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Towards Online Ageing Detection in Transformer Oil: A Review

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DOI: 10.3390/s22207923

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 sensors
Review
Towards Online Ageing Detection in Transformer Oil:
A Review
Ugochukwu Elele 1 , Azam Nekahi 1, *, Arshad Arshad 1 and Issouf Fofana 2

1 School of Computing, Engineering and Built Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University,

Glasgow G4 0BA, UK
2 Department of Applied Sciences, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Saguenay, QC G7H 2B1, Canada
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Transformers play an essential role in power networks, ensuring that generated power gets
to consumers at the safest voltage level. However, they are prone to insulation failure from ageing,
which has fatal and economic consequences if left undetected or unattended. Traditional detection
methods are based on scheduled maintenance practices that often involve taking samples from in situ
transformers and analysing them in laboratories using several techniques. This conventional method
exposes the engineer performing the test to hazards, requires specialised training, and does not
guarantee reliable results because samples can be contaminated during collection and transportation.
This paper reviews the transformer oil types and some traditional ageing detection methods, including
breakdown voltage (BDV), spectroscopy, dissolved gas analysis, total acid number, interfacial tension,
and corresponding regulating standards. In addition, a review of sensors, technologies to improve
the reliability of online ageing detection, and related online transformer ageing systems is covered in
this work. A non-destructive online ageing detection method for in situ transformer oil is a better
alternative to the traditional offline detection method. Moreover, when combined with the Internet of
Things (IoT) and artificial intelligence, a prescriptive maintenance solution emerges, offering more
advantages and robustness than offline preventive maintenance approaches.

Keywords: ageing; high voltage; insulator; Internet of Things; sensor; superhydrophobicity;

transformer oil
Citation: Elele, U.; Nekahi, A.;
Arshad, A.; Fofana, I. Towards Online
Ageing Detection in Transformer Oil:
A Review. Sensors 2022, 22, 7923. 1. Introduction
https://doi.org/10.3390/s22207923 The sole aim of power generation is to meet the electricity needs of consumers spread
Received: 6 September 2022
across homes and industries. This generated power meets different consumers at different
Accepted: 14 October 2022
voltage levels, and transformers are generally the equipment designed to supply the
Published: 18 October 2022
needed voltage to consumers. Transformers are expensive essential components of high
voltage (HV) stations. They have an extended mean time to repair (MTTR) and enormous
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
maintenance costs. Transformer failure can amount to the shutdown of a power station,
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
which has serious economic consequences. Other consequences could include the loss of
published maps and institutional affil-
lives, damage to substation equipment, and environmental (ecological) effects.
iations.
A detailed qualitative and quantitative failure mode effect and criticality analysis
(FMECA) of power transformers revealed that insulation failure is a significant cause
of transformer failure [1–3]. The transformer insulators comprise oil and paper. The
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
transformers in most power substations require oil as a medium for cooling, arc extinction
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. and insulation. Additionally, transformer oil acts like an information carrier, providing
This article is an open access article information on the health of the paper insulator through depolymerisation [4].
distributed under the terms and Like most HV materials, transformer oil is subject to ageing upon usage [5,6]. Insula-
conditions of the Creative Commons tion ageing is the gradual decrease in the dielectric strength of an insulator in operation to
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// a complete insulation breakdown from electrical and environmental stresses. While in use,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ transformer oil is subject to degradation that depends on the transformer loading condi-
4.0/). tion/thermal stress [7,8]. The thermal stress originates from either the windings’ copper or

Sensors 2022, 22, 7923. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22207923 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

 of power generation, the safety of personnel and the work environment, as well as enor
mous economic consequences. Consequently, their volume, purity, and reliability canno
be compromised. Ageing in transformer oil is primarily evidenced by interfacial tension
and acidity.
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 2 of 25
The transformer ageing detection method is classified as either intrusive or non-in
trusive, destructive or non-destructive, and offline or online. Intrusive detection tech
niques make contact with the transformer oil as opposed to non-intrusive methods. De
core iron losses. This further decomposes the oil, jointly provoking the partial discharge
structive methods alter (in the short or long run) the transformer oil properties being
formation and yielding the formation of transformer oil ageing by-products (ABPs), such as
measured as opposed to non-destructive methods. The online detection method involves
moisture-dissolved gases (carbon dioxide, methane, ethane, ethylene, acetylene, propane,
live ageingmethanol
propylene, detection ofethanol),
and the transformer
acids andoil while
sludge operating
[7,9–12]. as opposed
As shown to offline
in Figure 1, Par- ageing
detection,
tial which
discharges only involves
are incipient sample
faults that collectioninfor
can culminate laboratory
insulation analysis[13]
breakdown andwith
interpreta
ation.
cyclic cause and effect relationship with ageing [14]. Other partial discharge sources
includeIn-service transformer
voids in the pressboard, oilmoving
ageingbubbles,
cannot and
be prevented [11], but
surface discharge on it can be [15].
winding maintained
ABPs negatively
at a lower impact the
rate through oil’s dielectric
prescriptive strength property.
maintenance In addition,
steps using ageing signifi-
online sensors, thus avoiding
cantly affects transformer
catastrophic oil’s chemical
effects/outages. and electrical
The report by [18] properties,
points outsuchthatasaged
dielectric strength liquids
transformer
(decrease), dielectric dissipation factor, DDF (increase), flashpoint (decrease) and colour
can be treated by drying out, degassing, reclamation, refining and reconditioning. This
(shading) [7,16,17]. The significant chemical properties altered due to ageing include acidity
will ensure that the in-service transformer functions effectively up to its expected lifespan
and turbidity, while the significant electrical properties altered include dielectric strength,
(approx.
the 40 years)
dielectric [11].factor and resistivity [7].
dissipation

Figure1.1.Degradation
Figure Degradation Mechanism
Mechanism of Transformer
of Transformer Oil. Oil.

Transformer
2. Review oil insulation failure has rippling consequences on the primary purpose of
Methodology
power generation, the safety of personnel and the work environment, as well as enormous
economic consequences. Consequently, their volume, purity, and reliability cannot be
compromised. Ageing in transformer oil is primarily evidenced by interfacial tension
and acidity.
The transformer ageing detection method is classified as either intrusive or non-
intrusive, destructive or non-destructive, and offline or online. Intrusive detection tech-
niques make contact with the transformer oil as opposed to non-intrusive methods. De-
structive methods alter (in the short or long run) the transformer oil properties being
measured as opposed to non-destructive methods. The online detection method involves
live ageing detection of the transformer oil while operating as opposed to offline ageing
detection, which only involves sample collection for laboratory analysis and interpretation.
In-service transformer oil ageing cannot be prevented [11], but it can be maintained at
a lower rate through prescriptive maintenance steps using online sensors, thus avoiding
catastrophic effects/outages. The report by [18] points out that aged transformer liquids
can be treated by drying out, degassing, reclamation, refining and reconditioning. This
will ensure that the in-service transformer functions effectively up to its expected lifespan
(approx. 40 years) [11].

2. Review Methodology
This review was conducted with the research question—how can ageing detection
in transformer oil systems be improved? To effectively answer this question, this paper
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 3 of 25

focused on nine (9) research themes summarised in Table 1. Figures 2 and 3 show the
statistical plots, and Tables 2 and 3 summarise the screening methodology and thematic
references, respectively.

Table 1. Review themes.

Themes
1. Review of various transformer oil types
2. Review of transformer ageing characterisation techniques
3. Review of various ageing classification techniques
4. Accelerated thermal ageing technique
5. Fiber-Optic Sensor
6. Superhydrophobicity and online ageing detection
7. Machine learning models for online ageing detection
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8. IoT and online ageing 4 of 26
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 26
9. Review of related systems

Statistical Plot
Statistical Plot of
of Articles
Articles

Conference Paper
Conference Paper

Generic
Generic
Journal
Journal
Patent
Patent Count
Count
Technical Paper
Technical Paper

00 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60
Technical Paper
Technical Paper Patent
Patent Journal
Journal Generic
Generic Conference Paper
Conference Paper
Count
Count 3
3 00 56
56 26
26 19
19

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Statistical Plot
Plot of
of Articles.
Articles.
Figure 2.Statistical
Statistical Plot of Articles.

Year Plot
Year Plot
50
50
40
40
30
30
20
20
10 Count
Count
10
00
Before
Before Year
Year Year
Year Year
Year Year
Year Year
Year Year
Year Year
Year Year
Year
2015
2015 2015
2015 2016
2016 2017
2017 2018
2018 2019
2019 2020
2020 2021
2021 2022
2022
Count
Count 41
41 55 22 66 10
10 77 77 13
13 13
13

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Year
Year Distribution
Distribution of
of Articles.
Articles.
Figure 3. Year Distribution of Articles.
This statistic
This statistic did
did not
not include
include reference
reference sources
sources that
that did
did not
not uniquely
uniquely contribute
contribute toto
answering the research question. Since 2019, there has been significant research
answering the research question. Since 2019, there has been significant research interest interest
in this
in this subject
subject area
area (see
(see Figure
Figure 3);
3); however,
however, very
very few
few works
works have
have been
been reported
reported onon related
related
systems (see Table 3; review of related systems), emphasising the need for additional
systems (see Table 3; review of related systems), emphasising the need for additional re- re-
search on the online ageing detection of transformer
search on the online ageing detection of transformer oil. oil.

3. Types
3. Types of
of Transformer
Transformer OilOil
Mineral oil
Mineral oil and
and ester
ester oil
oil are
are two
two common
common examples
examples ofof transformer
transformer insulating
insulating liquids,
liquids,
with mineral oil having enjoyed over a century of use (compared to ester oil) and
with mineral oil having enjoyed over a century of use (compared to ester oil) and made made
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 4 of 25

Table 2. Paper Screening Methodology.

Search Index Specific Content

How can ageing detection in transformer oil systems be
Research Question
improved?
RefWorks Proquest, Elsevier Science Direct, IEEE Xplore,
Database
Google Scholar, GCU. Library (host to many databases)
Scientific articles published in peer-reviewed journals
Article Type and conferences, technical papers, patents, and generic
materials relevant to the field.
HV, Insulator, Ageing, Sensor, Transformer Oil,
Search Strings
Superhydrophobicity, IoT
Search Language English
Research Theme Result Ratio 96 out of 182
Relevance to research topic/question(s) judged
Screening Procedure progressively by the contents of the title, abstract,
conclusion/discussion, introduction, and methodology.

Table 3. Thematic References.

Themes References
1. Transformer oil types [4,18–27]
2. Review of transformer ageing characterisation techniques [7,16,17,21,28–49]
3. Review of various ageing classification techniques [29,46]
4. Accelerated thermal ageing technique [7,50–54]
5. Sample ageing detection sensors [32,38,55–61]
6. An overview of superhydrophobicity [62–78]
7. Machine Learning and Uncertainty Quantification [79–85]
8. IoT and online ageing [86–96]
9. Review of related systems [9,10,57]

This statistic did not include reference sources that did not uniquely contribute to
answering the research question. Since 2019, there has been significant research interest in
this subject area (see Figure 3); however, very few works have been reported on related
systems (see Table 3; review of related systems), emphasising the need for additional
research on the online ageing detection of transformer oil.

3. Types of Transformer Oil

Mineral oil and ester oil are two common examples of transformer insulating liquids,
with mineral oil having enjoyed over a century of use (compared to ester oil) and made
by the fractional distillation of crude petroleum. Mineral oil is a popular insulating liquid
for high-voltage transformers, jointly serving the purpose of cooling and insulation. It is
low-cost and readily available [19]. However, mineral oil is toxic, non-biodegradable and
potentially flammable, thus a hazard to the environment [20]. Additionally, transformer
mineral oil produces more water content during use/ageing than ester oil [4].
Natural esters (from animal/vegetable products) and synthetic esters are the two
types of ester oil currently in use [4]. Natural ester oils are more environmentally friendly
and renewable, gaining increasing usage [20–22] at cost expense. Furthermore, ester oil
resists oxidation and preserves the paper insulator better than mineral oil [23] as proved by
the experiment conducted by Martins and Gomes [4]. This is because water is more soluble
in natural esters than mineral oil. In addition, ester oils have better electrical characteristics
(BDV) than traditional mineral oil [24].
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEWacteristics(BDV) than traditional mineral oil [24]. 5 of 26
When unique properties (pour point, partial discharge resistance, flammability, oxi
dative stability) are sought, synthetic ester oils are often used [18]. As shown in Figure
[25],
by theSynthetic
experiment esters are formed
conducted from and
by Martins the reversible
Gomes [4]. reaction of carboxylic
This is because water isacids
moreand alco
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 5 of 25
soluble
hol to form esters and water (esterification). The building block for syntheticchar-
in natural esters than mineral oil. In addition, ester oils have better electrical esters is un
acteristics
limited as (BDV)
therethan
aretraditional
hundredsmineral oil [24].
of potential acid and alcohol building block combination
Whenthem
to form unique properties
[25]. Although (pour
notpoint,
natural,partial discharge
synthetic resistance,
esters have the flammability,
eco-friendly oxi-propertie
dativeWhen unique
stability) areproperties (pour point,
sought, synthetic esterpartial
oils aredischarge resistance,
often used [18]. Asflammability,
shown in Figure oxida-4
of natural esters.
tive stability)
[25], Syntheticare sought,
esters synthetic
are formed ester
from theoils are oftenreaction
reversible used [18]. As shown acids
of carboxylic in Figure
and4alco-
[25],
Synthetic
hol to formesters
estersare
andformed from the reversible
water (esterification). reaction of
The building carboxylic
block acids esters
for synthetic and alcohol
is un-
to formas
limited esters
thereand
arewater (esterification).
hundreds of potentialThe
acidbuilding blockbuilding
and alcohol for synthetic
blockesters is unlim-
combinations
ited as there are hundreds of potential acid and alcohol building block combinations
to form them [25]. Although not natural, synthetic esters have the eco-friendly properties to
form them [25].
of natural esters. Although not natural, synthetic esters have the eco-friendly properties of
natural esters.

Figure 4. Reversible esterification reaction [25].

Other alternative oils include edible coconut oil, Karanji oil [26], silicon oil, castor oi
Figure 4. Reversible
and sesame esterification
oil, which showedreaction [25].
acceptable
limits in terms of pour point, acidity, DDF and
Figure 4. Reversible esterification reaction [25].
BDV, and which can be further improved by purification [27].
Other alternative oils include edible coconut oil, Karanji oil [26], silicon oil, castor oil
and Other
sesamealternative
oil, whichoils include
showed edible coconut
acceptable oil,
limits in Karanji
terms oil [26],
of pour silicon
point, oil, castor
acidity, DDF andoil
and
4. sesame oil,
Transformer which
Oil showed
Ageing acceptable limits
Characterisation in terms of
Techniques
BDV, and which can be further improved by purification [27]. pour point, acidity, DDF and
BDV, and which can be further improved by purification [27].
Insulation ageing is the gradual decrease in the dielectric strength of an insulator in
4. Transformer Oil Ageing Characterisation Techniques
operation to Oil
4. Transformer
complete
Ageing
the insulation breakdown
Characterisation Techniques
from electrical and environmenta
Insulation ageing is the gradual decrease in the dielectric strength of an insulator
stresses. Ageing affects transformer oil’s chemical and physical properties, and severa
Insulation
in operation toageing
complete is the
thegradual
insulationdecrease in the dielectric
breakdown strength
from electrical andof an insulator in
environmental
ageing techniques are used to understand this. This section details some of the curren
operation to complete the insulation breakdown from electrical
stresses. Ageing affects transformer oil’s chemical and physical properties, and several and environmental
ageing detection
stresses. Ageing affectsmethods and their
transformer oil’scorresponding
chemical and regulating
physical standards.
properties,
ageing techniques are used to understand this. This section details some ofand the several
current
ageing
ageing techniques are usedand
detection methods to their
understand this. This
corresponding section details
regulating some of the current
standards.
4.1. Breakdown
ageing detection Voltage
methods(BDV) and theirTestcorresponding regulating standards.
4.1. Breakdown Voltage testing
This electrical (BDV) Testmethod is used to ascertain the offline age of a transformer oi
4.1. Breakdown
sampleThis(see Voltage
electrical
Figure (BDV)
testing
5 [28]). Test
method is used to ascertain
The breakdown voltage theisoffline age of aattransformer
the voltage which the oil oil sampl
sampleThis(see Figure
electrical 5 [28]).
testing The
method breakdown
is used tovoltage is
ascertain the
the voltage
offline
becomes conductive (evidenced by spark) [17], usually reported in [kV/mm] units. It i at
age which
of a the oil
transformer sampleoil
becomes(see
sample conductive
Figure 5of(evidenced
[28]). by spark) [17], usually reported in [kV/mm] units.oil It is also
also the measure the The breakdown
ability voltage
of insulation toiswithstand
the voltage at which the
electrical stress sample
[29]. The trans
the measure
becomes of the
conductive ability of
(evidenced insulation to withstand electrical stress [29]. The transformer
former
oil isthe
oil
placed
is placed
in a test
a testby
incontaining
cellability
spark)
cell [17], usually
containing
hemispherical
reported inelectrodes.
hemispherical
electrodes. The BDV
[kV/mm] units. The ItBDVis test i
also measure of the of insulation to withstand electrical stresstest
[29].is The
guided by
trans-
guided
the IECoilby the
60156 IEC
and 60156standards.
IS in
6792 and IS 6792 standards.
former is placed a test cell containing hemispherical electrodes. The BDV test is
guided by the IEC 60156 and IS 6792 standards.

Figure 5. Breakdown voltage tester [28].

According to [17], in the initial phase of electric field application, thermal agitation
occurs in the oil, leading to the formation of microscopic cavities. Further application of
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 6 of 25

the electric field leads to gas development and microbubble formation. Moreover, further
exposure results in a gas production rate exceeding bubble formation and, consequently,
the production of disruptive discharge. The voltage at which this occurs is called the
breakdown voltage or the disruptive discharge voltage value [30]. An example instrument
used in characterising oil samples with the BDV test is the BA75 analyser. Aged transformer
oil negatively correlates with the BDV value, but a low BDV value does not necessarily
imply ageing. BDV is a pointer to the severity levels of transformer oil impurity according
to BS EN 60422 [31].
The disruptive discharge indicates an insulation failure from a breakdown voltage
test instrument. The discharge completely bridges the insulation under the test, reducing
the voltage between the test electrodes to zero. According to IEC 60060-1 [30], disrup-
tive discharge may sometimes occur momentarily and is referred to as non-sustained
disruptive discharge.
The minimum acceptable BDV value is 30 kV/mm for transformers operating from
230 kV; 28 kV/mm for transformers rated between 69 kV and 230 kV; and 23 kV/mm for
those rated at most 69 kV [32].

4.2. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

Spectroscopy is the science concerned with investigating and measuring spectra (a
plot of measured light intensity against some properties of a light example, wavelength or
wavenumber [33]) produced when matter interacts with or emits electromagnetic radiation.
Infrared (IR) spectroscopy studies the interaction between matter and infrared radiation
based on absorbance. FTIR is useful because different chemical structures produce different
spectral fingerprints. FTIR can be used to ascertain the functional groups in molecules
present in oil samples [29,33] through spectral comparison and library searching. The atoms
in oil vibrate with a specific frequency, which forms a peak when the IR frequency matches
the atom frequency; the IR interpretation table helps identify the functional groups [17].
As oil ages, acidic and peroxide contents are formed for different chemical bonds during
oxidation and thermal decomposition [31]. They have been classified as O-H (hydroxyl
groups comprising alcohol and carboxylic acids) groups, C-H (methine group) and C=O
(carbonyl group or carbon monoxide) functional groups. According to the FTIR analysis
performed by [34], the intensity of peak absorbance of the methine and carbonyl group
increases with ageing, while that of the hydroxyl group decreases with ageing. FTIR is
useful for offline transformer oil characterisation.
The authors of [35] utilised a Nicolet iN10TM FTIR spectrometer to analyse automobile
engine oil samples and spectral data acquired over the spectral range of 4000–500 cm−1 at
4 cm−1 spectral resolution. Each sample was scanned three (3) times to eliminate random
error sources, and the average was taken for the qualitative and quantitative analysis
following the ASTM E 2412-04 standard. The ASTM E 2412-04 standard covers the use of
FTIR in monitoring contaminant buildup [35].
Figure 6 shows the result of the FTIR spectral analysis reported by [35] and ageing is
evident from the plot. The cause of the ageing can also be inferred following the ASTM
E 2412 standard for contamination compounds and causes. The reduction in the peak
observed between wavenumbers 2955 and 2853 was attributed to the evaporation of the oil
base components due to ageing, and the changes in the region of wavenumbers 1800 to
1670 were attributed to oxidation following the ASTM E 2412 standard.
FTIR has a generic application and improved signal-to-noise ratio (when compared to
infrared spectroscopy) but can suffer from artefacts (features present in the spectrum of a
sample outwit the sample, such as H2 O and CO2 ) [33].
Sensors 2022,
Sensors 22, 22,
2022, x FOR
7923PEER REVIEW 7 of 25 7 of 26

Figure 6. FTIR Spectral Analysis of Fresh and Aged Oil [35].

Figure 6. FTIR Spectral Analysis of Fresh and Aged Oil [35].
4.3. Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)
FTIR has a generic
A dissolved application
gas analysis and for
is a technique improved signal-to-noise
characterising transformerratio
oil to(when compared
determine
totheinfrared spectroscopy)
beginning of the defectbut canIt suffer
[21]. from artefacts
is beneficial (features
for preliminary present
ageing in theand
detection spectrum
oflocalisation.
a sample outwit
Gases the sample, such
are produced due as H Odecomposition
to the and CO ) [33].of transformer oil (mainly
hydrogen gas, hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide). These gases are then collected and
further
4.3. analysed
Dissolved GastoAnalysis
determine the gases present and their percentages. Depending on the
(DGA)
gases detected, the severity of ageing can be determined.
A dissolved
DGA gastwo
comprises analysis
stages.is The
a technique
first stagefor characterising
quantifies transformer
the dissolved oil to determine
gases (extraction
the beginning of the defect [21]. It is beneficial for preliminary ageing
stage), while the second stage identifies the component gases and diagnoses the fault [21]. detection and local-
isation.
IEC BS Gases
EN 60567areisproduced
the standard dueforto the
the sampling
decomposition
of gasesoffrom
transformer oil (mainlyand
oil-filled equipment hydrogen
gas, hydrocarbonofand
the specification carbon
various toolsmonoxide).
and methods These gases areand
for sampling then collected
labelling [36]and further
(stage 1), ana-
while the IEC 60599 is the standard for the interpretation of the dissolved
lysed to determine the gases present and their percentages. Depending on the gases de- gases using basic
gas ratios
tected, the[37].
severity of ageing can be determined.
N’cho and Fofanatwo
DGA comprises [38]stages.
listed several
The firstnovel
stagefibre optic sensors
quantifies designedgases
the dissolved to detect
(extraction
dissolved gases (hydrogen gas H2 , carbon monoxide CO, acetylene C2 H2 , and methane
stage), while the second stage identifies the component gases and diagnoses the fault [21].
CH4 ) in transformer oil indicative of ageing. These sensors can be integrated with data
IEC BS EN systems
acquisition 60567 isforthe standard
online healthfor the sampling
monitoring insteadofof gases
offline from oil-filledtechniques.
DGA analysis equipment and
the specification of various tools and methods for sampling and labelling [36] (stage 1),
4.4. Photoluminescence
while the IEC 60599 (PL) Spectroscopy
is the standardand forUltraviolet-Visible
the interpretationSpectroscopy (UV-Vis) gases using
of the dissolved
basic Photoluminescence
gas ratios [37]. (PL) spectroscopy is a non-intrusive, non-destructive method of
probing
N’chomaterials. It measures
and Fofana the several
[38] listed energy of lightfibre
novel emitted during
optic the designed
sensors electronic to
transi-
detect dis-
tion from
solved an (hydrogen
gases excited stategasto aHground
, carbonstate [16]. Light
monoxide CO, directed to Ca sample
is acetylene H , anduntil the CH )
methane
sample is excited; light (photon) is released upon relaxing. PL spectroscopy
in transformer oil indicative of ageing. These sensors can be integrated with data measures theacquisi-
optical fluorescence as a function of wavelength [7]. According to [7], PL spectroscopy is
tion systems for online health monitoring instead of offline DGA analysis techniques.
more straightforward, sensitive (due to its narrow band of electronic states) and can be
implemented online through available PL sensors.
4.4. Photoluminescence
The configuration(PL) Spectroscopy
consists of a laserand Ultraviolet-Visible
source, an optical lensSpectroscopy
(to converge(UV-Vis)
the laser
Photoluminescence
light), one cuvette for holding (PL)thespectroscopy is a non-intrusive,
oil sample, a monochromator non-destructive
(for selecting method of
narrow bands
of the light’s
probing wavelength,
materials. a detector
It measures (acting as
the energy ofalight
passive transducer),
emitted duringan theamplifier andtransition
electronic a
workstation for analysing the signal. According to [16], different experiments
from an excited state to a ground state [16]. Light is directed to a sample until the sample showed that
isthe photoluminescence
excited; light (photon) technique showed
is released upon a better correlation
relaxing. with DDF than
PL spectroscopy the UV–Vis
measures the optical
spectroscopy technique.
fluorescence as a function of wavelength [7]. According to [7], PL spectroscopy is more
Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy is popularly used for transformer oil condition assess-
straightforward,
ment but has also sensitive (dueowing
faced criticism to its narrow
to its costband of electronic
and poor sensitivitystates) and can [7].
to fluorescence be imple-
mented online
This method through
measures available
optical PL sensors.
absorption as a function of wavelength. The configuration
The configuration consists
comprises a light source (UV and visible of a laser
light),source, an opticaloptical
a monochromator, lens (to converge
lenses, the laser
a splitter,
light),
two (2)one cuvette
cuvettes, for holding
a differential the oil
amplifier, andsample,
a computer a monochromator (for selecting
workstation. One cuvette containsnarrow
the pure
bands ofoil
thesample,
light’sand the other contains
wavelength, a detectorthe aged sample
(acting as under test. transducer),
a passive The amplified anresult
amplifier
measures the UV–Vis absorbed by the aged sample. The transmittance
and a workstation for analysing the signal. According to [16], different experiments (T) is defined as the
ratio of the
showed thatpropagated light intensity through
the photoluminescence technique theshowed
sample cell (Io ) and
a better the light intensity
correlation with DDF than
before propagation through cell I, expressed mathematically as:
the UV–Vis spectroscopy technique.
Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy is popularly used for transformer oil condition as-
sessment but has also faced criticism owing to its cost and poor sensitivity to fluorescence
[7]. This method measures optical absorption as a function of wavelength. The configura-
tion comprises a light source (UV and visible light), a monochromator, optical lenses, a
 plified result measures the UV–Vis absorbed by the aged sample. The transmittance (T) i
defined as the ratio of the propagated light intensity through the sample cell (I ) and th
light intensity before propagation through cell I, expressed mathematically as:
I
T = (1
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923
I 8 of 25

The absorbance (A) is expressed as:

A I=
T =
o − log(T)
(1) (2
I
The absorbance (A) is expressed as:
4.5. Total Acid Number (TAN)
A = − log(T) (2)
The TAN indicates the acid concentration of the transformer oil insulator, and i
4.5. Total Acid
strongly Number with
correlates (TAN)ageing [29,39,40]. It is otherwise referred to as the neutralisation
number
The TAN(NN).indicates
It is determined by the amount
the acid concentration of of
thepotassium
transformerhydroxide (KOH)
oil insulator, andrequired
it to
strongly correlates with ageing [29,39,40]. It is otherwise referred
neutralise the acid in one gram of a transformer oil sample [5], hence expressed into as the neutralisation
number
mgKOH/g. (NN). It is determined
According to BS ENby the amount
62021-1 of it
[41], potassium hydroxide
is the quantity of a(KOH) required in mil
base, expressed
to neutralise the acid in one gram of a transformer oil sample [5], hence
ligrams of potassium hydroxide per gram of sample, required to titrate potentiometrically expressed in
mgKOH/g. According to BS EN 62021-1 [41], it is the quantity of a base, expressed in
a test portion in a specified solvent to obtain a pH of 11.5. Transformer oil below the mar
milligrams of potassium hydroxide per gram of sample, required to titrate potentiometri-
ginala class
cally of theinOQIN
test portion reference
a specified solventistowidely
obtain aregarded
pH of 11.5. asTransformer
unsafe for oil continuous
below the use and
should thus be reclaimed.
marginal class of the OQIN reference is widely regarded as unsafe for continuous use and
shouldBS ENbe
thus 62021-1 and BS EN 62021-2 [41,42] specify the standards for mineral oil acidity
reclaimed.
determination
BS EN 62021-1 byandautomatic potentiometric
BS EN 62021-2 titration
[41,42] specify and colourimetric
the standards for mineral oiltitration.
acidity Accord
determination by automatic potentiometric titration and colourimetric
ing to BS EN 62021-1, the test portion (transformer oil sample) is dissolved in a solventitration. According
to
andBS titrated
EN 62021-1, the test portion (transformer
potentiometrically oil sample) is dissolved
using a glass-indicating electrodein and
a solvent and
a reference elec
titrated potentiometrically using a glass-indicating electrode and a reference
trode. Potentiometric titration does not require an indicator; instead, a potential is meas electrode.
Potentiometric titration does not require an indicator; instead, a potential is measured. The
ured. The end-point specification for BS EN 62021-1 is 11.5, and the volume corresponding
end-point specification for BS EN 62021-1 is 11.5, and the volume corresponding to this
to this value is reported as the neutralisation number (NN).
value is reported as the neutralisation number (NN).
Anautomatic
An automatic pHpH titrimeter
titrimeter is recommended
is recommended by BSby ENBS EN 62021-1,
62021-1, and theandacidthe acid numbe
number
titrator,asasshown
titrator, shown in Figure
in Figure 7, complies
7, complies with with this standard.
this standard.

Figure7.7.Acid
Figure Acid number
number titrator
titrator in GCU
in GCU Lab. Lab.

4.6. Interfacial Tension (IFT)

4.6. Interfacial Tension (IFT)
Tension always exists at the interface of fluid phases following attraction and repul-
Tension
sive forces [43].always exists
Interfacial at theisinterface
tension the force of fluid phases
between following
two distinct phases:attraction and repul
gas–liquid,
sive forces [43]. Interfacial tension is the force between two distinct
gas–solid, liquid–liquid or liquid–solid interfaces [44]. The author of [43] defined IFT as phases: gas–liquid
gas–solid,
the liquid–liquid
quantitative index of theormolecular
liquid–solid
tension interfaces
at a given[44]. The author
interface, expressedof [43] defined
as the force IFT a
the quantitative
exerted indexper
at the interface of the
unitmolecular tension attoa transformer
length. Streamlined given interface, expressed
oil, IFT, as the forc
σ, has been
exerted at the interface per unit length. Streamlined to transformer oil, IFT, 𝜎, has been
defined as the force in dynes per centimetre (dynes/cm) or milliNewton per meter (mN/m)
required
defined toas rupture
the force the
inoil film per
dynes existing at an oil–water
centimetre (dynes/cm)interface [45]. The authors
or milliNewton of [5] (mN/m
per meter
define IFT as
required to the measure
rupture theofoil
thefilm
molecular
existingattraction force between
at an oil–water a layer of
interface oil and
[45]. Theaauthors
layer of [5
of water. IFT strongly (negatively) correlates with aged oil samples [46]; this implies that
define IFT as the measure of the molecular attraction force between a layer of oil and a
most characterisation techniques depend on ageing and other factors, but IFT (and NN)
layer
is of water.
a direct measure IFTofstrongly (negatively)
the transformer correlates
oil sample’s with aged
age. Similarly to oil samples
TAN, [46]; this
transformer oil implie
samples with IFT values below the marginal OQIN reference (see Table 4) are considered
unsafe for continuous use and should be reclaimed.
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 9 of 25

Table 4. Modified Oil Quality Index [29,46].

S/N Class Variable Range

NN 0.00 to 0.03
1. Good Oil/Class A IFT 45 to 30
OQIN 1500 to 1000
NN 0.05 to 0.10
2. Proposition A Oil/Class B IFT 29.90 to 27.10
OQIN 600 to 271
NN 0.11 to 0.15
3. Marginal Oil/Class C IFT 27 to 24
OQIN 245 to 160
NN 0.16 to 0.40
4. Bad Oil/Class D IFT 23.9 to 18
OQIN 150 to 45
NN 0.41 to 0.65
5. Very Bad Oil/Class E IFT 17.90 to 14
OQIN 44 to 22
NN 0.66 to 1.50
6. Extremely Bad Oil/Class F IFT 13.90 to 9
OQIN 21 to 6
NN 1.51 or more
7. Oil in Disastrous Condition/Class G IFT 8.50 or less
OQIN 6 or less

For the liquid–liquid interface which characterises the transformer oil, some of the
methods used to evaluate the IFT include the ring method (according to Du Noüy), plate
method, rod method, drop volume method, spinning drop method and pendant drop
method. Most IFT instruments mostly use the Du Noüy ring method. It involves slowly
lifting a platinum ring from a liquid interface, which relates directly to the interfacial
tension. Platinum surfaces are chemically inert, easy to clean, optimally wetted, and
generally form a zero contact angle. The platinum ring hangs parallel to the sample and
is allowed to sink into the liquid. As the ring is pulled upwards, the interfacial tension
generates a force on the ring, which is measured (the maximum force on the ring when
pulled out of the liquid) to evaluate the interfacial tension σ.
Mathematically:
Fmax
σ= ·C (3)
2πD
σ represents the interfacial tension, F is the force acting on the platinum ring, D is the
diameter of the ring and C is the correction factor (taking into account the additional
volume of liquid extracted together with the ring). Mathematically, C can be evaluated as:
r
γ
C = 0.725 + 4.014 × 10−4 × + 0.01287 (4)
∆ρ
γ represents the interfacial tension without correction in mN/m, and ∆ρ represents the
density difference between water and the insulating liquid at measuring temperature in
gcm−3 . The Du Noüy ring method is recommended by the ASTM D971 and BS EN 62961
standards. Automatic tensiometers calculate the σ and C values. According to BS IEC
62961 [47], automatic tensiometers can overcome the film destructive nature of the Du
Noüy ring method by automatically determining the maximum force value on the ring for
detachment from the film before detachment and reverse the platform movement promptly
prior to detachment without tearing the film. This allows for accurate, time-consistent
serial measurements. The ring method has some limitations, including the need for a
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 10 of 25

vibration-free location, a delicate ring, a non-flammable laboratory and training to be

undertaken.
The Wilhelmy plate method is also commonly used for offline IFT measurement
using a platinum plate. Mathematically, the interfacial tension using this method is
evaluated using:
F
σ= (5)
L cos θ
where σ represents the interfacial tension, F represents the force acting on the plate, L is the
wetted length and θ represents the contact angle. The contact angle measures the degree
of wettability of the plate. For platinum plates, this value is near zero, emphasising its
hydrophilic property. The advantage of the Wilhelmy plate method over the ring method
is that the plate method for the IFT measurement is static, making it suitable for recording
changes, unlike the destructive ring method [48]. To measure the force, F, the plate is
attached to the force sensor of a tensiometer. The rod method for the IFT measurement
follows the same principle: a cylindrical rod is used instead of a plate. The rod method is
more applicable for lower resolution measurements because the wetted length is smaller
when compared with the wetted length for plates.
Other non-forced methods for IFT measurement include the pendant drop method
(an optical method), the drop volume method and the spinning drop method [49]. Force
tensiometer instruments measure the forces exerted on a probe positioned on a liquid–liquid
interface. Usually, the probe is connected to a very sensitive balance that reports the
interfacial tension value. Force measured depends on the size and shape of the probe,
the contact angle between the probe and the liquid, and the interfacial tension between the
liquids. To overcome measurement bias, sufficient care must be taken to ensure that the
force measured is solely determined by interfacial tension. The Sigma 702ET instrument is
a specialised instrument for measuring offline laboratory standard interfacial tension in
accordance with ASTM D971 and IEC 62961 standards.
BS IEC 62961 [47] specifies that to obtain a value that provides a realistic expression
of the real interfacial tension (for the ring method), a measurement must be made after a
surface age of approximately 180 s. Surface age is defined as the period from the beginning
of the production of a surface or interface to the time of the observation or measurement.
BS IEC 62961 also specifies the ring cleaning methods, vessel preparation technique, and
IFT determination and reporting procedure.

5. Classification of Service-Aged Insulating Oil

The Myles Index Number or Oil Quality Index (OQIN) provides a metric for trans-
former oil classification into seven categories. The OQIN value is the quotient of the IFT
value and the NN value. The OQIN index can be used for offline and online oil classi-
fication. Another index suggested by the authors of [29,46] is the ratio of the dielectric
dissipation factor to the FTIR transmittance measured at 1710 cm−1 (DDP/T) index. The
DDP/T index is zero-based but currently limited to offline analysis.

6. Accelerated Thermal Ageing

Studying the complete degradation cycle of transformer oil (early life, mid-life, end-of-
life) requires fifteen (15) to fifty (50) years of observation of natural ageing, data collection
and analysis [50]. This is more than the duration of most research projects (three to six
years). Therefore, studying the ageing process and its impact on the dielectric requires
an accelerated simulation of the natural ageing process, otherwise known as accelerated
ageing techniques. Accelerated ageing involves combined electrical and environmental
stresses similar to those in the field, following specified standards.
Accelerated thermal ageing helps to reveal critical degradation properties (physical,
chemical and dielectric) in transformer oil due to the ageing by-products (ABPs) gener-
ated [7]. The half-life rule is consistently used to conduct accelerated thermal ageing [7]
and states that transformer oil’s ageing rate doubles as the operating temperature increases
 an accelerated simulation of the natural ageing process, otherwise known as accelerated
ageing techniques. Accelerated ageing involves combined electrical and environmental
stresses similar to those in the field, following specified standards.
Accelerated thermal ageing helps to reveal critical degradation properties (physical,
chemical and dielectric) in transformer oil due to the ageing by-products (ABPs) gener-
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 11 of 25
ated [7]. The half-life rule is consistently used to conduct accelerated thermal ageing [7]
and states that transformer oil’s ageing rate doubles as the operating temperature in-
creases by 7 °C. The base operating temperature for transformer oil is between 55 °C and
by ◦ 55 ◦ C andusing:
65 ◦ C [52].
65 7°CC. TheThe
[52]. base operating
ageing temperature
accelerating factorfor(AAF)
transformer oil factor
and time is between
are calculated
The ageing accelerating factor (AAF) and time factor are calculated using:
ATT − BOT
AAF =ATT − BOT (6)
AAF = 7 (6)
7
TF = 2 (7)
AAF
ATT stands for accelerated thermal =2
TFtemperature; BOT stands for base operating tem- (7)
ATT stands
perature; and TFfor accelerated
stands for timethermal
factor. temperature; BOTfor
This implies that stands for base operating
an accelerated thermal tem-
perature;
perature of 120 °C, assuming a base operating temperature of 60 °C, one (1) day ofthermal
and TF stands for time factor. This implies that for an accelerated ageing
temperature 120 ◦will
in the heatingofoven C, assuming a base
be equivalent operating
to 380 days oftemperature of 60in◦ C,
practical ageing theone (1)(see
field dayFig-
of
ageing in the heating oven will be equivalent to 380 days of practical ageing
ure 8 [7]). Standards mostly govern accelerated thermal temperatures. An exception in the field (see
Figure
would 8be[7]).
whenStandards
modellingmostly govern
a unique accelerated
operational thermal
condition temperatures.
within An exception
the transformer, such as
would be when
a hot spot modellingsamples
[51]. Different a uniquecanoperational condition
be prepared based within the transformer,
on the half-life such as a
rule representing
hot spot [51].
different Different
thermally agedsamples can be prepared
field samples. ATT valuesbased on the
usually half-life
range fromrule
100 representing
°C to 160 °C.
different thermally aged field samples. ATT values usually range from 100 ◦ C to 160 ◦ C.
Aged samples not expressed in field operation days (using the half-life rule) are expressed
Aged samples
in hours not expressed
of heating. in field operation
Typical examples include days
hours(using theofhalf-life
in steps 500 (500,rule) are1500,
1000, expressed
2000,
in hours
2500, of heating.
3000, etc.). Typical examples include hours in steps of 500 (500, 1000, 1500, 2000,
2500, 3000, etc.).

Figure 8. Different
Figure 8. Different aged
aged samples
samples(L-R
(L-R3-Day,
3-Day,10-Day,
10-Day,15-Day,
15-Day,20-Day,
20-Day,and
and30-Day)
30-Day)[7].
[7].

AA better
better setup
setup that
that replicates
replicates aa power
power transformer
transformer more
more closely
closely was
was reported
reported by
by
Bouaicha, Fofana and Farzaneh [53]. Their setup included metallic catalysts (zinc,
Bouaicha, Fofana and Farzaneh [53]. Their setup included metallic catalysts (zinc, copper, copper,
aluminium
aluminium and and iron)
iron) to
to simulate
simulate the
the metallic
metallic components
components inin the
the transformer
transformer (windings
(windings
and
and core). Oil-impregnated pressboards were used to simulate the kraft
core). Oil-impregnated pressboards were used to simulate the kraft paper
paper insulation,
insulation,
and silica gel was rightly positioned to simulate the transformer breathing mechanism. The
and silica gel was rightly positioned to simulate the transformer breathing mechanism.
half-life rule could have been used to replicate the thermal degradation even more closely.
The half-life rule could have been used to replicate the thermal degradation even more
The ASTM D1934-95 standard provides the specification for oxidative ageing using two
closely. The ASTM D1934-95 standard provides the specification for oxidative ageing us-
procedures (without a metal catalyst and with a metal catalyst) [54].
ing two procedures (without a metal catalyst and with a metal catalyst) [54].
7. Cross-Capacitive and Fibre Optic Ageing Detection Sensors
7. Cross-Capacitive and Fibre Optic Ageing Detection Sensors
Machine learning IoT solutions will improve HV insulation condition monitoring [55]
Machine
and sensors learning
play IoT solutions
an essential will improve
role in generating data HV insulation
for machine condition
learning monitoring
diagnostics.
[55] and sensors play an essential role in generating data for machine learning diagnostics.
7.1. Cross-Capacitive Sensor
The authors of [56] reported the effectiveness of parallel plate capacitive sensors with
thin hydrophilic porous oxide metal film as moisture content detection sensors. However,
one of the setbacks highlighted with the parallel plate capacitive sensor is its instability due
to variations in the geometric parameters, such as a gap shift, bending of electrodes, or even
overlap of electrodes. Therefore, the cylindrical cross-capacitor proposed by Thompson
and Lampard is used to overcome these geometric issues. It comprises four (4) identical
cylindrical electrodes separated by gaps. The capacitance between the diagonal opposite
pair of electrodes is called the cross-capacitance.
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 12 of 25

∈ × loge 2
 
Cc = ×l (8)
π
Cc represents the cross-capacitance; ∈ represents the dielectric permittivity; and l represents
the length of the electrodes.
In the simulation experiment (using ANSYS Maxwell Version 15.0) performed by [57],
the cross-capacitance value did not vary with changes in the structural design of the
cross-capacitor (circular or square electrode). Insignificant changes with different uniform
insulation gaps were also reported. The capacitance value depends on the length of
the electrode and the dielectric medium within the electrode. This is an improvement
over parallel plate capacitors that depend on the distance between the plates, the area of
plates and the permittivity of the dielectric. Furthermore, since the electrode lengths are
fixed, the capacitance depends solely on the oil dielectric. As a result, the cross-capacitive
sensor is more robust and suitable for transformer applications. It is also temperature-
independent [57].
Cross-capacitive sensors have been reported to be effective in measuring moisture
concentration, dielectric constant, resistivity, humidity and metal detection. However,
changes are usually made to the electrodes’ sensing film or geometric arrangement.
Rahman, Islam, Khera and Khan [56] designed a novel cross-capacitive sensor applica-
ble for contact measurements of moisture and 2-FAL. An AD 7150 capacitance-to-voltage
sensor was utilised to infer the capacitance of the dielectric medium. The results showed a
linear response to moisture and different 2-FAL concentration levels.

7.2. Fibre Optic Sensor

Fibre optic sensors have the following advantages over most other sensor types:
electromagnetic interference immunity, small size, lightweight, high sensitivity, large
bandwidth, extreme environment adaptability, explosion-proof, resistance to ionisation,
resilience, and suitable for remote and distributed sensing (see Table 5) [38,58,59]. They
can be applied in monitoring physical parameters, such as strain, temperature, pressure,
humidity, refractive index and HV insulation ageing monitoring (by inference). Optical
fibres are characterised by a uniform refractive index used in different configurations to
measure the optical absorption, fluorescence refractive index, pressure and strain [38,60].
As shown in Figure 9, optical fibres are generally classified by the materials used (plastic,
glass, polymer, silicon fibres), refractive index (step index or graded index), and mode of
light propagation (single-mode or multimode). Multimode transmission has fibre diameters
(50 and 60 µm) much larger than the wavelength of the light source, giving the light many
paths to take as it propagates through. On the other hand, single-mode transmission has
fibre diameters (9 µm) almost equal to the transmitted light wavelength, allowing only one
wavelength to propagate through.

Table 5. Cross Capacitive Sensor and Fibre Optic Sensor Comparison.

S/N Sensor Type Input/Output Intrinsic/Destructive Benefit/Limitation

1. Adaptable for various ageing feature detections.
2. Good Repeatability.
3. Requires a data card (AD7150).
Cross-Capacitive
1. Capacitance/Voltage Yes/No 4. It is temperature-independent.
Sensors
5. Only sensitive to the parameter measured
(transformer oil).
6. Prone to electromagnetic interference.
1. Potentially easy to install.
2. Allows for offline/online sensing.
3. Resistant to ionising radiation, electromagnetic
Light/Voltage or
2. Fibre Optic Sensors Yes/No interference and radio-frequency interference.
Current
4. Explosion-proof.
5. Extended ageing detection applications.
6. Lightweight and high sensitivity.
Sensors 2022,
Sensors 2022, 22,
22, 7923
x FOR PEER REVIEW 13
13 of 26
of 25

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Optical
Optical fibre
fibre classification.
classification.

An optical
Different fibre consists
sensitivity of theare
responses core, the cladding
expected based on andthe thechoice
coating. The corecomponent
of material, is the light
transmission
refractive indexareaandofmode
the fibre that can be ofFor
of propagation. either glass an
example, or plastic material.
experiment The cladding
conducted by [61]
provides
for ageinga monitoring
lower refractive of anindex at the liquid
industrial core interface
coolant to allow for
showed thata silicon
reflection within
fibres the
exhibit
core for
more light transmission
efficient behaviour than through
polymer thefibre
fibre(when
basedusedon the forprinciple of total internal
acidity monitoring) reflec-
in terms of
tion [59].and
stability Therefore, the cladding
repeatability. However, ensures
polymer a decrease in scattering
fibres have loss and offers
better sensitivity, additional
biocompatibility
protection
and bending to tolerance
the core. The [59].coating offers environmental and mechanical protection to the
Anfibre
optical optical
corefibre
and consists
is mainlyofmade the core,fromthe cladding
plastic [59]. and the coating. The core is the
light The
transmission area of of
general structure theanfibre
opticalthatfibre
can sensor
be of either glass orofplastic
is composed material.
an optical sourceThe(or
cladding provides
transmitter), a lower
the sensing refractive
element and index at thedetector.
the optical core interface to allow
The sensing forisadeveloped
area reflection
within the coreafor
by uncladding lightportion
choice transmission
of the fibrethrough
opticthe fibre
cable. The based on source
optical the principle of totala
can be either
internal reflection [59]. Therefore, the cladding ensures
light-emitting diode (LED) or a laser diode. LEDs are generally suited for multimode a decrease in scattering loss and
fi-
offers
bres andadditional protectionby
are characterised to low
the core.
power, The coating
less offers and
bandwidth environmental
a maximumand mechanical
throughput of
protection
1 Gbps. Laser to the optical
diode fibre core
sources offerand more is mainly
advantagesmadethan fromLED plastic [59]. at the expense of
sources
cost. The
Laser general
diodesstructure
are faster, of allow
an optical fibre sensor
single-mode is composed
or multimode of an optical
transmission source (or
(Fabry-Perot
transmitter), the sensing element and the optical detector. The
lasers) and can achieve a throughput of at least 10 Gbps. Distributed feedback (DFB) lasers sensing area is developed
by
anduncladding
vertical cavity a choice portion of the
surface-emitting fibre
lasers optic cable.
(VCSELs) do not The optical
enjoy the source can of
versatility beFabry–
either
aPerot
light-emitting diode (LED) or a laser diode. LEDs are generally
lasers as they are only suited for single-mode fibres and multimode fibres, respec- suited for multimode
fibres
tively.and are characterised by low power, less bandwidth and a maximum throughput of
1 Gbps. Laserfibre
Optical diode sources
sensors areoffer more advantages
classified as intrinsicthanandLED sources
extrinsic at the[59].
sensors expense of cost.
Intrinsic fi-
Laser diodes are faster, allow single-mode or multimode transmission
bre optic sensors have a sensing area within the fibre optic cable (the fibre is the sensor), (Fabry-Perot lasers)
and
whichcanisachieve
usually aachieved
throughput of at least 10
by uncladding Gbps. Distributed
a portion feedback
of the fibre optic (DFB)
cable. lasers and
The developed
vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) do not enjoy
sensing area makes direct contact with the material to be measured, and a property of the versatility of Fabry–Perot
lasers
light isasmodulated,
they are only suited
which for single-mode
infers the input. The fibres
fibreand multimode
optic cable is afibres,
light respectively.
waveguide for
Optical fibre sensors are classified as intrinsic and
extrinsic fibre optic sensors to the external sensor. The intrinsic sensing mode extrinsic sensors [59]. Intrinsic
is more
fibre optic sensors have a sensing area within the fibre optic cable (the fibre is the sensor),
common with most optical fibre sensors. For the intrinsic sensor configuration, the meas-
which is usually achieved by uncladding a portion of the fibre optic cable. The developed
urand alters light wave parameters, such as wavelength, phase, intensity and polarisation,
sensing area makes direct contact with the material to be measured, and a property of light
which can be used to infer the measurand quantity. For this reason, fibre optic-based sen-
is modulated, which infers the input. The fibre optic cable is a light waveguide for extrinsic
sors (OFS) are either phase-modulated, intensity-modulated, wavelength-modulated or
fibre optic sensors to the external sensor. The intrinsic sensing mode is more common with
polarisation-modulated [59].
most optical fibre sensors. For the intrinsic sensor configuration, the measurand alters
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 14 of 25

light wave parameters, such as wavelength, phase, intensity and polarisation, which can
be used to infer the measurand quantity. For this reason, fibre optic-based sensors (OFS)
are either phase-modulated, intensity-modulated, wavelength-modulated or polarisation-
modulated [59].
Intensity-modulated OFSs are common for intrinsic fibre optic configurations. The
sensing principle is based on the attenuation of the optical signal induced by the monitored
parameter [59]. Following the loss of signal power, which characterises intensity-modulated
OFSs, higher optical signals are recommended (multimode fibres). Intensity-modulated
OFSs, although simple to implement and adaptable for distributed instrumentation, require
standardisation and source referencing to impede false interpretations. Optical intensity
attenuation is mainly achieved through microbending and evanescent field absorption.
Microbends are bends too small to be detected by the human eye when external pressure is
applied to a defined portion of the fibre optic sensing area. Optical intensity attenuation
occurs during microbending when propagated guided signals radiate into non-guided
modes. According to [59], the microbend affects the critical angle that allows the propagated
signal to remain in the guided mode. Microbend OFSs have found applications in strain,
pressure, temperature, vibration, humidity and pH measurements [59]. Evanescent field
sensors rely on intensity loss due to the uncladding of a portion of the fibre optic cable.
This ensures that the total internal reflection does not lead to signal loss which depends on
the refractive index of the sensing medium. For transformer oil applications, the refractive
index of aged samples varies proportionally to the age of the oil samples. Polishing the
sensing area (superhydrophobicity) of evanescent field sensors can free the sensing area
from impurity clogging when in contact with test samples.
A single-mode fibre-sensing configuration comprises an optical fibre, a sensing compo-
nent, a photodetector and a light source, with the fibre acting as the transmission medium
and the sensing element. However, the single-mode–multimode–single-mode (SMS) config-
uration is reportedly more effective, and the multimode section of the configuration is used
as the sensing element. The single-mode step-index polymer optical fibre is reportedly
adequate for monitoring transformer oil breakdown [38]. The authors of [58] used a step-
index multimode polymer optical fibre to design a water-quantity sensor for transformer
oil application. The sensing area was determined by mechanically uncladding a portion
(2 cm) of the multimode fibre. The authors of [58] summarised the design process for a
multimode polymer step index sensor generally applicable for other related measurements.
The setup is summarised below.

Evanescent Wave Absorption Principle for Online Ageing Detection

The speed of light changes as it moves between media, which causes refraction. Light
travels faster in a vacuum than it does in any material. The refractive index of a material
(water, transformer oil) is a measure of the change in the speed of light as it passes from a
vacuum (or approximately air) into the material; it is mathematically expressed as:
V1
n= (9)
V2
where n represents the refractive index of the material; V1 represents the speed of light in a
vacuum; and V2 represents the speed of light in a material. The refractive index is inversely
correlated with the speed of light through the medium. A higher refractive index implies a
lower speed of light.
The evanescent field absorption-based configuration is a widespread intrinsic sensing
technique [32]. A portion of the fibre optic sensor is uncladded, forming the sensing area.
The parameter to be detected affects the refractive index of the uncladded portion and
prevents optical waves from leaking into the fibre optic waveguide [32] and consequently
diminishes some properties of the wave reaching the fibre output.
Mathematically [32]:
Pclad ∼ 4
µ= = (10)
Pclad + Pcore 3V
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 15 of 25

µ is the modal fractional power, Pclad and Pcore represent the powers carried on the core and
cladding, respectively, and V is the fibre’s normalised frequency. The normalised frequency
is a unitless quantity expressed as:
2πa
q
V= n2 core − n2 clad (11)
λ
a is the fibre core radius, λ is the wavelength of the optical source, and ncore and nclad
represent the refractive indices of the core and cladding, respectively. With constant source
wavelength, core diameter, and core refractive index, Pclad becomes proportionally related
to the clad refractive index, nclad (combining Equations (9) and (10)). The uncladded region
(sensing area) makes direct contact with the ageing transformer oil sample, and so nclad
becomes replaced with noil , and Pclad is replaced by Poil , representing the power lost to the
transformer oil owing to changes in the refractive index of the oil.
Ageing increases the refractive index of the transformer oil and consequently increases
the power lost to the transformer oil. This power will not get to the fibre optic output, thus
defining a sensing area (uncladded) that responds to the transformer oil ageing behaviour.

8. Superhydrophobicity and Online Ageing Detection

Transformer oil ageing may impact intrusive ageing detection technology due to ABPs
clogging the sensing area, thus affecting the detection and consequently defeating the
overall aim of the online ageing detection system. Superhydrophobicity (or ultrahydropho-
bicity) technology has been developed for outdoor insulators exposed to accretion and
icing [62] as well as solar panels [63]. A superhydrophobic surface (first seen in lotus
leaves) is difficult to wet, possesses self-cleaning characteristics, and has a contact angle
greater than 150 degrees and a sliding angle (or contact angle hysteresis) less than ten (10)
degrees (see Figure 10) [64–66]. Superhydrophobicity is a nature-inspired technology from
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 26
lotus leaves, rice leaves, mosquito eyes, butterfly wings, rose petals, snail shells and fish
scales [67].

Figure10.
Figure 10. Classification
Classificationof
ofwettability
wettabilityof
ofaasurface [66].
surface[66].

The
The contact
contact angle
angle is
is measured
measured statistically
statistically and
and dynamically
dynamically when
when the
the liquid
liquid resides
resides
on
on the
the surface
surface and
and relates
relates to
to the
the surface
surface tension
tension between
between the
the different
different interfaces.
interfaces. Young’s
Young’s
model
model relates
relates the
the contact
contact angle
angle with
with the
the surface
surface tension
tension of
of the
the different
different interfaces
interfaces forfor
smooth (or refined) surfaces:
smooth (or refined) surfaces:
γsv − γsl
cos θ = 𝛾 − 𝛾 (12)
cos 𝜃 = γlv (12)
𝛾
where θ represents the contact angle (or Young’s contact angle); γsv represents the surface
where 𝜃
tension represents
between the contact angle
the solid–vapour (or Young’s
interface; contactthe
γsl represents angle);
surface𝛾 tension
represents the sur-
between the
face tension interface;
solid–liquid between and the solid–vapour
γlv representsinterface;
the surface 𝛾 tension
represents the surface
between tension be-
the liquid–vapour
tween theThe
interface. solid–liquid interface;
Wenzel model and and 𝛾 represents model
the Cassie–Baxter the surface
relatetension
to roughbetween theThe
surfaces. liq-
uid–vapour
Wenzel modelinterface. The as:
is expressed Wenzel model and the Cassie–Baxter model relate to rough
surfaces. The Wenzel model is expressed as:
γsv − γ
cos θ = 𝛾 − sl𝛾 ·r (13)
cos 𝜃 = γlv ·𝑟 (13)
𝛾
where r represents the roughness ratio (r = 1 for a smooth surface; and r > 1 for a rough
surface).
Creating a superhydrophobic surface involves several approaches, such as chemical
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 16 of 25

where r represents the roughness ratio (r = 1 for a smooth surface; and r > 1 for a rough
surface).
Creating a superhydrophobic surface involves several approaches, such as chemical
vapour deposition, wet chemical reactions, electrochemical deposition, the layer-by-layer
method, self-assembly, electrospinning, plasma treatments, sol-gel, etc. Studies [68–77]
have aimed at providing low surface energy (using fluorine or silicon-containing molecules;
for rough surfaces) and high micro-nanostructure surface roughness (by the introduction
of pores or microstructure; for non-rough surfaces) [63,78]. Surface energy is associated
with the intermolecular forces between two media interfaces.
Most works on superhydrophobic coating are applied to outdoor insulators, biomedi-
cal instruments [65] and non-intrusive measurement technology. However, more research is
needed to assess the potency of superhydrophobicity in guaranteeing the reliability of intru-
sive online ageing detection technology for transformer oil applications prone to ABPs. This
will involve applying a superhydrophobic coating to the sensing area of the uncladded op-
tical fibre configuration, ensuring that the optical properties are not significantly impacted.
The reliability can be tested by subjecting the superhydrophobic optical fibre sensor to
different aged samples and measuring the precision with historical data. While the presence
of ABPs is expected to impact the precision of a test conducted without superhydrophobic
coating, the precision result should be much better with superhydrophobic coating.

9. Machine Learning Models for Online Ageing Detection

Machine learning models (regression and classification) are instrumental in achieving
online ageing detection for transformer oil. Regression models are required for predicting
key ageing properties, such as interfacial tension (IFT), acidity (TAN), turbidity, decayed
dissolved particles (DDP), dielectric dissipation factor (DDF), etc., from the sensor’s output
variable. Classification models are required to distinguish the different levels of severity
using the oil quality index (OQIN) value. This enables predictive maintenance options,
alerting operators of dangerous thresholds (class D to G) and providing initial online
recommendations. Some examples of machine learning regression models relevant for
online ageing detection include linear regression, nonlinear regression, support vector
machine (SVM) regression, decision trees regression, and shallow/deep neural network
regression models. Some examples of machine learning classification models relevant for
online ageing detection include logistic regression, decision trees, k nearest neighbour
(KNN), support vector machines, and shallow/deep neural networks. The predictor
variables will be the sensor’s output variable(s), while the target variables will be any of
the desired ageing properties’ variables (for regression models) or the severity level of
ageing in classes or colour (for classification models). These models can be developed and
evaluated using python libraries, MATLAB and R.
The regression model is one of the most familiar models that maps a target variable
to one (simple linear regression) or more (multiple linear regression) predictor variable
(s) using a linear function. It works with the assumptions of linearity, independence,
homoscedasticity and normality between the predictor and target variables.
The simple regression equation is specified as:

ŷ = b̂0 + b̂1 x + ∈ (14)

where ŷ is the estimated dependent variable, b̂0 is the constant term, b̂1 indicates the
sensitivity of y to x, and ∈ is the regression error [79].
The corresponding multiple regression model is specified as:

ŷ = b̂0 + b̂1 x1 + b̂2 x2 + · · · + b̂k xk + ∈ (15)

where ŷ is the estimated dependent variable, b̂0 is the model constant, b̂1 , b̂2 , . . . b̂k are the
estimated parameter values and model sensitivities, and ∈ is the regression noise [79].
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 17 of 25

A more detailed overview of the linear regression model covering model specification,
model estimation, maximum likelihood, statistical inference, regularisation and linear
model diagnostics can be found in [80].
Regression and non-binary classification models can be constructed using decision
trees and neural networks. Decision trees are tree-like graphs in which each leaf node
denotes the result of cumulative decisions, and each branch node denotes an option among
numerous options [81]. Artificial neural networks (ANN) are a supervised machine learning
technique mimicking biological networks using connected layers. A detailed review of
decision trees and artificial neural networks can be found in [82,83].
IoT data collection can produce inconsistent, sparse and noisy data, reducing the data
analysis’ confidence and uncertainty. The dependability of data analysis is increased by
managing and quantifying model uncertainty. Additionally, it strengthens confidence in
the model’s judgments [84]. A detailed review of uncertainty quantification for machine
learning models and deep learning models highlights the use of Bayesian neural networks
and Bayesian physics informed networks for deep learning uncertainty quantification,
as well as gaussian process regression (GPR) and physics-informed neural networks for
traditional machine learning [85].

10. IoT and Online Ageing Detection

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the technology of interconnection of human assets
(also known as things) via the internet using sensors to make informed decisions, minimis-
ing human intervention [86]. For example, online ageing detection can be advanced when
integrated with IoT technology. The IoT helps prevent considerable person-hour loss to
collect and centralise online instrument readings. The IoT provides a more straightforward
solution to this challenge, including an extra layer for advanced data analysis and reporting.
The things within an IoT network must stay connected regardless of their movements.
Some IoT enabling technologies include low-cost/low-power sensor technology, cloud
computing platforms, artificial intelligence technologies, etc.
According to Li et al. [86], an IoT service-oriented architecture (SOA) comprises a
sensing layer, network layer, service layer and interface layer. The sensing layer primarily
consists of the sensors (RFID tags, barcodes, etc.) [87], data acquisition devices and protocols
(NI DAQ); the network layer consists of wired or wireless connections (Bluetooth, WIFI,
loraWAN, GSM&Sigfox, Satellite); the service layer meets the user’s demands; and the
interface layer allows for the interaction between the user and the application. Therefore, it
is recommended that IoT systems be designed to provide for the extensibility, scalability,
modularity, interoperability and reliability of the implemented AI models. An IoT platform
(ThingSpeak, ThingWorx, Google Cloud, Oracle IoT, Microsoft Azure IoT, etc.) integrates
these sensor data from different devices through appropriate security channels and includes
an extra analytics layer for real-time interpretation and implementation.
IoT systems suffer from some challenges, mainly sensor and data security challenges.
There are three (3) challenges with sensors: sensor accuracy to detect the necessary data,
environmental/operational impact on sensor accuracy [88], and sensor ageing. All these
affect the fidelity of IoT data.
There is a need to select and locate the best sensor that can detect the unique functional
characteristics of an asset. One sensor may not satisfy this condition and thus the need for
a combination of sensors at the expense of cost. If possible, sensors should be shielded
from operational and environmental conditions affecting their accuracy. Sensor ageing
or sensor deterioration is the sensor’s sensitivity reduction owing to prolonged usage
or/and the impact of external influences on the sensor. The authors suggest the periodic
recalibration or retrofitting of sensors to preserve the accuracy of the IoT data. In addition,
the authors suggest a predictive algorithm to detect the fidelity of these sensors while idle
or in operation. This algorithm should safely notify the user or operator to recalibrate or
retrofit the sensor.
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 18 of 25

Security challenges abound and pose a significant threat, especially when connected
to cloud technologies [89]. A feasible solution will include measures to detect cyber attacks
in hacking or phishing and alert experts when necessary. Additional layers of security can
be added to make different cyberattack activities impossible. Edge computing helps to
solve security challenges by allowing computing and data storage to occur at the edge of
the internet instead of the cloud.
The IoT can be integrated to track ageing and make proactive decisions to ensure opti-
mal transformer performance for the online ageing detection of transformer oil. Although
there has not been significant research output in this area for transformer oil, the authors
suggest adopting Figure 11 as the framework for online ageing detection in transformer
oil. An intensity-modulated optical fibre sensor, cross-capacitive sensors, and ageing gas
sensors (examples include hydrogen gas sensors and carbon dioxide gas sensors) can be
utilised for the sensing layer. National Instrument NI USB 6008/6009, Arduino microcon-
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEWtroller, and Raspberry Pi are some examples of data acquisition devices for ageing data.
19 of 26
ThingSpeak, ThingWorx, Google Cloud, Oracle IoT and Microsoft Azure IoT are examples
of IoT platforms that can provide the network, services and interface layer.

Figure
Figure11.
11.IoT
IoTservice-oriented architecture[86].
service-orientedarchitecture [86].

Thingspeak has
Thingspeak has reportedly succeeded
succeeded in inseveral
severalIoT
IoTapplications
applicationsandandcan
canbebeapplied
applied to
transformer oil ageing systems. Thingspeak is an open-source IoT platform
to transformer oil ageing systems. Thingspeak is an open-source IoT platform [90] com- [90] compatible
with MATLAB
patible with MATLAB (for AI (for
capabilities), microcontrollers
AI capabilities), and DAQs.
microcontrollers It has been
and DAQs. It hasutilised for
been uti-
real-time
lised room condition
for real-time monitoring
room condition systems,systems,
monitoring water monitoring systems and
water monitoring analytics,
systems and an-air
qualityair
alytics, monitoring systems, traffic
quality monitoring control
systems, systems,
traffic and
control transformer
systems, subsystemssubsys-
and transformer [90–96].
When
tems used with
[90–96]. When MATLAB
used with (for example),
MATLAB (forthe channel the
example), ID and API ID
channel keyand
areAPI
inputted
key areto
enable sensor data to be read with the help of the ESP8266 WIFI module
inputted to enable sensor data to be read with the help of the ESP8266 WIFI module and and Arduino
microcontroller.
Arduino In addition,
microcontroller. the MATLAB
In addition, data analysis
the MATLAB data toolkit,
analysisSimulink and Simscape
toolkit, Simulink and
can be employed for data cleaning, analysis, predictive model development,
Simscape can be employed for data cleaning, analysis, predictive model development, and the design
of frontends
and the design and of user interfaces.
frontends and user interfaces.
IoT has applications
IoT has applications in inhealthcare,
healthcare,aviation,
aviation,intelligent
intelligenthomes,
homes,agriculture,
agriculture,food
foodpro-
pro-
cessing, security surveillance, reliability engineering, pharmaceutical, retail
cessing, security surveillance, reliability engineering, pharmaceutical, retail and logistics, and logistics,
recyclingand
recycling andentertainment
entertainment[87,89].
[87,89].This
Thiscan
canbe beintegrated
integratedforforthe
theonline
onlineageing
ageingdetection
detection
of transformer oil.
of transformer oil.
11. Example of Related Systems
11. Example of Related Systems
11.1. A Non-Destructive, Non-Intrusive Design Using an Antenna
11.1. A Non-Destructive, Non-Intrusive Design Using an Antenna
Rohit, Sisir and Marley [9] implemented a non-intrusive, non-destructive technique
Rohit,
for the Sisir and
condition Marley [9]ofimplemented
assessment a non-intrusive,
transformer oil non-destructive
as shown in Figure 12. A horn technique
antenna
for
wasthe condition
placed overassessment of transformer
an open vessel oil aschamber
in an anechoic shown in(aFigure
room 12. A hornto
designed antenna was
stop sound
placed over or
reflections anelectromagnetic
open vessel in anwaves)
anechoic
to chamber (a room designed
prevent interference, filledto stopoil
with sound reflec-
to study its
tions or electromagnetic
characteristics. waves)chamber
The anechoic to prevent interference,
was maintained filled
at awith oil to study
temperature of its ◦ C and
20 charac-
teristics. The anechoic chamber was maintained at a temperature of 20 °C and 50% hu-
midity using a temperature controller and a dehumidifier; this is because the frequency
response of the insulating liquid is sensitive to temperature and humidity variation. The
parameters monitored to detect ageing were moisture content (MC) and total acid number
 Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 19 of 25

50% humidity using a temperature controller and a dehumidifier; this is because the
frequency response of the insulating liquid is sensitive to temperature and humidity
variation. The parameters monitored to detect ageing were moisture content (MC) and
total acid number (TAN). Laboratory samples were initially used before extensions were
made to actual in-service transformer oil samples for validation. Accelerated thermal
ageing and oxidation ageing approaches were used to study transformer insulation’s early,
midlife, and afterlife properties with several ageing samples. The frequency response plot
clearly showed the degree of ageing present in the transformer oil. A linear fit was derived
from the plot of the reflection coefficient, |S11 | against the moisture content and the TAN.
Guranteeing constant humidity and temperature for an in situ transformer will involve
additional costs to implement new controlled designs. This solution is also limited by
the need to significantly re-mechanise existing transformer designs to accommodate the
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW anechoic chamber. An evanescent wave absorption intrusive fibre optic solution offers20 of 26
a better solution in terms of cost, online adaptability, simplistic design and immunity to
external interference.

Figure12.
Figure Antenna design
12.Antenna design setup
setup[9].
[9].
11.2. An Intrusive Ageing Detection Design Using a Cross-Capacitance Sensor
11.2. An Intrusive Ageing Detection Design Using a Cross-Capacitance Sensor
Rahman et al. [57] used a cross-capacitive sensor to predict the dielectric constant of a
Rahmaninsulating
transformer et al. [57]oil
used
withaacross-capacitive
known contamination sensor to of
level predict the the
2-Fal, and dielectric constant of
combination
a transformer
of moisture andinsulating oil with
2-FAL, mineral a synthetic
oil, known contamination
ester, soybean oillevel
andofrapeseed
2-Fal, andoil. the
Thecombina-
oil
cellofmeasured
tion moisturetheanddielectric
2-FAL, constant
mineral of oil,the various ester,
synthetic solutions. The plot
soybean of the
oil and dielectric
rapeseed oil. The
oilconstant against different
cell measured concentrations
the dielectric constant for the various
of the oil samples shows linear
solutions. characteristics.
The plot of the dielectric
The results
constant weredifferent
against reported for the simulatedfor
concentrations cross-capacitance
the oil samples ofshows
variouslinear
transformer oil
characteristics.
concentrations. The sensor was calibrated, and a linear calibration result was reported
The results were reported for the simulated cross-capacitance of various transformer oil
with a maximum error of 0.86%, 0.33%, 0.91% and 0.64% for mineral oil, synthetic ester
concentrations. The rapeseed
oil, soybean oil and sensor was calibrated, The
oil, respectively. andsensor
a linear
wascalibration
validated forresult
onlinewas reported
ageing
with a maximum
detection error of 0.86%,technology.
using cross-capacitance 0.33%, 0.91% and 0.64% for
Cross-capacitance mineral
intrusive oil, synthetic
ageing detection ester
oil, soybean oil and rapeseed oil, respectively. The sensor was validated
technology offers good repeatability but is prone to electromagnetic interference. for online
Theageing
detection
moisture using
contentcross-capacitance technology.
affects the permittivity, making it Cross-capacitance intrusive
difficult to discriminate betweenageing
ageing detec-
andtechnology
tion moisture content
offersdetection when usingbut
good repeatability thisissolution.
prone to electromagnetic interference. The
moisture content affects the permittivity, making it difficult to discriminate between age-
11.3. An Intrusive Ageing Detection Design Using Fibre Optic Technology
ing and moisture content detection when using this solution.
The authors of [10] as shown in Figure 13 used a single-mode–multimode–single-mode
(SMS) fibre optic configuration to track the ageing of transformer oil. Four samples of
11.3. An Intrusive Ageing Detection Design Using Fibre Optic Technology
palm-based transformer oil were used (S1, S2, S3, S4), with S1 representing the pure sample
andThe
S2 toauthors of [10] samples
S4 representing as shown in Figure
of varied age. 13
Theused a single-mode–multimode–single-
lightwave refractive index was used
mode (SMS)
for the fibre optic
calibration; configuration
changes in transformertooil’s
trackagethe ageing
affect of transformer
the lightwave oil.
refractive Four(RI).
index samples
ofTwo ageing characterisation
palm-based transformer oiltechniques
were usedwere(S1,
used to S3,
S2, determine the S1
S4), with agerepresenting
of the unknown the pure
samples:
sample andthe
S2breakdown voltage test
to S4 representing (BDV, with
samples 25 kV) age.
of varied and the
TheUV–Vis spectrum
lightwave using index
refractive
appropriate standards.
was used for the calibration; changes in transformer oil’s age affect the lightwave refrac-
tive index (RI). Two ageing characterisation techniques were used to determine the age of
the unknown samples: the breakdown voltage test (BDV, with 25 kV) and the UV–Vis
spectrum using appropriate standards.
 mode (SMS) fibre optic configuration to track the ageing of transformer oil. Four samples
of palm-based transformer oil were used (S1, S2, S3, S4), with S1 representing the pure
sample and S2 to S4 representing samples of varied age. The lightwave refractive index
was used for the calibration; changes in transformer oil’s age affect the lightwave refrac-
tive index (RI). Two ageing characterisation techniques were used to determine the age of
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 20 of 25
the unknown samples: the breakdown voltage test (BDV, with 25 kV) and the UV–Vis
spectrum using appropriate standards.

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Experimental
Experimental configuration [10].
configuration [10].

A light source (WSL-100) was injected through the SMS fibre optic configuration,
and the MS9740A optical spectral analyser was used to display the plots (wavelength,
absorption and refractive index). The resonant wavelength shift plot against the refractive
index showed linear behaviour.
This configuration can be improved for real-time ageing detection with a photodetector,
DAQ device and the IoT.

12. Discussion, Conclusions, and Future Work

12.1. Discussion and Conclusions
The need for transformer insulating oil, which provides insulation, cooling and arc
extinguishing functions, has led to increased research in transformer oil insulation for
improved insulation performance/reliability, cost, and eco-friendliness. This has led to
the transition from mineral insulating oil, which is non-biodegradable and potentially
flammable, to other choices, such as karanji oil, silicon oil, castor oil, sesame oil and
particularly natural and synthetic ester oil, which trade cost for eco-friendliness, improved
electrical characteristics, and an expanded remaining useful life, RUL, for paper insulation.
Literature studies revealed that transformer oil is subject to ageing upon usage even
when the transformer is operated within the recommended limits. Furthermore, trans-
former oil ageing affects the insulation characteristics, which has severe consequences
(economic and fatal) when left undetected or unattended. Traditionally, offline detection
methods have been used to characterise the health state of transformer oil in use. These
methods were developed based on research outputs that showed that transformer oil
ageing affects the oil’s physical, chemical and electrical properties. Some of the identified
offline detection methods currently in use include the breakdown voltage test (BDV), spec-
troscopy methods (FTIR, PL, UV-Vis, turbidity, colour), a dissolved gas analysis, and acidity
quantification against a reference (OQIN), which classifies transformer oil’s condition from
good to disastrous. Literature studies conducted reviewed that interfacial tension (IFT) and
total acid number (TAN) are the two (2) characterisation techniques that reflect transformer
oil ageing more accurately, unlike other characterisation techniques that are functions of
other parameters that may not correlate with ageing. Consequently, the OQIN index is a
TAN and IFT values function.

12.2. Future Work

The offline ageing detection technique involves sampling, which will require extra
training and poses a risk of contamination during the transportation of samples, thus
leading to research on online ageing detection, which promises to offer improved, reliable,
and safe detection, especially when integrated with the IoT. Sensors with high correlative
values with ABPs are being developed and improved for online ageing detection, such
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 21 of 25

as hydrogen gas, cross-capacitive and fibre optic sensors. Fibre optic sensors have the
advantage of electromagnetic interference immunity, are lightweight, explosion-proof, and
have improved sensitivity. However, there is no significant research output on determining
the OQIN of transformer oil online using fibre optic sensors. In addition, superhydropho-
bicity can be applied to intrusive fibre optic sensors based on evanescent field absorption
to improve the detection reliability of these sensors subject to measurement error from
APBs clogging the fibre optic sensing area. Integrating fibre optic sensors for transformer
oil ageing detection with the IoT and artificial intelligence (for online OQIN determination
and classification) will result in a prescriptive maintenance solution which offers more
advantages and robustness than traditional preventive (offline) maintenance approaches.
Specifying the machine learning model’s uncertainty increases confidence in the model’s
judgement, and this can be accomplished using a gaussian process regression (GPR) and
physics-informed neural networks for traditional machine learning.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, U.E., A.N., A.A. and I.F.; methodology U.E., resources
A.N., A.A. and I.F.; writing—original draft preparation, U.E.; writing—review and editing, U.E., A.N.,
A.A. and I.F.; supervision A.N., A.A. and I.F.; funding acquisition A.N., A.A. and I.F. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The APC was funded by Glasgow Caledonian University, UK Repository Team.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not Applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not Applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not Applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
ABP Ageing ByProducts
ATT Accelerated Thermal Temperature
BOT Base Operating Temperature
BDV Breakdown Voltage
DDF Dielectric Dissipation Factor
DFB Distributed Feedback
DSC Differential Scanning Calorimetry
DGA Dissolved Gas Analysis
EFA-FOS Evanescent Field Absorption-based Fibre Optic Sensor
FMECA Failure Mode Effect and Criticality Analysis
FTIR Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
HMWCA High Molecular Weight Carboxylic Acids
IoT Internet of Things
LED Light Emitting Diode
LIBS Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy
LMWCA Low Molecular Weight Carboxylic Acids
MO Mineral Oil
MTTR Mean Time to Repair
NN Neutralisation Number
OFS Optical Fibre Sensor
OQIN Oil Quality Index
TAN Total Acid Number
TF Time Factor
TGA Thermogravimetric Analysis
UV-Vis Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy
VCSELs Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers
WCA Water Contact Angle
Sensors 2022, 22, 7923 22 of 25

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