NCTM - Principles-And-Standards-For-School-Mathematics (1) - 158-226
NCTM - Principles-And-Standards-For-School-Mathematics (1) - 158-226
NCTM - Principles-And-Standards-For-School-Mathematics (1) - 158-226
fourth graders
Standards for
Grades 3–5
Most students enter grade 3 with enthusiasm for, and interest in, learn-
ing mathematics. In fact, nearly three-quarters of U.S. fourth graders re-
port liking mathematics (Silver, Strutchens, and Zawojewski 1997). They
find it practical and believe that what they are learning is important. If the
mathematics studied in grades 3–5 is interesting and understandable, the
increasingly sophisticated mathematical ideas at this level can maintain stu-
dents’ engagement and enthusiasm. But if their learning becomes a process
of simply mimicking and memorizing, they can soon begin to lose interest.
Instruction at this level must be active and intellectually stimulating and
must help students make sense of mathematics.
This chapter presents a challenging set of mathematical content and
processes that students in grades 3–5 can and should learn. It also empha-
sizes teaching that fosters and builds on students’ mathematical under-
standing and thinking. The Content and Process Standards described
here form the basis for a significant and interconnected mathematics cur-
riculum. Interwoven through these Standards are three central mathemat-
ical themes—multiplicative reasoning, equivalence, and computational
fluency. They are briefly discussed here and elaborated on throughout the
chapter.
Students entering grade 3 should have a good grasp of, and much experi-
ence with, additive reasoning. Their understanding of whole numbers is
often based on an additive model—a sequence of numbers used to count in
different ways—and their computing strategies usually involve counting on
or counting back. In grades 3–5, multiplicative reasoning should become a
focus. Multiplicative reasoning is more than just doing multiplication or di-
vision. It is about understanding situations in which multiplication or divi-
143
sion is an appropriate operation. It involves a way of viewing situations
and thinking about them (Thompson forthcoming). For example, to es-
timate the height of an adult, students might use their own heights as a
benchmark and then think of the situation from an additive perspective
(the adult is about 50 centimeters taller than the student) or a multi-
plicative perspective (the adult is one quarter again as tall as the student).
Three central In grades 3–5, multiplicative reasoning emerges and should be dis-
cussed and developed through the study of many different mathematical
mathematical themes are topics. Students’ understanding of the base-ten number system is deep-
ened as they come to understand its multiplicative structure. That is,
discussed—multiplicative 484 is 4 × 100 plus 8 × 10 plus 4 × 1 as well as a collection of 484 indi-
vidual objects. Multiplicative reasoning is further developed as students
reasoning, equivalence, use a geometric model of multiplication, such as a rectangular array, and
and computational adapt this model for computing the area of shapes and the volume of
solids. They also begin to reason algebraically with multiplication, look-
fluency. ing for general patterns. For example, they explore problems such as,
What is the effect of doubling one factor and halving the other in a mul-
tiplication problem? The focus on multiplicative reasoning in grades
3–5 provides foundational knowledge that can be built on as students
move to an emphasis on proportional reasoning in the middle grades.
Equivalence should be another central idea in grades 3–5. Students’
ability to recognize, create, and use equivalent representations of num-
bers and geometric objects should expand. For example, 3/4 can be
thought of as a half and a fourth, as 6/8, or as 0.75; a parallelogram can
be transformed into a rectangle with equal area by cutting and pasting;
8 × 25 can be thought of as 8 × 5 × 5 or as 4 × 50; and three feet is the
same as thirty-six inches, or one yard. Students should extend their use
of equivalent forms of numbers as they develop new strategies for com-
puting and should recognize that different representations of numbers
are helpful for different purposes. Likewise, they should explore when
and how shapes can be decomposed and reassembled and what features
of the shapes remain unchanged. Equivalence also takes center stage as
students study fractions and as they relate fractions, decimals and per-
cents. Examining equivalences provides a way to explore algebraic
ideas, including properties such as commutativity and associativity.
A major goal in grades 3–5 is the development of computational flu-
ency with whole numbers. Fluency refers to having efficient, accurate,
Mathematics learning and generalizable methods (algorithms) for computing that are based
on well-understood properties and number relationships. Some of
is both about making these methods are performed mentally, and others are carried out using
paper and pencil to facilitate the recording of thinking. Students should
sense of mathematical come to view algorithms as tools for solving problems rather than as
the goal of mathematics study. As students develop computational algo-
ideas and about rithms, teachers should evaluate their work, help them recognize effi-
acquiring skills and cient algorithms, and provide sufficient and appropriate practice so that
they become fluent and flexible in computing. Students in these grades
insights to solve should also develop computational-estimation strategies for situations
that call for an estimate and as a tool for judging the reasonableness of
problems. solutions.
This set of Standards reinforces the dual goals that mathematics
learning is both about making sense of mathematical ideas and about ac-
quiring skills and insights to solve problems. The calculator is an impor-
tant tool in reaching these goals in grades 3–5 (Groves 1994). However,
144 Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
calculators do not replace fluency with basic number combinations,
conceptual understanding, or the ability to formulate and use efficient
and accurate methods for computing. Rather, the calculator should sup-
port these goals by enhancing and stimulating learning. As a student
works on problems involving many or complex computations, the calcu-
lator is an efficient computational tool for applying the strategies deter-
mined by the student. The calculator serves as a tool for enabling stu-
dents to focus on the problem-solving process. Calculators can also
provide a means for highlighting mathematical patterns and relation-
ships. For example, using the calculator to skip-count by tenths or hun-
dredths highlights relationships among decimal numbers. For example,
4 is one-tenth more that 3.9, or 2.49 is one-hundredth less than 2.5. Stu-
dents at this age should begin to develop good decision-making habits
about when it is useful and appropriate to use other computational
methods, rather than reach for a calculator. Teachers should create op-
portunities for these decisions as well as make judgments about when
and how calculators can be used to support learning.
Teachers in grades 3–5 make decisions every day that influence their
students’ opportunities to learn and the quality of that learning. The
classroom environment they create, the attention to various topics of Students’ ideas should be
mathematics, and the tools they and their students use to explore math-
ematical ideas are all important in helping students in grades 3–5 gain valued and serve as a
increased mathematical maturity. In these grades teachers should help
students learn to work together as part of building a mathematical com- source of learning.
munity of learners. In such a community, students’ ideas are valued and
serve as a source of learning, mistakes are seen not as dead ends but
rather as potential avenues for learning, and ideas are valued because
they are mathematically sound rather than because they are argued
strongly or proposed by a particular individual (Hiebert et al. 1997). A
classroom environment that would support the learning of mathematics
with meaning should have several characteristics: students feel comfort-
able making and correcting mistakes; rewards are given for sustained ef-
fort and progress, not the number of problems completed; and students
think through and explain their solutions instead of seeking or trying to
recollect the “right” answer or method (Cobb et al. 1988). Creating a
Understand numbers, ways of rep- • understand the place-value structure of the base-ten number system and be
resenting numbers, relationships able to represent and compare whole numbers and decimals;
among numbers, and number • recognize equivalent representations for the same number and generate
systems them by decomposing and composing numbers;
• develop understanding of fractions as parts of unit wholes, as parts of a
collection, as locations on number lines, and as divisions of whole numbers;
• use models, benchmarks, and equivalent forms to judge the size of
fractions;
• recognize and generate equivalent forms of commonly used fractions,
decimals, and percents;
• explore numbers less than 0 by extending the number line and through
familiar applications;
• describe classes of numbers according to characteristics such as the
nature of their factors.
Compute fluently and make reason- • develop fluency with basic number combinations for multiplication and
able estimates division and use these combinations to mentally compute related problems,
such as 30 × 50;
• develop fluency in adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing whole
numbers;
• develop and use strategies to estimate the results of whole-number
computations and to judge the reasonableness of such results;
• develop and use strategies to estimate computations involving fractions and
decimals in situations relevant to students’ experience;
• use visual models, benchmarks, and equivalent forms to add and subtract
commonly used fractions and decimals;
• select appropriate methods and tools for computing with whole numbers
from among mental computation, estimation, calculators, and paper and
pencil according to the context and nature of the computation and use the
148 selected method or tool.
Number & Operations | Algebra | Geometry | Measurement | Data Analysis & Probability | Problem Solving | Reasoning & Proof | Communication | Connections | Representation
Number and Operations
In grades 3–5, students’ development of number sense should con-
tinue, with a focus on multiplication and division. Their understanding
of the meanings of these operations should grow deeper as they
encounter a range of representations and problem situations, learn
about the properties of these operations, and develop fluency in whole-
number computation. An understanding of the base-ten number system
should be extended through continued work with larger numbers as
well as with decimals. Through the study of various meanings and mod-
els of fractions — how fractions are related to each other and to the unit
whole and how they are represented — students can gain facility in
comparing fractions, often by using benchmarks such as 1/2 or 1. They Students who
also should consider numbers less than zero through familiar models
such as a thermometer or a number line. understand the structure
When students leave grade 5, they should be able to solve problems
involving whole-number computation and should recognize that each of numbers and the
operation will help them solve many different types of problems. They
should be able to solve many problems mentally, to estimate a reason-
relationships among
able result for a problem, to efficiently recall or derive the basic number numbers can work with
combinations for each operation, and to compute fluently with multi-
digit whole numbers. They should understand the equivalence of frac- them flexibly.
tions, decimals, and percents and the information each type of repre-
sentation conveys. With these understandings and skills, they should be
able to develop strategies for computing with familiar fractions and
decimals.
Fig. 5.1.
Parallel number lines with unit frac- 1
tions and their multiples 0 1
2
1 2 3
0 1
4 4 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1
8 8 8 8 8 8 8
140
0 is Compute fluently and make reasonable estimates
7 × 2 8 is 56
7× 6
and 40 is 19 By the end of this grade band, students should be computing fluently
+ 1
56
with whole numbers. Computational fluency refers to having efficient and
accurate methods for computing. Students exhibit computational flu-
ency when they demonstrate flexibility in the computational methods
I thought seve they choose, understand and can explain these methods, and produce
n
25’s—that’s 17 accurate answers efficiently. The computational methods that a student
5.
Then I need se
or 21. So the a
ven 3’s uses should be based on mathematical ideas that the student under-
nswer is stands well, including the structure of the base-ten number system,
175 + 21 = 196
properties of multiplication and division, and number relationships.
A significant amount of instructional time should be devoted to ra-
tional numbers in grades 3–5. The focus should be on developing stu-
dents’ conceptual understanding of fractions and decimals—what they
7 × 28 are, how they are represented, and how they are related to whole num-
bers—rather than on developing computational fluency with rational
numbers. Fluency in rational-number computation will be a major
focus of grades 6–8.
Fluency with whole-number computation depends, in large part, on
I did
That 7 × 30 fluency with basic number combinations—the single-digit addition and
’s fir
off s 210. Then st. multiplication pairs and their counterparts for subtraction and division.
even take Fluency with the basic number combinations develops from well-
So it’ 2’s or 14. understood meanings for the four operations and from a focus on
s 196
.
Henry explained to the class, “Twenty 34s plus one more is 21. I
knew I was pretty close. I didn’t think I could add any more 34s, so I
subtracted 714 from 728 and got 14. Then I had 21 remainder 14.”
Michaela says, “34 goes into 72 two times and that’s 68. You gotta
minus that, bring down the 8, then 34 goes into 48 one time.”
Ricky: I don’t know how to do that.
Michaela: You divide, then you multiply, you subtract, then you
bring down.
Ricky: I still don’t get it.
Ms. Sparks: Does anyone see any parts of Michaela’s and Henry’s
work that are similar?
Christy: They both did 728 divided by 34.
Ms. Sparks: Right, they both did the same problem. Do you see any
parts of the ways they solved the problem that look
similar?
Fanshen: (Hesitantly) Well, there’s a 680 in Henry’s and a 68 in
Michaela’s.
Ms. Sparks: So, what is that 68, Michaela?
Michaela: Um, it’s the 2 × 34.
Ms. Sparks: Oh, is that 2 × 34? (Ms. Sparks waits. Lots of silence.) So,
I don’t get what you’re saying about 2 times 34. What
does this 2 up here in the 21 represent?
Samir: It’s 20.
Henry: But 20 times 34 is 680, not 68.
Ms. Sparks: So what if I wrote a 0 here to show that this is 680?
Does that help you see any more similarities?
work with sixth and eighth graders. Students in grades 3–5 will need to
be encouraged to routinely reflect on the size of an anticipated solution.
Will 7 × 18 be smaller or larger than 100? If 3/8 of a cup of sugar is
needed for a recipe and the recipe is doubled, will more than or less
The teacher plays an than one cup of sugar be needed? Instructional attention and frequent
modeling by the teacher can help students develop a range of computa-
important role in tional estimation strategies including flexible rounding, the use of
benchmarks, and front-end strategies. Students should be encouraged
helping students develop to frequently explain their thinking as they estimate. As with exact com-
putation, sharing estimation strategies allows students access to others’
and select an thinking and provides many opportunities for rich class discussions.
appropriate The teacher plays an important role in helping students develop and
select an appropriate computational tool (calculator, paper-and-pencil
computational tool. algorithm, or mental strategy). If a teacher models the choices she
makes and thinks aloud about them, students can learn to make good
choices. For example, determining the cost of four notebooks priced at
$0.75 is an easy mental problem (two notebooks cost $1.50, so four
notebooks cost $3.00). Adding the cost of all the school supplies pur-
chased by the class is a problem in which using a calculator makes sense
because of the amount of data. Dividing the cost of the class pizza party
($45) by the number of students (25) is an appropriate time to make an
estimate (a little less than $2 each) or to use a paper-and-pencil algo-
rithm or a calculator if a more precise answer is needed.
Understand patterns, relations, and • describe, extend, and make generalizations about geometric and numeric
functions patterns;
• represent and analyze patterns and functions, using words, tables, and
graphs.
Represent and analyze mathemati- • identify such properties as commutativity, associativity, and distributivity and
cal situations and structures using use them to compute with whole numbers;
algebraic symbols • represent the idea of a variable as an unknown quantity using a letter or a
symbol;
• express mathematical relationships using equations.
Use mathematical models to repre- • model problem situations with objects and use representations such as
sent and understand quantitative graphs, tables, and equations to draw conclusions.
relationships
Analyze change in various contexts • investigate how a change in one variable relates to a change in a second
variable;
• identify and describe situations with constant or varying rates of change
and compare them.
In this example, one student might notice that the area changes in a
predictable way—it increases by the next odd number with each new
square. Another student might notice that the previous square always fits
into the “corner” of the next-larger square. This observation might lead
to a description of the area of a square as equal to the area of the previ-
ous square plus “its two sides and one more.” A student might represent
his thinking as in figure 5.4.
Fig. 5.4.
A possible student observation about
the area of the 5 × 5 square in the
“growing squares” pattern
Fig. 5.7.
Area models illustrating the commu-
tative property of multiplication
3×5 5×3
10 4 Fig. 5.8.
Area model showing the distributive
property of multiplication
8 8 × 10 8×4
80 + 32 = 112
help students connect the ways they are describing their findings to
mathematical notation. For example, a student’s description of the sur-
face area of a cube tower of any size (“You get the surface area by multi-
plying the number of cubes by 4 and adding 2”) can be recorded by the
teacher as S = 4 × n + 2. Students should also understand the use of a
variable as a placeholder in an expression or equation. For example,
they should explore the role of n in the equation 80 × 15 = 40 × n and
be able to find the value of n that makes the equation true.
Plant Growth
6 1 1 6
8 2 1 5
10 4 2
4
12 6 2
14 7.5 1.5 3
16 8.5 1 2
18 8.5 0
1
20 9 0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time (days)
Analyze characteristics and proper- • identify, compare, and analyze attributes of two- and three-dimensional
ties of two- and three-dimensional shapes and develop vocabulary to describe the attributes;
geometric shapes and develop • classify two- and three-dimensional shapes according to their properties and
mathematical arguments about develop definitions of classes of shapes such as triangles and pyramids;
geometric relationships • investigate, describe, and reason about the results of subdividing,
combining, and transforming shapes;
• explore congruence and similarity;
• make and test conjectures about geometric properties and relationships
and develop logical arguments to justify conclusions.
Specify locations and describe • describe location and movement using common language and geometric
spatial relationships using coordi- vocabulary;
nate geometry and other represen- • make and use coordinate systems to specify locations and to describe paths;
tational systems • find the distance between points along horizontal and vertical lines of a
coordinate system.
Apply transformations and use • predict and describe the results of sliding, flipping, and turning two-
symmetry to analyze mathematical dimensional shapes;
situations • describe a motion or a series of motions that will show that two shapes are
congruent;
• identify and describe line and rotational symmetry in two- and three-
dimensional shapes and designs.
Fig. 5.10.
Examples of rectangles
Fig. 5.13.
A map for exploring questions about
navigation
Store
Library
Park
School
Students at this level also should learn how to use two numbers to
name points on a coordinate grid and should realize that a pair of num-
bers corresponds to a particular point on the grid. Using coordinates,
they can specify paths between locations and examine the symmetry, con-
gruence, and similarity of shapes drawn on the grid. They can also ex-
plore methods for measuring the distance between locations on the grid.
As students’ ideas about the number system expand to include negative
numbers, they can work in all four quadrants of the Cartesian plane.
what will happen when a shape is rotated or reflected and predict the
result.
Students in grades 3–5 can explore shapes with more than one line of
symmetry. For example:
In how many ways can you place a mirror on a square so that what you see in
the mirror looks exactly like the original square? Is this true for all squares?
Can you make a quadrilateral with exactly two lines of symmetry? One
line of symmetry? No lines of symmetry? If so, in each case, what kind of
quadrilateral is it?
Although younger students often create figures with rotational sym-
metry with, for example, pattern blocks, they have difficulty describing
the regularity they see. In grades 3–5, they should be using language
about turns and angles to describe designs such as the one in figure
5.14: “If you turn it 180 degrees about the center, it’s exactly the same”
or “It would take six equal small turns to get back to where you started,
but you can’t tell where you started unless you mark it because it looks
the same after each small turn.”
Fig. 5.14.
Pattern with rotational symmetry
Make a building out of ten cubes by looking at the three pictures of it below.
Understand measurable attributes • understand such attributes as length, area, weight, volume, and size of
of objects and the units, systems, angle and select the appropriate type of unit for measuring each attribute;
and processes of measurement • understand the need for measuring with standard units and become familiar
with standard units in the customary and metric systems;
• carry out simple unit conversions, such as from centimeters to meters,
within a system of measurement;
• understand that measurements are approximations and understand
how differences in units affect precision;
• explore what happens to measurements of a two-dimensional shape such
as its perimeter and area when the shape is changed in some way.
Apply appropriate techniques, • develop strategies for estimating the perimeters, areas, and volumes of
tools, and formulas to determine irregular shapes;
measurements • select and apply appropriate standard units and tools to measure length,
area, volume, weight, time, temperature, and the size of angles;
• select and use benchmarks to estimate measurements;
• develop, understand, and use formulas to find the area of rectangles and
related triangles and parallelograms;
• develop strategies to determine the surface areas and volumes of
rectangular solids.
Objects
Height of Circumference Length
Teacher’s Desk of Clockface of Classroom
Fig. 5.18.
Polygons with the same area and
different perimeters
instrument (was the scale marked and read in centimeters or millime-
ters?), and the students’ perceived need for accuracy. The discussion
might lead to considering the importance of measuring precisely in cer-
tain contexts. For instance, carpenters often measure twice and use spe-
cial instruments in order to minimize the waste of materials, but an esti-
mate might be quite adequate in other instances (e.g., the scout troop
hiked about 2.5 miles).
Students in grades 3–5 should explore how measurements are af-
fected when one attribute to be measured is held constant and the other
is changed. For example, consider the area of four tiles joined along ad-
jacent sides (see fig. 5.18). The area of each tile is a square unit. When
joined, the area of the resulting polygon is always four square units, but
the perimeter varies from eight to ten units, depending on how the tiles
are arranged. Or suppose students are given twenty toothpicks with
which to build a rectangle. How many different rectangles are possible
if all twenty toothpicks are used? This activity provides an opportunity
to discuss the relationship of area to perimeter. It also highlights the
importance of organizing solutions systematically.
A B C D E
Formulate questions that can be • design investigations to address a question and consider how data-
addressed with data and collect, collection methods affect the nature of the data set;
organize, and display relevant data • collect data using observations, surveys, and experiments;
to answer them • represent data using tables and graphs such as line plots, bar graphs, and
line graphs;
• recognize the differences in representing categorical and numerical data.
Select and use appropriate statisti- • describe the shape and important features of a set of data and compare
cal methods to analyze data related data sets, with an emphasis on how the data are distributed;
• use measures of center, focusing on the median, and understand what each
does and does not indicate about the data set;
• compare different representations of the same data and evaluate how well
each representation shows important aspects of the data.
Develop and evaluate inferences and • propose and justify conclusions and predictions that are based on data and
predictions that are based on data design studies to further investigate the conclusions or predictions.
Understand and apply basic • describe events as likely or unlikely and discuss the degree of likelihood
concepts of probability using such words as certain, equally likely, and impossible;
• predict the probability of outcomes of simple experiments and test the
predictions;
• understand that the measure of the likelihood of an event can be
represented by a number from 0 to 1.
to observe, what and how to measure, and how to record their data.
When they use existing data, they still need to consider and evaluate the
ways in which the data were collected.
Students should become familiar with a variety of representations
such as tables, line plots, bar graphs, and line graphs by creating them,
watching their teacher create them, and observing those representa-
tions found in their environment (e.g., in newspapers, on cereal boxes,
etc.). In order to select and interpret appropriate representations, stu-
dents in grades 3–5 need to understand the nature of different kinds of
data: categorical data (data that can be categorized, such as types of
lunch foods) and numerical data (data that can be ordered numerically,
such as heights of students in a class). Students should examine classifi-
cations of categorical data that produce different views. For example, in
a study of which cafeteria foods are eaten and which are thrown out,
different classifications of the types of foods may highlight different
aspects of the data.
As students construct graphs of ordered numerical data, teachers
need to help them understand what the values along the horizontal and
vertical axes represent. Using experience with a variety of graphs,
teachers should make sure that students encounter and discuss issues
such as why the scale on the horizontal axis needs to include values
that are not in the data set and how to represent zero on a graph. Stu-
dents should also use computer software that helps them organize and
represent their data, including graphing software and spreadsheets.
Spreadsheets allow students to organize and order a large set of data
and create a variety of graphs (see fig. 5.20).
Fig. 5.20.
Spreadsheet with weather data
A B C D
x x
plants
15
x x
20 x xx
x x xx x
22
23 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
40
Plant Height in Centimeters
Much of students’ work with data in grades 3–5 should involve com-
paring related data sets. Noting the similarities and differences between
two data sets requires students to become more precise in their descrip-
tions of the data. In this context, students gradually develop the idea of a
“typical,” or average, value. Building on their informal understanding of
“the most” and “the middle,” students can learn about three measures of
center—mode, median, and, informally, the mean. Students need to
learn more than simply how to identify the mode or median in a data
set. They need to build an understanding of what, for example, the me-
dian tells them about the data, and they need to see this value in the con-
text of other characteristics of the data. Figure 5.22 shows the results of
plant growth in a third-grade classroom (adapted from Clement et al.
[1997, p. 10]). Students should compare the two sets of data from the
fourth- and third-grade classrooms. They may note that the median of
the fourth-grade data is 23 centimeters and the median of the third-
grade data is 28 centimeters. This comparison provides information
Number of
Plant Height Data
Plants
Height (in cm) Number of Plants x x
x x x x
9 x x x x x x x x x xx x x x x xx
14 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
17
Plant Height in Centimeters
22
23
25 that, overall, the set of third-grade plants grew taller than the set of
26 fourth-grade plants. But it is also important to look at the distributions
of the data, which tell an even more dramatic story: Although the ranges
27 of the two data sets are about the same, most of the third graders’ plants
28 grew taller than all but a few of the fourth graders’ plants.
In grade 5, once students are experienced using the mode and me-
29
dian as part of their data descriptions, they can begin to conceptually
30 explore the role of the mean as a balance point for the data set, using
31 small data sets. The idea of a mean value—what it is, what information
it gives about the data, and how it must be interpreted in the context of
32
other characteristics of the data—is a complex one, which will continue
33 to be developed in later grades.
35
39 Develop and evaluate inferences and predictions that
40 are based on data
Data can be used for developing arguments that are based on evi-
Fig. 5.22. dence and for continued problem posing. As students discuss data gath-
Plant height data from a third-grade
ered to address a particular question, they should begin to distinguish
class between what the data show and what might account for the results.
For example, a fourth-grade class investigating the sleep patterns of
first graders and fifth graders found that first graders were heavier
sleepers than fifth graders, as shown in the graphs in figure 5.23 (Rus-
sell, Schifter, and Bastable 1999). They had predicted that first graders
would be lighter sleepers and were surprised by their results. After de-
scribing their data, they developed a hypothesis: First graders have a
higher activity level because they play outside more, and this higher ac-
tivity level leads to deeper sleep. They realized they would need to col-
lect data about a typical day for first and fifth graders in order to inves-
tigate their hypothesis. This example demonstrates how students can be
encouraged to develop conjectures, show how these are based on the
data, consider alternative explanations, and design further studies to ex-
amine their conjectures.
With appropriate experiences, students should begin to understand
that many data sets are samples of larger populations. They can look at
several samples drawn from the same population, such as different
classrooms in their school, or compare statistics about their own sample
to known parameters for a larger population, for example, how the me-
dian family size for their class compares with the median family size re-
ported for their town. They can think about the issues that affect the
representativeness of a sample—how well it represents the population
Number of Students
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
Type of Sleeper
Light Wakes up to the slightest noise
Medium Wakes up to louder noises
Heavy Sleeps through the night without waking up
Other None of the previous three
(Russell, Schifter, and Bastable 1999)
Fig. 5.25.
Length (L) Width (W ) Area (A) Perimeter (P )
The dimensions of the rectangular
regions made with 24 one-inch (units) (units) (sq. units) (units)
square tiles
Fig. 5.26.
Forming a 2 × 12 rectangle from a 1 ×
24 rectangle 1 x 24
2 x 12
Fig. 5.28.
Several possible solutions to the “dot
square” problem
4 × 8 + 4 = 36 4 × 10 – 4 = 36 10 + 8 + 10 + 8 = 36
and when they are able to continue working productively without help.
It is essential that students have time to explore problems. Giving help
too soon can deprive them of the opportunity to make mathematical
discoveries. Students need to know that a challenging problem will
take some time and that perseverance is an important aspect of the
problem-solving process and of doing mathematics.
As students share their solutions with classmates, teachers can help
them probe various aspects of their strategies. Explanations that are
simply procedural descriptions or summaries should give way to mathe-
matical arguments. In this upper elementary class, a teacher questioned
two students as they described how they divided nine brownies equally
among eight people (Kazemi 1998, pp. 411–12):
Sarah: The first four we cut them in half. (Jasmine divides
squares in half on an overhead transparency.)
Ms. Carter: Now as you explain, could you explain why you did it in
half?
Sarah: Because when you put it in half, it becomes four … four
… eight halves.
Ms. Carter: Eight halves. What does that mean if there are eight
Perseverance is an halves?
Sarah: Then each person gets a half.
important aspect of the
Ms. Carter: Okay, that each person gets a half. (Jasmine labels halves
problem-solving process. 1 through 8 for each of the eight people.)
Sarah: Then there were five boxes [brownies] left. We put
them in eighths.
Ms. Carter: Okay, so they divided them into eighths. Could you tell
us why you chose eighths?
Sarah: It’s easiest. Because then everyone will get … each per-
son will get a half and (addresses Jasmine) … how many
eighths?
Jasmine: (Quietly) Five-eighths.
Ms. Carter: I didn’t know why you did it in eighths. That’s the rea-
son. I just wanted to know why you chose eighths.
Fig. 5.29. Following this discussion, the teacher sent students off to work on a
A student’s solution to the problem set of multiplication problems. Their work on the problems gave
74 × 6 involves the distributive evidence that some of them were applying aspects of the reasoning
property. discussed in the class session. For example, Katherine computed
74 × 6 by first computing 74 × 2 and writing the product. Then she
doubled the answer to get the solution to 74 × 4 and added the two
products together to get the solution for 74 × 6 (see fig. 5.29). She
was using thinking similar to Malia’s, which seemed to involve the
distributive property.
During grades 3–5, students should move toward reasoning that de-
pends on relationships and properties. Students need to be challenged
with questions such as, What if I gave you twenty more problems like
this to do—would they all work the same way? How do you know?
Through comparing solutions and questioning one another’s reasoning,
Fig. 5.30.
they can begin to learn to describe relationships that hold across many
A rectangle cut into halves in two instances and to develop and defend arguments about why those rela-
different ways
tionships can be generalized and to what cases they apply (Maher and
Martino 1996).
At these grades, students need experiences in learning about what
constitutes a convincing argument (Hanna and Yackel forthcoming).
For example, in this episode drawn from unpublished classroom obser-
vation notes, a third-grade class explored the following problem
(adapted from Tierney and Berle-Carman [1995, p. 22]).
Start with two identical rectangular regions—each the same size. Cut
each of the two rectangles in half as shown in figure 5.30. Compare one
of the smaller rectangles to one of the right triangles; do they have the
same area or does one have a larger area than the other?
Initially, the students tried to solve the problem by just looking at
the figure. For example, they reasoned:
“The triangle is bigger because it goes way up.”
“I think they’re the same because the triangle’s taller, but the rec-
tangle’s longer.”
As the students worked on this problem, some were convinced that
they could decide if the areas were equal (or not) by whether or not
Fig. 5.31.
they could cut the triangle into a set of haphazard pieces and fit
Students’ attempts to demonstrate them on the rectangle so that they cover the space (see fig. 5.31a).
that a triangle has the same area as a
rectangle
Others thought about how to organize the cutting and pasting by,
for example, cutting the triangle into two pieces to make it into a
rectangle that matches the other rectangles (see fig. 5.31b).
Still others developed ways to reason about the relationships in the
figure without cutting and pasting. For example: “We folded each
paper in half and each paper was the same size to begin with, so the
half that’s a rectangle is the same as the half that’s a triangle.”
(a) At this grade level, many students are just beginning to develop an
idea about what constitutes a convincing argument. The first solution—
cutting and pasting in a disorganized way—does not make use of the
properties of the two shapes and therefore may not convince the student
doing the cutting and pasting or other students that the areas are equal.
The second solution takes into consideration geometric relationships
(b) between the particular triangle and rectangle and therefore may be more
Patrize: We were talking about how you could get it, and if you
make the top number, the numerator, higher than a half of
the denominator, but you don’t make it the same as the
denominator like 5/5 ’cause then it will be a whole.
Fig. 5.34.
Ben’s group’s solution to
1.14 g + .089 g + .3 g
Jar 1 Jar 2
Fig. 5.36.
tools the learner has or can draw on. The use of similar mathematics
Results of an evaporation experiment
within different contexts gives students an appreciation of the power of
mathematics and its generality. As stated in a National Research Coun-
cil report (1996, p. 105):
Students at all grade levels and in every domain of science should
have the opportunity to use scientific inquiry and develop the abil-
ity to think and act in ways associated with inquiry, including asking
questions, planning and conducting investigations, using appropri-
ate tools and techniques to gather data, thinking critically and logi-
cally about relationships between evidence and explanations, con-
structing and analyzing alternative explanations, and
communicating scientific arguments.
¢
43
Building on connections Although the teacher’s role includes being alert and responsive to un-
expected opportunities, it is also important that teachers plan ahead to
can make mathematics a integrate mathematics into other subject areas and experiences that stu-
dents will have during the year. Consider, for example, the following
challenging, engaging, episode, adapted from Russell, Schifter, and Bastable (1999).
and exciting domain of Ms. Watson’s fourth grade runs a snack shop for two weeks every
school year to pay for a trip to meet the class’s pen pals in a neigh-
study. boring state. Since the students run the whole project, from plan-
ning what to sell to recording sales and reordering stock, Ms. Wat-
son uses this project as an opportunity for students to develop and
use mathematical ideas. It is clear that a great deal of estimation and
calculation takes place naturally as part of the project: projecting
what will be needed for the trip, making change, keeping records of
expenses, calculating income, and so forth. This year Ms. Watson
decided to extend some of the ideas her students had encountered
about collecting and describing data through their work on this
project.
At the beginning of the project, she gave the class a list of twenty-
one items, available at a local warehouse club, that she and the prin-
cipal had approved as possible sale items. The students needed to
decide which of these products they would sell and how they would
allocate the $100 provided for their start-up costs to buy certain
quantities of those products. They had limited time to make these
decisions, and the class engaged in a lively discussion about how
best to find out which of the snack items were most popular among
the students in the school. Some students insisted that they would
need to survey all classes in order to get “the correct information.”
If they surveyed only some students, this group contended, then
“we won’t give everyone a chance, so we won’t know about some-
thing that maybe only one person likes.” Others argued that survey-
ing one or two classes at each grade level would provide enough of
an idea of what students across the grades like and would result in a
set of data they could collect and organize more efficiently. As they
talked, the teacher reminded them of the purpose of their survey:
“Will our business fail if we don’t have everyone’s favorite?” The
class eventually decided to survey one class at each grade. Even the
students who had worried that a sample would not give them com-
plete information had become convinced that this procedure would
give them enough information to make good choices about which
snacks to buy.
The students went on to design their survey—which raised new
issues—and to collect, organize, and use the data to develop their
budget. Once they had their data, another intense discussion ensued
about how to use the information to guide their choices on how to
stock their snack shop. They eventually chose to buy the two top
choices in each category (they had classified the snacks into four
categories), and since that didn’t use up their budget, they ordered
additional quantities of the overall top two snacks.
Ms. Watson used this realistic context to help her students see how
decisions about designing data investigations are tied to the purpose or
Students will have learned about, and begun to use, many symbolic
and graphical representations (e.g., numerals, equals sign, and bar
graphs) in the primary grades. In grades 3–5, students should create
representations that are more detailed and accurate than is expected in
the primary grades. Their repertoire of symbols, tools, and conven-
tional notation should expand and be clearly connected to concepts as
they are explored. For example, in representing algebraic and numerical
relationships, students should become comfortable using equations and
understanding the equals sign as a balance point in the equation. Many
students who have only seen equations with an arithmetic expression on
the left side of the equation and a call for the numerical answer on the
right side, such as 6 × 30 = ! , don’t understand that equations may
have several symbols on each side, as in 2 × 5 × 6 = 3 × 4 × 5.
Students in grades 3–5 should also become familiar with technological
tools such as dynamic geometry software and spreadsheets. They should
learn to set up a simple spreadsheet (see fig. 5.39) and use it to pose and
solve problems, examine data, and investigate patterns. For example, a
fourth-grade class could keep track of the daily temperature and other
features of the weather for the whole year and consider questions such as
these: What month is coldest? What would we tell a visitor to expect for
weather in October? After two months, they might find that they are
having difficulty managing and ordering the quantity of data they have
collected. By entering the data in a spreadsheet, they can easily see and
select the data they want, compare certain columns, or graph particular
aspects of the data. They can conveniently find the median temperature
for February or calculate the total amount of rainfall for April. In January, E-example 5.5
if the class notices that temperature alone is no longer giving them
enough information, they can add a column for wind chill to get a more Linking Spreadsheets and Graphing
accurate summary of the weather they are experiencing.
Learning to interpret, use, and construct useful representations
needs careful and deliberate attention in the classroom. Teaching forms
of representation (e.g., graphs or equations) as ends in themselves is not
productive. Rather, representations should be portrayed as useful tools
Fig. 5.39.
A simple spreadsheet can be used to
organize and examine data, pose
and solve problems, and investigate
patterns.
2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54
7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63
8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72
9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81
Ambitious expectations in