Fermentation 08 00645
Fermentation 08 00645
Fermentation 08 00645
Review
Fermented Foods of Korea and Their Functionalities
Su‑Jin Jung 1,2,† , Soo‑Wan Chae 1,2 and Dong‑Hwa Shin 3,4, *,†
1 Clinical Trial Center for Functional Foods, Biomedical Research Institute, Jeonbuk National University
Hospital, Jeonju 54907, Republic of Korea
2 Research Institute of Clinical Medicine, Medical School, Jeonbuk National University,
Jeonju 54907, Republic of Korea
3 Shin Dong Hwa Food Research Institute, Seoul 06179, Republic of Korea
4 Department of Food Science and Technology, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +82‑10‑5280‑2570; Fax: +82‑63‑259‑3060
† These authors contributed equally to this work.
Abstract: Fermented foods are loved and enjoyed worldwide and are part of a tradition in several re‑
gions of the world. Koreans have traditionally had a healthy diet since people in this region have fol‑
lowed a fermented‑foods diet for at least 5000 years. Fermented‑product footprints are evolving be‑
yond boundaries and taking the lead in the world of food. Fermented foods, such as jang (fermented
soybean products), kimchi (fermented vegetables), jeotgal (fermented fish), and vinegar (liquor with
grain and fruit fermentation), are prominent fermented foods in the Korean culture. These four
major fermented foods have been passed down through the generations and define Korean cuisine.
However, scientific advancements in the fermentation process have increased productivity rates and
facilitated global exports. Recently, Korean kimchi and jang have garnered significant attention due
to their nutritional and health‑beneficial properties. The health benefits of various Korean fermented
foods have been consistently supported by both preclinical and clinical research. Korean fermented
foods effectively reduce the risk of cardiovascular and chronic metabolic diseases, such as immune
regulation, memory improvement, obesity, diabetes, and high blood pressure. Additionally, kimchi
is known to prevent and improve multiple metabolic diseases, including irritable bowel syndrome
Citation: Jung, S.‑J.; Chae, S.‑W.;
(IBS), and improve beneficial intestinal bacteria. These functional health benefits may reflect the syn‑
Shin, D.‑H. Fermented Foods of
ergistic effect between raw materials and various physiologically active substances produced during
Korea and Their Functionalities.
fermentation. Thus, fermented foods all over the world not only enrich our dining table with taste,
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645. https://
aroma, and nutrition, but also the microorganisms involved in fermentation and metabolites of var‑
doi.org/10.3390/fermentation8110645
ious fermentations have a profound effect on human health. This article describes the production
Academic Editors: Amparo Gamero
and physiological functions of Korean fermented foods, which are anticipated to play a significant
and Mónica Gandía
role in the wellness of the world’s population in the coming decades.
Received: 16 September 2022
Accepted: 11 November 2022 Keywords: fermented food; kimchi; jang; jeotgal; vinegar; health functions
Published: 15 November 2022
Figure
Figure1.1.Enzymes
Enzymesreleased
releasedby
bymicroorganisms
microorganismsand
andthe
theenzymes
enzymesof
ofthe
theraw
rawmaterial.
material.
are remixed. The mixed raw materials are stored in containers for short-term or long-term
fermentationperiods.
fermentation periods.Seasoning
Seasoningforfor kimchi
kimchi is prepared
is prepared in advance
in advance by mixing
by mixing spices, spices,
salted
salted fish, red pepper powder, garlic, ginger, and seasoned
fish, red pepper powder, garlic, ginger, and seasoned vegetables. If seasoningvegetables. If seasoning
is used,is
used, the amount of salt added is adjusted accordingly. Generally, a salt
the amount of salt added is adjusted accordingly. Generally, a salt concentration of 2–3% concentration of
2–3%
is is considered
considered adequate.
adequate. The combination
The combination of seasoning
of seasoning has a has
greata influence
great influence
on theon the
taste
taste
of of kimchi,
kimchi, but thebut the moisture
moisture contentcontent
in theinraw
thematerial
raw material significantly
significantly influences
influences the
the final
final product.
product. KimchiKimchi is a popular
is a popular food food product
product all over
all over the world.
the world. Hence,
Hence, low-tempera-
low‑temperature
ture fermentation
fermentation is preferred
is preferred for commercial
for commercial production.
production. TheThe general
general process
process for for prepar-
preparing
ing cabbage kimchi is presented in Figure 2. Kimchi preparation is simple
cabbage kimchi is presented in Figure 2. Kimchi preparation is simple but different from but different
from German
German sauerkraut
sauerkraut and Chinese
and Chinese Po Chai,Po which
Chai, which
do notdo usenot use special
special seasoning.
seasoning.
Figure2.
Figure 2. Simple
Simple manufacturing
manufacturing process
process of
of Korean
Korean cabbage
cabbagekimchi.
kimchi.
2.2.
2.2. Jang
Jang (Fermented
(Fermented Soybean
Soybean Products)
Products)
Soybean
Soybeanisisthe theprimary
primaryraw rawmaterial used
material to prepare
used to preparejang,jang,
along withwith
along grains, red pep‑
grains, red
pers, and salt.
peppers, Historically,
and salt. DongDong
Historically, Yi, anYi,
ethnic group group
an ethnic from South
from Manchuria and mount
South Manchuria and
Baekdu in the Korean
mount Baekdu peninsula,
in the Korean are thought
peninsula, to have
are thought been been
to have the first
the to use
first to soybeans
use soybeans for
food preparation [17]. However, amino acids or peptides are formed when
for food preparation [17]. However, amino acids or peptides are formed when the protein the protein is
decomposed by enzymes or other methods, which are water‑soluble
is decomposed by enzymes or other methods, which are water-soluble substances and substances and im‑
part
impartdistinct savory
distinct properties.
savory JangJang
properties. usage in Korea
usage is described
in Korea in Samguksagi
is described in Samguksagi(A.D.(A.D.
683),
but Chinese literature and relics suggest that soybeans were used in Korean
683), but Chinese literature and relics suggest that soybeans were used in Korean cuisine cuisine much
earlier than inthan
much earlier 683 in
A.D.
683[18].
A.D.Nonetheless, multiple
[18]. Nonetheless, archaeological
multiple digs have
archaeological proven
digs have that
proven
soybeans were used in the northern Korean Peninsula (Gyeonggi) in
that soybeans were used in the northern Korean Peninsula (Gyeonggi) in the late 2000s the late 2000s B.C.
(Bronze Age) (Lee, S.W., 1994). These documents show that soybean farming
B.C. (Bronze Age) (Lee, S.W., 1994). These documents show that soybean farming began began in the
Korean peninsula during the Bronze Age, and some relics, such as the Baekje tombs, sup‑
in the Korean peninsula during the Bronze Age, and some relics, such as the Baekje tombs,
port this theory [9]. At present, there are several types of soy foods available, including
support this theory [9]. At present, there are several types of soy foods available, including
ganjang and deonjang.
ganjang and deonjang.
2.2.1. Production of Meju (a Brick of Fermented Soybeans)
Meju is the basic material for making jang. Traditionally, meju is made by allowing
numerous microbes to naturally proliferate at high temperatures, and these microorgan‑
isms can decompose the soybean proteins. Thus, the fermentation state of meju is closely
related to the quality of the final jang. Figure 3 depicts the meju preparation process [19].
2.2.1. Production of Meju (a Brick of Fermented Soybeans)
2.2.1.Meju
Production of Meju
is the basic (a Brick
material forofmaking
Fermented
jang.Soybeans)
Traditionally, meju is made by allowing
Meju is
numerous the basictomaterial
microbes naturallyfor making jang.
proliferate Traditionally,
at high meju
temperatures, is these
and made microorgan-
by allowing
numerous
isms microbes to
can decompose thenaturally
soybeanproliferate at high
proteins. Thus, thetemperatures,
fermentation and
statethese microorgan-
of meju is closely
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 5 of 38
isms cantodecompose
related the quality the soybean
of the proteins.
final jang. Thus,
Figure the fermentation
3 depicts state of meju
the meju preparation is closely
process [19].
related to the quality of the final jang. Figure 3 depicts the meju preparation process [19].
Figure4.4.Schematic
Figure Schematicrepresentation
representationof
ofganjang
ganjangpreparation.
preparation.
Figure 4. Schematic representation of ganjang preparation.
Ganjangprepared
Ganjang preparedwith withaahigh
highsalt
salt(>20%)
(>20%)amount
amounthashasaalonger
longershelf
shelflife.
life. Freshly
Freshly pre‑
pre-
paredGanjang
pared ganjangprepared
ganjang knownwith
isisknown as a high
ashaet
haet salt (>20%)
ganjang
ganjang (new amount
(newsoy
soy has
sauce).
sauce). a longerdarkens,
Ganjang
Ganjang shelf life.
darkens, and
and Freshly pre-
thescent
the scent
pared ganjang
lightens
lightens with is known
withstorage
storage as haet
time.
time. ganjang in
In addition,
In addition, (new soyregions,
in some
some sauce). Ganjang
regions, modifieddarkens,
modified ganjangand
ganjang the scent
isis produced
produced
lightens
using
using with
flour
flour and
and storage time.
soybeans
soybeans In addition,
instead
instead ofmeju.
of meju. inThe
some
The regions, modified
preparation
preparation ganjang
process for
process for is produced
modified
modified ganjang
ganjang
using
isis flour and
presented
presented in soybeans
inFigure
Figure instead of meju. The preparation process for modified ganjang
55[20].
[20].
is presented in Figure 5 [20].
2.2.3. Doenjang
Doenjang is another food product made from soybean, and is traditionally used in
Korea as a basic seasoning. In the market, doenjang is produced in two ways: one is tra‑
ditional, and the other is a modified method [21]. Traditionally, doenjang is prepared by
immersing meju in a brine solution and allowed to ferment for at least 6 months, then sep‑
arated the remaining meju chunks. The filtrate becomes traditional ganjang. Traditionally,
doenjang is prepared by the fermentation of cooked and mashed chunks with meju pow‑
der, ganjang, and steamed rice or barley in a clay pot. Specific microbes are inoculated to
alter the fermentation process in the modified method. Ganjang is obtained as a byprod‑
uct of doenjang. Traditional doenjang has a unique and strong flavor. However, doenjang
prepared using a modified method has a mild flavor. Traditional doenjang contains a rel‑
atively high salinity level, and efforts are being made to lower salinity without affecting
the shelf life. The traditional and modified doenjang production is illustrated in Figures 6
and 7, respectively.
Fermentation
Fermentation2022,
2022,8,8,645
x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 38 39
6 of
Figure5.5.Manufacturing
Figure Manufacturingprocess
processofofmodified
modifiedganjang.
ganjang.
2.2.3. Doenjang
Doenjang is another food product made from soybean, and is traditionally used in
Korea as a basic seasoning. In the market, doenjang is produced in two ways: one is tra-
ditional, and the other is a modified method [21]. Traditionally, doenjang is prepared by
immersing meju in a brine solution and allowed to ferment for at least 6 months, then
separated the remaining meju chunks. The filtrate becomes traditional ganjang. Tradition-
ally, doenjang is prepared by the fermentation of cooked and mashed chunks with meju
powder, ganjang, and steamed rice or barley in a clay pot. Specific microbes are inoculated
to alter the fermentation process in the modified method. Ganjang is obtained as a by-
product of doenjang. Traditional doenjang has a unique and strong flavor. However,
doenjang prepared using a modified method has a mild flavor. Traditional doenjang con-
tains a relatively high salinity level, and efforts are being made to lower salinity without
affecting the shelf life. The traditional and modified doenjang production is illustrated in
Figures 6 and 7, respectively.
Figure
Figure7.
7. Modified doenjangpreparation
Modified doenjang preparation process.
process.
2.2.4. Doenjang
Gochujangis reported to have antioxidant, anticancer, estrogen activity, and
immunomodulatory properties. The presence of isoflavones in doenjang is responsible for
Gochujang is a unique seasoning, and it is not only an item that can store well, but is
these functional properties. Isoflavones exist in the form of hydrolyzed aglycone, which
also a spice-fermented
is rapidly seasoning
digested and absorbed. that is differentiated
Additionally, due
the absorption tobioavailability
and its originality, such as its
of agly‑
cone are greater than the isoflavone glycosides [22].
2.2.4. Gochujang
Gochujang is a unique seasoning, and it is not only an item that can store well, but
is also a spice‑fermented seasoning that is differentiated due to its originality, such as its
characteristic spicy taste and aroma. Red pepper and mustard are used as main ingredients
worldwide, but several kinds of red peppers are also one of the most widely used spices.
In particular, red pepper is differentiated by its refreshing, spicy taste and have recently
been in the spotlight as a popular diet food worldwide. Along with kimchi, the perception
of gochujang, a traditional Korean spicy food, is expected to change considerably. Figure 8
illustrates the general manufacturing process of traditional gochujang [19].
The addition of gochujang meju powder prior to fermentation and the use of malt
extract to saccharify starch from grains are signatory processes during the preparation of
gochujang. Gochujang preparation is characterized by long fermentation in a clay pot with
an increased amount of red pepper powder. Sikhye gochujang is a traditional gochujang
made with malt extract to break down the starch in rice and other grains, which produces
a sweet taste. The modified process of preparing gochujang is presented in Figure 9 [23].
As shown in Figure 9, the modified process uses flour as a starch source. Starch is de‑
composed with koji enzymes during a shorter fermentation period. Additionally, the red
pepper powder used during the modified gochujang process is less than 10% and added
before or after fermentation. Traditional and modified gochujang has a distinct flavor, but
modified gochujang is gaining popularity due to its low price.
characteristic spicy taste and aroma. Red pepper and mustard are used as main ingredi-
ents worldwide, but several kinds of red peppers are also one of the most widely used
spices. In particular, red pepper is differentiated by its refreshing, spicy taste and have
recently been in the spotlight as a popular diet food worldwide. Along with kimchi, the
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 perception of gochujang, a traditional Korean spicy food, is expected to change consider-
8 of 38
ably. Figure 8 illustrates the general manufacturing process of traditional gochujang [19].
The addition of gochujang meju powder prior to fermentation and the use of malt
extract to saccharify starch from grains are signatory processes during the preparation of
gochujang. Gochujang preparation is characterized by long fermentation in a clay pot with
an increased amount of red pepper powder. Sikhye gochujang is a traditional gochujang
made with malt extract to break down the starch in rice and other grains, which produces
aFigure
sweet8.taste. The
General modified process
manufacturing ofofpreparing
process traditionalgochujang
gochujang. is presented in Figure 9 [23].
Figure 8. General manufacturing process of traditional gochujang.
The addition of gochujang meju powder prior to fermentation and the use of malt
extract to saccharify starch from grains are signatory processes during the preparation of
gochujang. Gochujang preparation is characterized by long fermentation in a clay pot with
an increased amount of red pepper powder. Sikhye gochujang is a traditional gochujang
made with malt extract to break down the starch in rice and other grains, which produces
a sweet taste. The modified process of preparing gochujang is presented in Figure 9 [23].
Figure9.9.General
Figure Generalmanufacturing
manufacturingprocess
processofofmodified
modifiedgochujang.
gochujang.
2.2.5. Cheonggukjang
Cheonggukjang is another fermented product produced from soybeans, and uses the
power of bacteria to decompose the soybean protein [15]. Cheonggukjang is fermented
at a high temperature (40–43 ◦ C) for a short duration (2~3 days). In most cases, the bacte‑
rial composition is utilized to aid the cheonggukjang fermentation process. Bacillus natto
is used to prepare Japanese natto, a fermented product from Japan similar to cheongguk‑
Figure 9. General manufacturing process of modified gochujang.
jang. However, Bacillus subtilis is a bacteria commonly used to prepare cheonggukjang [24].
Cheonggukjang has a distinct fermentation odor and is consumed in the form of a stew or
soup. However, cheonggukjang is unpopular among the young Korean generation ow‑
ing to its distinct fermentation odor. Nonetheless, if this odor is refined or altered, then
cheonggukjang can be developed as a favorite side dish worldwide. Figure 10 represents
the manufacturing process for traditional cheonggukjang [19].
used to prepare Japanese natto, a fermented product from Japan similar to cheonggukjang.
However, Bacillus subtilis is a bacteria commonly used to prepare cheonggukjang [24].
Cheonggukjang has a distinct fermentation odor and is consumed in the form of a stew or
soup. However, cheonggukjang is unpopular among the young Korean generation owing
to its distinct fermentation odor. Nonetheless, if this odor is refined or altered, then
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 9 of 38
cheonggukjang can be developed as a favorite side dish worldwide. Figure 10 represents
the manufacturing process for traditional cheonggukjang [19].
Figure10.
Figure 10. General
General manufacturing
manufacturing process
process for
for traditional
traditionalcheonggukjang.
cheonggukjang.
Moreover,
Moreover, the the production
production of
of modified
modified cheonggukjang
cheonggukjang involves
involves the
the use
use of
of selected
selected
microbes
microbes for
for fermentation
fermentation under
under certain
certain fermentation
fermentation conditions
conditions to
to regulate
regulate and
and equate
equate
the
the quality
qualityofofmodified
modifiedcheonggukjang
cheonggukjangto tothat
thatof
oftraditional
traditionalcheonggukjang.
cheonggukjang.
2.2.6.
2.2.6. Other
Other Products
Products
Traditionally, meju is the major raw material used along with vegetables and grains to
Traditionally, meju is the major raw material used along with vegetables and grains
make ssamjang, jeubjang, dambukjang, and makjang. However, the final product varies
to make ssamjang, jeubjang, dambukjang, and makjang. However, the final product varies
according to the ingredients used and fermentation conditions [25]. Ssamjang is based
according to the ingredients used and fermentation conditions [25]. Ssamjang is based on
on doenjang with seasoning ingredients, such as gochujang. Jeubjang is made of meju,
doenjang with seasoning ingredients, such as gochujang. Jeubjang is made of meju, while
while jeupjang uses wheat flour and is fermented with dried eggplant, cucumber, and
jeupjang uses wheat flour and is fermented with dried eggplant, cucumber, and radish. It
radish. It is generally prepared in the Jeolla‑do and Gyeongsang‑do regions. However,
is generally prepared in the Jeolla-do and Gyeongsang-do regions. However, it is being
it is being prepared throughout Korea with minor modifications. Dambukjang is another
prepared throughout Korea with minor modifications. Dambukjang is another fermented
fermented product prepared using meju powder, red pepper powder, and ganjang. Mka‑
product prepared using meju powder, red pepper powder, and ganjang. Mkajang is pro-
jang is processed using warm, glutinous rice with meju powder and fermented overnight.
cessed using warm, glutinous rice with meju powder and fermented overnight. Then,
Then, ganjang and water are added and then fermented for about 15 days. Yukjang is an‑
ganjang and water are added and then fermented for about 15 days. Yukjang is another
other fermented product that uses chicken or meat, along with meju powder. Most of these
fermented
products areproduct
similar,that
withuses chicken
slight or meat,inalong
modifications with meju powder.
their preparation process. Most of these
Additionally,
products are similar, with slight modifications in their preparation
these products are region‑specific and popular among adult Koreans. process. Additionally,
these products are region-specific and popular among adult Koreans.
2.3. Jeotgal
2.3. Jeotgal
Salted and fermented fish products (jeotgal) have an organizational relationship with
SaltedKorean
traditional and fermented
fermentedfishfoods.
products (jeotgal)
Jeotgal has have ansalt
a high organizational relationship
content similar to otherwith
fer‑
mented products, and is used to enhance flavor and appetite. Jeotgal productstoare
traditional Korean fermented foods. Jeotgal has a high salt content similar other fer-
similar
mented
to products,
jang, while and
sikhae is used to
resembles theenhance flavor and
characteristics appetite.
of kimchi dueJeotgal products
to the similar are similar
fermentation
process. The presence of several amino acids and minerals gives jeotgal a distinct flavor
and taste. Fish is the main raw material used for jeotgal, but several shrimps, mollusks,
squids, octopuses, and other crustaceans are also used for the preparation. Thus, the fla‑
vor and nutritional value of jeotgal are incomparably diverse [26]. Jeotgal is Korea’s own
traditional food, and various products resemble jeotgal in neighboring Japan, Southeast
Asia, Mediterranean coastal countries, and European coastal countries. In Korea, jeotgal
is typically presented as a side dish. However, it is an appetizer in the Mediterranean
and other regions. Similarly, Japan uses jeotgal as a side dish for alcohol. Jeotgal has a
historical socio‑cultural background and is deeply embedded in Korean cuisine, but its
consumption rates have remained stagnant over the years due to its high salinity level and
unique, fishy smell.
classical jeotgal. Several Kingdoms discussed and presented hae and yukjang, terms for
salted or fermented meat products in those days [27].
Figure11.
Figure 11.General
Generalmanufacturing
manufacturingprocess
processof
ofjeotgal.
jeotgal.
The preparation of jeotgal is simple, but the quality of the product may vary depend-
ing on the quality of fish, salt content, and fermentation method. Nonetheless, a high salt
content needs to be reduced to address salt-related health concerns. Additionally, manu-
facturing techniques need to be improved to enhance the cleanliness of the jeotgal.
Properly aged jeotgal rarely smells fishy and has a savory flavor characteristic of fer-
mented foods, along with an increased essential amino acid content. However, partially
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 11 of 38
The preparation of jeotgal is simple, but the quality of the product may vary depend‑
ing on the quality of fish, salt content, and fermentation method. Nonetheless, a high salt
content needs to be reduced to address salt‑related health concerns. Additionally, manu‑
facturing techniques need to be improved to enhance the cleanliness of the jeotgal.
Properly aged jeotgal rarely smells fishy and has a savory flavor characteristic of fer‑
mented foods, along with an increased essential amino acid content. However, partially
fermented jeotgal has a fishy smell with a sulfur or dimethylamine (DMA) odor, and has
a high ammonia content. These characters significantly reduce the acceptance of jeotgal
as food. The lipid component of the raw material is susceptible to change into peroxide
with unpleasant flavors during fermentation and aging, and is decomposed into volatile
and nonvolatile fatty acids representing various flavor properties under the influence of li‑
pase [30]. Moreover, glycogen or free sugars of raw material can be converted into organic
acids or alcohols during fermentation and aging processes. Jeotgal inhibits most bacteria.
However, salt‑tolerant microbes can be found extensively in the product. Table 1 compares
the characteristics of jeotgal and ganjang [31].
Jeotgal Ganjang
Contribution
(Liquid Type) (Soybean)
Range Average
pH 5.3–6.7 6.0 4.7–4.9
Salt 22.5–29.9 26.2 16.0–18.0
Total amino acid 2.9–7.7 5.3 5.5–7.8
Glutamic acid 0.38–1.32 0.85 0.9–1.3
Total organic acid 0.21–2.33 1.27 1.4–2.1
Acetic acid 0–2.00 0.87 0.1–0.3
Lactic acid 0.06–0.48 0.27 1.2–1.6
Succinic acid 0.02–0.18 0.10 0.04–0.05
Reducing sugar Trace Trace 1.0–3.0
Ethanol Trace Trace Trace
2.4. Vinegar
Vinegar is one of the oldest fermented foods in Korea. It has been used as seasoning
and in various homemade remedies [32]. Vinegar has a refreshing, sour taste and is known
to stimulate appetite. Traditionally, it is produced using natural fermentation using alco‑
holic beverages, such as makgeolli (alcoholic liquor using rice). Moreover, vinegar can be
produced legally by diluting synthetic acetic acid [33]. Generally, it is prepared through
alcohol fermentation followed by acetic acid fermentation induced by inoculating acetic
acid bacteria. Thus, the vinegar marketed in Korea consists of both naturally produced
vinegar and acetic acid vinegar.
unknown. However, it is believed that it could have been in use since the discovery of
alcohol fermentation. In Jibongyuseol, vinegar was also described as a liquor with a bitter
taste. Various records show the presence and use of vinegar in Korea. For example, cherry
was said to have a taste similar to vinegar in Goryeodogyoung, as a cooking ingredient
in Haedongyuksa, and as a medicine to treat cramps or strokes in Hyangyakgugeupbang.
Furthermore, in the Joseon Dynasty, vinegar fermented with barley in Gosacharlyo and
Donguibogam alleviated carbuncles, blood clots, heartache, and pains. The ancient book
introduced vinegar and explained how to make it, and there are various kinds of vine‑
gars [36]. The records indicate that Japan imported vinegar from China in the 5th century
and during the Pyeongan era (794–1192). Then, from the Kamakura (1185–1333) to the
Muromachi (1336–1573) periods, vinegar was a representative seasoning. During the Edo
period (1614–1615), vinegar was widely used with sushi [36]. Table 2 illustrates the various
medicinal applications of vinegar throughout history [32].
2.4.5.
2.4.5. Vinegar
Vinegar Fermentation
Fermentation and
and Ripening
Ripening Methods
Methods [38]
[38]
There are various types of fermentation methods
There are various types of fermentation methods used usedforfor
thethe preparation
preparation of vine‑
of vinegar.
gar. Surface fermentation, agitated fermentation (air injection into a tank), and submerged
Surface fermentation, agitated fermentation (air injection into a tank), and submerged fer-
fermentation methods are popular vinegar fermentation methods. The static method is
mentation methods are popular vinegar fermentation methods. The static method is sim-
simple and can be used to create vinegar at home. However, it is challenging to regulate
ple and can be used to create vinegar at home. However, it is challenging to regulate tem-
temperature, humidity, and aeration, which might influence the vinegar’s quality. Thus,
perature, humidity, and aeration, which might influence the vinegar’s quality. Thus, it is
it is not suitable for mass production, but could be used to produce unique vinegar with a
not suitable for mass production, but could be used to produce unique vinegar with a
distinct flavor. Despite several limitations, Koreans showed wisdom in managing fermen‑
distinct flavor. Despite several limitations, Koreans showed wisdom in managing fermen-
tation conditions. In the West, vinegar is fermented using Orleans or French processes,
tation conditions. In the West, vinegar is fermented using Orleans or French processes,
where the static surface fermentation method is adopted. The liquid fermented as vinegar
where the static surface fermentation method is adopted. The liquid fermented as vinegar
usually undergoes a ripening process for a considerable period of time due to the degra‑
usually undergoes a ripening process for a considerable period of time due to the degra-
dation of taste because of its unique, pungent smell of acetic acid. It usually takes two
dation of taste because of its unique, pungent smell of acetic acid. It usually takes two to
three months, and it is purified by the reaction of the contents of the acetic acid and fer-
mentation liquid produced at this time to produce aromatic substances, such as ethyl ac-
etate. Additionally, the precipitation of undissolved proteins, pectin, and starch clears the
liquid.
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 14 of 38
to three months, and it is purified by the reaction of the contents of the acetic acid and
fermentation liquid produced at this time to produce aromatic substances, such as ethyl
acetate. Additionally, the precipitation of undissolved proteins, pectin, and starch clears
the liquid.
Table 4. Studies showing the relationship between fermented foods and health benefits.
Fermented Products Functionality Study Types Consumption Health Effects of Fermented Foods References
LAB (lactic acid • Radical scavenging activity, DPPH, ABTS radical
bacteria) isolated Oxidative stress In vitro Lactobacillus sp. (L. sakei JK‑17) • L. sakei JK‑17 culture depleted nitrite [40]
from kimchi concentration 94.75%
• L. plantarum KC23 exhibited antibacterial activity
LAB kimchi Anti‑bacterial In vitro Lactobacillus planetarium (KC23) as it formed a clear zone of 8–13 mm for the [41]
5 pathogens
Leuconostoc sp.; • Raw 264.7 macrophages: effective for the
LAB kimchi Anti‑bacterial In vitro lactic acid bacteria isolated from generation of NO, [42]
kimchi (KLAB) TNF‑α, and IL‑6 in macrophage
Lactobacillus sp.
LAB kimchi Mutagenicity/toxicity In vitro • Nitrite depletion, aflatoxin binding [43]
(kimchi Lactobacillus strains)
Leuconostoc sp. (meenteroides KFRI73007)
LAB kimchi Diabetes In vitro • Lower β‑glucosidase activity [44]
(Lactic acid bacteria isolated from kimchi)
• Skin pH improvement
Hairless mouse:
• Chlorophyll contents in buchu and mustard leaf
Lactobacillus
LAB kimchi Skin protection In vivo kimchi were higher than cabbage kimchi. Contents [45]
(lyophilized Korean cabbage kimchi, mustard
of carotene and ascorbic acid were higher in the
leaf kimchi, and Buchu kimchi)
mustard leaf kimchi
• TC and LDL‑C were significantly decreased in
Male and female, n = 100;
the high‑kimchi‑intake group
Serum lipids and High‑kimchi (210 g/d)‑intake vs. low‑kimchi
Kimchi RCT • Fasting blood glucose was significantly [46]
blood glucose (50 g/d)‑intake groups;
decreased in the high‑kimchi‑intake group as
7 days
compared to the low‑intake group
Male and female, n = 12; kimchi pill; 3 g/day;
Kimchi Anti‑atherosclerosis RCT • Lower TG, LDL/HDL‑C, and atherogenic indexes [47]
6 weeks
• Beneficial effects the formation of intestinal
Kimchi Intestinal microbiota RCT Female, n = 12; kimchi; 150 g/day; 7 days [48]
microbiota
• Intake of 200 g of kimchi per day for four weeks
Male and female, n = 10; kimchi; 200 g/day; in adults is known to lower the concentrations of
Kimchi Intestinal microbiota RCT [49]
4 weeks β‑glucosidase and β‑glucuronidase that cause
colon cancer
Male, n = 12; kimchi, 300 g/day;
Kimchi Iron status RCT • Lower serum iron and serum ferritin [50]
4 weeks
Fermentation 2022, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 o
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 16 of 38
Table 4. Cont.
Fermented Products Functionality Study Types Consumption Health Effects of Fermented Foods References
• Higher consumption of kimchi was not
associated with a higher prevalence of
Korean adults n = 5932 hypertension (odds ratio = 0.87; 95% CI = 0.70–1.08
Cross‑sectional
Kimchi Hypertension (male: 2822, female: 3820) for ≥216.5 g/day vs. <39.2 g/day; p = 0.753) [58]
study
Age: 19–64 y • High consumption of kimchi was not associated
with an increased
prevalence of hypertension in humans
Cohort study Korean adults n = 5932
• High kimchi consumption was not shown to be
Kimchi Hypertension (a 12‑year (male: 2822, female: 3110) [59]
associated with increased risk of hypertension
follow‑up study) Age: 40–69 y
• A significant inverse relationship between kimchi
Korean adults n = 19,659 consumption and the prevalence of asthma
Cross‑sectional
Kimchi Asthma (male: 7787, female: 11,872) •The prevalence of asthma in Korean adults was [60]
study
Age: 19–64 y 2.4%. Adults with
asthma consumed lower amounts of kimchi
• Decreased odds ratio (OR) of having AD
Korean adults n = 7222 according to kimchi consumption
Atopic dermatitis Cross‑sectional
Kimchi (male: 50.9%, female: 49.1%) • Consuming 85.0–158 g/day of kimchi [61]
(AD) study
Age: 19–49 y significantly associated
with a lower presence of AD
• The prevalence of rhinitis decreased with
increased kimchi consumption
Cross‑sectional Korean adults n = 7494
Kimchi Rhinitis • The quintile 4 (range of kimchi intake: 108~180 g) [62]
study Age: 19–64 y
groups, compared with the reference of
quintile 1 (0~23.7 g), showed a decrease of 18.9%
Cross‑sectional Korean adults n = 102 (male) • Kimchi consumption positively correlated with
Kimchi Lipids profiles [63]
study Age: 40–64 y HDL‑C and negatively correlated with LDL‑C
Korean adult total: n = 335 • The correlation coefficient between kimchi intake
Cross‑sectional Age (20–29 y): n = 146 and total free radicals was 0.1862 (negative
Kimchi Anti‑oxidant [64]
study (male: 55, female: 91) correlation) and that for GSH/GSSG was 0.1861
Age (65): n = 189 (male: 89, female: 100) (positive correlation).
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 18 of 38
Table 4. Cont.
Fermented Products Functionality Study Types Consumption Health Effects of Fermented Foods References
• Decreased blood pressure
• The serum renin levels decreased in the GJ group
SD rat:
compared to
Ganjang Hypertension In vivo Fermented ganjang (salt 8%; GJ) [65]
the control group, while the serum aldosterone
General salt (table salt 8%; NC)
level decreased in the GJ group relative to the NC
group
• Increase in immune cytokines
C57 BL/6J mice
• FSeS and FSS: decreased the serum levels of
Ganjang (Korean soy sauce), including
TNF‑α, IFN‑γ, IL‑6, and IL‑17α. mRNA expression
Cancer In vivo acid‑hydrolyzed soy sauce (AHSS), fermented [66]
Ganjang • FSeS: anti‑colitis effect partially by reducing the
soy sauce (FSS), and fermented sesame sauce
serum levels of pro‑inflammatory cytokines and
(FSeS)
inhibiting mRNA expression
• Increased the expression of colonic p53
Colorectal cancer:
Cancer In vitro • Tumor‑suppressor gene indicating stronger [67]
fermented soy sauce with added sesame seeds
anticancer effects
Bacterial strains exhibiting fibrinolytic activity
Ganjang Antithrombotic In vitro screened from traditional Korean • Decrease in fibrinolytic activity [68]
soybean sauce
Wistar rats
Ganjang Antioxidant In vivo • Protective effect of fatty acid oxidation [69]
(rats fed high‑PUFA oils)
• Both CSP‑0 and KTSP‑0 showed significantly
higher IL‑6 production rates than that of the
RAW 264.7 cell and ICR mouse
untreated or CSP‑0 groups. Decreased
Immune/anti‑ (polysaccharides isolated from commercial soy
Ganjang In vivo inflammation cytokines [70]
inflammation sauce (CSP‑0) vs. traditional Korean soy sauce
• KTSP‑0 administration augmented IL‑6 content
(KTSP‑0))
in mouse sera, whereas CSP‑0 did not show any
effect on IL‑6 induction
• Increased antimicrobial activity
Streptococcus spp. causing dental caries in • The isolate NG 16 strain was confirmed as
Ganjang Antibacterial In vitro Korean soy sauce (NG 06 strain isolated from Gram‑positive, rods, [71]
ganjang) endospore production, utilization of melibiose,
casein hydrolysis and starch hydrolysis
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 19 of 38
ER REVIEW 21 of 39
Table 4. Cont.
Traditional kochujang added to garlic por- Decrease in cancer cell viability
In vitro
Fermented Products ridge Functionality Study Types Consumption [85]
Health Effects of Fermented Foods References
Increase inf anticancer activity
Improved lipid profiles: lower TG • Increase in metastasis and natural killer cell
Decrease activity
Balb/c mice in obesity gene expression, (doenjang fermented for 24 months exhibited a
Doenjang Cancer products prepared using
In vivo body weight gains, epididymis
(sarcoma‑180 cell‑transplanted mice)fat weights two‑to‑three‑fold increase in antitumor effects on [72]
Gochujang
In vivo Doenjang
Inhibition of lipogenic
fermented enzyme’s
for 3, 6, and fatty acid
24 months synthase, malic mice and
sarcoma‑180‑injected [86]antimetastatic
rice koji and soybean meju
en-zyme, and lipoprotein lipase by gochujangeffects in colon
products in 26‑M 3.1 cells in mice compared
epididymis adipose tissues, and inhibition ofwith the 3‑ or 6‑month‑fermented doenjang)
glucose-6-phosphate
3T3‑l1 adipocyte cells
dehydro-genase in the liver
(treated with doenjang and RAS blockers, • Decrease in regulated RAS activity
Hypertension
Overweight women (n = 53), In vitro Decrease
Doenjang losartan (10−in visceral
4 M) fat
and captopril (10−4 M) were • Doenjang: decrease in ACE and angiotensin II [73]
RCT, placebo [87]
12 weeks, 32 g/day Decrease
treated as positive controls,
in serum TG andwhichAposuppresses
B receptor 2 (AGTR2) levels
Overweight and obese adults n = 60, 3 weeks AGT1R and ACE)
SD rats
HighHypertension
dose of beneficial microbes of tradi-
Doenjang In vivo Fermented
HTK, CKdoenjang (salt 8%) in WC
group: decrease • Increase in ACE‑inhibitor activity [74]
tional kochujang (HTK) General salt (table salt 8%)
HTK, LTK group: decrease in TC, LDL-C, HDL-C, and TG
Low dose of beneficial microbes of tradi- Manufacturing method for traditional doenjang [88]
RCT, placebo HTK: decrease in visceral fat • Regulation of fibrinolysis, fibrinogen clotting
Doenjang Antithrombotic
tional kochujang (LTK) In vitro and screening of high‑fibrin‑clotting‑inhibitory [75]
All groups: increase in beneficial microorganisms inhibition
samples
Commercial kochujang (CK), 25.3 g (powder
• DJ: decrease in visceral fat accumulation,
19 g) C57BL/6N SD rats
adipocyte size
(fed basal (BA) (5% fat), high‑fat (HF) diet (30%
Doenjang Overweight
Obesity women with the PPAR-In vivo • DJ: decrease in obesity gene expression [76]
fat), HF + steamed soybeans (SOY), or
RCT, placebo γ2C1431T polymorphism (n = 53), Anti-obesity effects (lowered the atherogenic index[89]and serum leptin
HF diet + doenjang (DJ) ad libitum, 8 weeks
level)
12 weeks, 32 g/day
Overweight women (n = 51) • Decrease in body weight, body fat, and visceral
DoenjangIn vivo 90%Obesity RCT,
pancreatectomies diabetic placebo
rats Blood [77]
12 weeks,glucose
9.8 g/dayregulation fat [90]
Adult with hyperlipidemia (n = 30), Decrease women
Overweight in TC and withLDL-C
the PPAR‑γ2C1431T • Decrease in visceral fat
rosclerosisDoenjang
RCT, placebo Obesity RCT, placebo
polymorphism (n = 51), 12 weeks, 9.8 g/day [91]
• Increase in antioxidant activity
[78]
12 weeks, 35 g/day Increase in HDL-C
Overweight women with UCP‑1polymorphism
In vivo Balb/c mice (RAW 264.7 cell) Improved immune cytokines • Decrease in visceral fat [92]
Doenjang Obesity RCT, placebo (n = 51), [79]
Healthy adult (n = 10) • Increase in lipolysis, free fatty acid
12 weeks, 9.8 g/day
ity RCT, placebo, Fermented soybean (FS) or non-fermented Increase in serum isoflavone’s absorption • Cytokine level regulation
Male C57BL/6J mice: low‑fat diet (LF), high‑fat
on) Cross-over soybean (NFS) consumption, fresh Increase • Decrease in inflammation[93] cytokine expression
Immune/anti‑ diet (HF), orina bioavailability
high‑fat diet containing
Doenjang In vivo (reduced mRNA levels of oxidative stress markers, [80]
chungkookjang,
inflammation 1 day, 35 g/day doenjang (DJ), or a high‑fat diet containing
pro‑inflammatory adipokines, macrophage, and a
steamed
Increasesoyinbean (SS)bone
spine for 11 weeks density
mineral
In vivo SD rat: fibrosis marker) [94]
(significantly higher in the RC-CGJ and CGJ groups)
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 20 of 38
Table 4. Cont.
Fermented Products Functionality Study Types Consumption Health Effects of Fermented Foods References
• Doenjang: lowered β‑amyloid peptide levels by
C57BL/6J mice: a low‑fat diet, HF diet, HF diet
Cognitive function regulating gene
containing steamed soybean, or an HF diet
Doenjang (brain In vivo expressions involved in β‑amyloid peptide [81]
containing doenjang (DJ),
neuroprotection) production and degradation
11 weeks
• Effectiveness of brain nerve protection
•Traditional doenjang: increase in antioxidant
enzyme activities
Doenjang Anti‑oxidant In vivo Commercial doenjang vs. traditional doenjang and decrease in ROS level [82]
Fermentation 2022, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW (radical scavenging activity: DPPH, ABTS, and 21 o
TBARS)
Melanin cell: • Decrease in o‑Dihydroxy isoflavone derivative
Skin (whitening
Doenjang In vitro o‑Dihydroxy isoflavone derivatives in tyrosinase activity [83,84]
action) Traditional
long‑aged kochujang added to garlic por-
doenjang • Decrease
Decreaseininmelanin
cancerformation
cell viability
Gochujang Cancer In vitro
ridge • Decrease
Increase in
infcancer cell viability
anticancer activity
Gochujang Cancer In vitro Traditional kochujang added to garlic porridge [85]
• Increase inf anticancer activity
Improved lipid profiles: lower TG
• Improved lipid profiles: lower TG
• Decrease
Decreaseininobesity
obesity gene
gene expression,
expression,
body weight gains, epididymis
body weight gains, epididymis fat weightsfat weights
Gochujang products prepared using
Gochujang
Gochujang Obesity
Obesity
In vivo
In vivo
Gochujang products prepared using Inhibition of lipogenic enzyme’s
Inhibition of lipogenic enzyme’s fatty acid synthase,
fatty acid
[86]
malic
ricekoji
rice kojiand
andsoybean
soybean meju
meju synthase, malic enzyme, and lipoprotein lipase by products in
en-zyme, and lipoprotein lipase by gochujang
gochujang products in epididymis adipose tissues,
epididymis adipose tissues, and inhibition of glucose-6-phosphate
and inhibition of glucose‑6‑phosphate
dehydro-genase
dehydrogenase in the
in the liverliver
Overweightwomen
Overweight women (n =(n53),
= 53), • Decrease
Decreaseininvisceral
visceralfatfat
Gochujang Gochujang Obesity
Obesity RCT,
RCT,placebo
placebo [87]
12 weeks, 32 g/day
12 weeks, 32 g/day • Decrease
Decreaseininserum
serum TGTGandand
Apo B B
Apo
Overweight and obese adults n = 60, 3 weeks
Overweight and obese adults n = 60, 3 weeks • HTK, CK group: decrease in WC
High dose of beneficial microbes of traditional
High dose(HTK)
kochujang of beneficial microbes of tradi- • HTK,
HTK,LTKCK group:
group:decrease
decreaseininTC,
WCLDL‑C,
Gochujang Obesity RCT, placebo tional
Low kochujang
dose (HTK)
of beneficial microbes of traditional HDL‑C, and TG [88]
Gochujang Obesity kochujang
Low dose(LTK)
of beneficial microbes of tradi- • HTK:
HTK,decrease
LTK group: decrease
in visceral fat in TC, LDL-C, HDL-C, and TG
RCT, placebo Commercial kochujang (CK), 25.3 g • All
HTK: decrease
groups: in visceral
increase fat microorganisms
in beneficial
tional kochujang (LTK)
(powder 19 g) All groups: increase in beneficial microorganisms
Commercial
Overweight kochujang
women with the(CK), 25.3 g (powder
PPAR‑γ2C1431T
Gochujang Obesity RCT, placebo 19 g)
polymorphism (n = 53), • Anti‑obesity effects [89]
12 weeks, 32 g/day
Overweight women with the PPAR-
Gochujang Diabetic In vivo 90% pancreatectomies diabetic rats • Blood glucose regulation [90]
Gochujang Obesity RCT, placebo γ2C1431T polymorphism (n = 53), Anti-obesity effects
12 weeks, 32 g/day
Gochujang Diabetic In vivo 90% pancreatectomies diabetic rats Blood glucose regulation
Adult with hyperlipidemia (n = 30), Decrease in TC and LDL-C
Gochujang Anti-atherosclerosis RCT, placebo
12 weeks, 35 g/day Increase in HDL-C
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 21 of 38
Table 4. Cont.
Fermented Products Functionality Study Types Consumption Health Effects of Fermented Foods References
Adult with hyperlipidemia (n = 30), • Decrease in TC and LDL‑C
Gochujang Anti‑atherosclerosis RCT, placebo [91]
12 weeks, 35 g/day • Increase in HDL‑C
Gochujang Immune In vivo Balb/c mice (RAW 264.7 cell) • Improved immune cytokines [92]
Healthy adult (n = 10)
Digestibility RCT, placebo, Fermented soybean (FS) or non‑fermented • Increase in serum isoflavone’s absorption
Cheonggukjang. [93]
(absorption) Cross‑over soybean (NFS) consumption, fresh • Increase in bioavailability
chungkookjang, 1 day, 35 g/day
SD rat:
• Increase in spine bone mineral density
Rubus coreanus‑cheonggukjang (RC‑CGJ),
Cheonggukjang. Bone In vivo (significantly higher in the RC‑CGJ and CGJ [94]
general cheonggukjang (CGJ), control group,
groups)
9 weeks
Recombinant cheonggukjang kinase (CGK) • Fibrinogen clotting inhibition
3–5‑rich fraction as a thrombolytic agent, which (CGK3–5‑rich fraction inhibited collagen‑induced
Cheonggukjang. Anti‑atherosclerosis In vivo [95]
we overexpressed in Bacillus licheniformis platelet aggregation in platelet‑rich plasma in a
ATCC10716 concentration‑dependent manner)
RCT, placebo, Overweight adults (n = 83), • Male: increase in Apo A1
Cheonggukjang. Anti‑atherosclerosis [96]
cross‑over 12 weeks, 35 g/day • Female: decrease n Apo B
Adults with impaired fasting glucose (n = 30),
8 weeks
• CH group: decrease in Apo B/A ratio
Cheonggukjang. Anti‑atherosclerosis RCT, 3 arms Cheonggukjang (CH) vs. red ginseng [97]
• CH, RGCH group: improvement of lipid profiles
Cheonggukjang (RGCH) vs. control group
(starch), 20 g/day
C57BL/6J mice • Decrease in weight gain
Cheonggukjang. Obesity In vivo (fermented with poly‑gamma glutamic acid (body weight and epididymis fat pad weight in [98]
producing Bacillus licheniformis‑67), 13 weeks 30% cheonggukjang)
RCT, placebo, Overweight adults (n = 83),
Cheonggukjang. Obesity • Improved obesity index [96]
cross‑over 12 weeks, 35 g/day
STZ‑induced diabetic rats
• Improved glycemic control
(soybean cheonggukjang, yakkong
(decreased supplementation of soybean
Cheonggukjang. Diabetic In vivo cheonggukjang, and black foods, such as black [99]
cheonggukjang. Leptin and adiponectin levels
rice, black sesame seeds, and sea tangle added
were significantly decreased)
yakkong cheonggukjang powder)
Adults with impaired fasting glucose (n = 30),
8 weeks
• CH, RGCH group: decrease in fasting glucose
Cheonggukjang. Diabetic RCT, 3 arms Cheonggukjang (CH) vs. red ginseng [97]
level
Cheonggukjang (RGCH) vs. control group
(starch), 20 g/day
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 22 of 38
Table 4. Cont.
Fermented Products Functionality Study Types Consumption Health Effects of Fermented Foods References
Allergy adults with positive response from skin
Cheonggukjang. Anti‑allergy RCT, placebo (n = 60), • Decrease in skin wheal response to histamine [100]
12 weeks, 35 g/day
Middle‑aged women (n = 40) • SDBM‑group subjects had significant decrease
Cheonggukjang Skin Open, controlled soybean diet and back massage (SDBM), in pH [101]
12 weeks, 35 g/day • Decrease in melanin and erythema indices
Hypertensive and type 2 diabetic (T2D)
• KTD (soybean‑based condiments: 50 g/d):
Soybean‑based patients, Korean traditional‑diet (KTD) group
Diabetic RCT decrease in HbA1c (%), [102]
condiments (n = 21), control group (n = 20),
decrease in body fat mass, WC, BMI, and heart rate
12 weeks, 3 meal/day
• Salted anchovy fermented for 6 and 12 months
Jeotgal Anti‑mutation In vitro Salted anchovies [103]
showed anti‑mutagenic activity
• Salted anchovies contain phenolic compounds
Jeotgal Anti‑oxidant In vitro Salted anchovies and proteins that exert [104]
significant antioxidant activity
• Improved scavenging activity due to Maillard
Jeotgal Anti‑oxidant In vitro Yellow corvina jeotgal [105]
reaction during fermentation
• Relieved ear edema
• Decrease in serum Ig E levels
Jeotgal Immune In vivo Lactobacillus plantarum isolated from salted fish [106]
• Increase in IFN‑γ levels
• Macrophage cell: increase in IL‑12
Dementia‑induced SD rats • Boosted long‑term memory activity
Jeotgal Cognitive In vivo [107]
Squid (Todarodes pacificus) with 2–4% salt • Improved acetylcholine levels in the brain
• Decrease in body fat, serum TG, and insulin
Obese mice: Lactobacillus plantarum LG42 levels
Jeotgal Anti‑obesity In vivo [108]
lactobacilli isolated from flounder sikhae • Obesity gene: decrease in leptin and SREBP‑1
• Liver: increase in PPARα and CPT‑I mRNA
Bacillus velezensis BS2 lactic acid bacteria • Antithrombotic effect
Jeotgal Thrombosis In vitro [109]
isolated from salted seaweed • Increased resistance to salt
• Regulates body weight and blood glucose
Vinegar Obesity/diabetic In vivo Persimmon vinegar • Improves lipid metabolism by regulating TG, TC, [110]
and acid‑insoluble acylcarnitine (AIAC)
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 23 of 38
Table 4. Cont.
Fermented Products Functionality Study Types Consumption Health Effects of Fermented Foods References
• Decrease in amount of visceral fat
Vinegar Obesity In vivo Tomato vinegar • Lowered the arteriosclerosis index [111]
• Increase in HDL‑C/TC ratio
• Antioxidant activity:
increase in DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging
activity
Vinegar Hangover In vivo Cucumber vinegar [112]
• Lowered levels of ammonia and lactic acid
• Relieved hangover symptoms by increasing
aldehyde dehydrogenase activity
Plum vinegar • Decrease in lactic acid, ammonia, and inorganic
Vinegar Anti‑fatigue In vivo When the administration of plum vinegar and phosphoric acid [113]
exercise were combined • Increase in endurance function
• Inhibited accumulation of lipids (TC, LDL‑C,
and TG)
Vinegar Anti‑fatigue In vivo Persimmon vinegar [114]
• Improved glycogen storage capacity
(increase in muscle and liver glycogen content)
• Increased endurance by 56% and significantly
reduced serum fatigue
Cucumber vinegar substances compared to the exercise‑only group
Vinegar Anti‑fatigue In vivo In animals subjected to high‑intensity exercise, • Increased glycogen re‑synthesis in the liver and [115]
the administration of cucumber vinegar muscles, and
• increased LDH and creatine kinase in muscle
tissue
• Reduced ammonia, inorganic phosphates, and
Diet‑induced obese mice: lactate in the blood
Vinegar Anti‑fatigue In vivo [116]
(tomato vinegar) • Increased LDH in muscles and maintained ATP
in muscle cells
Abbreviation: ABTS, 2,2’‑azino‑bis‑3‑ethylbenzothiazoline‑6‑sul‑ phonic acid; ACC mRNA, Acetyl‑CoA carboxylase mRNA; ACE, Angiotensin Convert Enzyme; AD, Atopic Der‑
matitis; AGTR2, Angiotensin II Receptor 2; AGTR2, Angiotensin II Receptor 2; AIAC, Acid‑insoluble Acylcarnitine; AOM/DSS, Azoxymethane/Dextran sodium sulfate; Apo A1,
Apolipoprotein A1; Apo B, Apolipoprotein B; BMI, Body Mass Index; CK, Creatine Kinase; CPT‑I mRNA, Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase I mRNA; CRP, C‑Reactive Protein; FPG, Fast‑
ing Blood Glucose; GSH, Glutathione Sulfhydryl; GSSG, glutathione disulfide; HMG CoA, 3‑Hydroxy‑3‑Methyl Glutaryl Coenzyme A; IBS, Irritable Bowel Syndrome; IL‑4, Interlukin‑4;
IL‑6, Interlukin‑6; IL‑10, Interlukin‑10; IL‑12, Interlukin‑12; IL‑17a, Interlukin‑17a; LDH, Lactic Dehydrogenase; MCP‑1, Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein‑1; MNNG, N‑Methyl‑N’‑
Nitro‑N‑Nitrosoguanidine; NK‑cell, Natural Killing Cell; NO, Nitric Oxide; PPARα, Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor α; DPPH, 2,2‑diphenyl‑1‑picrylhydrazyl; RAS, Renin‑
Angiotensin System; RCT, Randomized Controlled Trial; SREBP‑1, Sterol Regulatory Element Binding Protein; TBARS, TBA reactive substance; TLR4, Toll‑Like Receptor 4; TNF‑r,
Tumor Necrosis Factor Gamma; TNF‑α, Tumor Necrosis Factor –α; UCP‑1, Uncoupling Protein‑1; WC, Waist Circumference.
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 24 of 38
3.1. Hypertension
The high salt content of jang may constitute a health concern. However, previous re‑
search indicated a limited correlation between jang intake and hypertension [65,74].
Nonetheless, the duration of fermentation and salt content have an effect on blood pressure.
In an animal model, mice treated with 8% common salt showed significantly higher blood
pressure than those treated with 8% ganjang [65]. Thus, the effect of the salt in ganjang on
sodium metabolism may differ compared to table salt. In another investigation, doenjang
supplementation decreased blood pressure and controlled the renin–angiotensin system
(RAS) better than general salt [73,74]. Specifically, doenjang with a longer fermentation
duration was more effective in lowering blood pressure than doenjang with a shorter fer‑
mentation period. These findings can be attributed to the presence of arginine–proline,
which inhibits RAS activity [117]. Furthermore, additional investigations are required to
understand the effects of salt concentration in ganjang and doenjang on health. However,
cheonggukjang appeared superior to boiled soybeans in regulating blood pressure as va‑
line and tyrosine produced during fermentation inhibit angiotensin‑converting enzyme
(ACE) activity. In hypertensive rats, the administration of cheonggukjang effectively re‑
duced blood pressure more than boiled soybeans [118]. Furthermore, the consumption of
gochujang inhibited the ACE activity and suppressed thrombolysis and platelet aggrega‑
tion [118]. Similarly, reports suggest that kimchi can alleviate blood pressure by increasing
the inhibitory action of ACE [119]. Recently, the National Health and Nutrition Examina‑
tion Survey (2007–2012) for Koreans showed a correlation between kimchi consumption
and hypertension in Korean adults. In this survey, hypertension was low among those
who regularly consumed kimchi [58]. However, due to the salt concentration in kimchi,
a few investigations refute the positive impacts of kimchi on hypertension [59]. Hence,
further investigations are necessary to understand the correlation between hypertension
and kimchi consumption. Despite some contradictions, consumption of kimchi had much
greater beneficial effects on MS‑related blood pressure.
3.2. Obesity
The influence of kimchi on body weight depends on the degree of fermentation, and
the ingredients used during preparation play a critical role in its beneficial effects. In an in‑
vestigation on high‑fat‑diet‑induced animals, kimchi inhibited the synthesis of
adipocytes [120]. Additionally, kimchi containing red pepper revealed significantly re‑
duced body weight and perinephric fat pads [120]. These results were due to capsaicin,
an active compound in red pepper, and an accumulated metabolite during fermentation.
Furthermore, capsaicin in red pepper powder stimulates the spinal nerves and secretion
of catecholamine, promoting energy consumption and fat loss [120]. In a clinical investiga‑
tion, the consumption of fermented kimchi by obese individuals suppressed the expression
of obesity‑related genes [51,52,54,121,122]. In addition, kimchi consumption significantly
improved metabolic disease indexes, such as HDL‑C, insulin, CRP, and blood pressure [51].
Furthermore, aged kimchi demonstrated a substantial effect on weight, BMI, blood pres‑
sure, body fat percent, fasting blood glucose, and TC than fresh kimchi [52,54]. There‑
fore, these observations confirm that thoroughly fermented kimchi has a greater beneficial
effect on obesity, lipid metabolism, and inflammatory response than mildly fermented/
fresh kimchi.
Doenjang potentially reduces risk factors associated with metabolic diseases, but the
degree of protection depends on the fermentation time. Fermented doenjang promoted
the β‑oxidation process more than unfermented soybeans. Thus, it was more effective
in decreasing visceral fat accumulation and increasing the lipid metabolism index than
unfermented soybeans [76]. Clinically, the consumption of doenjang showed an exten‑
sive anti‑obesity effect [77]. Here, the CT images clearly revealed that the consumption
of 9.8 g of doenjang per day for 12 weeks reduced the visceral fat by 8.6 cm2 , which was
about 8 times lower than that of the placebo group. In particular, the polymorphism of the
obesity‑related genes PPAR‑γ2 [78] and UCP‑1 [79] influenced lipogenesis. Additionally,
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 25 of 38
in obese people with mutant alleles, doenjang intake was more efficient at lowering body
fat. Therefore, it was suggested that a personalized diet needs to be based on the variations
in the obesity gene.
Furthermore, the physiological activity of fermented gochujang against obesity was
significantly higher than that of non‑fermented gochujang and red pepper powder (cap‑
saicin). Additionally, several reports indicate that the anti‑obesity impact of traditionally
prepared gochujang outweighs commercial gochujang. The activity against obesity could
be due to the synergistic effect of the non‑glycoside isoflavones of meju, the capsaicinoid
component of red pepper, and metabolites produced during fermentation [123]. Capsaicin
may have lowered body fat, while gochujang’s secondary metabolites may have influ‑
enced energy and glucose metabolism. However, gochujang’s additional components may
have a significant role in obesity prevention [123,124]. Gochujang prepared with giant em‑
bryo rice koji showed a higher anti‑obesity effect than the gochujang prepared with wheat
koji [125,126]. Additionally, a gochujang with giant embryo rice Nuruk and soybean Nu‑
ruk showed greater anti‑obesity effects than gochujang made with Tabasco hot sauce [127].
Hence, the ingredients used in making gochujang are crucial to its health benefits. A clini‑
cal trial revealed a lowered risk of cardiovascular disease when obese adults consumed 32
g of gochujang per day for 12 weeks. This treatment reduced the area of abdominal visceral
fat and visceral, subcutaneous fat more than the placebo group [87]. A recent investigation
demonstrated that the consumption of gochujang lowered visceral fat and improved the
lipid profile [88]. Furthermore, the administration of cheonggukjang in obesity‑induced
animal models showed an anti‑obesity effect and improved lipid metabolism [98,128–131].
Clinically, the consumption of cheonggukjang pills (about 35 g/day) for 12 weeks improved
obesity and indexed lipid metabolism (Apo B) [96]. In particular, Apo A1, an index of lipid
metabolism, increased in men and Apo B significantly decreased in women, confirming the
improvement effect of arteriosclerosis indexes [96].
Persimmon vinegar is a representative fruit vinegar from Korea. It is rich in organic
acids, such as acetic, citric, and malic acids, which effectively regulate weight and blood
glucose levels. Additionally, persimmon vinegar improves lipid metabolism by regulat‑
ing TG, TC, and acid‑insoluble acylcarnitine (AIAC). The acetyl‑CoA carboxylase (ACC)
mRNA level was also lower in the persimmon fruit group, suggesting anti‑obesity prop‑
erties [110]. Moreover, tomato vinegar beverages reduced excessive fat accumulation in
obese mice, as indicated by the increased HDL‑C/TC ratio, decreased visceral fat content,
and improved arteriosclerosis index [111].
Moreover, an investigation by Park and coworkers revealed Lactobacillus plantarum
LG42 isolated from flatfish sikhae, a type of jeotgal (salted fish), confirmed to reduce body
fat accumulation in obese mice. Furthermore, the levels of leptin and SREBP‑1‑related
metabolic factors were decreased, while the mRNA expression of hepatic PPARα and CPT‑
I significantly increased in obese mice with Lactobacillus plantarum LG42 isolated from flat‑
fish sikhae [108]. Additionally, Bacillus velezensis BS2 lactobacillus isolated from sea squirt
jeotgal showed an anti‑thrombotic effect and increased salt resistance [109]. Despite sev‑
eral preliminary investigations on salted seafood products associated with lactic acid bacte‑
ria, more large‑scale studies are necessary to understand and confirm the beneficial effects.
jang by obese adults with mutations in the proliferator activator receptor‑γ (PPARγ2) gene
improved their insulin sensitivity and helped to regulate blood glucose levels [89].
Cheonggukjang is rich in dietary fiber and has a low‑glycemic‑index value, making it
an excellent food for blood glucose management. Cheonggukjang effectively prevented di‑
abetic complications, regulated enzymes associated with glucose metabolism in the liver,
and increased insulin sensitivity in diabetic animal models [133–137]. The presence of
trypsin inhibitor in cheonggukjang enhances insulin secretion and sensitivity, which helps
to manage blood glucose levels. Clinically, the consumption of cheonggukjang for eight
weeks significantly reduced fasting blood glucose (FBG), TC, and LDL‑C levels [97]. More‑
over, cheonggukjang improves insulin resistance by suppressing a‑glucosidase activity in
the small intestine [98]. In addition, cucumber vinegar has been demonstrated to have
anti‑diabetic effects via insulin regulation [138].
3.5. Impact of Fermented Foods on Nutrients, Gut Microbiome, and Irritable Bowel
Syndrome (IBS)
Microorganisms play a crucial role in the making of fermented foods. Microbes act on
various biological materials that exhibit diverse biological effects. Kimchi has a sizable pop‑
ulation of beneficial microorganisms that act as probiotics and improve intestinal health.
The presence of lactic acid bacteria in kimchi that survive and reach the large intestine help
to reduce intestinal pH, inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria, and inhibit the absorption
of toxins in the intestine. The synergistic action of fiber and beneficial organisms is respon‑
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 27 of 38
sible for these unique effects. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a gastrointestinal disorder
characterized by chronic abdominal pain and altered bowel movement without cause. In
one of the clinical investigations, intake of kimchi by IBS patients for 12 weeks relieved IBS
symptoms, such as abdominal pain, abdominal discomfort, decreased intestinal peristal‑
sis, constipation, or abdominal distension. Moreover, it significantly reduced the level of
TNF‑α, one of the inflammatory cytokines that increase during IBS [55]. Similarly, the con‑
sumption of kimchi with dead nano‑sized Lactobacillus plantarum nF1 for 12 weeks reduced
serum inflammatory cytokines, harmful fecal enzyme activities, and promoted the growth
of Bifidobacterium adolescentis in the gut [57]. Furthermore, the intake of 210 g of kimchi
per day for four weeks in IBS patients is known to lower the pH, and concentrations of glu‑
cosidase and β‑glucuronidase causing colon cancer. Moreover, the consumption of kimchi
significantly improved lactic acid and Bifidobacterium bacterial populations, while harm‑
ful enzymes, such as β‑glucosidase and β‑glucuronidase, were significantly reduced [49].
Together, these observations showed that the consumption of kimchi benefits the intestinal
environment and colon health.
Doenjang demonstrates several physiological functions due to fermentation‑derived
metabolites and soybeans. The major physiologically active substances in doenjang are
phytoestrogen and 12 isoflavone isomers, including trypsin inhibitors, vitamin E, unsatu‑
rated fatty acids, daidzein, genistein, and glycitein [23,146]. Specifically, isoflavones are
converted to aglycone forms, such as genistein, and daidzein, during the fermentation
process of doenjang. Generally, vitamin K2 and vitamin B12 are rarely present in soy‑
beans. However, they are produced by microorganisms during fermentation. Moreover,
the isoflavone content of cheonggukjang is approximately 21 times higher than that of
boiled soybeans [147]. The absorption rate of isoflavones in boiled soybeans decreases
when they are bound to sugar. However, during soybean fermentation, the enzymes that
remove sugars change to genistein and daidzein, which increases digestion and absorp‑
tion in the body, further enhancing physiological activity. Additionally, the consumption
of cheonggukjang stew showed a higher absorption rate due to higher concentrations of
isoflavone metabolites in the blood [90]. Bacillus sp. in Cheonggukjang enhances intesti‑
nal function, and insoluble dietary fiber shortens the colon transit time, improving overall
intestinal health. In addition, there are about 100 billion germs per 100 g of cheongguk‑
jang, which increases beneficial microorganisms in the intestine and eases intestinal move‑
ment [144,148]. Additionally, cheonggukjang promotes intestinal peristaltic motion and
increases Bifidobacteria, which helps suppress the proliferation of harmful bacteria in the
intestines [148]. Previous studies on cheonggukjang suggest that the regular consumption
of cheonggukjang alleviates inflammatory colitis symptoms, such as weight loss, intestinal
bleeding, and bowel abnormalities [149]. Together, these findings indicate the potential of
cheonggukjang as a functional food.
Jeotgal is a low‑calorie food, rich in essential amino acids, such as lysine and threonine,
and has an umami taste due to presence of natural glutamic acid, alanine, and glycine [150].
The free amino acid content in jeotgal doubles after 72 days of fermentation. For instance,
essential amino acids, such as lysine, glutamic acid, methionine, alanine, aspartic acid,
and leucine, increase by about 1.3~5.8 times after 72 days of fermentation [103]. The fer‑
mentation process influences the conversion of phytochemicals into functional byproducts,
improving jeotgal’s health benefits. Recently, jeotgal has been identified as a distinct fer‑
mented food with exceptional health benefits.
cer showed significantly lowered gastric mucosal ulcerations and erosive gastric lesions.
Moreover, CPK reduced gastritis‑linked inflammatory markers IL‑1β, IL‑6, and MMP‑2,
reducing the risk of gastric cancer and inflammation [152]. Thus, kimchi can aid in al‑
leviating cancer symptoms. Specifically, fermented kimchi has a more robust, positive
influence than raw or fresh kimchi. Additionally, fermentation byproducts, such as sul‑
foraphane (cabbage), allicin (garlic), capsaicin (pepper), and gingerol (ginger), favorably
interact with Nrf2, an antioxidant system in the human [153].
The anticancer activity of ganjang relies on several factors, including the type of gan‑
jang, fermentation period, and the use of raw materials during preparation. Previous stud‑
ies demonstrate the anticancer properties of ganjang against AOM/DSS‑induced colitis‑
associated colon cancer (CAC) in a mice model [58]. However, acid‑hydrolyzed ganjang
showed little impact in suppressing colon cancer, whereas fermented ganjang significantly
suppressed cancer. Furthermore, fermented ganjang with added sesame seeds (defatted
sesame seed extracts) exhibited greater anticancer properties [58]. In addition, ganjang
fermented with sesame seeds significantly reduced tumor necrosis factor‑α (TNF‑a) and
inflammatory cytokines (IL‑6, IL‑17‑α) compared to acid‑hydrolyzed ganjang [67]. Specifi‑
cally, ganjang fermented with sesame seeds significantly increased the expression of colonic
p53, a tumor suppressor gene indicating stronger anticancer effects [67]. Interestingly, gan‑
jang aged more than 15 years significantly increased spleen cell proliferation and NK‑cell
activity compared to ganjang aged less than 15 years [154]. Moreover, the administra‑
tion of soy sauce‑derived polysaccharides demonstrated enhanced proliferative activity
of bone marrow cells, antioxidant activities, and anti‑inflammatory activities in rats [149].
Recently, in animals induced with colorectal cancer, the administration of ganjang made
with bay salt significantly increased apoptosis and had a greater inhibitory effect on colon
cancer than ganjang made with refined salt [155]. Collectively, these observations clearly
suggest the anticancer activity of ganjang.
Meju, a raw material used for doenjang, is highly susceptibility to aflatoxin‑producing
fungi. Chronic exposure to aflatoxin increases the risk of cancer. However, the fermenta‑
tion period determines the production of aflatoxins. The presence of microorganisms in
doenjang aged for more than a year delayed/restricted the aflatoxin production [156]. In‑
terestingly, the anticancer and antimetastasis activities of doenjang are high due to the
extended fermentation period [157]. In an animal model, the inhibition rate of cancer cells
was observed to be 19% in doenjang prepared after 6 months of fermentation, while it
was 38% in 2‑year‑old doenjang. The lung anti‑metastasis effect was 72% for 6‑month
fermented doenjang and 82% for 24‑month fermented doenjang [72]. Doenjang has been
shown to have liver detoxification and tumor suppression effects. In particular, doenjang
administration in animals induced with rectal cancer increased the level of immune‑related
cytokines. Additionally, doenjang administration significantly inhibited the activity of var‑
ious human‑derived cancer cells (liver, breast, prostate, lung, stomach, and colon cancers).
Moreover, doenjang is effective in anti‑cancer activity by reducing oxidative stress and
significantly increasing NK‑cell activity linked to cancer cell removal [158–167].
The anticancer and tumor metastasis inhibitory effects of gochujang depend on the
preparation method. It is widely accepted that the longer the fermentation period, the
stronger the anticancer effects. Thus, traditional gochujang has stronger anticancer prop‑
erties than commercial gochujang. Gochujang treatment strongly inhibited cancer cell
growth in most cancer cells, including gastric, colorectal, lung, cervical, and liver can‑
cers [85,168,169]. As expected, traditional gochujang fermented for 6 months showed
stronger anticancer effects than commercially fermented and non‑fermented
gochujang [170,171]. The fermentation of jeotgal uses a high concentration of salt (20~30%),
and the bay salt used for jeotgal exhibits mutagenic activity when present with carcinogens.
Unfermented jeotgal can present mutagenic activity due to high concentrations of salt, but
fermented anchovy jeotgal has anti‑mutagenic activity [104]. Anchovy jeotgal is one of the
important ingredients of kimchi. The anti‑mutant effect of anchovy jeotgal is significantly
different depending on the fermentation period. Generally, anchovy is the main raw ma‑
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 29 of 38
terial used for jeotgal. Previous investigations on fermented pickled anchovy indicated
preventive effects on somatic mutation, while fresh, salted anchovies showed antimuta‑
genic effects in a Drosophila model. Jeotgal made with anchovies aged 6 and 12 months
showed 26.6% and 43.4% of antimutant activity, respectively [103]. Salted, raw anchovies
can cause mutations, but fermented, salted fish significantly increase the anti‑mutant effect,
demonstrating the significance of fermentation. The consumption of salted fish is known
to have a hepatocellular antitumor effect, and the effect is superior in traditional jeotgal
than that of commercial jeotgal [172]. Compared to commercial jeotgal, sikhae showed a
higher cell survival rate of about 77.6% in HepG2 cells. That is, the physiological activity
was significantly observed in the order of flatfish jeotgal, squid jeotgal, and small squid
jeotgal. The antitumor effects of sikhae differ depending on the ingredients employed in
its production. The presence of physiologically active grains, garlic, and red pepper in the
final product are thought to be responsible for the antitumor activity [172,173]. Addition‑
ally, proteins isolated from salted anchovy showed significant anticancer activity in can‑
cer cells (K‑562). In animal models, the administration of jeotgal from anchovy increased
phagocytic and NK‑cell activities, indicating an immune‑enhancing effect. Additionally,
isolated lactic acid bacteria demonstrated strong α‑fibrinogenase activity and moderate
β‑fibrinogenase activity [174]. Interestingly, the isoflavone content of cheonggukjang is
about twice that of steamed soybeans [147], and the antioxidant action was proportional
to polyphenol and isoflavone contents [142]. Fermentation produces free amino acids,
peptides, and phenolic acid, influencing antioxidant activity. Thus, the consumption of
cheonggukjang shows high antioxidant activity compared to steamed soybeans. Specifi‑
cally, Genistein, an isoflavone in cheonggukjang, inhibits superoxide anion formation and
removes hydrogen peroxide, improving antioxidant and lipid peroxidation [174]. Gener‑
ally, phenolic compounds found in fruits and vegetables exert antioxidant effects. Animal‑
based phenolic compounds are rare, but salted anchovies contain phenolic compounds
and proteins that exert significant antioxidant activity [104]. Additionally, glutamic acid
and lysine in salted fish showed strong anticancer activity than the fermented soy products.
In Korea, yellow Corvina is widely used as compensatory raw material for jeotgal, which
has improved scavenging activity due to the Maillard reaction during fermentation [105].
Furthermore, anchovy jeotgal contains large quantities of amino acids, such as threonine,
glutamic acid, lysine, serine, and proline, which are present as ACE inhibitors and regulate
blood pressure [175].
3.7. Influence of Fermented Foods on Immunity, Immune Respose, and Allergic Response
It is easy to acquire colds, chronic fatigue, and infectious diseases if immunity declines.
According to the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2007–2011),
the prevalence of asthma in adults who consumed more than 40 g of Kimchi per day was
lower than the adults who consumed less than 40 g of kimchi per day [60]. In addition, the
correlation between kimchi intake and atopic dermatitis was confirmed in Korean adults
aged 19–49 years [61]. Additionally, individuals who consumed 85~160 g of kimchi per day
had a 0.68 times lower risk of developing atopic dermatitis than those who consumed only
0~36 g. In addition, the prevalence of allergic rhinitis decreased by 0.81 times in individuals
who consumed 108~180 g of kimchi per day compared to those who consumed 0~23.7 g per
day [62]. These observations strongly suggest that an increase in kimchi consumption is
directly associated with a reduction in the severity of atopic dermatitis, asthma, and rhini‑
tis. In addition, the consumption of doenjang is believed to enhance immunity. Surfactin
derived from Bacillus subtilis in doenjang has been has been proved to be effective against
influenza and Ebola [176]. This effect is a result of the Bowman Buck Inhibitor (BBI), a
serine protease inhibitor found in soybeans, which inhibits virus penetration by degrad‑
ing cell membranes. Furthermore, when doenjang was administered to high‑fat diet ani‑
mals; oxidative stress indexes and inflammatory‑related cytokines decreased significantly,
demonstrating anti‑inflammatory and antioxidant activity [80,177–179]. Moreover, tradi‑
tional doenjang contains immunomodulatory substances (KFSPs), which are not found in
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 30 of 38
steamed soybeans [180]. According to previous reports, KFSPs have a beneficial effect on
immune regulative action by enhancing the activities of cytokines [180,181].
Cheonggukjang contains a considerable amount of gamma‑PGA (γ‑PGA), a polymer
compound produced by a lactic acid bacteria, Bacillus subtilis, which exhibits immunomod‑
ulatory properties and promotes immunological function. Additionally, γ‑PGA stimu‑
lates IFN‑gamma and TLR4 (Toll‑like receptor 4) secretion, which improves NK‑cell activ‑
ity, leading to collective improvements in the immune system [181–183]. Cheonggukjang
helps to improve allergies (atopic dermatitis) caused by immune sensitivity [100,184]. In
an atopic dermatitis animal model, the administration of cheonggukjang suppressed the
expressions of serum Ig E, Th2 cytokine IL‑4, and itching‑related IL‑31 cytokines [184] that
appeared during an excessive immune response. Moreover, cheonggukjang pills (27 g/d
of fresh cheonggukjang) taken for 12 weeks significantly alleviated allergic reactions to
histamine [100].
Lactobacillus plantarum isolated from jeotgal exhibited broader‑ranging anti‑allergic ef‑
fects. Previous reports indicated that the administration of lactic acid bacteria isolated from
jeotgal alleviated ear edema and lowered serum Ig E levels in animal models [106]. In addi‑
tion, lactic acid bacteria from jeotgal exhibited anti‑inflammatory effects on atopic dermati‑
tis by increasing IFN‑γ production in CD4+T cells and increased IL‑12 levels in macrophages.
3.8. Influence of Fermented Foods on Oxidative Stress, Aging, and Memory Function
Oxidative stress is the cause of several diseases, including metabolic diseases, dia‑
betes, dementia, and cancer. Kimchi contains antioxidant compounds (vitamins C and
A), lactic acid bacteria, and accumulated metabolites that assist in removing free radi‑
cals. The degree of fermentation is presumed to affect the efficacy of kimchi as an an‑
tioxidant. Generally, aged kimchi had a greater antioxidant effect than fresh kimchi [185].
The administration of kimchi made with 30% mustard leaf showed anti‑aging effects by
suppressing the production of free radicals and increasing antioxidant enzyme activity
in mice brain [64]. This effect represented that cabbage kimchi made by adding 30% of
mustard leaves suppressed much more free radical production in the brain than standard
kimchi. Moreover, in an animal model of Alzheimer’s disease, the administration of kim‑
chi for 2 weeks considerably enhanced the objective cognitive ability [186]. Additionally,
the administration of kimchi suppressed the deterioration of the cranial nerve function
induced by Aβ‑25–35 and lipid peroxidation in the mice brain [186]. Thus, kimchi is ex‑
pected to play an important role in preventing aging‑related dementia and chronic diseases
in the brain.
Cheonggukjang contains large amounts of isoflavone, glycans, peptides, dietary fiber,
γ‑PGA, and microorganisms, which can control inflammation and oxidative stress better
than other soybean‑fermented foods. Cheonggukjang has high levels of γ‑PGA, which
enhances the brain’s insulin sensitivity and improves memory [187]. In addition, cheong‑
gukjang is known to relieve memory impairment induced by Alzheimer’s disease and
cerebral ischemia by modulating the gut–microbiome–brain axis. In aging‑induced ani‑
mal models, the administration of doenjang helped to protect the brain nerves by regu‑
lating gene expression in the production and degradation of amyloid beta in the brain
and reducing levels of β‑amyloid peptide (Aβ). In particular, doenjang had a greater in‑
hibitory effect on brain neurodegeneration than steamed soybeans [81]. These observa‑
tions clearly suggest that the consumption of doenjang enhanced brain neuroprotective
effects through physiologically active compounds produced during fermentation. Further‑
more, jeotgal was observed to improve cognitive function. Jeotgal prepared with Japanese
squid (Todarodes pacificus) with 2–4% salt indicated to have improved cognitive function in
dementia‑induced SD rats [107]. In this study, jeotgal made with Japanese squid reduced
memory degeneration, boosted long‑term memory activity, and greatly improved acetyl‑
choline levels in the brain. However, more clinical studies need to be done to understand
jeotgal’s functional relevance in terms of cognitive function.
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 31 of 38
Author Contributions: D.‑H.S., S.‑W.C. and S.‑J.J. conceived the review topic, performed the re‑
search, and wrote the manuscript; D.‑H.S. and S.‑J.J.; D.‑H.S. and S.‑W.C. supervised the work, and
revised and edited the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the “functional research of fermented soybean food (safety
monitoring)” under the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs and partly Korea Agro‑
Fisheries and Food Trade Corporation, grant number (Project No. PJ 202101). This research was
funded by Cooperative Research Program for Agriculture Science & Technology Development, grant
number (Project No. PJ010221), Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea.
Fermentation 2022, 8, 645 32 of 38
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