating
the remedial measures.
10.4 Identification, inspection of weak formation:

As also defined in IRPWM- For classification of formation requiring treatment, following
steps shall be adopted:
a) Identification of Weak Formation- Identification of Weak Formation shall
include the following-
i) Stretches having speed restrictions due to weak formation.
ii) Stretches where more than normal track attention is required.
iii) Stretches where ballast penetration profile is of ‘W’ shape and maximum depth
of penetration is more than 30 cm.
In case any of the above conditions are met in the field, then the 4 step action plan
given below is to be followed-
b) Action to be taken for weak formation- Following 4-step action plan should be
adopted for stretches identified as weak formation: -
91
i) Make the formation width, cess level and side drains strictly in accordance with
prescribed profile.
ii) Carry out shallow screening of ballast section (or deep screening where
required).
iii) Ensure no loose or missing fitting.
iv) Increase the depth of the ballast section to 30cm or even up to 35cm.
If even after adoption of above measures, track maintenance problem persists, then
it is a suspect formation and further detailed Geotechnical investigation is to be done
for assessing the problem. Based on investigation results, if the formation is
classified as Bad Formation then remedial measures for rehabilitation/Strengthening
of bad formation should be taken accordingly.
c) Site inspection:
During site inspection of problematic locations, the Pro-forma for reporting details
for unstable formation (Appendix-J) should be filled up. This should preferably be
done before the soil samples and other site details are collected.
The objective of such inspections and investigation is to know the exact cause of the
formation problem.
d) Recommended scheme for soil testing:
The identified and suspected locations shall be subjected to detailed examination as
per symptoms of failures. Recommended scheme of soil exploration and testing is
given in Table-1.1 of chapter-1(Soil Exploration and Survey).
10.5 Methods of Formation Rehabilitation
All formation rehabilitation schemes need to be framed by Railways. Help of an expert
may also be taken if required. It is the responsibility of executive authority to ensure
that formation rehabilitation work is carried out in accordance with rehabilitation
scheme and adequate control is exercised in execution. However, RDSO may also be
approached to provide consultancy on weak formation, if required.
In general, following points may be kept in view while planning for rehabilitation:
a) In developing rehabilitation schemes, stretches having similar soil characteristics
and Embankment performance should also be included simultaneously.
b) Cause(s) of instability of formation should be analysed and accordingly
rehabilitation measures formulated. There may be requirement of re-profiling of
slope along with laying of blanket and other measures.
c) Geosynthetics may also be used along with laying of blanket for formation
rehabilitation as an alternative, in consultation with RDSO as required.
d) Method of laying of blanket should be appropriate depending upon site
conditions/requirements.
Various probable failures and their possible remedies are listed in Table-10.1 above.
Some of the formation rehabilitation measures which can be adopted are as discussed
below:-
92
a) By providing blanket layer
b) By laying Geogrid and Non-woven Geotextile at the bottom of ballast along with
deep screening by BCM
c) By cess widening
d) Rehabilitation of Unstable slopes
e) Using Formation Rehabilitation Machines.
10.5.1 By Providing Blanket Layer

The weak/unstable formations are mostly those formations where subgrade soil is
expansive clay (e.g. Black Cotton Soil). The most significant property of these soils
is that when mixed with water they swell considerably, losing their shear strength
and on drying they shrink considerably. Because of this swelling and shrinkage, due
to ingress of water in the rainy season, the track parameters get disturbed and
ballast penetrates in the formation.
The problems caused by expansive clays can be addressed to a large extent by
reducing the ingress of water (during rainy season) by provision of blanket layer of
adequate thickness in the top layer of formation. The blanket layer acts as a
separator as well as reinforcement layer reducing the pressure on the formation
below. In case providing blanket layer of large thickness in running traffic conditions
is not possible, its thickness can be reduced with provision of layer(s) of geogrid.
In addition to this by providing a non-woven geotextile as separator/filtration
layer below blanket (Fig-10.1), it prevents the water from top entering into the sub-
grade & also prevents upward migration of fine particles from expansive clays (which
are very fine grained) into the top coarse layer.
Various methods for laying blanket in running traffic conditions are covered in Para
10.6.
Fig-10.1: Use of Geosynthetic (Geogrid) in formation rehabilitation
10.5.2 By laying Geogrid and Non-woven Geotextile at the bottom of ballast along
with deep screening by BCM:
The preferred method for strengthening/rehabilitation of weak/unstable
formations will be provision of a Blanket layer of suitable thickness as detailed above.
But in cases where it is not possible to adopt this method, and only shallow depth of
formation is considered to be affected/weak, another lesser preferred alternative is
laying a separator layer of non-woven geotextile and a reinforcement layer of geogrid
over it, just below the ballast as shown in Fig-10.2. This type of laying can be done
by Ballast Cleaning Machine (BCM) during deep screening of ballast, by adding
suitable attachments with BCM for holding and laying non-woven geotextile & geogrid
rolls. During the subsequent deep screening cycles, care should be taken not to
93
disturb about 50-100mm thickness of bottom most layer of ballast, which will not
only avoid entanglement of geosynthetics (geogrid and non-woven geotextile) with
BCM but this layer will act as a confining layer also for Geosynthetics (geogrid and
non-woven geotextile) improving their efficiency.
Non-woven Geotextile, will act as a separator layer preventing ballast getting
contaminated with fine grained particles below. The non-woven geotextile also acts a
drainage layer, thus assisting in reduction of entry of water into the subgrade,
thereby preventing alternative swelling and shrinkage of the expansive subgrade soil
due to moisture content variation to some extent. The geogrid layer reduces the
imposed stress on the subgrade. In addition to this, the cess/side slopes are
attended, if needed, to bring them within the standard profile and erosion protection
is done, to prevent entry of water into the subgrade. All these measures combined,
will help to address the problem.
However, before adopting the above method, detailed soil investigation must be
done ascertaining the root cause of the formation problem. If the nature of the
problems suggests that it cannot be solely rectified by adopting this method, then
conventional method of providing blanket layer or other appropriate method as
determined from investigation done shall be adopted.
Fig-10.2: Alternative use of Geosynthetic (Geogrid and Non-woven Geotextile) in

formation rehabilitation by BCM
Fig-10.3(a): Insertion of Material under BCM Fig-10.3(b): Linking of Rolls to BCM
94
10.5.3 By cess widening
Cess widening is one of the methods for improving the strength of Embankment soil
by process of confining as the strength of confined material is higher than unconfined
material. For detailed procedure, Para 9.2 of Chapter 9 shall be referred to.
This method was used for 9 km length from km 113 to 122 in Vikarabad – Wadi
section of South Central Railway, and results were found to be encouraging, as the
number of attentions required to maintain track were reduced substantially and TGI
values also improved in this stretch.
10.5.4 Rehabilitation of Unstable slopes
i) All vegetation shall be uprooted and taken away from the site of work. The loose
materials removed from the slope should be dumped to form the bottom most
layer on the ground in the width to be widened. If required, it shall be
supplemented with local granular soil.
ii) Starting from the toe, benching on the slope at every 30cm height shall be
provided on the slope surface as shown in Fig-10.4 below so as to provide proper
Fig-10.4: Sketch for Rehabilitation of Unstable slopes
95
Earthwork shall be carried out in layers, each layer sloping out 1:30 and
compacting it mechanically using vibratory rollers of around 0.9m width (which
are available in the market); 6 to 8 passes of such rollers shall usually suffice to
provide the compaction to the specified level. Compaction on slope shall be
ensured by using slope vibratory roller of 10-20T. Preferably, this should be a
separately payable item.
iii) The width of each layer of earthwork shall be in excess by 300mm of the designed
profile to enable compaction near the edges. The excess width, thereafter, be cut
and dressed, so as to achieve the required embankment profile.
iv) This para covers slope rehabilitation aspects only. Others measures required as
per site condition like, drainage arrangement etc. are to be taken as required.
10.5.5 Formation improvement using Formation Rehabilitation Machines

Nowadays Formation Rehabilitation Machines which are fully mechanised are being
utilised for rehabilitation of formation in different World Railway systems. Formation
Rehabilitation Machines perform all the necessary tasks such as ballast recycling,
levelling, lifting, lining and tamping etc.in one operation without disrupting rail
traffic on the adjacent track. A formation protective layer (FPL) is installed in order
to raise the load-bearing capacity of the subsoil effectively and sustainably.
All these machines are designed for simultaneous introduction of geotextiles and
geogrids.
Important features of Formation Rehabilitation Machines are:
i) Total excavation can be achieved in one or two passes
ii) Old ballast is recycled for use as protective layer material
iii) Automatic control and moisture regulation of the new protective layer material.
iv) High uniform consolidation performance thus achieving very good quality of
protective layer.
v) Output of the machine ranging from 40 to 80 m/h depending on the thickness of
the protective layer.
vi) On a double track line no hindrance to traffic on the adjacent track.
vii) Various thicknesses of protective layers up to 50 cm can be inserted in one pass.
Austrian federal Railways having experience of formation rehabilitation machines
known as AHM-800R and RPM 2002.
In addition to the measures detailed in above Paras, proper cross slope should be
provided and proper turfing or other erosion control measures shall be undertaken
on the side slopes to prevent ingress of moisture in the formation from cess and
side slopes.
10.6 Methods of Laying Blanket Layer
(a) Track dismantling method:

The method consists of dismantling a portion of track under traffic block (4hrs
duration) and removal of ballast and weak formation layer and replacement with
blanket layer and reconnection of track on ballast.
96
Execution of work:
i) Before traffic block
Decide longitudinal level & select blanketing material (including required
moisture content & density), lay single rails if higher length panels exist,
provide ramps on to the embankment for movement of tippers to carry
blanketing material etc. & remove shoulder ballast.
ii) During traffic block (about 4 hrs. Duration)
a) Lift single rail panels and remove balance ballast with excavators.
b) Excavate formation to required depth with excavator.
c) Roll the formation providing 1 in 30 cross slopes in one direction.
d) Spread blanket material to optimum thickness for full formation
width + 50 cm on cess side(s) to facilitate compaction.
e) Compact blanket material (being granular cohesion less & well
graded) with vibratory roller to achieve min. 70% relative density
(IS code no: 2720 (Pt 14) latest version).
f) Spread ballast & put back track panels (kept on slope of
embankment).
g) Attend track and allow traffic.
iii) After traffic block
Dress side slopes with suitable erosion control measures if required.
a) Progress
Progress of laying of blanket can be in the range of 100-120m per day.
Work can be taken up at more number of sites in shadow block.
b) Quality: There is no constraint in achieving good quality of work.
c) Flexibility in execution
Depth of excavation of formation & lifting of track both can be carried
out to the requirement of site. Similarly, any thickness of blanket also
can be laid. It can be adopted in any type of track structure, electrified
or non-electrified. Only requirement is that the site should be
approachable to bring machineries and space available to keep track
panel, blanket material etc. Method has been successfully implemented
in some Railways like SC Rly.
(b) Using Formation Rehabilitation Machine: Details discussed in Para 10.5.5.
97
BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES:
1. HMSO (1952) – “Soil Mechanics for Road Engineers”
2. Indian Railway Code for the Engineering Department-Revised Edition-1982(Fourth
Reprint-2012)
3. RDSO 1972 – Civil Engineering Report no: C – 127 – Report on a study of the
Characteristics of compacted and uncompacted Expansive Soils”
4. RDSO (1977) – Civil Engineering Report no: 157 “Compaction Characteristics of
Black Cotton Soils.
5. Terzaghi, K and Peck, R.B. (1967) – “Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice” – John
Wiley & Sons.
6. Selig E.T. & John M.Waters – “Track Geo-technology and Substructure Management”
7. Civil Engg. Report no. CE- 267, - ‘Role of residual shear strength in railway
formation and its determination’, Dec., 1991
8. A. Gomes Correia, 'Geotechnics for Roads, Rail Tracks and Earth Strctures, 2001, A.
A. Blakema Publishers, Proceedings of European Technical Committee No. 11 of
ISSMGE.
9. R. Kerry Rowe – “Geotechnical and Geo-environmental Engg.”
10. Hilf J.W., ‘A rapid method for construction control for Embankment of cohesive soil,
ASTM special publication No. 232, 1957.
11. AREMA Manual, 2019
12. Australian Railway (ARTC) Code RTS 3430
13. Guidelines of Earthwork in Railway Projects, RDSO, No. GE:G-1, July, 2003
14. Guidelines and Specifications for Design of Formation for Heavy Axle Load, Report
No. RDSO/2009/GE: G-0014, November’2009.
15. Guidelines for Cuttings in Railway Formations, GE:G-2, Aug’ 2005
16. Guidelines on Erosion Control and Drainage of Railway Formation, GE:G-4, Feb 2005
17. Guidelines on Soft Soils- Stage Construction Method, GE:G-5, April 2005
18. Guidelines for Application of Jute Geotextile in Railway Embankments and Hill Slopes
RDSO/2007/GE:G-0008
19. Rationalisation of Formation Layer thickness on Indian Railway Track, Spec. No.
RDSO/2018/GE: IRS-0004(D) Part-IV.
20. BS EN 13250:2016 Geotextiles and geotextile related products – Characteristics
required for use in the construction of Railways.
21. Robert M. Koerner (2016): Designing with Geosynthetics – 6th Edition (Vol. I and
II).
22. Sanjay Kumar Shukla and Jian-Hua Yin: Fundamentals of Geosynthetic Engineering,
published by Taylor & Francis.
23. Buddhima Indraratna, Wadud Salim and cholachat Rujikiamjorn; Advanced Rail
Geotechnology – Ballasted Track, published by CRC press
98
24. IIT/Kanpur Research report no. 1/93, April-1993.
25. RDSO Report no. CT-23, January 2010.
26. State of the Art Report on sub-grade stress and design of track substructure, Civil
Engineering Report No. C – 271.
27. IRC: 37- ‘Guidelines & Design of Flexible Pavement’, Indian Road Congress.
28. IRC: 56- ‘Recommended practices, treatment of Embankment and Roadside slope
for Erosion Control’, Indian Road Congress.
29. ORE Reports D – 71, RP – 12 & D-117, RP - 28.
30. ‘Modern Railway Track’, Esveld, Coenard MRT Productions NL, TU Delft, Second
Edition 2001.
31. ‘Procedure For Railway Track Granular Layer Thickness Determination’, Dingqing Li,
Theodore R. Sussmann Jr., and Ernest T. Selig, Report no. R-898, October, 1996,
Assosiation of American Railroads (AAR), TTC, Pueblo, Colorado, USA.
32. Track Compendium– Formation, Permanent Way, Maintenance, Economics, by Dr.
Bernhard Lichtberger, 2005, Eurail Press, Hamburg, Germany.
33. UIC Code 719R: ‘Earthworks and Track-bed layers for Railway Line’, Third ed.,
2008.
34. Paper on behaviour of geosynthetic encapsulated stone column in International
society for soil mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering by Professor K.
Rajagopal/IIT Madras.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the preparation of the document, valuable assistance has been rendered by the team of
Geo-technical Engineering Directorate of RDSO, Shri R. K. Premi (SSRE/GE), Shri Vikash
Kumar (SSRE/GE), Shri Anupam Khare (SSRE/GE), Shri Shailendra Saurabh (SSRE/GE),
Shri Bimal Kumar Das (SSRE/GE), Shri Ajay Singh (SSRE/GE), Shri Akash Snehi
(SSE/Design/GE), Shri Satyam Singh (SSE/Design/GE), Shri DP Tripathi (JRE/GE), Shri
Kumar Shubham (JRE/GE) & Shri Sourabh Yadav (JRE/GE). Drawing work has been assisted
by Shri Sushil Kumar (SSE/Design/GE).
99
APPENDIX – A
Mechanical Production of Blanket Material

Normally, the blanket material shall be produced mechanically by crushing the stones and/or
by mixing, naturally available materials using suitable equipment/plants like crusher or pug
mills. Detail of these two methods is given below:
1.0 Crushing Methodology:
In the event of non-availability of natural source of blanket material, depending on the
proximity of project site from the parent rock/boulder sources, it may be decided to
crush the rock/boulder in order to produce crushed blanket material. Salient features of
this methodology are:
a) Crushed blanket material may be produced as sole product or in conjunction with
ballast or any other nominal size.
b) Trials and permutations of feed speed, crushing cycle, and sieve combinations may
be required to arrive at the required particle size gradation.
c) It is possible to achieve near total produce of desired gradation through production
cycle management. Alternately, it may be possible to get by-products of other sizes
in the desired proportion and blanket material as main produce or vice-versa.
d) Optimisation of production rates and costs can be achieved by controlling the output
at each sieve stage.
e) It is ideal to mix the required quantity of water for OMC (accounting for loss/gain of
moisture due to weather conditions) at the crusher plant and transport the material
in wet condition.
Fig-A1: Schematic Diagram of Manufacture of Blanket Material by Crushers
100
Fig-A2: General View of Crusher Fig-A3: View of Storage bin
2.0 Blending Methodology :

a) Blanket material could be obtained by proper blending of two or more soils or in
combination with soils and crushed material like stone chips.
b) Before approving such sources, trials for blending to judge the final product, needs to
be done. Detail methodology of blending to be adopted to produce large quantity of
blanket material with consistent quality, needs also to be laid down in advance.
c) Blending of either natural or crushed materials in a pre-decided ratio could be
adopted.
d) Theoretical and laboratory trials are required in order to establish the desirable ratio
of the blending materials. This exercise may be done in advance before finalizing the
contracts for such a material.
e) The methodology of blending trials is explained below :
i) Identify the usable materials/soils.
ii) Take equal weight of the soils for sieve analysis.
iii) Write down the weight retained at each sieving stage for all the soils.
iv) Apportion a percentage component to each soil and work out a theoretical mix.
v) Draw particle size distribution curve of the mix to find out desirability of
gradation.
vi) If not successful, make another trial, and so on.
vii) Trials and plotting work can also be done using simple computer programs.
2.1 Mechanical blenders using simple technology are now available in the market. Two
types of mechanical blenders are quite common:
a) Drum type blenders: Drum type machines may involve weigh batching or
manual feeding of material. They involve more moving parts. Hence, these
machines are both manpower and maintenance intensive. They may pose a
problem of segregation of material and as such do not afford any cost advantage
either in the short or long run. These may be suitable for small quantities and not
for large-scale production as required in construction projects.
b) Pug mill type blenders: For continuous production of mix in large quantities,
the best way is to feed the aggregates/ soils of pre decided gradation by way of 3
or 4 bins with conveyor belt. The required output grading can be achieved by
adjustment of gate openings of bins. The use of pug mill type blenders is found
101
very cost effective, as the manpower involvement is very little and only 4-5
people can run a plant of 100 tph. The pug mill blender consists of:
i) Four bin aggregate unit
ii) Pug mill mixer unit
iii) Water tank and metering system
iv) Conveyor belts
v) Storage silos (optional)
vi) Anti-segregation surge hopper
vii) Automation and controls
The other important features of this technology are:
i) Automatic feeding of soils/aggregates under gravity,
ii) Arrangement for precise control of mixing of water,
iii) Either direct loading into trucks, or optional storage at plant,
iv) Availability of domestic manufacturers, and low cost of set up,
v) Advantage of removal and relocation with ease.
A schematic diagram showing the various arrangements is shown below:
Fig-A4: Schematic Diagram of Manufacture of Blanket Material by Blending

2.2 The equipment for blending should enable blending of two or more materials
uniformly so that the blended material satisfies the specification. The equipment
chosen should be cost effective and easy to handle with and efficient.
3.0 Specifications of Mechanically Produced Blanket Material: Blanket material
produced in a plant should generally conform to specifications as mentioned in Table 3.3
to table 3.6, Chapter 3 of this Comprehensive Guideline and specification.
4.0 Quality Control on Blanket Material at production site:

It is desirable to have a check on quality of material at source/manufacturing point so
that major deviation in quality of the material being sent to site does not exist. It would
102
be in the interest of the supplier to have such tests conducted on his own to avoid any
complication at a later stage.
4.1 Method of Test: Blanket material should be tested in pursuance to specifications for
blanket material as laid down in Table 3.3 to 3.6 of this Comprehensive Guideline and
specification.
4.2 Frequency of Tests at Site: As per Table 7.2 of this Comprehensive Guideline and
specification.
Fig-A5: Computer Controlled Bins for Mixing
Fig-A6: Blanket Material Being Loaded into Truck
103
APPENDIX-B
Illustrative Examples for providing minimum thickness of Formation Layers
1.0 Construction of Formation in Embankment & Cutting:

1.1 For Embankment (where height is less than required total uniform
thickness)
A
1.0 m (Min.) BLANKET
B
C
G.L. PREPARED SUBGRADE G.L.
D
TOP LAYER OF SUBGRADE
E
SUB SOIL
Fig–B 1: Formation Layers in Embankment
a) If sub-soil material CD is of better quality than the specifications of prepared

subgrade and DE part is of better quality than the specifications of top layer of
subgrade, then remaining part of prepared subgrade (BC) and blanket layer
(AB) of specified thickness only is required to be provided above ground level for
embankment construction. No excavation below ground level is required.
b) If minimum required depth of sub-soil CE is of better quality than the

specifications of top layer of subgrade and inferior to that of prepared subgrade,
then upper layer upto CD will be required to be replaced with specified quality of
soil equivalent to prepared subgrade. Above ground level remaining part of
prepared subgrade (BC) and blanket layer (AB) of specified thickness are
required to be provided.
c) If layer CE upto minimum required depth do not meet the specifications of top
layer of subgrade, then upper layers of sub-soil upto “E” level should be
removed and compacted with specified quality of soil i.e. in CD, soil with
specified quality for prepared subgrade and in DE, soil with specified quality
better than that for subgrade/top layer. Above ground level, remaining part of
prepared subgrade (BC) and blanket layer (AB) of specified thickness are
required to be provided.
104
Few representative sketches showing thickness of formation layers in
embankment depending on site conditions:
CL of Track
V 35cm Ballast Cushion
:1
H
1.5
1 : 30 1 : 30 Blanket Thickness- 30 cm
BLANKET
V
:1 1 : 30 1 : 30
H
N .2
MI 100 cm Top Layer of Subgrade SQ3, CBR 6
SUBGRADE OPE
SL
170 cm Lower Layer of Subgrade, CBR 3
G.L.
Fig-B2: Height of Bank=3.0m, Single layer system (25T Axle load), with SQ3
subgrade (CBR≥6)
CL of Track
:1
H
1.5
BLANKET
: 1V Non-Woven Geotextile
1 : 30 1 : 30
2H
N. 100 cm Top Layer of Subgrade SQ2, CBR 6
MI
SUBGRADE O PE
SL
G.L.
Fig-B3: Height of Bank=3.0m, Single layer system (25T Axle load), with SQ2
subgrade (CBR≥6)
CL of Track
: 1V 35cm Ballast Cushion

5H
1.
BLANKET
: 1V Non-Woven Geotextile
1 : 30 1 : 30
2H
N. 100 cm Top Layer of Subgrade SQ1, CBR 4
MI
SUBGRADE O PE
SL
G.L.
Fig-B4: Height of Bank= 3.0m, Single layer system (25t Axle load), with SQ1
Subgrade (CBR≥4)
105
CL of Track
35cm Ballast Cushion
Blanket Thickness - 55 cm
V 1 : 30 1 : 30
BLANKET :1
2H
N. Non-Woven Geotextile
MI 1 : 30 1 : 30
SUBGRADE PE
S LO 45 cm Top Layer of Subgrade SQ1 CBR 
G. L.
Subsoil Properties
NATURAL GROUND/SUBSOIL CBR 4 in atleast top 55 cm
(no exacavation is required)
Fig-B5: Height of Bank 1.0m, Single layer system (25T Axle load), with SQ1
subgrade & Subsoil with CBR≥4 (No excavation below GL)
CL of Track
V 1 : 30 1 : 30
BLANKET :1
. 2H Non-Woven Geotextile
IN
EM 1 : 30 1 : 30
SUBGRADE O P 45 cm Top Layer of Subgrade SQ1 CBR 
SL
G. L.
To be excavate and filled up with SQ1 Soil of CBR 
Subsoil Properties
NATURAL GROUND/SUBSOIL in atleast top 55cm
CBR 4
Fig-B6: Height of Bank 1.0m, Single layer system (25T Axle load), with SQ1 subgrade
& Subsoil with CBR<4 (Excavation & replacement of min 55cm with CBR≥4 soil below
GL)
CL of Track
V 1 : 30 1 : 30
BLANKET :1
H
N .2 Non-Woven Geotextile
MI 1 : 30 1 : 30
SUBGRADE O PE 60 cm Top Layer of Subgrade SQ2 CBR 
SL
G. L.
To be excavate and filled up with SQ2 Soil of CBR  Subsoil Properties
CBR 6
Fig-B7: Height of Bank 1.0m, Single layer system (25T Axle load), with SQ2
subgrade & Subsoil with CBR<6 (Excavation & replacement of min 40cm with CBR≥6
soil below GL)
106
CL of Track
V 1 : 30 1 : 30
BLANKET :1
2H
N.
MI 1 : 30 1 : 30
SUBGRADE O PE 70 cm Top Layer of Subgrade SQ3 CBR 
SL
G. L.
To be excavate and filled up with SQ3 Soil of CBR  Subsoil Properties
CBR 6
Fig-B8: Height of Bank 1.0m, Single layer system (25T Axle load), with SQ3 subgrade
& Subsoil with CBR<6 (Excavation & replacement of min 30cm with CBR≥6 soil below GL)
CL of Track
V 1 : 30 1 : 30
BLANKET :1
H
N .2 Non-Woven Geotextile
MI 1 : 30 1 : 30
PREPARED SUBGRADE
O PE 50 cm of Prepared Subgrade SQ2 CBR 
SL
SUBGRADE 1 : 30 10 cm Top Layer of Subgrade SQ1 CBR  1 : 30 G. L.
To be excavate and filled up with SQ1 Soil of CBR  Subsoil Properties
CBR 4
Fig-B9: Height of Bank 1.0m, Two layer system (25T Axle load), with SQ2 Prepared
Subgrade, SQ1 Subgrade & Subsoil with CBR<4 (Excavation & replacement of min 40cm
with CBR≥4 soil below GL)
CL of Track
V 1 : 30 1 : 30
BLANKET :1
2H
N.
MI 1 : 30 1 : 30
PREPARED SUBGRADE
O PE 50 cm of Prepared Subgrade SQ3 CBR 
SL
SUBGRADE 1 : 30 20 cm Top Layer of Subgrade SQ1 CBR  1 : 30 G. L.
To be excavate and filled up with SQ1 Soil of CBR  Subsoil Properties
CBR 4
Fig-B10: Height of Bank 1.0m, Two layer system (25T Axle load), with SQ3 Prepared
Subgrade, SQ1 Subgrade & Subsoil with CBR<4 (Excavation & replacement of min 30cm
with CBR≥4 soil below GL)
107
CL of Track
:1
5H
1.
BLANKET
PREPARED :1
V Non-Woven Geotextile
H 1 : 30 1 : 30
SUBGRADE N .2 50 cm Prepared Subgrade of SQ2, CBR 8
E MI
OP
SL 1 : 30 50 cm Top Layer of Subgrade SQ1, CBR 4 1 : 30
SUBGRADE
G.L.
Fig-B11: Height of Bank 3.0m (Two layer system), 25T axle load, with SQ2 Prepared
subgrade and SQ1 Subgrade
CL of Track
:1
5H
1.
BLANKET
V
PREPARED :1 1 : 30 1 : 30
SUBGRADE . 2H 35 cm Prepared Subgrade SQ3, CBR 8
IN
EM
OP 50 cm Top Layer of Subgrade SQ2, CBR 5
SL 1 : 30 1 : 30
SUBGRADE
G.L.
Fig-B12: Height of Bank 3.0m (Two layer system), 25T axle load, with SQ3 Prepared
Subgrade & SQ2 Subgrade
1.2 For Cutting
CL of Track
V
:1
FORMATION LAYERS 5H
(AS REQUIRED) 1.
BLANKET
PREPARED SUBGRADE
TOP LAYER OF SUBGRADE
SIDE DRAIN SUBSOIL SIDE DRAIN
PROPOSED EXCAVATION AS PER

REQUIRED RAIL LEVEL
REQUIRED CUTTING LEVEL AS PER

GROUND CONDITIONS
Fig-B13: Formation Layers in Cutting
108
a) As per bore log details from soil exploration & survey, at least 1.5m depth below the
required cutting level, should be checked for conformity with specifications of
construction material (quality of formation layers-blanket/prepared sub-grade/sub-
grade top layer) as mentioned in Para 3.10.
If soil encountered in this depth is of poorer quality than as specified in Para
3.10 then the excavation for cutting will have to be planned accordingly taking into
consideration the additional provisions for conformity with quality of soil as specified
for formation layers (blanket/prepared sub-grade/sub-grade top layer) in the required
depth, which will then cater to the requirement of heavy axle load. Same has been
illustrated in Fig-B 2 given above.
b) For example, if in the depth of 1.5m below the proposed cutting level (as per required
grade/level), soil encountered meets the specification of subgrade-top layer, then
additional depth of excavation for cutting should take into account the depth of
prepared subgrade & blanket only.
c) Suitable drainage system shall be ensured in cuttings as described in Chapter 6 for

Execution of Earthwork.
Representative sketches showing thickness of formation layers in Cutting

depending on site conditions is given below:
CL of Track
: 1V 35cm Ballast Cushion

5 H
1.
BLANKET
Non-Woven Geotextile
1 : 30 1 : 30
SUBGRADE 100 cm Top Layer of Subgrade SQ1, CBR 4
Subsoil Properties
CBR <4
REQUIRED RAIL LEVEL

GROUND CONDITIONS
Fig-B14: Cuttings, 25T Axle Load (Single Layer System)
109
CL of Track
:1
5H
1.
BLANKET
PREPARED 1 : 30 1 : 30
SUBGRADE 35 cm Prepared subgrade of SQ3, CBR 8
1 : 30 1 : 30
SUBGRADE
50 cm TopLayer of Subgrade SQ2, CBR 5
Subsoil Properties
CBR <5
REQUIRED RAIL LEVEL

GROUND CONDITIONS
Fig-B15: Cuttings, 25T Axle Load (Two Layer System)
Note: 1. Any Ground improvement measures (if required) shall be taken prior to the construction of
embankment/cuttings (for details Refer Chapter 2).
2. All the above figures are just for guidance purpose. All the construction work shall conform
to various relevant provisions described in this Guideline.
110

Comprehensive Guidelines AND Specifications FOR Railway Formation

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Comprehensive Guidelines AND Specifications FOR Railway Formation

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Specification No. RDSO/2020/GE: IRS-0004

Geo-technical Engineering Directorate,

In view of above, Railway Board vide letter No.2011/CE-II/Form/Spec. dated

i. To prepare comprehensive Specifications for construction of Railway Formation

Chapter CONTENTS PAGE

9.1 Widening of Embankment 83

100 kPa = 10 t/m2 = 1 Kg/cm2 = 1/10 N/mm2 = 1/10 MPa

23.0 Formation components:

Typical cross -s ection representing formation component

SOIL EXPLORATION & SURVEY

Main objectives of soil survey and exploration work are:

1.2 Soil survey and exploration/investigation for construction projects should be

1.2.1 During Reconnaissance Survey

c) Survey reports available from other Departments/Agencies such as Geological

e) Above collection of data should be incorporated in the Feasibility Report required

1.2.2 During Preliminary Survey

b) As stated in Para 409 of “Indian Railways Code For The Engineering

f) Geo-physical investigations for bedrock profile, sub-surface strata and soil

1.2.3 During Final Location Survey

b) Assistance may be taken from Geologists, in case of rocky strata, known

c) Detailed subsoil exploration is necessary to check stability of structures against

e) Availability of naturally occurring source of blanket material conforming to the

1.3.2 Failure of existing formation is accompanied by signs of distress/instability. The

S. No. Symptoms Type of Recommended Scheme Soil testing

Note: a) In practice generally more than one type of failure is encountered.

1.3.5 In case of doubling, where existing formation is troublesome as described in Para

SUITABIL ITY OF SUBSOIL & GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

2.2 Suitability of sub-soil

Strengthening of sub soil, including in cutting shall be required when;

Fig-2.1: Principle of overloading

(ii) Stage Construction (Improvement of Shear Parameters)

Stage construction is employed mainly as a means of gradually increasing the

Fig-2.2: stage construction method

Grain Size Distribution

Liquid Limit : >30 but less than 50

Specification for Geo-composite drains to be used at the base of the

Fig- 2.5: Use of Geo-Composite Drain in bank over soft subsoil

2.4.2 Use of Geocell

Fig-2.6(b): Geocell and it’s applications

Fig-2.7: PVDs and their Installation

2.4.4 Geosynthetic encapsulated Stone column:

DESIGN OF FORMATION & SPECIFICATIONS FOR FORMATION LAYERS

Fig-3.1: Single layer construction

LOWER LAYER OF SUBGRADE G. L.

NATURAL GROUND/SUB SOIL

Fig-3.2: Two layer construction

3.2. Pressure on Formation and sub-soil

It shall be regulated/provided in accordance with extant instructions as per Indian

3.7 Soils to be normally avoided

3.10 Specifications and Thickness of Formation Layers:

S. No. Soil type Prepared Sub-grade Recommended Remarks

S. No. Soil type Prepared Sub-grade Recommended Remarks

Layers Specification Thickness

Sub-grade SQ1/SQ2/SQ3 soil

ii) For SQ1 soil, CBR ≥4 soil compacted at 98% of

Ground i) Undrained Cohesion of soil (cu) ≥ 25 KPa (only --

Ground Improvement is required, if any of the