Vol. 13(1), pp.

37-42, January-June 2021

DOI: 10.5897/AJHC2020.0483
Article Number: A12D92466181
ISSN 2141-6672
Copyright ©2021
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article African Journal of History and Culture
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJHC

Review

The interface between Igbo traditional religion

and christianity
Nwuba Sr. MaryKristel Grace Chinyere
Theology Department, School of Liberal Art, Duquesne University Pittsburgh, United States.
Received 3 July, 2020 Accepted 7 December, 2020

The first encounter of Igbo Traditional Religion with Christianity and Western culture was marked by
antagonism and the rejection of Igbo traditional belief as “pagan” and “devilish.” A decisive overview
by some scholars on belief and worship systems shows that Igbo traditional religion has components
of monotheism, polytheism and pantheism. However, Igbo traditional religion proved resilient, even
while Christianity grew rapidly in Igbo cosmology. This paper assesses the encounter between
Christianity and Igbo traditional religion. It studies emergent issues in a dialogue between them. First, it
asks questions like: Was there a notion or worship of the true God in Igbo-land before the arrival of
Christianity? If so, who or what was this God (Chi/Chi-Ukwu/Chukwu) and what notion do people have
about Christian God? How does the Igbo belief in God, the spirit world and the ancestors? The human
relationship to these should be compared to the Christian faith. Contrary to antagonism and rejection
that marked the first encounter between Christianity and Igbo traditional belief, this study argues for a
relationship that needs to be identified with communal reverence, comprehension, acceptance, and
some level of free will, emancipation and authenticity in this postcolonial era.

Key words: Traditional religion, believe and worship of God, Christianity, salvation and dialogue.

INTRODUCTION

The rapid growth of Christianity in Igbo community and this study argues for a relationship that needs to be
the revival of Igbo traditional belief amidst persistent identified with communal reverence, comprehension,
tension, between them, call for an urgent need for acceptance and free will, emancipation and authenticity
dialogue. This paper is concerned with the encounter in this era. The general motive of Western missionaries
between Christianity and Igbo traditional religion in was in line with Jesus‟ mandate to his disciples: “go and
Nigeria. It is a study of the characteristics and necessity make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name
of Igbo traditional belief in God, human relationship, the of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit” (Matt.
spirit world, and ancestors‟ vis-à-vis the Christian religion. 28:18-20, Mk 16:15; Lk 24:27; Acts 1:8). However, the
Unlike the colonial encounter, which was marked by historical overview of the activities of the first missionaries
antagonism and the rejection of Igbo traditional belief, raises certain questions such as: Did they really

E-mail: [email protected].

Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License 4.0 International License
38 Afr. J. Hist. Cult.

understand Christ‟s injunction and how to relate it to their tusks, spices, and palm products. The British at that
fellow human beings? The encounter of the Igbo in the moment began to mingle trading with hostile imperialism
Southeastern Nigeria with the first missionaries will be a (Slattery, n.d.). Seeing the hinterland as productive, the
focal point to concretely answer the above question. British refused to be confined to the coast. As of 1900,
In analytical form, this work is divided into five parts. the area that had been administered by the British Niger
Part one dwells on the brief history of Igbo people. Part Company became the Protectorate on Southern Nigeria,
two centres on the main beliefs and practices of Igbo also incorporating what had been called the Niger Coast
Traditional Religion. Part three analyses the patterns of Protectorate. Control of this area then passed from the
change in Igbo society through contact with Christianity. British Foreign Office to the Colonial Office. Long before
Part four treats the interface between early missionaries it had officially been conquered, Igbo-land was being
and Igbo values and institutions. Finally, part five treated as a British colony (Slattery, n.d.).
emphasizes the dialogue of Christianity and Igbo There had been twenty-one British military troops
Traditional Religion: The way forward. among the Igbo people between 1900 and 1914, when
Northern and Southern Nigeria were amalgamated. In
1928, Igbo men were made to pay tax for the first time in
PART I: BRIEF HISTORY OF IGBO PEOPLE Igbo history (Slattery, n.d.). The rumours that the Igbo
women were being reviewed for taxation, gave rise to the
The origin of the Igbo people has been the subject of Aba women Riots of 1929.
much speculation, and it is only in the last fifty years that Edmund Ilogu stated that the Igbo include people from
any real work has been carried out on this subject. Igbo other migrants. Some scholars believed that the present
tribe is located in the Southeastern Nigeria and occupies Awka division, which includes Nri clan, and the Orlu
1
a geographical area known as Igbo-land. Igbo-land division, and another extensively travelled group of
which is the habitation of Igbo people is divided by River people of Nkwere and Amigbo (the main home of king
Niger into two unequal parts: The Eastern region and the Jaja of Opobo celebrity), is the centre of Igbo settlement.
Midwestern region. The Igbo-land is also surrounded by Thus, there came a spreading to the southern and the
other tribes like, Urhobo, Itsekiri, Ijaw, Ogoni, Igala, Tiv, eastern part of Igbo tribe. The current archeological
Yako and Ibibio. Elizabeth Isichei Alo in her book: A discoveries at Igboukwu which Professor Shaw
History of the Igbo People asserts that, there have been tentatively ascribes to the court of the Priest Kings of Nri
inhabitants in Igbo-land for at least five thousand years offer more credence to this theory (Edmund, 1974). Ilogu
since the creation of the world. The first human further stated that the different migrants came separately
inhabitants of Igbo must have come from the Niger and settled in the closest geographical units which
confluence. The earliest cradles of human occupancy in include Abakaliki, Onitsha, Enugu, Owerri and Umuahia
the Igbo area were the Cross River and the Anambra regions in the Eastern Central State, and fractions of
Valley-Nsukka escapement, where later Stone Age sites Benin, Warri, and other Delta regions in Midwestern
have been excavated (Isichei, 1976). As one of the Nigeria. The present Igbo population is above nine
largest ethnic groups in Africa, Igbo is associated with million.
2
many dialects. In rural Nigeria, Igbo people work mostly
as craftsmen, farmers, and traders, with some affluent
government workers. They produce yams, cassava, PART 11: MAIN BELIEFS AND PRACTICES OF IGBO
maize, different kinds of leguminous crops and other food TRADITIONAL RELIGION
stuff. Chibueze Udeala citing Nwala said that “the word
„Igbo‟ means the community of people (Udeani, 2007). The Igbo world, in its entire ramification, material, spiritual,
Igbo is a group of people working zealously to achieve and socio-cultural dimensions are made comprehensible
individual and community goals, respectively. by their cosmology, which elucidates how everything
Igbo people had first contact with Europeans in the came into being. Through it, the Igbo identify functions of
mid-fifteenth century with the advent of the Portuguese. the heavenly and earthly bodies and how to act with due
Starting with the Portuguese, the Niger coast served as a reverence to the gods, the spirits, and the ancestors
meeting point for slave trade among African and
(Uchendu, 1965). The core of Igbo traditional religion is
European traders, Dutch, and English, from 1434-1807.
the belief in the spiritual being and an ultimate reality
When the slave trade was abolished in 1807, the trade
known as “Chukwu” or “Chineke” which is the same entity
was shifted to industrial products like timber, elephant
as God in Christianity. Although the proper name of God
in Igbo is debatable as Aro-Chukwu, people claim that
1. There are two different spellings in Igbo studies: “Ibo and Igbo”. This is
the name is coined from them; this study focuses on the
traceable to the colonial era, when the white people found it difficult to name Chukwu or Chineke. Chukwu (high being or
pronounce the word “Igbo”. They finally ended up swallowing the „g‟ by Omnipotent) or Chineke (creator being) in Igbo is
pronouncing and writing it as „Ibo‟. The technically more correct
pronunciation, „Igbo‟ is chosen in this work since many Igbos prefer it that
way as contrary to the wrong „Ibo‟ spelling of the colonial era. 2. Ilogu, Christianity and Igbo Culture, 2.
 Nwuba 39

believed to be the creator of the whole universe. To from Chi and Ukwu which can be described as Supreme
express their connection and emanation from Chukwu, God.
typical Igbo parents always express their gratitude by the Igbo Traditional Religion believes in moral
type of name they give to their children like Chukwuebuka righteousness as conserved in the Omenala or Omenani,
“God is great”, Chinyere “God‟s gift or God has given”, which is the Igbo code of conduct. They also believe in
Chibuikem “God is my strength”, AkaNsoChwukwu “Holy the practice of medicine popularly called ọgwu and in the
hand of God”, Ngozichukwu “God‟s blessing” and many sacred personages which include the priests, diviners,
5
others. and medicine men. The idea that Igbo traditional
Immediately in rank after Chukwu are the small gods religious practices believe in different spiritual beings
known as divinities, which are believed to be created by (gods), elicited an argument among scholars on the
Chukwu and they serve as his agents. Ala (the Earth name to be ascribed to this religion. As earlier indicated,
goddess) is outstanding among the divinities since she is a critical analysis by the scholars that is cantered on
the most powerful of all. She is the custodian of Igbo belief and worship systems portrays that Igbo traditional
morality and a very merciful mother due to her provisions religion has constituents of monotheism, polytheism, and
and intercession for her children. In Igbo culture, some pantheism. Moreover, Igbo people traditionally believe
moral offences that are committed by people are that the earth is Chukwu‟s footstool; this is a typical
regarded as deification of the land (ilunso ala). Bearing in pantheistic religious outlook. They often use some words
mind that Ala as a divinity can serve as an intermediary in affirming Chukwu‟s greatness like Eze bi n‟Igwe ogodo
between people and Chukwu, a typical Igbo person often ya n‟akpu n‟ala (The King who seats on high and his
feels himself or herself secure when standing and being clothes touches the ground). Igbo religion is polytheistic
in touch with the Earth to ask for favors or make as the Igbo religious world is alive with many gods which
appeasements to Chukwu for some offences committed. the people worship. These gods serve as agents or
Other Igbo divinities are comprised of Anyanwu (sun messengers on behalf of the people in relation to
god), Amadioha (god of thunder sky), and Kamalu (god of Chukwu, the great God.
Thunder).
Subsequent to the divinities are the ancestors who are
the most cherished spiritual beings in Igbo traditional PART III: PATTERNS OF CHANGE IN IGBO SOCIETY
religion. The ancestors are the dead and departed elders THROUGH CONTACT WITH CHRISTIANITY
of families (Umunna). They are consequently called Ndi
3
nna anyi ha (our fathers or our forefathers). Next to the Igbo emerged as a tribe which acknowledged and
ancestors are the oracles. The existence of oracles is still accepted the traditional religion of their forefathers. This
felt in most Igbo religious practices even in this modern religion remained intact and continued in existence prior
era. Different Igbo towns and villages have local oracles to the arrival of Europeans. The foreigners who came
4
associated with them. There are also different types of from Europe were the explorers, the merchants, the
spirits that the Igbo believe in. These spirits are believed administrators, the imperialists, and missionaries. They
to have the capability to harm or affect human lives. opened the country to Western development and
Amongst these spirits is chi, the individual god of each civilization by initiating new systems of government and
Igbo person that unites him or her with Chukwu. Chi who new religions. These foreign forces inflicted derision on
is believed to be either male or female could determine the traditional religion, categorizing them as heathenism,
6
the future life of everyone. Igbo religion is rooted in the paganism, uncivilized, and of the evil one. Thus, the
belief and worship of, Chi-ukwu, the „Great Chi‟ or the merchants, the administrators and the missionaries acted
„Great God‟. Chi is the fundamental nature of “Chukwu” as a team to repress the traditional religion and to
which is known as divine essence. Chukwu is coined enforce Christianity.
The Igbo of Southeastern Nigeria were attracted to
Christianity because of European ideas of establishment
3. Ancestors are respected by living Igbo family members through sacrifices of schools, free education, and free medical care. The
and prayers. Additionally, living family members often request their ancestors Western teachings in schools and in Christianity made
through prayer for safeguard/protection, providence for life sustenance and
general well-being. With constant venerations through sacrifices and prayers,
Igbo children see the cultural practices of their parents as
the ancestors always remain alive in the family and can perform all that is demonic. Western colonization of Igbo continued in 1914
expected of them by the inhabitants of their family. The cult of ancestor is very before the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939.
important in Igbo and not all people are admitted to that cult. For example, to This colonization was well stabilized both in the social
be admitted into the cult of ancestor, the person must have been married with
children while he was alive and noted with good life. Those who killed
and economic life of the people. Many schools and
themselves, wicked and evil people are not admitted into the cult of ancestors.
Good life is an essential criterion for the admission into the cult of ancestor in 5. Good medicine people are often recommended and are consulted by the
Igbo for it is regarded as a sacred cult by the Igbos. people for healing or any other health issues while bad ones are often feared
4 . Oracle is a prophecy that is often obscure or allegorical, made known since they make a medicine that can be detrimental to human life.
through the instrumentality of a priest or priestess at the shrine of a god. A 6 . Council for World Religion, ed. Joseph Omosade, African Traditional
priest or priestesses acting as a medium through whom prophecy or advice was Religions in Contemporary Society (New York: Paragon House, 1991), 111-
sought from the god. 112.
40 Afr. J. Hist. Cult.

colleges were built for the education and training of be born more than one at a time; only lower animals like
Christian children. The Second World War depleted the hens, goats, dogs, and the rest should give birth to more
number of expatriate missionaries and this granted some than one at a time. The twin children would be destroyed;
Igbo Christians the opportunity to hold the educational otherwise, the land that had been defiled would incur the
and administrative posts which were formerly handled by rage of the ancestral spirits, which would cause an
7
European missionaries. epidemic for the community, since the “natural” concord
Igbo educated elites then, started increasing in number between human, the spirit world, and the universe, had
12
and most of them were very cruel to the missionaries. For been shattered. The new converts to Christianity were
example, “The West African Pilot”, a nationalistic advised to disobey this custom. It became a long-lasting
newspaper founded in 1937 by Nnamdi Azikiwe, an Igbo war between Christians and Igbo Indigenes which even
trained in the United States, became influential and was a took some lives. However at the end, with the aid of
ready medium for much critical opinion about the work of Charles Taylor, Mary-Slassor and some indigenous
8
the missions.” Private individuals and the government converts, the killing of twins is now a historical event in
13
started opening and owning schools which later Igbo cosmology.
transitioned from being the church‟s form of
evangelization to a lucrative business. This led to the
desertion of the efficient teachings of Christian doctrines Human sacrifice
until after the 1967-1970 Nigerian civil war, when the
schools were finally taken over by the government. According to Ilogu, three types of human sacrifice had
Churches, mostly European based, then started acquiring existed in Igbo culture before the arrival of Christianity.
ideas that made them appear more indigenous by The first was the sacrifice of atonement when excessive
adapting to certain cultures and some Igbo traditional abomination to the land had led to violation of concord
9
practices. In a bid to indigenize the churches, some between the spirit world and the community. The second
personalities in the church were requested to take some was when chiefs and some noblemen holding the Ozo
10
bigger features of Igbo cultures like the Ozo title. title were buried with their slaves. It was supposed that
Christianity, therefore, is portrayed as an inductive such slaves would also serve their masters in the life
forceful change in Igbo land. after death. The third was the use of human sacrifice to
appease the gods of oracles. The missionaries suffered a
great deal to convince people that human sacrifice is not
PART IV: THE INTERFACE BETWEEN EARLY good. Some even paid huge amounts of money before
14
MISSIONARIES AND IGBO VALUES AND they were able to rescue somebody. This missionary‟s
INSTITUTIONS struggle still occurs in the present century because some
wicked people still engage in human sacrifice for their
Igbo culture is a system in which traditional religion laid selfish gains.
the basis of moral and social behaviour even before the
arrival of Christianity. There was a clear understanding of
social and cultural identification and the principles of Burials
socialization among people. This was diluted with the
arrival of missionaries and traders from 1857 onwards. Christians were taught to desist from paying the extended
Plurality of religious beliefs and value concepts were family and village levies for various activities since a
recorded for the first time. Igbo traditional belief and piece is used in sacrifice to idols. Part of the levy is also
social control methods like divination and consultation of for some activities that are related to burials, like the
oracles were challenged by Christianity. The cult of masquerades. There was a great pandemonium when
11
ancestors was also challenged. Following the studies of many leaders of the family became Christians and were
Ilogu, some beliefs, values and institutions that were not allowed by the catechesis of the missionaries to carry
shattered by Christianity can be pointed out as follows: out the second funeral of their fathers. Ilogu further stated
that, “in a meeting held at Onitsha in May 1914, it was
resolved and adopted after several sections that the
Twin killing government was asked to make a law that Christian heirs
inherit the property, pay debts of the deceased (father or
15
Ilogu cited that it was an old Igbo custom to destroy twins brother) and live out the burial.” Consequently, a
because it was considered unnatural for human beings to valuable possibility was missed in incorporating this

12. Ibid., 64.

7. Ilogu, Christianity and Igbo culture, 55-60. 13. Ilogu, 64-65.
8. Ibid., 60. 14. Ibid.
9. Ilogu, 62. 15 . Ilogu., 67-68. Cf. “Minutes of the Church and Native Customs
10. Ibid., 62-63 Conference,” May 12, 1914, C.M.S. Ozala, Onitsha Nigeria, typed script in the
11. Ibid., 63-64. C.M.S. archives at Onitsha unpublished Mss,16.
 Nwuba 41

native custom into the Church in a formal way. Christians This act is still in existence, but it is carried out in the
in various Igbo communities still perform the second church headed by the priest.
burial to maintain the traditional practice of past
generations even without official approval by the church.
Nonetheless, some do it in the form of a memorial service The Ọzọ title
by going to the church to pray for the dead and later
16
come home to eat and celebrate. The Ọzọ title in Igbo-land is comparable to the peerage in
English society, with the same social status of “Lord”. A
name with an insignia is given to the Ọzọ man at the
Etiquette successful end of the title taking. The converted Ọzọ title
holders to Christianity were then encouraged to renounce
An additional Igbo value which the missionaries attacked their title and burn their insignia. The Roman Catholic
through their catechesis, particularly through the school Church has worked out some acceptable
children, was the respect for seniors, parents and accommodations on the issue of the Ọzọ title. Father
traditional rulers like kings and chiefs. According to Ilogu, Shanahan who later became the Catholic bishop of
an illustration can be taken from an incident at Onitsha in Onitsha in 1911 recommended that Christians should be
1863 about which J.C. Taylor had made some 20
structured to outline their own kind of Ọzọ. A system
comments. The King of Onitsha, his first son, and was finally worked out whereby Roman Catholics could
progenies were sitting by the King‟s square when a group take the Ọzọ title in a Christian way. Such practice was
parading through the town came closer. The Prince‟s son accepted in most catholic diocese among the Igbo people
“Odita,” stood up and bowed his head before his father (Egbo, 1971). Although this is an achievement in an effort
and grandfather, the King. Odita was questioned why he to incorporate cultural values to Christianity, but most
did not do the customary courtesy to the king which was Christian communities still detest the practice. This is
to kneel and bow the head to the ground in front of the because of untruthfulness among some of their members
King. He answered that he was taught at school that who claims to have done it in Christian way, but later
kneeling was only for prayer and bowing down in deep went in secret to do it in pure traditional setting.
reverence was only done to God. They were perplexed Conflicts often emerge between the cultural heritage of
by such an attitude, while Taylor was satisfied. This was Igbo and Christianity. The quest for the authenticity of the
17
reflected in Taylor‟s journal for December 29, 1863. doctrine often raises difficult questions for the
Furthermore, the children who went to school were messengers of Christianity. Does Christianity not emerge
deprived of the opportunity to engage in different as a foreign body in Igbo culture and religion? Is God,
activities with their peers, like initiation into the who is the foundation of all positive things in Igbo cultural
masquerade group, learning the social and cultic dances patrimony, not at the same time the author of the
and the various assistant responsibilities that are linked Christian revelation? In addressing this question, Paul VI
to different celebrations, sacrifices and the community (1965) in Nostra Aetate declares that, “the Catholic
reverence of clan and family gods. The missionaries Church rebuffs nothing that is true and holy in these
further initiated the idea of boarding schools which religions. She observes with genuine reverence ways of
allowed the children to be socialized in Western values acting and living, rules and doctrines which, though may
18
and customs. differ on many points from what the Church teaches but it
often reflects a ray of truth enlightening all men.
However, she proclaims and is bound to proclaim without
Political and social control of institutions ceasing Christ who is „the way, the truth and life‟ (Jn.
14:6) (Paul, 1965). This work is of the opinion that
Christians were taught never to swear an oath in shrines. respectful dialogue and accommodation is needed for the
New converts to Christianity started cutting down the peaceful coexistence of Christianity and Igbo Traditional
trees in the various groves and religious shrines as an Religion.
attestation of their religious belief (Ekechi, 1972). The
issue of oath swearing was later treated in a conference
held at Onitsha in May 1914. The government was told to PART V: THE DIALOGUE OF CHRISTIANITY AND
find a way of adjudication for Christians and they finally IGBO TRADITIONAL RELIGION: THE WAY FORWARD
ended up with the notion that Christians will only swear in
19
the British colonial court on the Bible to be acquitted. Christianity has contributed a lot in modernizing some
ethos in Igbo traditional religion through dialogue, like the
issue of twins and burial of an elderly person. Yet it has
16. Ibid., 68. deprived some younger minds of the opportunity to
17. Ibid., 68. Cf. C.M.S. CA 3/037 Taylor‟s Entry for 29 th December 1863.
18. Ilogu.,69.
identifying with their cultural heritage through the school
19. Ilogu, 70. Cf. Conference Report, C.M.S. Archives Onitsha, unpublished
Mss, 9. 20. Ibid., 72.
42 Afr. J. Hist. Cult.

system and the general destruction of some shrines and normal expression of Christian virtues. In this way, the
other ethos that guides people‟s behaviour in the society. Church in Igbo-land can hope to become an indigenous
Since the Catholic Church has recognized rays of truth Church. Therefore, with due respect and acceptance,
and salvation in other different religious, as was Igbo Traditional religious group and Christians in Igbo-
elaborated above, a dialogue which will be chiefly marked land can select some representatives and dialogue some
with respect and freedom will help Christianity and Igbo issues affecting them in order to live more peacefully as
Traditional Religion to exist peacefully in a collaborative worshippers of the same God.
ministry as worshippers of God.
The provisional approval given by the Roman Catholic
Church to their members to take a Christian kind of the CONCLUSION
Ọzọ title as earlier indicated is a good sign of tolerance By imbibing into its symbolic and cultural life, the living
and accommodation among Christians and Igbo institutions of the people‟s way of life, there will be the
traditionalists in this present era. The general line of elimination of the offensive practice of Christians being
approach now is that all Christians who are capable divorced from their own culture. The Church will then turn
should be allowed to take a common type of the Ọzọ title. out to be the spiritual force from which those cultural
In a bid to infiltrate Christian normative values into the institutions acquire new creativity. In this regard,
cultural life of the Igbo, the Ọzọ title needs to be included Christians can then see how their accustomed traditions
in Christian value as part of the Christianization of Igbo can serve as a new avenue for the exaltation of God in
life. This research suggests that the Christians need to Jesus Christ. There may be opposition from non-
provide suitable religious principles for their Indigenous Christians who are westernized, who despise religion as
Igbo members in that regard for proper collaboration, well as Christianity, since its tenets are contrary to their
21
acceptance, and cohabitation. This idea of dialogue more positivistic way of thinking. In light of this, they will
between Igbo traditional religion and Christianity may try to debunk such ethical guidance from the Christian
sound unrealistic, but this paper believes in the power of perspectives. To this end, this study has already exposed
human decision and action. Once there is a consensus to how Christian moral catechesis should assemble its first
carry out such an innovation devoid of prejudice and lessons of moral instruction for the common good devoid
selfishness, it will favour all groups. of imposition. Nevertheless, as the incarnation and
A typical example is an incident that happened in Christianity happened in a space, so does Igbo
Awka, Anambra State when late Archbishop A.K. Traditional Religion. With due tolerance and
Obiefuna was the Bishop of Awka diocese. An understanding, both can cohabit in this era, in service to
outstanding issue was the traditional celebration in Awka God and humanity.
during marriage called “Ọkụkụ onye Ụwa”. The Igbo
Christians in Awka were not allowed to participate in this
act. However the late Bishop A.K. Obiefuna still took up CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
the lead by having a meeting with the traditionalists and
some Christian representatives to investigate the matter. The author has not declared any conflict of interests.
They finally came up with the agreement that the Igbo
Christians would still do the traditional marriage without REFERENCES
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22
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