1 s2.0 S2665927121000496 Main

Current Research in Food Science 4 (2021) 503–520
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Current Research in Food Science

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/current-research-in-food-science
An overview of biodegradable packaging in food industry

Salman Shaikh a, Mudasir Yaqoob a, *, Poonam Aggarwal b
a
Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, 144411, India
b
Department of Food Science and Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, 141001, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: For many years, conventional plastics are manufactured and used for packaging applications in different sectors.
Biodegradable polymers As the food industries are increasing, the demand for packaging material is also increasing. Plastics have
Packaging application transformed the food industry to higher levels; however, conventional petroleum-based plastics are non-
Properties
degradable which has created severe ecological problems to the environment like a threat to aquatic life and
Packaging forms
Degradation
degrading air quality. Biodegradable polymers or biopolymers emerged as an alternative approach for many
industrial applications to control the risk caused by non-biodegradable plastic. According to the type of starting
material, they have been categorized as polymers extracted from biomass, synthesized from monomers, and
produced from microorganisms. The quality of biopolymers depends on the physical, mechanical, thermal, and
barrier properties. The present review highlights the characteristics of various biopolymers and their blends,
comparison of properties between non-biodegradable and biopolymers, the market potential for food packaging
applications. The review also emphasizes different commercial forms like films, trays, bags, coatings, and foamed
products for application as modified atmosphere packaging, active packaging, and edible packaging. Different
issues affecting market growth like harmful products formed during production and consumer perception have
also been discussed. Information on biopolymers is widely scattered over many sources, this article aims to
provide an overview of biodegradable polymer packages for food applications.
1. Introduction utilized by the packaging sector (FICCI, 2014). Fig. 1 represents different
sectors of plastic utilization in India (Banerjee et al., 2014).
In today’s life, polymers form an integral part of day-to-day life due However synthetic plastic cannot undergo physical, chemical, and
to their extensive desirable properties and ease in production. The biological degradation and finally leads to an increase in waste (Vert
worldwide production of plastics (Thermoplastics, Thermosets, Elasto et al., 2002). Waste creates numerous severe environmental and
mers, Adhesives, Coatings and Sealants, and PP-Fibers) was approxi health-related problems. They accumulate on the streets and roads,
mately 348 million tonnes in 2017 and it reached 359 million tonnes in choking drain that results in overflowing (Foolmaun and Ramjeeawon,
2018. The major contributors include Asia (51%), China (30%), Europe 2012). A large amount of plastic waste is dumped into the ocean and
(17%), Middle East & Africa (7%) and others (Europe & EPRO 2019). rivers which harms aquatic life. Incineration leads to the release of
India is one of the leading nations for the production and use of plastic. harmful gases (carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, chlorine, 1,3-buta
In 2018–2019, Polyethylene (PE) was the most used plastic in India, diene, furans, amines, dioxin, etc.) that degrades the air quality and
utilized in the form of films and sheets with over 15 million tonnes of increases the threat of global warming and possess several health con
overall plastic production and is expected to increase 24 million tonnes cerns (Smith, 2005). The increase in the difficulties for disposing of
by 2020 (Aryan et al., 2019). waste and the harmful effects on the environment and public health
Approximately 95–99% of plastic material is manufactured from caused by the non-degradability of many synthetic polymers have
non-renewable sources (synthetic plastics) by petrochemical industries increased concerns all over the world to find an alternative material that
(Mangaraj et al., 2019). Synthetic plastic products have widely used in is environment friendly. (Luckachan and Pillai, 2011). Biodegradable
fields of medical appliances, packaging, building materials, and pack polymers emerged as an alternative approach for many industrial ap
aging, etc. 43% of the synthetic polymers produced annually in India is plications to control the risk caused by non-biodegradable plastic.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Shaikh), [email protected] (M. Yaqoob), [email protected] (P. Aggarwal).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crfs.2021.07.005
Received 16 February 2021; Received in revised form 25 June 2021; Accepted 15 July 2021
Available online 30 July 2021
2665-9271/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
S. Shaikh et al. Current Research in Food Science 4 (2021) 503–520
government initiatives to reduce plastic waste. The global production of

bioplastic in 2019 was 2.11 million tonnes and it is expected that by the
end of 2024 the production will increase up to 2.43 million tonnes. Non-
biodegradable, bio-based plastics which consist of PE (polyethylene),
PET (polyethylene terephthalate), and PA (polyamides), altogether
make up for over 44% of the global bioplastics production. Biodegrad
able plastics include PLA, PHA, starch blends, PBS, PBAT, and others
constitute over 55.5% of the global bioplastics production (Market,
2020). In bioplastics production, the major contributions are seen by
Asia (45%), Europe (25%), North America (18%), and South America
(12%).
The production statistics of different biodegradable and biobased,
non-biodegradable plastics have been represented in Fig. 3.
Bioplastics are used in different sectors like packaging, consumer
electronics, automotive, building/construction, agriculture/horticul
Fig. 1. Plastics as packaging material in India (Banerjee et al., 2014). ture, coatings, rigid packaging, flexible packaging, and various other
sectors. The packaging is the largest field of application more than 53%
According to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), (1.14 million tonnes) of the total bioplastics produced in 2019. Biode
biodegradable plastic is ‘‘a plastic that degrades because of the action of gradable food packaging was the first successfully commercialized bio
naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae” plastic product that is certified as industrially compostable. Since then,
(ASTM, 2004). They are produced from renewable sources and have there is a tremendous increase in demand for bioplastics as food pack
similar properties (tensile strength, thermal properties, elongation at aging. Flexible packaging mainly uses biodegradable polymers and rigid
break, water vapor transmission rate and oxygen transmission rate) to packaging mainly contributes to non-biodegradable packaging. Biode
conventional plastics like PET (polyethylene terephthalate), PP (poly gradable polymers are also used for modified atmospheric storage for
propylene), PE (polyethylene), etc. (Kirwan and Strawbridge, 2003). different fruits and vegetables (Mangaraj et al., 2018).
Water, carbon dioxide, inorganic compounds, or biomass are the major
products formed by the decomposition of biodegradable plastics. There 2. Classification
is no accumulation of waste which is beneficial for the environment
(Song et al., 2009). The main application of biodegradable plastics is in Bio-based polymers or bio-polymer based packaging materials can be
food packaging and agricultural sectors. In the food industry packaging classified into three main groups depending on their origin and method
performs different functions which are illustrated in Fig. 2. of production (Fig. 4).
The packaging is an integral part of the production, storage, distri
bution, preservation, and other unit operations (Ivankovic et al., 2017).
2.1. Polymers extracted/isolated directly from biomass or natural
In recent years, bioplastics are used as an alternative approach instead of
material
conventional plastics for many applications. Bioplastic is a plastic of
bio-based origin or biodegradable characteristic of a plastic. According
2.1.1. Chitin and chitosan
to European standard EN 1675 bio-based is defined as “derived from
Chitin is a linear copolymer with a β-1,4 linkage between N-acetyl
biomass” (Van den Oever et al., 2017). Production of bioplastics requires
glucosamine and N-glucosamine. The monomers are randomly arranged
65% less energy than conventional plastics and also contributes to less
through the polymer depending on the processing method. It is abun
production of greenhouse gases (Ahvenainen, 2003; Halley, 2002).
dantly available and considered as amino cellulose. chitin is mainly
This paper aims to provide critical information on biopolymers as
present in shells of insects, crabs, shrimps, etc (Tokura and Tomura,
their role in packaging material which is a key innovation that can help
2007). Another source for chitin is from fungi cultivation where protein
in reducing the environmental impact of plastic pollution.
content ranges from 10 to 15%. The solubility of chitin is very low, so it
is usually blended for packaging application. Chitinase degrades chitin
1.1. Production statistics (Teng et al., 2001).
Partial N-deacetylation of chitin forms chitosan that is insoluble in
In 2019 the market for biodegradable plastic packaging was valued water and soluble in very few acidic solutions and has a compact crys
at USD 4.65 billion and by the end of 2025, it is expected to grow at a talline structure and strong hydrogen bonding (Park et al., 2001). Chi
CAGR of 17.04% reaching a market value of up to 12.06 million. This tosan is degraded by chitosanase or lysozymes. Their insolubility in most
increase is due to increasing environmental concerns and various of the solvents limits the applications of chitin and chitosan.
Fig. 2. Functioning of packaging.
504
Fig. 3. Production statistics.
Fig. 4. Classification of polymers (Khalil et al., 2018).
505
N-carboxymethyl chitosan or N-carboxyethyl chitosan is the modified 2.1.4. Wheat gluten and soy protein
chitosan prepared for application in different industries. Wheat gluten is of low cost and a readily available by-product of the
Both are applied to produce various biodegradable films for pack fabrication of starch. Their degradation speed is highest as compared to
aging, and the largest they use as an edible coating to prolong the shelf- other polymers with no harmful by-products. It is an excellent film-
life of fresh fruits and vegetables (Zhao and Mc Daniel, 2005). Chitin and forming agent but is brittle without a plasticizer. Soy protein concen
chitosan have good antimicrobial properties to a variety of fungi, yeasts, trate does not have water-soluble carbohydrates. It has a protein con
and bacteria found in food. centration of 70%. Textured soy protein (TSP) is made by giving some
texture to soy protein concentrate. TSP films do not have a good barrier
2.1.2. Starch and cellulose and mechanical properties due to the hydrophilic nature of the protein.
Starch is composed of amylopectin (poly-α-1,4-D-glucopyranoside Films from isolated soy protein are sensitive to moisture. The addition of
and α-1,6-D-glucopyranoside) and amylose (poly-α-1,4-D-glucopyrano 25% of stearic acid improves the thermal and tensile properties and
side). It is abundantly available and extracted from wheat, rice, po reduces moisture sensitivity (Lodha and Nteravali, 2005). Soy protein
tatoes, and corn. As the source changes, the content of amylose and film incorporated with glycerol, gellan gum, or K-carrageenan is for the
amylopectin changes. The elongation and strength increase as the production of biodegradable soybean-based packaging containers
amylose content increases (Ratnayake et al., 2001). Starch can either be (trays) (Mohareb and Mittal, 2007).
mixed with various resins as a filler to form blends because at a temp of
150–250 ◦ C the linkage breaks and granules disintegrate (Angellier 2.2. Polymers produced by classical chemical synthesis from bio-
et al., 2006). Starch is mostly used as thermoplastic starch (TPS). TPS is monomers
highly sensitive to humidity and the thermal properties changes with the
content of water. TPS or plasticized starch acts as an alternative for 2.2.1. Polylactic acid (PLA)
synthetic polymers. Recent research development in complete biode PLA is a type of aliphatic polyester obtained by ring opening poly
gradable “green” composites called bio-composites in which biode merization of lactide monomer. The lactic acid monomers are usually
gradable polymers are blended with natural fibers that are also obtained from the fermentation of renewable materials like corn, sugar,
biodegradable. Biodegradation of TPS is done through hydrolysis of the and other feedstocks, etc. It is recyclable, compostable, and degrades
acetal linkage. Amylases break α-1,4 linkage and glucosidases cleave within a short life span having a high molecular weight and has high
α-1,6 linkage (Netravali and Chabba, 2003). transparency (Singla and Mehta, 2012). By changing the monomeric
In food packaging applications corn-starch is used as TPS. Examples ratio, the properties of PLA can be changed from crystalline to amor
of some of the commercially available starch and their blends include phous. The glass transition temperature of PLA that is commercially
Ecofram™ from National starch, solanyl™ from Rodenburg bio available includes 63–63.8 ◦ C (Briassoulis, 2004). The initial crystal
polymers, Biocool™ from Novamont, Bioplast™ from Biotec, and linity and the monomer content change the rate of degradation of the
Plantic™ from Plantic Technologies. complete polymer where the lowest degradation is showed by the
Cellulose is a linear polymer formed from repeating units of cello highest monomer content due to high crystalline nature (Kale et al.,
biose. It is crystalline and insoluble in organic solvents. Due to its 2006). Different companies commercialize PLA with different com
insolubility and low fluency, it is transformed in different forms for their mercial names, for example, LLC (Blair, NB) the Natureworks™ PLA
application. This transformation is achieved by various degrees of sub produced by Natureworks™, Galacid™ by Galacid, Lacty™ by Shi
stitution. As the substitution degree increases the mechanical properties madzu, and Eco plastic™ by Toyota. PLA is currently used for food
and degradation rate decreases. cellulose acetate (CA) is one of the packaging of short-shelf products LLC (Blair, NB). BASF’s bioplastic is a
important derivatives of cellulose with tensile strength like poly high-quality, completely compostable polymer. It consists of the
propylene. High glass transition temperature (Tg) limits the application biodegradable BASF polymer ecoflex® and polylactic acid (PLA). In food
of CA in thermal processing. Commercially available CA films include packaging applications it is used for short shelf-life products and for
Bioceta™ developed by the company Mazzucchelli and EnviroPlastic forming pads and trays for serving food (Siracusa et al., 2008). Table 1
Z™ developed by the company Planet Polymer. Biodegradation of cel characterizes different blends that have been formed by PLA.
lulose is done by bacteria and fungi with enzyme oxidation specifically
by peroxidases secreted by fungi (Klemm et al., 2002). Some of the 2.2.2. Polycaprolactone (PCL)
commercially available cellulose-based polymers include Tenite™ from PCL is a semi-crystalline, completely biodegradable, easy to process,
Eastman, Fasal™ from IFA, and Natureflex™ from UCB. and cheap fossil-based polymer. It is soluble in many organic and inor
ganic solvents and has a glass transition temperature (Tg) of − 60 ◦ C
2.1.3. Collagen and gelatine which increases its application as a compatibilizer in formulations of
Collagen is a connective tissue protein composed of various poly polyurethane (Vroman and Tighzert, 2009). The addition of PCL into
peptides, which includes hydroxyproline, proline, glycine, and lysine. hydrophilic chitosan polymer increases the overall hydrophobicity of
The glycine content is responsible for the flexibility of collagen. (Gelse the blend. Low Water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) values are
et al., 2003). They are incorporated into cellulose and PVA films. Cel observed in the blend when compared to pure films. Due to this property
lulose blended film is brittle and weak. A higher molecular weight food stored in such films have a longer shelf-life (Sarasam et al., 2006). It
polypeptide formed by chemical degradation of collagen is gelatine. It is commercially found under the trade names of Tone® from Union
has excellent film forming abilities and consist of 19 amino acids. Mo Carbide, Celgreen® from Daicel, CAPA® from Solvay.
lecular weight distribution, amino acid composition and type of plasti
cizer used greatly influence the barrier and mechanical property of the 2.2.3. Polybutylene succinate (PBS)
film (Gomez et al., 2009). Limited thermal stability during processing is Polybutylene succinates belong to the polyalkenedicarboxylate
an important factor which limit its applications. To improve or modify family and are obtained by polycondensation of glycols such as 1,4-
the mechanical and barrier properties of the film various additives are butanediol and ethylene glycol with aliphatic dicarboxylic acids, like
added to achieve excellent films for food packaging. 4% Gelatine film adipic and succinic acid. It is a white crystalline polymer, with good
with 2.5% corn oil and 5% olive oil is used for packaging sausages processibility having a Tg of − 45 to − 10 ◦ C and a melting point of
(Ramos et al., 2016). Degradation of gelatine is caused by the enzyme 90–120 ◦ C with 330% elongation at break. PBS has mechanical prop
protease. erties approximately like Polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP)
(Wang et al., 2007). They were first invented in 1990 under the trade
name Bionolle (Showa Denko) in Japan. Since then many different
506
Table 1
Different blends of biopolymers.
Plastic Blend Remarks Application Characterization Reference
technique
PLA PLA/TPS Adding TPS, properties of PLA was increased which ultimately Trays production SEM, XRD, TGA Reis et al. (2018)
increased shelf-life of the packaging material.
Trays were immersed in bee-wax to improve the permeability of
the material.
PLA/PHB Addition of PHB into PLA had enhanced barrier properties due to Packaging film SEM, XRD Burgos et al.
which the storage capability increased. (2017)
OLA as plasticizer and carvacrol was incorporated in the film as
active agent for anti-microbial packaging.
PLA/PBA Addition of PBA with 1000 g/mol as plasticizer improved PLA SEM, DSC, TGA, dynamic Liu et al. (2017)
properties. mechanical analysis.
Degree of crystallinity increased with increasing PBA content.
PLA/starch Starch was used as a nucleating agent and glycerol as a Food packaging FTIR, DSC Park (2001)
blend plasticizer.
With increase in starch content spherulites size decreased. ratio
of 100/40 of PLA and starch gelatinized with water/glycerol had
greatest superiority of mechanical properties.
PLA/corn Maleic anhydride acted as a good compatibilizer, while maleated Packaging film FTIR, SEM, DSC Jang et al. (2007)
starch thermoplastic starch was not very effective for PLA/starch blend
systems.
The degradation rate of the blended film was higher.
PLA/PU PLAPU polymers were synthesized through PLA diol with Packaging film MR, FTIR, DSC Akter et al., 2014
hexamethylene diisocynate, with chain extension by PCL diol.
PLA: PCL of the ratio 1:3 had greater elongation at break at
1053% and the barrier properties were also enhanced.
PLA/PBSA Triphenyl phosphide was used a compatibilizer. Biodegradable active film FESEM Ojijo et al. (2013)
Properties like tensile strength, impact strength and elongation for food packaging
at break increased.
Improved phase adhesion made the blend more tough.
PHA PHA/Zein Zein fibers incorporation in PHA increased the oxygen and Packaging film SEM, TGA Fabra et al. (2014)
barrier properties.
The mechanical properties were not significantly affected, and
transparency was also decreased as the zein content increased.
PHA/PA By addition of PA the stiffness and toughness of the film DMA, DSC, TGA, SEM Yang et al. (2015)
increased.
The complex viscosity and elastic share modulus of the blend
increased with increasing PHA content.
PCL PCL/PLA The stiffness of the blend decreased with increase in PCL. Medical equipment, SEM, XRD Urquijo et al.
The blend exhibited good toughness balance and the impact packaging material, and (2015)
strength of the material increased with increased elongation at dairy fields
break.
PCL/TPS/ citric acid, maleic Biodegradable film DSC, TGA, FTIR, SEM Carmona et al.,
PLA anhydride and methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI 2015
citric acid, maleic
anhydride and methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI
citric acid, maleic anhydride, and methylene diphenyl
diisocynate were used as compatibilizing agent.
The thermal stability was not affected but it induced crystallinity
in the blend. Melt viscosity of the blend increased.
PCL/PBS Due to the difference between the melt viscosities of PCL and PBS Biodegradable resin SEM, PLOM Gumede et al.
a non-uniform immiscible film was formed. (2018)
Carbon nanotubes addition increased the thermal, mechanical,
and electrical properties.
PHB PHB/PBAT PHB/PBAT blend with addition of chlorinated agent such as food packaging and SEM, FTIR, TGA Lin et al. (2018)
chlorine bleach increased storage time of packaging material. medically related material
The film also exhibited antimicrobial activity against
E. ColiO157:H7, and Staphylococcus aureus.
PHBV/PLA PHBV content of 20–35% in PLA was found to be most suitable Packaging application DSC Jost (2018)
because of high compatibility and increased barrier properties.
PHB/ Trifluoroacetic acid was a co-solvent and the content of carbon, Biomedical application CHNS Analyzer, SEM, Karbasi et al.
Chitosan nitrogen and hydrogen was decreased in the blend. TGA (2016)
The ratio of 50:50 was found to be most thermal stable.
(PHB-HV)/ With increasing starch content young’s modulus, strain to break, Packaging FTIR, XRD, DSC, optical Reis et al., 2018
maize starch strength and puncture force decreased. microscopy
There was lack of interfacial adhesion between the polymers.
Starch. Corn-starch/ Films made from the blend of corn starch and chitosan had good Film production TIR, DSC, Thermal Silva-Pereira et al.
Chitosan optical and morphological properties. degradation. (2015)
The blend was sensitive to pH variations.
Rice starch/ Blend showed enhanced water vapor permeability, tensile Biodegradable film FTIR, XRD, gravimetric Bourtoom and
chitosan strength, colour and a decrease in elongation strength and film Modified Cup method Chinnan (2008)
solubility.
Molecular miscibility was seen between the two polymers.
Starch/PHB Packaging film DSC, TGA Godbole et al.
(2003)
(continued on next page)
507
Table 1 (continued )
Plastic Blend Remarks Application Characterization Reference
technique
Tensile strength was maximum for the ratio of 0.7:0.3

PHB: Starch.
The thermal stability was increased by 30 ◦ C
HPS/PE The carbonyl index of blend increased but mechanical strength – SEM, XRD Kim (2003)
decreased with the increase in starch content.
The degradation of the film increased.
Rice starch/ Glycerol/sorbitol was used as a stabilizer. SEM, FTIR Dias et al. (2010)
four The blend with ratio of 2:8 showed highest Tensile strength.
Films with sorbitol were less permeable to water and film made
with glycerol had high permeability.
Starch/PVA Citric acid was used as plasticizer and glutaraldehyde as the Biodegradable plastic FTIR, SEM, TGA. Priya et al. (2014)
cross-linker which increased tensile strength and degree of
swelling of the film.
Results showed that film can be an exceptional material for food
packaging.
Chitin/ Chitin/PHB The thermal transition temperature was same as that of neat Biodegradable packaging WAXD, DMTA Ikejima and Inoue
chitosan PHB. (2000)
The blend showed high biodegradability because the
crystallinity of the PHB was lowered.
Chitosan/ Trifluoroacetic acid was used as a co-solvent. Wound dressing DMTA Wu et al. (2004)
Cellulose A reduction in water vapor permeability was seen. application
The blend demonstrated effective antimicrobial capability
against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus.
PBS PBS/CAB The polymers were miscible at 0–30 % wt. of PBS. – XRD, DSC, Viscoelastic Tatsushima et al.
Due to the plasticizing effect of PBS the young’s modulus of the Analyzer (2005)
blend decreased.
By immersing in acetone porous film was obtained.
PBS/PLA In presence of lysine triisocyanate (LTI) the impact strength of Packaging application MFR, SEC, LSCM, Charpy Harada et al.
the blended film increased impact test (2007)
Results showed that LTI could be a good processing agent which
increases the compatibility of PLA/PBS blend.
PBS/CA The hydrophilicity of the cellulose acetate membrane improved – SEM, TGA, Ghaffarian et al.
upto 50% by addition of PBS. biodegradability test (2013)
The thermal stability and degradation in compost was increased.
PBS/starch The melting temperature decreased with addition of untreated Packaging film Tension-meter, softness Park et al. (2001)
and gelatinized starch. measurement.
The tensile strength increased when untreated starch was
replaced with gelatinized starch.
PLA: Polylactic acid, TPS: Thermoplastic starch, PHB: Polyhydroxy-butyrate, PBA: Polybutylene acrylate, PU: Polyurethane, OLA: Oligomeric lactic acid, PCL: Pol
ycaprolactone, PBSA: Polybutylene succinate-co-butylene adipate, PA: Polyamide, PHA: Polyhydroxyalkonate, PBS: Polybutylene succinate, PBAT: Polybutylene
adipate terephthalate, PHBV: Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate, PEO: Polyethylene oxide, HPS: Hydroxypropyl Starch, PE: Polyethylene, PVA: Polyvinyl
alcohol, HPC: Hydroxypropyl cellulose, CAB: Cellulose acetate butyrate, CA: Cellulose acetate.
copolymers have been prepared like polybutylene succinate-co-adipate approximately 220–250 ◦ C. It is insoluble in water due to high crystal
(PBSA) obtained from incorporating adipic acid at a specific concen linity of 40–55% and soluble in most fluorinated solvents which can be
tration. The molecular weight of the polymer can be increased by adding used to form high molecular weight polymer films. The polymer is
a small amount of coupling agents. Different industries commercialize completely reabsorbed by the organism within 5–6 months (Tiberiu,
different PBS by changing the monomeric units for example Skygreen® 2011). Commercialized PGA includes Kurudex™ developed by Kureha
by SK Chemicals in Korea. The nature of diols and diacids used for Chemical Industries a high molecular weight PGA film for food pack
condensation influences the properties and degradation rate of these aging application. A low molecular weight film is also formed by The
polymers (Wang et al., 2007). Chemours Company.
2.2.4. Polylactide aliphatic copolymer (CPLA) 2.2.6. Polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT)

CPLA is formed by a mixture of lactide which is a renewable resource PBAT is a linear aromatic co-polyester obtained from the conden
and dicarboxylic acid which is an aliphatic polyester. It has properties sation of 1,4-butanediol with a mixture of terephthalic acid and adipic
like PP and PS which depend on % of polyester present in the mixture. It acid. At a terephthalic acid concentration of more than 35% mol, it
is stable up to a temperature of 200 ◦ C. During combustion the amount exhibits excellent properties. As the content increases above 55% the
of CO2 is very low as compared to that generated combustion of PE and biodegradation rate of PBAT decreases. PBAT is flexible and soft like PCL
PP. Any toxic substance is not produced during the incineration of CPLA. so it is used in the production of films, filaments, bottles, and molded
It starts to decompose after 2 weeks when mixed with food. In a natural products. PBAT can be blended with cellulose, starch, and other
environment, degradation takes 5–6 months, with 12 months to biodegradable polymers. For improving the hydrophobicity, mechani
decompose completely (Siracusa et al., 2008). One commercialized film cal, and thermal properties PBAT is blended with cellulose. The addition
produced in Japan by Dainippon Ink Chemicals under the tradename of of PBAT in PHBV decreases the degree of crystallinity (Javadi et al.,
CPLA™. 2010). It is commercialized under the tradename of Ecoflex™ developed
by BASF, Origo-Bi™ developed by Novamont, Easter Bio™ developed by
2.2.5. Polyglycolide (PGA) Eastman Chemical.
Polyglycolide or polyglycolic acid prepared by glycolic acid poly
condensation. It is one of the simplest aliphatic polyesters with a glass 2.2.7. Polyvinyl-alcohol (PVA)
transition temperature (Tg) of 35–40 ◦ C and melting point (Tm) of PVA is a semicrystalline polymer comprising mainly amorphous
508
phases with only a small amount of crystallinity and consists of 1, 3-diol oxygen transmission rate, elongation at break, and melting temperature
units or 1, 2-diol units, depending on the hydrolysis degree of poly of different biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers have been
(vinyl-acetate). The properties of PVA generally depend on its molecular given in Table 2.
weight and degree of hydrolysis with the molecular weight of PVA
generally ranging between 20,000–400,000 and based on the length of 3.1. Tensile strength
vinyl acetate used to produce PVA – the degree of hydrolysis is typically
in the range of 80–99% (Abdullah et al., 2017). The maximum amount of stress that a material can withstand before
its failure is the tensile strength of that material. It is one of the most
2.2.8. Polypropylene carbonate (PPC) common mechanical methods to determine the strength of any material
PPC is the most common aliphatic polycarbonate which is produced (Westmoreland Mechanical Testing and Research 2020). The mechani
from CO2 and propylene carbonate by copolymerization. PPC films have cal properties are important for the protection of food packaging. The
advantages such as better tensile and barrier (O2 and H2O vapor) tensile strength depends upon the type of polymer, processing condition,
properties compared to the PBAT, LDPE, and PE/starch blend. The tear additives, chemical modification, and blends. The tensile strength of
resistance of the PPC films is lower than the PBAT but remains better material changes with processing and storage (Briassoulis and Gian
than LDPE and PE/starch blends. However, the amorphous PPC has noulis, 2018). Additions of NPs (nanoparticles) in the material like PLA
several limitations including poor thermal stability, high shrinkage, for bio-nano composites formation increases the mechanical properties
insufficient mechanical properties, low glass transition temperature (Lee, 2016). On comparing the tensile strength from Table 2 a variation
(25–45 ◦ C), and variability in the performance of the polymer depending can be observed in the order of PEN > PET > PVDC > PC > EVOH >
on the type of catalyst used to prepare the PPC (Muthuraj et al., 2018). PVC > PP > OPP > HDPE > HIPS > OPS > LLDPE > LDPE > EVA. The
maximum and minimum strength was seen with PET and EVA respec
2.3. Polymers obtained from natural or genetically modified organisms tively. In case of biodegradable polymers, CPLA > PLA > PBS > chitin >
PHB > collagen > PCL > PGA > cellulose > starch > wheat gluten PLA
2.3.1. Polyhydroxylalkanoates (PHAs) have the maximum strength while as starch is having the lowest. The
PHA represents natural polyesters produced by bacterial fermenta range of tensile strength depends on the type of additives used while
tion of sugar, glucose, or vegetable oil feedstock. It is one of the most forming the film. Many biodegradable polymers have the same tensile
recent and widely used biodegradable polymers for food packaging strength as compared to thermoplastic like CPLA, PLA, PHB having
applications. Bacteria accumulate PHAs as a reserve material intracel approximate values of PET, PVC, OPS respectively which suggests that
lularly at a concentration of 30–80% dry weight under limited N2 and these biodegradable polymers can be used as a great alternative.
abundant C (Mercan et al., 2002). Its Tm ranges from 40–180 ◦ C
depending on monomers used for synthesis. Depending on the nutrient 3.2. Water vapor transmission rate
source for carbon and the organism, PHA may be manufactured from
rigid brittle to a rubber-like polymer. (Zivkovic, 2009). A good barrier The amount of water vapor that passes per unit area and time of
property film was formed when PHA is blended with zein. An increase of packaging material is called the water vapor transmission rate (WVTR)
39–48% and 27–35% was seen in the water vapor permeation coefficient [kg mm− 2 s− 1] (Auras et al., 2006). Food products are susceptible to
and oxygen permeation coefficient respectively. A change in blend moisture as the moisture increases the shelf-life of the food product
morphology was also observed due to the incorporation of zein (Fabra decreases. In some cases, the WVTR is an important factor while
et al., 2014). PHAs are completely biodegradable. Biodegradation oc selecting a packaging material because some of the food products they
curs through the esterase activity of linkage breaking of the monomer need a certain range of moisture level like dairy products, meat, seafood,
from the chain ends. The most common PHA is the PHB (poly these require moisture inside their package (Flair Flexible Packaging
hydroxybutyrate), formed by the polymerization of 3-hydroxybutyrate. Corporation 2020). WVTR is most measured at (38 ◦ C), 90% RH. The
PHB is known for its excellent UV-resistivity and high optical properties WVTR in thermoplastic follows the order of PVC > OPS > HIPS > EVA >
with Tm of 180 ◦ C and Tg of 55 ◦ C. PHB has a crystallinity of more than EVOH > PET > LDPE > PC > PEN > PP > HDPE > LLDPE > OPP >
50%. It is well known that PHB is unstable after melting temperature of PVDC and in case of biodegradable polymers, the order followed is like;
180 ◦ C and when kept at temperature even below at 10 ◦ C below melting PBS > Collagen > PLA > PCL > PGA > starch > cellulose > Wheat
point it can undergo molecular weight reduction which limits its pro gluten > PHB > chitin as given in Table 2. Biodegradable plastics have
cessibility (Savenkova et al., 2000). To increase the processibility con less water permeability than thermoplastic polymers so they can be used
dition different strategies such as copolymerization with other for the storage of dry products. PBS water vapor retention is very poor,
alkanoates, addition of biodegradable polymer or blending with second so its alone application is minimum. PBS when blended with PLA in the
polymer. Different routes yield different structural polymers. ratio of 20:80 forms a blend with good water vapor retention (Bhatia
PHB undergoes degradation by various bacteria, fungi, and algae in et al., 2012).
different environmental conditions. The hydrolytic degradation forms 3-
hydroxy butyric acid, at a low rate. The copolymer 3.3. Oxygen transmission rate
polyhydroxybutyrate-valerate (PHBV) is synthesized by adding propi
onic acid to the feedstock. It is tougher and less stiff, so it is used as a The oxygen permeability coefficients (OPC) show the amount of
packaging material. It degrades within 5–6 weeks in a microbiologically oxygen that can pass through the material per unit area and time under
active environment, ending with CO2 and H2O in aerobic conditions. pressure [kg mm− 2 s− 1 Pa− 1]. As a result of low OPC the oxidation
The degradation is faster, with the production of methane in anaerobic process is inhibited which increases shelf-life of the product (Oliveira
conditions (Kim et al., 2000). PHB and PHBV are commercialized under et al., 2004). The OTR is usually measured at 25 ◦ C, 0% RH and OTR of
different trade names: Biopol™ from Mosanto, Nodax™ from Procter & different polymers have been given in Table 2. The OTR in thermoplastic
Gamble and Kaneka corporation, Eamat™ from Tianan, and Biomer-P™ polymers follows the order of PC > EVA > LDPE > OPS > LLDPE > PP >
from Biomer. The properties of some blends of PHA and PHB are sum HDPE > OPP > HIPS > PET > PVC > PVDC > EVOH > PEN and in case
marized in Table 1. of biodegradable polymers PCL > cellulose > PHB > chitin > starch >
wheat gluten > PBS > PGA > PLA. The OTR in biodegradable polymers
3. Properties is very less i.e., they allow only a certain amount of oxygen to permeate.
In some cases, blends are made by mixing biodegradable polymers to
Properties such as tensile strength, water vapor transmission rate, enhance the barrier properties. 20:80 chitosan:starch films showed a
509
Table 2
Properties of thermoplastic and Biodegradable polymers.
THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS
Class/type polymer Characteristic Tensile WVTR at OTR Elongation at Melting point Reference
strength (38 ◦ C), 90% (25 ◦ C), 0% break (%) temperature (◦ C)
(MPa) RH RH
(g/m2/day) (cc/m2/
day)
Polyolefin LDPE Tough, translucent material 9.93 16–23 7000–8500 349.0 109 Jordan et al. (2016);
having excellent chemical Shebani et al. (2018)
resistance but sensitive to
hydrocarbons, oils, and
greases.
Used to make food bags, films
etc.
LLDPE molecular weight distribution 15–17 4.8–7.9 2795–3500 745 134 Manikanth & vardharaju
is much narrower than LDPE. (2012)
Greater resistance to chemical
and cracking.
HDPE Due to linear nature, the impact 27.93 4.7–7.8 2300–3100 213.1 115–135 Shebani et al. (2018);
and tear strength are lower and Contreras et al. (2018)
tensile and bursting strength
are much higher compared to
LDPE.
Polypropylene Cast PP Serve as both a plastic as well 40–50 9.3–11.0 2300–3100 100 160 Khalifa (2016); Tetsuya
as a fiber. et al. (2005)
Very good resistance to
chemical and grease.
Due to brittleness at below
freezing its application in food
packaging is limited.
OPP BOPP has very high clarity. 31.2–48.2 3.9–6.2 1200–2500 46–60 170 Khalifa (2016); Tetsuya
Improved moisture barrier et al. (2005)
property.
Considered to be an alternative
to cellophane, aluminium foil.
Vinyl chloride PVC Flexible, light, excellent 46–52 150–200 8–150 25.9 75–105 Rostam et al. (2016);
organoleptic properties which Sarfraz et al. (2012)
do not interact with the food.
PVC bottles are made for
storage of juices and oils.
PVDC Used as a shrink film because of 25–100 2–5 0.1–1 50–100 160–170 Rostam et al. (2016)
improved tensile strength,
flexibility, and impact strength.
Polyesters PET Used as a packaging material 61.67 32 130 60–85 240–275 Lianhua and Qiang
due to high tensile strength, (2017); Mirjalili et al.
excellent chemical resistance, (2013)
and stability over a wide
temperature range.
Widely used for water and
carbonated drink bottling.
PEN Usually mixed with PET which 91.47 10–40 0.03–0.05 5.26 270 Bedia et al. (2001);
is used to make bottle that are Zhong et al. (2010)
more heat resistance.
PC The film of PC is used for boil- 58–65 10–30 9500–10 97–110 250–280 Hassan and Jwu (2005);
in-bag packs and retort pouches 000 Diawara et al., 2020;
due to its stability at high Lagaron et al. (2004)
temperature
Polystyrene OPS poor barrier to water vapor and 22 109–155 4350–6200 11–20 74–110 Meenakshi et al. (2002)
good barrier with high
refractive index.
Used for making disposable
trays and containers.
HIPS Excellent material for 27 79–340 320–400 36.7 90 Soundararajan &
thermoforming. The tubes of Palanivelu 2014
HIPS are used in packaging of
food material.
Vinyl Acetate EVA As the crystallinity decreases 3.8 70 10 000 550 65–90 Soheilmoghaddam et al.,
the oil and gas permeability 2017; Najarzadehet al.,
decreases. 2014; DuPont Teijin
Used to make multi-layered Films (2001)
film.
Due to low barrier properties
its application is limited.
EVOH Offers superior barrier to gases, 60 22–124 0.08–1.9 250 156–195 Khalifa (2016); Huang
odour, fragrances. et al. (2004)
510
(MPa) RH RH
(g/m2/day) (cc/m2/
day)
It’s application in food

packaging increases food
flavour retention.
BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS
Polymer Characteristic Tensile WVTR (38 OTR Elongation Melting Reference
strength ◦
C), 90% (25 ◦ C), 0% at break (%) temperature
(MPa) RH RH (◦ C)
(g/m2/day) (cc/m2/
day)
Starch Used as TPS which has 4.8–8.5 7.78–9.0 12.11 35–100 160 Ivankovic et al. (2017);
sensitivity to humidity. In Ghasemlou et al. (2013)
food packaging starch is
mixed with other polymers
like PVC to improve the
efficiency of the film.
Cellulose CA derivation is most 13–59 4.59–9.0 390 4.10–10.0 256 Meenakshi et al. (2002)
common derivative of
cellulose used in packaging
due to high strength and
great barrier properties.
Chitin/chitosan Insoluble in most solvents 38.2–77.3 0.535–1.3 11–50 17–76 290 Ivankovic et al. (2017)
which limits their
application in the food
industry.
Wheat gluten Due to low tensile strength 2.6 4.45–5.19 5.53–6.23 – – Harry & lea 2000
different additives are
fillers are added so that
they can be used for food
coating application.
They are usually brittle in
nature.
Collagen/Gelatine The thermal and 17.46 290.64 – 20.28 150–160 Wang et al. (2017)
mechanical properties of
the film made by gelatine is
not stable which limits the
application in food
packaging
PLA High transparency 44 27–50 0.303–0.40 30.7 175 Zhouyang Duan, 2013; Farah
increases its potential in (2016); Messin et al. (2020)
the bottling industry.
Mainly used for making
containers for food storage.
PCL Good chemical resistance 16 20–25 700–800 250–300 58–60 Jost (2018); Rosa et al.
to oils, greases. (2004)
Usually blended with
starch or chitosan to
improve its barrier
properties.
PGA Mainly used as copolymer- 13 10 1 40 220–230 Samantaray et al. (2020);
PGLA because PGA alone is Murcia et al. (2020)
insoluble in most organic
solvents and brittle in
nature has limited its alone
application.
PBS It has great compatibility 40 2200–2300 1.72–2.00 150 90–120 Messin et al. (2020)
with fibers so for food
application films are made
using a blend with different
fibers like jute, cellulose
etc
PHB Stiff and brittle, known for 25 1.16 183 5 180 Ivankovic et al. (2017)
its UV resistivity property.
Its mechanical and
physical property are same
as that of isostatic PP
CPLA Products form CPLA can 59 – – 7 165 Farah (2016)
withstand high
temperature without
deforming.
511
(MPa) RH RH
(g/m2/day) (cc/m2/
day)
After crystallization it
turns white in colour.
LDPE: Low density polyethylene, LLDPE: Linear Low-density polyethylene, HDPE: High density polyethylene, PP: Polypropylene, OPP: Oriented Polypropylene, BOPP:
Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene, PVC: Polyvinyl Chloride, PVDC: Polyvinylidene Chloride, PET: Polyethylene Terephthalate, PEN: Polyethylene naphthalate, PC:
Polycarbonate, OPS: Oriented Polystyrene, HIPS: High Impact Polystyrene, EVA: Ethylene-vinyl acetate, EVOH; Ethylene vinyl alcohol, TPS: Thermoplastic starch, CA:
Cellulose Acetate, PLA: Polylactic acid, PCL: Polycaprolactone, PGA: Polyglycolide, PBS: Polybutylene succinate, PHB: Polyhydroxy-butyrate, CPLA: Polylactide
aliphatic copolymer. PGLA: Polyglycolide-co-lactide, UV: Ultraviolet.
reduction in OTR as compared to native chitosan films the hydropho the thermal stability of polymers. On the other hand, double bonds or
bicity of the film was also increased due to incorporation of chitosan oxygen-containing structures in the main chain make polymers less
(Akter et al., 2014). resistant to high temperatures (Król-Morkisz and Pielichowska 2019).
3.4. Elongation at break 4. Applications
Elongation at break can be defined as the ratio of changed length to 4.1. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
initial length. It measures to what extent the material can stretch or
elongate without breaking. These values are an indication of how ductile MAP is defined as ‘the packaging of a perishable product in an at
a polymer is so that different shapes can be formed. (Plastic Materials mosphere which has been modified so that its composition is other than
2020). It is measured in a percentage and the greater the value stronger that of air’. It is one of the widely used techniques in packaging and
is the polymer. Most of the thermoplastic has a high elongation per preservation of agricultural products mainly fruits and vegetables by
centage such as LLDPE, LDPE, EVA, and HIPS. Some other polymers changing by gaseous composition in the headspace of the package (Coles
have relatively low value include OPS, PEN, and PVC. Biodegradable et al., 2003). The final gaseous composition depends on a series of fac
polymers usually have low % elongation except PCL having 250–300% tors such as the weight of the product packed, the storage temperature,
can be compared to HDPE because they have approximately the same the commodity respiration rate, the cultivar, and the ripening stage
values. In starch chitosan, composite films changing the ratio of chitosan (Briano et al., 2015).
to starch increases the elongation at break (Sun et al., 2019). MAP has been shown to lower respiration rates and delay the
ripening of fruits by altering the O2 and CO2 concentration. It can also
3.5. Melting point prevent water loss and fruit shriveling by maintaining a high humidity
environment of 90–95% relative humidity (Giacalone et al., 2013).
The temperature at which material starts changing its structure or Biodegradable packaging acts as an alternative to polyethylene tere
the point where a phase change is observed is called melting tempera phthalate and high- and low-density polyethylene that is being devel
ture (Tm). It is a thermodynamic property of the polymer to know the oped to package fresh agricultural produce (Peelman et al., 2013). The
maximum temperature it can hold before deforming. Mostly melting shelf life of strawberries cv. Camarosa was improved by including an
temperatures are seen in different ranges. PC and PET having the highest oxygen absorber in bio-based packages. A biodegradable laminate was
Tm of 240–280 ◦ C and 245–270 ◦ C and are often recommended for the found to be suitable as a MAP material in the inert temperature range for
formation of bottles (Raj, 2005). In the case of biodegradable polymers, fresh products, such as shredded lettuce and cabbage, head lettuce, cut
chitin has a Tm of 290–300 ◦ C which is equal to PET or PC. But chitin broccoli, whole broccoli, tomatoes, sweet corn, and blueberries. The
alone cannot be molded in different shapes, so it is usually blended with modified atmosphere extends the shelf life of berries, and the sealed
other materials. container protects them from exposure to disease and other environ
The Tm in biodegradable polymers follows the order of chitin > mental contaminants (Briano et al., 2015). Xing et al. in 2010 evaluated
cellulose > PGA > PHB > PLA > CPLA > starch > Collagen > PBS > PCL the effect of chitosan coating containing anti-browning agents and
and in case of thermoplastic polymers PC > PET > PEN > EVOH > OPP modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) on the browning and shelf life of
> PP > PVDC > LLDPE > HDPE > LDPE > HIPS > PVC > OPS > EVA. fresh-cut lotus root stored at 4 ◦ C for 10 days and concluded that Both
Properties of different thermoplastics and biodegradable plastics have edible coating and MAP treatment cause changes in atmospheric
been listed in Table 2. composition and respiration rate of lotus root slices. This combined
treatment could be used to control the browning and improve the stor
3.6. Thermal stability age life of this fresh-cut vegetable. PLA is a common biodegradable
packaging material used for pork and other meat products. Muller et al.,
Thermal properties are relevant to the potential use of polymeric 2017 used trays made from PLA resin with sealing top films made from a
materials in many consumer-oriented applications. A detailed under layer combination of cellulose and PLA for packing pork meat.
standing of the thermal degradation of polymers is important in the Some of the examples of modified atmosphere packaging on fruits
design of materials with improved properties (Begum et al., 2020). and vegetables have been listed in Table 3.
Thermal stability of polymer is defined as the ability of the polymeric
material to resist the action of heat and to maintain its properties, such 4.2. Edible packaging
as strength, toughness, or elasticity at given temperature. The thermal
stability of polymers is usually determined by thermogravimetric anal Edible packaging is an excellent alternative for food applications
ysis (TGA). Thermal stability of polymer depends on its chemical because of its ability to protect foods with their barrier and mechanical
structure, degree of crystallinity, and molecular weight. Aromatic properties, control-release active ingredients, and enhance sensory
structures in the polymer backbone and cross-linking processes improve characteristics. They are an integral part of the food and are eaten along
512
Table 3
Application of Biodegradable polymers.
Type of Food product Form of Application Reference
Polymer packaging
Chitosan mango film Mangoes kept in carton boxes covered with chitosan film and stored at 27 ◦ C at 65% RH. Srinivasa et al. (2002)
The level of O2 and CO2 were decreased 5% and 3% respectively.
The shelf-life of mangoes increased with no growth of fungus and flavour and colour of the
mangoes were also maintained.
Wheat gluten refrigerated coating and A bilayer coating of wheat gluten along with lipid was applied to refrigerated strawberries Tanada-Palmu et al. (2005)
strawberry film and the results indicated firmness retention, reduction of weight loss.
The visual quality was maintained during the storage time and the strawberry coated with
only gluten film was acceptable for consumption.
OPLA fresh-cut tropical trays OPLA compared with PET and OPS for storage of Mangoes, Melons, and Pineapples stored at Chonhenchob et al. (2007)
fruits 10 ◦ C. The equilibrium modified atmosphere of O2 and CO2 were 19% and 3% for OPLA. A
shelf-life stability of 6–8 days were seen which was same as fruits packed with PET with no
visible fungal growth and surface slime.
Chitosan pet food coating Chitosan coated paper was compared with fluorinated resins for the fat-barrier property of Ham-Pichavant et al. (2005)
the coating. in acidic conditions, a stabilization of the fatty acid emulsion was exhibited by
the chitosan, which was due to its property to bind with anionic lipid molecules.
The Ca+2 adsorption of the coating was also minor.
Gelatine sea bass film Gelatine film incorporated with LEO 25% (w/w) was used for wrapping sea bass at a storage Ahmad et al. (2012)
temp of 4 ◦ C for 12 days and the microbiological, chemical, and physical changes were
observed. The antimicrobial and antioxidative properties were enhanced.
A retarded growth of psychrophilic bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, H₂S-producing bacteria and
Enterobacteriaceae were recorded.
PLA blueberry container Highbush blueberries were packed in non-ventilated PLA containers and stored at 10 ◦ C for Almenar et al. (2008)
18 days and at 23 ◦ C for 9 days. Vented clamshell containers were used as control.
Reduced fungal growth was seen in PLA containers as compared to clamshell containers. The
fruit shelf-life was enhanced in PLA containers.
Zein broccoli film Freshly cut broccoli was packed in jars and covered with zein film. The film was plasticized Rakotonirainy et al. (2001)
with oleic acid and jar was stored for 6 days at 5 ◦ C.
There was no significant difference in firmness and colour of broccoli. Due to anoxic
condition developed in packages there was no off-odour developed during refrigerated
condition.
PLA melon container Freshly cut melon was packed in PLA and PET stored for 10 days at 4 ◦ C and 10 ◦ C. Zhou et al. (2016)
No difference was observed in colour, pH, firmness, TA or sensory evaluation of the packages
at 4 ◦ C, but differences in colour between the melon were found after 7 days of storage at
10 ◦ C.
Due to high WVTR and OTR, the PLA containers maintained the quality of fresh-cut melon
better than the PET at 10 ◦ C during 10 days of storage.
PCL/ALG broccoli film Bioactive film developed from the blend of PCL and ALG were compared with MC films to Takala et al. (2013)
see the growth of Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and Listeria monocytogenes on fresh
broccoli stored at 4 ◦ C for 12 days. The initial concentration of organism used was 5 logs
CFU/g sample.
The PCL/ALG film showed better efficiency than MC film to control the growth of
microorganisms at 4 ◦ C
Chitosan vegetable film and bag chitosan films were produced using 0.5 g chitosan in 100 ml aqueous solution with Pitak and Rakshit (2011)
incorporation of 0.5–2 g banana flour for packaging of fresh-cut vegetables.
The composite bags acted as antimicrobial agent by serving as good barrier and were
effective to protect asparagus, Chinese cabbage, and baby corn against Staphylococcus aureus
activity.
The shelf-life of the vegetables stored in composite bags were higher.
Master-Bi® tomatoes bag Organic tomatoes stored in LDPE bags and Master-Bi bags at 75–85% RH at 11 ◦ C for 15 days Kantola and helen, 2001
(starch) and 22 days were compared for weight loss, colour, moisture content, firmness and flavour.
The quality of tomatoes stored in biodegradable bags was same as that of tomatoes stored in
LDPE bags. No significant changes were observed in firmness, colour and flavour. A slight
reduction in weight was seen in biodegradable bags.
Chitosan- rainbow trout coating and Chitosan-gelatine coated rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fillets stored for 16 days at (4 Nowzari et al. (2013)
Gelatine fillets film ± 1 ◦ C) were analysed for chemical, microbiological characteristics and also to examine the
rancidity development.
The bacterial contamination was reduced, and no significant difference was seen between
the coating and film for reduction of bacterial pollution. The effect of coating against lipid
oxidation was more than films.
Chitosan pork sausages active film Green tea extract was incorporated in chitosan film and was used for the packaging of pork Siripatrawan and Noipha
sausages stored at 4 ◦ C. (2012)
The chitosan film incorporated with extract when compared to control film showed higher
inhibition of microbial growth and low count of yeast, LAB and molds which was due to the
polyphenolic activity of the extract.
Starch sunflower oil active film Wine grape pomace was encapsulated as in films made from cassava starch. Micro Stoll et al. (2016)
encapsuled film with gum arabic showed higher antioxidant activity as compared to micro
encapsuled film produced with maltodextrin.
Due to improvement in antioxidant activity the oxidative stability of oil increased leading to
increased shelf-life.
PLA ready-to-eat film PLA film incorporated with Allium spp. extract were used for packaging ready-to-eat salads Llana-Ruiz-Cabello et al.
salads in a controlled atmosphere. films containing 5% and 6.5% of extract showed antimicrobial (2015)
activity mainly for fresh lettuce. A decreased enterobacterial growth was also seen in the
films with different extract concentration.
513
Type of Food product Form of Application Reference
Polymer packaging
Film with 6.5% extract was found to be most effective up to 5 days of storage against aerobic
bacteria and 7 days of storage against molds.
Chitosan bread film Chitosan film was incorporated with grapefruit seed extract for improving anti-bacterial and National University of
antiviral properties. Singapore (2016)
The result indicated that the shelf-life of the bread samples were two times longer because
the film effectively blocked ultraviolet radiation and slowed the degradation.
TPS/PBAT pasta active film Active packaging film was produced by blown extrusion using TPS and PBAT. Potassium Andrade-Molina et al., 2013
sorbate was used as an antimicrobial agent. The film controlled the growth of
microorganisms and increasing the shelf-life of pasta.
Film with 4.5% antimicrobial agent was found optimum for microbial growth control.
LEO- lemongrass essential oil, ALG-alginate, MC- methylcellulose, RH- Relative humidity, OPLA- Oriented Polylactic acid, PLA-Polylactic acid, WVTR- Water vapor
transmission rate, OTR- Oxygen transmission rate, TA- Titratable acidity, PCL-Polycaprolactone, CFU-coliform forming unit, LDPE-Low density polyethylene, LAB-
Lactic acid bacteria, TPS- Thermoplastic starch, PBAT- Polybutylene adipate terephthalate.
with the food product. Edible packaging mainly consists in form of films, antioxidant, flavors, etc into the headspace (Yildirim et al., 2018). The
sheets, coatings, and pouches (Janjarasskul and Krochta, 2010). Films activity of certain active substances when directly incorporated into
and coatings are obtained from the same formulation, films are applied food may be inhibited or reduced due to the interaction between active
as solid sheets whereas coatings are applied as a liquid product (Galus substances and the food components in the bulk food system. Thus, the
and Kadzinska, 2015). controlled release of active components in Active packaging is more
Edible packaging is mainly made from proteins, polysaccharides, and effective for the bulk food system.
lipids. Chitosan and gelatine/collagen are the two widely used compo Antimicrobial packaging is a widely used application of active
nents. The gelatine coatings reduce O2, moisture, and does not allow packaging. Trays by baking cassava bagasse with polyvinyl alcohol with
migration of oil. Sausage casing made of collagen is the most successful the incorporation of clove or oregano essential oils were made to study
edible protein film commercially available. Films wrapped over thawed the antimicrobial property. Two methods were used surface coating and
and refrigerated beef steak reduces exudation without affecting colour direct incorporation; the surface coating method showed the highest
or lipid oxidation. Collagen-based films are used for processed meats to antimicrobial activity against gram-positive, gram-negative bacteria,
increase juiciness, to reduce shrink loss, and to absorb fluid exudates for yeast, and molds (Debiagi et al., 2014). One of the current active
a variety of cooked meat products. The polysaccharide-based film found packaging systems is the incorporation of zinc oxide and oregano
an application for extending the storage life of fruits and vegetables due essential oil in a very thin “bio-paper” made by PHBV. The paper has
to their good gas barrier properties and excellent adherence to the sur antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli
faces of cut fruits and vegetables. However, they are not good moisture (Barrett 2020).
resistant due to their hydrophilic nature (Falguera et al., 2011). For Mixed cellulose/PP pillow packages can be used to extend the shelf
many years the Japanese meat industry is using polysaccharide-based life of iceberg lettuce if emitting sachets with eugenol, carvacrol, or
films and coatings commercially. During processing, the coatings get trans-anethole are put inside. The sachets slowly release the natural
dissolved and integrate into the meat which improves texture, decreases antimicrobial agent and help preserve the food. An easy, low-cost
moisture loss, and produces higher yields (Cutter, 2006). method to confer antibacterial activity (Wieczynska et al., 2018).
Cellulose derivative is mostly incorporated in all the commercial Some of the examples of Active packaging system has been listed in
edible coatings due to their property to exhibit thermo-gelation i.e., Table 3.
forms gels when heated and comes back to original consistency when
cooled (Shit and Shah, 2014). Some of the edible coatings incorporated 5. Forms of biodegradable packaging
with cellulose derivates have been given in Table 3. The food preser
vation efficiency increases when edible packaging is combined with 5.1. Films
non-edible packaging, the latter used for protection against the envi
ronment and bacterial contamination. Some of the examples of chitosan Films are the widely used form of bio-packaging in every sector.
and gelatine as edible coating and film have been listed in Table 4. Biodegradable films were originally designed for the replacement of PE
film. They have better properties than non-degradable plastihave cs.
Important characteristics of a good packaging film include:
4.3. Active packaging
• Allowing controlled respiration.
Active packaging is “deliberately incorporate components that
• Good barrier properties.
would release or absorb substances into or from the packaged food or the
• To maintain structural integrity
environment surrounding the food”. It is an innovative technique to
• To prevent or reduce microbial spoilage.
maintain the shelf-life and safety of the food product. The active pack
aging system includes Absorbers (scavenging system) which removes
A study of oxygen permeability and carbon dioxide of the biode
CO2, O2, moisture, odour, or ethylene, and emitters (releasing system)
gradable film as a form of packaging for tomatoes was carried out, re
which incorporates different compounds like anti-microbial,
sults showed that films with the optimum permeability allowed proper
respiration of the fruit, due to which the microbial contamination was
Table 4 prevented, and the quality of the fruit was maintained. (Muratore et al.,
Edible chitosan and gelatine coatings.
2005).
Brand name Company Country Blown films have been used as bags and other packaging applica
Semper-fresh AgriCoat Industries Ltd Berkshire, UK tions. PLA was used as a base for blown film grading with excellent
Nature-Seal Ecoscience Product System Division Orlando, FL transparency and mechanical properties. As the degree of crystallinity
Natural Shine 9000 Pace International USA changes the sealability property changes. Due to slow crystallization,
Pro-long Courtaulds Group London
low melting strength a single biodegradable polymer cannot be used for
514
blown film formation. The co-extrusion process is used for the lamina there are different steps which includes (Lucas et al., 2008).
tion of polyesters. For example, thermoplastic starch (TPS) is film blown
in the coextrusion process while coating with polymers like PHA and • Biodeterioration- The biodegradable material is converted into tiny
PHB. Paragon™ developed by Avebe is used in the packaging of cheese fractions by the combined action of microbial organisms present in
(Tuil et al., 2000; Weber et al., 2002). the soil and other abiotic factors.
• Depolymerisation- Microorganisms release different catalytic agents
5.2. Containers mainly enzymes that cleave the molecule and form oligomers, di
mers, and monomers.
Thermoformed containers or trays can be used for the packaging of • Recognition- Some fragmented oligomers, dimers, and monomers
vegetables, salads, and fruits because a controlled atmosphere is are recognized by receptors of microbes, they pass the plasma
required to maintain the quality of such food products. First, the poly membrane of the microbial cell. The unrecognized fragment is left in
mer undergoes melt extrusion to form sheets and from sheets to a temp the extracellular surrounding.
above Tg and Tm to form into a specific shape (Pawar and Purwar, 2013). • Assimilation- Molecules enter the cytoplasm, integrate with the
Most of the trays made from biodegradable polymers are brittle and metabolism to produce numerous primary and secondary metabo
resistant to moisture. There is no change in the structural properties of lites with biomass and energy.
the tray during freezing. Trays made from oriented PLA were used for • Mineralization- Some metabolites like organic acids and aldehydes
the storage of mangoes, melons, and other tropical fruits. The shelf-life are secreted by microbial cells and they reach the extracellular sur
of the fruits packed was the same as that of fruits packed in PET trays rounding. CO2, CH4, H2O, and other salts are also released in the
(Chonhenchob et al., 2007). environment.
5.3. Foamed product The reaction occurring during the biodegradable polymer degrada
tion is shown below.
For loose fill-application, starch-based foams are used. Different
Biodegradable polymers → CO2 + H2O + Humus
techniques used for the formation of foamed products include loose-fill
molding, foam extrusion, expandable bead molding, and extrusion Biodiversity and the presence of microorganisms responsible for
transfer molding (Tuil et al., 2000). Numerous foamed products like polymer-degradation vary depending on the environment, soil, sea, and
trays, clamshell, etc, based on starch can be used for food packaging but compost, etc. The colonization of the exposed surface after the micro
direct food contact coatings are required. On PLA and starch coatings are organism adherence on the polymer surface is the major mechanism
preferred of paraffin and other polymers. Adhesion between the foamed involved in degradation (Barone and Arikan, 2007). Various factors that
product and coating is very important. Novamont developed in the USA control the rate of biodegradation include the nature of enzymes, type of
is a starch-based foam used in many packaging applications (Crow, enzyme, location of the enzyme (extra, intracellular), type of substrate,
2020). Green Cell foam™ developed by the Landaal Packaging system is and environmental conditions like soil, pH, light, temperature, oxygen,
a sustainable alternative for PP foams. Under moist soil environment, it moisture, etc. The biodegradability of a polymer can be assessed mainly
degraded completely in 4 weeks (Sustainable Packaging 2018). by soil burial test and enzymatic test. The flow charts of these methods
are shown in Fig. 5 (Mangaraj et al., 2019).
5.4. Bags
7. Composting
The largest application of biodegradable bags is in the food industry
because their raw material composition makes them flexible, strong, Composting can be defined as the accelerated degradation of het
resistant to breakage, moisture, and temperature change. The biode erogeneous organic matter by a mixed microbial population in a moist,
gradable bags can be used for the storage and packaging of food prod warm, aerobic environment under controlled conditions. It is an ancient
ucts. The use of these bags in different industries requires the addition of method to convert organic matter into fertile humus. Biodegradation of
additives (Ivankovic et al., 2017). The bags are completely environment such organic matter will produce compost as the major product along
friendly. Once their function of packaging is completed, they are with water and carbon dioxide. The carbon-dioxide produced is already
decomposed to carbon dioxide, water, and other products within several a part of the biological carbon cycle, so it does not contribute to
weeks. The biodegradable bags are a great alternative to polyethylene greenhouse gases (Song et al., 2009). The soil is benefited by compos
bags (Nampoothiri et al., 2010). iting as it helps to retain soil moisture, increases the microbiological
activity, enriching the soil with nutrients, and also makes the soil more
5.5. Gels breathable (Mondini et al., 2004).
PLA decomposes to CO2, water, and biomass under controlled com
Biodegradable gels include hydrogels, and it is most used to prevent posting conditions in less than 90 days. The decomposition takes place in
microbial contamination. The development of complex hydrogels is an large plants where the temperature reaches up to 140 ◦ C (Runjic, 2007).
alternative for bio-based polymer production (Farris et al., 2009). Let PHA is degradable under a normal biological environment by the
tuce, when impregnating with hydrogel no positive effects were enzyme PHA depolymerase secreted by 55% of penicillium yeast.
observed on maintaining the content of pectic substances and quality Degradation under a controlled atmosphere can be completed within 45
but when impregnated in the fruits of Solanum muricatum, the gel days (Zivkovic, 2009). Biodegradation and composting products are a
showed a positive effect on maintaining the beta-carotene (Schreiner friendly alternative to protect the environment to preserve fossil fuels
et al., 2003). The combination of hydrogels of various polymeric ma and reduce CO2 emissions.
terials decreases the shelf-life of certain fruits mainly caused by migra The International Standards Organization (ISO) has developed ISO
tion of water from the surrounding (Garcia and Barrett, 2002). 17088, ‘Specification for Compostable Plastics’ at an international level
which is in harmony with these European and US norms. The re
6. Biodegradation quirements of these standards for complete biodegradation under
composting conditions are given as (Song et al., 2009).
Biodegradation can be defined as the conversion of polymer into
carbon dioxide, water, or methane and biomass due to the action of
microorganisms. During the biodegradation of polymeric materials,
515
Fig. 5. Soil burial test and enzymatic test (Mangaraj et al., 2019).
1. Conversion of polymer material in form of granule, film or powder to agricultural and horticultural food products. Mater-bi a commercial bag
CO2, water and biomass through microbial activity. made from vegetable starch was found to be a potential threat like other
2. Approximately 90% of the carbon in the polymer conversion to CO2. conventional plastics if let in the natural environment as it affected the
3. The rate of biodegradation similar to degradation of natural mate plant radicle formation which was confirmed by phytotoxicity standard
rials like leaves, paper, grass and food scraps. tests performed using seeds of Lepidium sativum L. It also showed a sig
4. The composting cycle or degradation time should be not more than nificant effect to change the characteristics of water (Balestri et al.,
180 days and in case of radiolabelled polymer not more than 365 2019). Studies on the toxicity of PHB and PBAT leachates showed
days. decreased survival of Daphnia magna already 48 h of exposure (Gotter
mann et al., 2015). 37 non-volatile chemicals were found in films and
8. Toxicity pellets made from a PLA/Bio-PE blend. Cyclic oligomers like adipic acid,
phthalic acid, and butanediol were found in the highest concentration
During the formation of biodegradable plastics or bioplastics, (Aznar et al., 2019).
different compounds like additives, antioxidants, stabilizers, chain ini Nanoparticles (NPs) are used to improve the properties of polymer
tiators, cross-linking agents, nucleating agents, catalysts, etc. are added for food packaging application but very few studies are reported for
to improve the properties. Many of these compounds are not covalently Nanotoxicology and nanoecotoxicology of different biodegradable
bond to the polymer matrix, there is the possibility of a process called polymers. These particles can be exposed as oral ingestions, inhalation,
chemical migration which exposes humans to these compounds (Zim and contact. Oral ingestion is due to the chemical migration of NPs from
mermanna et al., 2020). The bioplastic evaluation of toxicity to increase polymer to food products (Maisanaba et al., 2015). The molecular
environmental performance is usually carried at the production stage or weight of smaller nanoparticles is faster absorbed and readily distrib
the degradability stage. The release of chemicals by the material during uted throughout the body damaging the cells. Studies on mice demon
the usage is often disregarded (Ernstoff et al., 2019). As the application strated that carbon nanotubes caused asbestos-like, length-dependent,
of bioplastic increases the incorporation of chemicals will also increase. toxic behavior when injected into the animal peritoneal cavity (Poland
Different assay methods are used to check the in-vitro toxicity such et al., 2008).
as Baseline toxicity, Oxidative stress response, and Endocrine activity. Toxicity is not the only parameter to study the sustainability of
Some of the cellulose-based, starch-based. Bio-PE, Bio-PET, PBAT, and bioplastics other factors like land-use, greenhouse emissions, societal
PHA samples inhibited bioluminescence of Aliivibrio fischeri which is an impacts must also be considered. Research on using safe chemical al
indicator for baseline toxicity, mostly with high potency (low EC20) ternatives must be carried out based on scientific principles like the
(Zimmermanna et al., 2020). Cell culture tests proved that Bionolle Tiered Protocol for Endocrine Disruption (TiPED) (Muncke et al., 2020).
produced by Showa Highpolymer made from polybutylene succinate has Despite all these toxicological effects most of the biodegradable poly
no toxic effects on cells. After degradation of PLA and nanocomposites mers and bioplastics have found application in food industries as their
(organoclays Cloisite 20A and Cloisite 30B) a decreasing mitotic index production technology is changed with hazard identification and char
and increasing chromosomal abnormalities were reported which is acterization performed before its large-scale commercial use.
possible due to the aneugenic action of the products formed after
degradation; tested by bioassay method using Allium cepaas test organ 9. Consumer perception on biodegradable packaging
ism for assessment of ecotoxicity (Souza et al., 2013). The phytotoxic
effect of bioplastics showed be minimal for their application of Consumers play a very crucial role in the success of environmentally
516
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biodegradable ternary blend of thermoplastic starch (TPS), poly (ε-caprolactone)
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Yaqoob: Conceptualization, Conception and design of study, Writing – Technol. Sci.: Int. J. 20 (1), 27–37.
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CRC press.
Poonam Aggarwal: revising the manuscript critically for important Contreras, I.N., Bader, J., DuRant, P., Grafman, L., 2018. An analysis of recycling high
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Current Research in Food Science 4 (2021) 503–520

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Current Research in Food Science

An overview of biodegradable packaging in food industry

government initiatives to reduce plastic waste. The global production of

Fig. 2. Functioning of packaging.

Fig. 3. Production statistics.

Fig. 4. Classification of polymers (Khalil et al., 2018).

Tensile strength was maximum for the ratio of 0.7:0.3

2.2.4. Polylactide aliphatic copolymer (CPLA) 2.2.6. Polybutylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PBAT)

(continued on next page)

It’s application in food

3.4. Elongation at break 4. Applications

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