NURSING RESEARCH-LECTURE-PRELIM

I. Introduction to Nursing Research • Conscious and intentful use of research and

theory-based information to make decisions
Evolution of Research in Nursing about patient care delivery.
• Historical Events Influencing Nursing Research - latest research findings to make practice
1850 – Florence Nightingale is the 1st nurse researcher improvements.
with studies conducted to improve soldiers’ health. • Cost-effectiveness
1859 – Nightingale’s Notes on Nursing is published • Cost-efficiency
1980 – Quantitative and Qualitative research conducted Specific Purposes of Nursing Research
to build a sound knowledge base for nursing practice.
1. Identification/clarification
1990 – Outcomes research is conducted to examine
both short-term and long-term results of health care, 2. Description- It observes, defines and documents
such as patient health status, quality of care and cost- nursing situations inquiry
effectiveness of care. - Determine the relationship between and among
20th-21st century – development of an evidence-based the variables investigated.
practice (EBP) for nursing. 3. Exploration. It answers “what” questions on the
Definition of Nursing Research phenomenon.

• Research 4. Explanation- ask “why” a phenomenon occurred.

- Old French word “cerchier”- seek or search. 5. Prediction and Control

- Diligent, systematic inquiry or investigation to -Prediction. Research projects situations or events that
validate and refine existing knowledge and could arise from research investigation.
generate new knowledge. (Burns and Grove, -Control. Research puts up a barrier to hinder or
1997). minimize the effects of anticipated outcomes or
Nursing Research reactions

• Nursing Research – systematic search for and Characteristics of Research

validation of knowledge about issues of 1. Orderly and Systematic/ordered sequence of
importance to the nursing profession (Polit and steps:
Hungler, 1999).
a. Identify the problem
Goals of Nursing Research b. Determine the purpose of the study
1. Efficiency and effectiveness in Nursing Care. c. Review of Related Literature
d. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
2. Worthiness and Value of the Nursing Profession e. Study assumptions
to Society.

3. Identifying, Implementing and Evaluating Steps…….

Effective Health Care Modalities. f. Acknowledge the limitations of the study
4. Utilize Clinical Nursing research as evidence- g. Formulate the null hypotheses
based data to provide quality care to clients.
h. Define the study variables
Evidence-Based Nursing Research
i. Choice of research design
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j. Identify the Target Population ▹ Informed consent

k. Choose the study Samples ▸ Participants must have a power of free

choice to voluntarily consent or decline
l. Conduct the field Test
participation in the study.
Characteristics of Nursing Research
▸ If the patient cannot give consent
1. Control. Researcher identifies and eliminates specific because of being a minor, or in cases
constraints or limitations to ensure precision and when the individuals who are incapable
validity of results. (physically disabled, terminally ill,
pregnant or breastfeeding mother and
2. Empirical. Objective data/reality as sources of children (Polit and Beck, 2009) a family
knowledge. member or legal representative can
3. Generalization. Findings are deemed to have an give informed consent.
applicability to entire population. ▸ Children who are 7 years and above are
4. Intensive. In-depth approach used to ensure that all required to give their assent, or consent
possible loopholes in the study are covered. given by a child. But still the consent of
parents or guardian is necessary (Tan,
Roles of Nurses in Research 2011).
1. Principal Investigators Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
2. Member of a Research Team
3. Evaluator of Research Findings ▸ Beneficence – “to do good”
4. Consumers of Research Findings ▸ Nonmaleficence – to do no harm
5. Client Advocates in a Research Study
6. As Subjects of Research Under this principle are the following issues:

2.1. Freedom from physical and psychological harm

Hallmarks and Qualities of Good Nurse Researchers The researcher must prevent injury and discomfort.
Anticipate any unforeseen eventualities and events
1. Honest and Credible
2. Accurate in Data Collection 2.2. Freedom from exploitation- Being safe from
3. Organized and systematic situations that expose participants, researchers and
4. Logical research assistants to threats and liabilities
5. Self-awareness
Respect for dignity
6. Imaginative and Curious
7. Persistent with Barriers ▹ The right to self-determination
8. Establishes good relationships with respondents
No undue pressure or coercion such as penalty for not
and other researchers
participating or excessive rewards to those who
9. Updated and informed of present issues and
participate 
events
▹ The right to full disclosure
II. Ethical considerations in Research,
Fully explain to the participant the nature, purpose of
Kinds of Research, Variables
the study and their right to refuse to participate, and
Ethical principles and guidelines in research the researchers’ responsibilities and the potential risk
and benefit of the study.
When humans are used as study participants, care must
be done to protect their rights. Do not conceal information, or give false information
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▹ To receive a copy of signed and dated written

Show respect to the participants attending to their consent form and a copy of this form.
emotional rights and nature of interaction
▹ To be given the opportunity to freely decide
Debriefing session is a way to communicate respect whether or not to consent to the research study
especially when data collection is stressful. without any force, coercion, or undue influence

▹ Justice and fairness Kinds of Research

▸ The right to fair treatment – provides all  According to the points of view or purpose:
target participants equal chances in the
1. Basic research is under taken to extend the base of
selection process
knowledge or refine a theory
▸ Anonymity and confidentiality –
exercise prudence in making ⬞ Usually suggests for
pronouncements in revealing the clinical applications
results of the study. 2. Applied research - focus on finding solutions
▸ Right to intellectual property – “no ⬞ Applied research poses
plagiarism” or presenting the ideas and questions from basic
words of another as your own. research
▸ RA 8293 (Philippine Copyright Law
protect the intellectual property rights
of authors and artists  According to measurement of variables or
statistical content:

⬞ Quantitative - uses reliable methods of

THE RIGHTS OF HUMAN SUBJECTS
measurement which has been
▹ To receive a description of any alternative developed (purpose is to evaluate,
procedures, drugs, or devices that might be examine, assess, compare).
helpful, and their risks and benefits compared
⬞ Qualitative – Narrative and subjective in
to the proposed, drugs or devices.
nature. (Purpose is to explore,
▹ To be told of what sort of medical treatment, if understand, discover, develop,
any, will be available if any complications describe)
should arise.

▹ To be given a chance to ask any questions

QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
concerning the research study both before
STANDARD QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
agreeing to participate and at any time during
Researcher’ Personally Least involvement
the course of the study. s engaged
▹ To refuse to participate in the research study. involvemen
Participation is voluntary. You may refuse to t with the
participants
answer any question or discontinue your
of the study
involvement at any time without penalty or loss
Expression Verbal Numerical/statistics
of benefits to which you might otherwise be
of data language
entitled. Your decision will not affect your right
to receive the care you would receive if you Research Takes place as Plans all research
were not in the experiment.
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Plan the research aspect before ▹ Abstract

proceeds collecting data ▹ Acknowledgement
gradually ▹ Table contents
▹ List of Figures
Researchers Desires to Controls or ▹ List of Tables
behaviour preserve the manipulate research ▹ List of Appendices
towards natural setting conditions
research
conditions CHAPTER 1
Obtaining Multiple Scientific method THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
knowledge methods
▹ Introduction (1.5 pages)
Purpose Explores Evaluates objectives
▹ Statement of the problem (Interrogative
human and examines cause
format)
experiences and effect
▹ Hypothesis
Data Thematic Mathematical/
analysis analysis statistical ▹ Scope and delimitation

▹ Significance of the study

Sampling Purposive / Random sampling
technique based on ▹ Theoretical/ conceptual framework
criteria
▹ Research paradigm

▹ According to levels of ▹ Definition of terms (defined operationally

investigation/explanation: CHAPTER 2
1. Descriptive – a non-experimental study REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
in which the purpose is to observe, ▹ Review of related literature (Sub titles are
describe and document the aspect of written as side headings)
the situation as it naturally occurs and
sometimes to serve as a starting point ▸ Literature related to the independent
for hypothesis generation of theory variable
development. ▸ Literature relates to the dependent
variable
2. Exploratory- It is the study of the full ▹ Related studies (Must be at least a minimum of
phenomenon, the manner in which it is 10 related studies , 5 local and 5 foreign
manifested and the other factors to studies)
which it is related are explored and its
hidden meanings are determined. ▹ Synthesis (include the research gap)

3. Experimental – researchers actively CHAPTER 3

introduce intervention or treatment. METHODOLOGY
This study is designed to test causal ▹ Nature of the Study
relationship ▸ Research Design
OUTLINE OF THE RESEARCH PAPER ▹ Population and sample
▹ Research locale
▹ Title page ▹ Sampling design
▹ Approval sheet ▹ Research instrument
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▹ Bioethical considerations 1. Independent variable

▹ Data gathering procedure
 Also called experimental, causal,
▹ Plan for data analysis
treatment or stimulus variable. The
factors that are being manipulated by
CHAPTER 4 the researcher.
DATA PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND
2. Dependent variables
ANALYSIS
 criterion, effect, response, outcome
Entries on this chapter are based on the order to the
variable. They are factors that are
statement of the problem.
affected or influenced by the
▹ Textual description of the table independent variable.
▹ Labels of tables located at the upper left corner
3. Extraneous variables
Interpretation of the table
▹ Interpretation of the table  Not the direct focus of the study but
▹ Analysis of the interpretation must be backed affect the result to a certain extent
up by references , Cite references properly.
State other researches that either confirm or Variables that are quantitatively measured and
have a different result from your findings statistically tested in the hypothesis

CHAPTER 5
Summary of Findings, Conclusions and
Recommendations

▹ Summary
▹ Conclusions
▹ Recommendations

▹ REFERENCES

▹ Books
iii. COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH
▹ Unpublished materials MANUSCRIPT
▹ Journals and magazines
▹ Handouts, Pamphlets and brochures
▹ Electronic sources Title of the Study
▹ Journals and Magazines
‧ Gives the idea of what the research is
▹ Theses and Dissertations
all about
▹ Appendices/Exhibits
‧ Must be clear, concise and consist of
▹ Curriculum Vitae
not more than 15 words.
‧ Must reflect THE VARIABLES AND
Variables POPULATION OF THE STUDY. The
intervention/s, the effect and
▹ Are measurable qualities of people, things,
population of the study
events or situations under study that vary from
Introduction
one subject or participant to another
‧ Brief discussion of the rationale and
TYPES OF EXPLANATORY VARIABLES
background of the problem or subject
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of inquiry. Must stimulate the readers’ ‧ ... the purpose of the study is...
interest.
‧ It suggests the manner in which the
‧ Set the stage for the presentation of the researcher will solve the problem or
statement of the problem state the knowledge on the topic.

╸ Uses verbs like :

THE SIX COMPONENTS OF A BACKGROUND OF THE ‧ to explore, to describe, to understand,

PROBLEM (background of the study) discover, develop, generate ( connotes
an investigation of little researched
1. Problem identification – what is wrong with the
topic/ exploratory or descriptive)
current situation? What are the evidences of
the existence of the problem. ‧ to test, to evaluate the effectiveness, to
examine, to assess, to compare
2. Background – the nature of the problem. Is the
(suggests an existing knowledge base,
problem serious? Who are affected?
quantifiable variables and research
3. Scope – how big is the problem? Is the problem designs with scientific controls)
widespread? How many are affected (statistics).
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
How often the problem occur?
‧ Consists of two parts:
4. Consequences of the problem – the cost of not
fixing the problem ‧ The main problem

5. Knowledge gaps – what information about the ‧ The statement of the problem
problem is lacking, Why does it remain a or objectives (must be worked
problem? out to solve the main problem.

6. Proposed solutions – the basis for believing ‧ Must be stated clearly

that the proposed study would contribute to
‧ It indicates the population and the
the solution of the problem.
major variables of the study which are
the subject of observation.

Purpose of the Study (Aim/Goal) ‧ Research problems can be stated in

declarative as well as in interrogative
1. Includes the statement of purpose,
form.
which reflects the major problem and
the specific objectives. It presents the ‧ It suggests the manner in which the researcher
rationale or justification of the inquiry. will solve the problem or the type of research to
be done.
2. It consists of: The major problem or the
goal of the study. ‧ Example:

1. Requires broader ‧ to explore, to describe, to

solution or long-term understand, discover, develop,
inquiry. generate

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ( RESEARCH QUESTION) ‧ to test, to evaluate the

effectiveness, to examine, to
– usually in one to two sentences and tells the general
assess, to compare
direction of the inquiry.
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‧ to demonstrate or to show ‧ Has the following characteristics

something – suggests bias and (SMARTER):
should not be used in a
‧ Specific
statement of purpose
‧ Measurable
‧ The Statement of the Problem (SOP) or ‧ Attainable
objectives of the study must be well stated ‧ Realistic and results oriented
because this will determine the research ‧ Time bound
design. The researcher must observe the ‧ Evidence based
following: ‧ Rewarding
Example :
‧ Variables must be clearly identified and
stated. Statement of variables must be
always grammatically correct to avoid
confusion

‧ The scope of the study must be well

defined. The scope of the sample
population must be delimited or
narrowed down to the target
population.

‧ Sampling must be reliable enough to

ensure reliable results

‧ Limitations of the study are ensured.

‧ Variables should be factual and

╸ Definition of Terms
hypotheses is derived from theory can
be validly supported and tested. ‧ Explains the meaning of variables used
in the study.
‧ AVOID:
‧ Why should variables be defined:
‧ Broad, general findings instead
of specific information needed ‧ It will quantify and qualify the
for their solution. variables
‧ Shallow inquiries ‧ Makes the meaning clear and
prevents readers’
‧ Statements that elicit emotional
misconception
reaction.
‧ Directs the reader to the
‧ Avoid problems that cannot be
meaning of words according to
observed and tested through
researcher’s interpretation.
empirical scientific investigation
╸ Three types of definitions:
‧ Statement of the problem (SOP)
‧ 1. Conceptual definition –
‧ They are drawn from the major
problem (or goal of the study) and their ‧ definition that is universally
answers lead to the solution of the understood. It refers to the
major problem or goal of the study.
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subjective, theoretical, textual Kinds of variables

meaning of the word.
A.  Explanatory variables
‧ Taken from the dictionary,
‧ the focus of research that indicates
related literature and
direction of influence to what the
authoritative sources.
researcher would like to discover.
‧ 2. Operational Definition –
TYPES OF EXPLANATORY VARIABLES
‧ The researcher’s own
1. Independent variable
definition of terms.
 Also called experimental, causal,
‧ Defined based on observable
treatment or stimulus variable. The
terms in the context of the
factors that are being manipulated by
situation being investigated.
the researcher.
‧ The objective, practical and
2. Dependent variables
functional meaning of the word.
 criterion, effect, response, outcome
‧ Definition taken from empirical
variable. Factors that are affected or
data, related literature,
influenced by the independent variable.
research studies, established
theories. 3. Intervening variables or mediating
‧ Operational definition can be  Influence the effect of the independent
denotative or connotative variables on the dependent variables
‧ Denotative – definition in terms 4. Moderator variable
of what the concept is or what
it represents (literal meaning)  The independent variables interact with
the moderator variable which makes
‧ Connotative – definition based the relationship of the independent and
on implications and dependent variable weaker or stronger
associations one makes with (interferes with the result)
the variable.
Significance of the Study
3. Lexical definition
‧ the importance, responsiveness or
‧ Are definitions taken from relevance of the expected outcomes of
authorities on the subject or the investigation and its probable
terms being defined. It should effects on theory or practice.
be written with citations
‧ It will emphasize the significant
╸ Definitions supplied by the researcher are contribution of the proposed research
needed so the reader may know what the study to its target population, to the
researcher mean about the concepts or different sectors members of the health
variables. care team, to the profession and its
implication to future researchers.
╸ The variables are open to interpretations so it
should be the researcher’s meaning of the ‧ What gap in knowledge will it fill in.
variable so that the reader can understand the What is unknown which this study can
meaning intended by he researcher. make known.
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the population, statistical

treatment and analysis, failure
to get representative sampling
must be clearly stated.

╸ State the purpose of the study

╸ Treatment (plant)/ source of plant
╸ Subjects/ test animals (Number of animals )
╸ Place of experimentation
╸ Tests done (standard test or confirmatory tests)

Scope and Delimitations

‧ Constraints and restrictions in the study

which may decrease the credibility and
generalizability of the findings

‧ Delimitations set parameters by

accepting what should be included and
rejecting what should be excluded. HYPOTHESIS
RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
╸ Delimitations include the following:

‧ Scope or coverage
Review of Related Literature
‧ It spells out the study in terms
of participants, the situation, ‧ This is not a mere summary of the
treatment, sampling and time articles or abstract related to the
frame. The who, what, how research problem.
when, where and why is
‧ It provides an evidence-based
clarified.
research proposal
‧ Expected manageability of the
‧ It allows the researcher to
problem
determine what has happen in
‧ Takes into account the internal situations similar to what
and external constraints that he/she intends to study. It sets
may affect the validity and the foundation of the rest of
reliability of the findings. the study.

‧ Limitations of the study ‧ Review of literature pertains to

all readings related to the study
‧ Unforeseen weaknesses in
while review of related studies
methodology and design,
refers to researchers, theses
exclusion of certain sectors of
and dissertations made similar
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to the topic of the study or the 6. Helps determine the research ability
problem being investigated. and feasibility of current study.

What is related literature 7. Reveals research methods and

techniques, good source of procedure
‧ It consist of pertinent readings published or for data gathering, clues on sequence of
unpublished data-based research, reports or research activities to be pursued and
articles in local or foreign setting that supports clues to ensure accuracy and
the study. It will provide discussions of facts, effectiveness to data analyses.
principles, trends and practices to which the
present study is related. 8. Link the findings of previous researches
to results of current study.
‧ The sources of these literatures consist of
books, articles, pertinent documents, 9. Defines terms and suggest assumption
publication, speeches, programs, theses and
10. Promotes critical thinking and critical
dissertations. All empirical investigations should
reading skills
be built on previous knowledge taken from
these sources. HYPOTHESIS
TYPES OF RELATED LITERATURE Hypotheses are based on theories that are proposed
1. Conceptual or theoretical literature and tested with reality. They are tentative statements
that propose a possible explanation to some
‧ Non research reference materials phenomenon or event.
written by authorities on the subject.
They are statements that translate the problem into
2. Research or Empirical Literature precise, unambiguous predictions of expected
‧ Consist of theses and dissertations outcomes
published or unpublished also called A shrewd guess or inference. They are statement
data based literatures. expectations regarding the relationship between and
‧ Taken form journals or books and among variables under investigation.
published or unpublished studies (Polit and Beck, 2008)
Purposes of related literature FORMULATING AND WORDING
1. Demonstrate the researcher’s grasp of THE HYPOTHESIS
issues  Qualitative studies do not have hypothesis. They
2. Reflect researchers’ awareness of are guided by research questions.
recent developments  Quantitative studies, experimental studies and
3. The researcher can gain a frame of some descriptive studies require hypotheses to
reference explain the value and meaning of the
phenomenon.
4. Have a view of previous researches. The
similarities and differences of related  Do your review of literature and theoretical
researches to current research framework before making a hypothesis. The later
serves as your basis for making your hypothesis.
5. To discover findings that can have a
bearing on the current research
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 The hypothesis not the research problem but is  Corresponds to existing knowledge
subjected to empirical testing through data
- Logical and justifiable – consistent with a body of
collection and analysis.
knowledge
- Research problems that are experimental, causal,
- Based from the research problem
comparative, correlational or normative need
hypothesis for their in-depth solution. Types of hypotheses:
 The hypothesis is based on the literature review Simple vs. Complex
and theoretical framework, theories, concepts and
principles that support the study. 1. Simple : - one independent and one dependent
variable
 Hypothesis is stated in declarative form.
2. Complex –
 Wordings in the hypothesis is Clear and concise
and must be in present tense. - two independent variable and one dependent variable

 The hypothesis indicates the population, the - one independent variable and two dependent variable
independent variable, dependent variable and the directional vs. Non directional
anticipated relationship between them.
1. Directional
Characteristics of hypothesis
 specifies clearly the characteristics of the variables
 Testability – observable, quantifiable capable of
analysis - older professionals are less likely to accept expanded
roles than younger health professonals .
- NOT testable when:
2. Non directional
 Variables are not observable, quantifiable cannot
be subjected to factual testing and analysis - Health professionals in the hospital are less likely to
accept expanding role than Health professionals in the
 Variables do not state any predicted relationship. community.
 If a hypothesis lacks a phrase such as more than, Research or alternative hypothesis vs statistical or null
less than, greater than, different from related to. hypothesis
Associated with or something similar, it is not
testable. 1. Research or alternative hypothesis

 Clarity  There is a significant relationship between

maternal heroin addiction and birth weight of
 Verifiable infants.
- States anticipated relationship 2. Statistical or null hypothesis
 When stating relationship between variables, use  There is no significant relationship between heroin
terms such as more than, greater than, significantly addiction and birth weight.
or not significantly related, significantly or not
significantly different from Advantages of null hypothesis

- Set the limits of the study 1. Scientific

- Can be accepted or rejected. 2. Reflects the impartiality of the researcher

 Formulated in simple and understandable terms 3. Minimizes research bias

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 Most scientific studies utilize null hypothesis.

 Testing the hypothesis is the HEART of the

empirical investigation and for it determines the
solution to the research problem.

 Influenza patients that manifest optimism will heal

faster.

 Among babies in the nursery, length and frequency

of the crying is related to length of human contact.

 The number of traditional doctors are related to

the distance of the barrio from the barangay health
center.

 Women who marry late tend to have small spacing

between their children.