CHAPTER FOUR

COUGULATION
AND
FLOCULATION
 OBJECTIVES
In this lesson we will answer the following
questions:
How do coagulation & flocculation fit into the water
treatment process?
Which chemical principles influence coagulation and
flocculation?
Which chemicals are used in coagulation?
What factors influence coagulation and flocculation?
 Introduction
• Surface water must be treated to remove
turbidity, color, and bacteria.
Settling velocity of various size particles
Particle size, mm Type Settling velocity
10 Pebble 0.73 m/s
1 Course sand 0.23 m/s
0.1 Fine sand 0.6 m/min
0.01 Silt 8.3 m/day
0.0001 Large colloids 0.3 m/year
0.000001 Small colloids 3 m/million years
 ………Introduction
• Under conditions normally encountered in
settling basins,
Efficient removal of particles less than 50
µm in diameter cannot be expected.
• Plain sedimentation will not be very
efficient for the smaller suspended particles.
• After the source water has passed through
the optional/different steps, it is ready for
coagulation and flocculation.
 ………Introduction
• Coagulation & flocculation are often used
interchangeably; they refer to two distinct processes
• Coagulation indicates the process through which
colloidal particles and very fine solid suspensions are
destabilized, so that they can begin to agglomerate if
the conditions are appropriate.
• Flocculation refers to the process by which
destabilized particles actually conglomerate into
larger aggregates so that they can be separated from
the water.
 ………Introduction
• Coagulation is commonly achieved by adding different
types of coagulants followed by rapid mixing.
• Flocculation process is carried out by slow mixing.
• In theory and at the chemical level, coagulation and
flocculation is a three step process, consisting of
flash mixing,
coagulation, and
flocculation.
 However, in practice in the treatment plant, there are only
two steps;
flash mix chamber, and
flocculation basin.
 ………Introduction
• The primary purpose of the
coagulation/flocculation process is;
 The removal of turbidity from the water.
Additionally, it results in the precipitation of
soluble compounds, such as phosphates, ….
 COAGULATION THEORY
• When certain chemicals are added to water an
insoluble, gelatinous, flocculent is formed .
• This gelatinous precipitate during its formation and
descent through the water absorb and entangle very
fine suspended matter and colloidal impurities.
The gelatinous precipitate therefore has the property
of removing fine and colloidal particle quickly and
completely than by plain sedimentation.
• These coagulants further the advantage of removing
color, odor and taste from the water.
• These coagulants if properly applied are harmless to
the public.
 ………COAGULATION THEORY
• The principle of coagulation can be explained from
the following two conditions:
I. Floc formation
• Formed when coagulants (chemicals) are dissolved
in water and thoroughly mixed with it.
• This floc has got the property of arresting
suspended impurities in water during downward
travel towards the bottom of tank.
The gelatinous precipitate has therefore, the
property of removing fine and colloidal particles
quickly.
 ………COAGULATION THEORY
II. Electric charges
• Most particles dissolved in water have a negative charge, so
they tend to repel each other.
 As a result, they stay dispersed and dissolved or colloidal in
the water.
• The purpose of most coagulant chemicals is to neutralize
the negative charges on the turbidity particles to prevent
those particles from repelling each other.
• The amount of coagulant which should be added to the
water will depend on the zeta potential (a measurement of
the magnitude of electrical charge surrounding the colloidal
particles).
• Hence, zeta potential can be considered as the amount of
repulsive force which keeps the particles in the water.
If the zeta potential is large, then more coagulants
will be needed.
 ………COAGULATION THEORY
• Coagulants tend to be positively charged.
Due to their positive charge, they are attracted
to the negative particles in the water, as shown
below.
 ………COAGULATION THEORY
• The combination of positive and negative
charge results in a neutral.
As a result, the particles no longer repel each other.
• The next force which will affect the particles
is known as Vander Waal's forces.
• Vander Waal's forces refer to the tendency
of particles in nature to attract each other
weakly if they have no charge.
 ………COAGULATION THEORY
• Vander Waal's forces make the particles
drift toward each other and join together
into a group.
• When enough particles have joined together,
they become floc and will settle out of the
water.
 Factors affecting coagulation
1. Type of coagulant
2. Dose of coagulant
3. Characteristic of water
i. Type and quantity of suspended matter
ii. Temperature of water
iii. pH of water
4. Time and method of mixing
CHEMICALS USED AS COAGULANTS
• Coagulant chemicals come in two main types
i. Primary coagulants and
ii. Coagulant aids.
• Primary coagulants neutralize the electrical
charges of particles in the water which causes
the particles to clump together.
• Coagulant aids add density to slow-settling
flocs and add toughness to the flocs so that
they will not break up during the mixing and
settling processes.
 ………..CHEMICALS USED AS COAG

• In water treatment plants, the following are

the coagulants most commonly used:
Aluminum sulfate [Al 2(SO4) 3.18H2O]
Sodium aluminates (Na2Al2O4)
Chlorinated Copperas
Poly electrolytes
 Aluminum sulfate [Al 2(SO4) 3.18H2O].
• It is also called Alum & most widely in water purification work.
• Alum reacts with water only in the presence of alkalinity.
• If natural alkalinity is not present, lime may be added to
develop alkalinity.
• It reacts with alkaline water to form aluminum hydroxide
(floc), calcium sulphate and carbon dioxide.
• Due to the formation of calcium sulphate, hardness and
corrosiveness of water is slightly increased.
• Chemical Reaction Taking Place
 …………..[Al 2(SO4) 3.18H2O]
• Most effective b/n pH range of 6.5 to 8.5.
• Its dose may vary from 5 to 30mg/L, for normal water usually
dose being 14mg/L.
• Alum is the most widely used chemical coagulant, b/c
 It is very cheap
It removes taste and color in addition to turbidity
It is very efficient
Flocs formed are more stable and heavy
It is not harmful to health
It is simple in working, doesn't require skilled supervision
for dosing
 Sodium aluminates (Na2Al2O4)
• In the process of coagulation, it can remove
carbonate and non-carbonate hardness.
• It reacts with calcium and magnesium salts to
form flocculent aluminates of these elements.
• Chemical reactions:

• The pH should be within the range of 6 and 8.5.

 CHLORINATED COPPERAS
• Combination of Ferric sulphate and Ferric
chloride.
• When solution of Ferrous Sulphate is mixed
with chlorine, both Ferric sulphate and
Ferric chloride are produced.
• 6FeSO4.7H2O + 3Cl2 2Fe3(SO4)2 + 2FeCl3
+ 42H2O
 CHLORINATED COPPERAS
• Ferric sulphate and Ferric chloride each is an effective floc
and so also their combination.
• Both Ferric sulphate and Ferric chloride can be used
independently with lime as a coagulant.
• If alkalinity is insufficient, lime is added.
• Chemical reaction taking place

• Ferric chloride effective pH range 3.5 – 6.5 or above 8.5

• Ferric sulphate is effective pH range of 4 – 7 or above 9.
 Example
Find out the quantity of alum required to
treat 18million liters of water per day. The
dosage of alum is 14mg/lit. Also work out the
amount of CO2 released per liter of treated
water.
Solution
• Quantity of alum per day=( 14*18*10^6)/ 10^6=252kg
• The chemical reaction as follow:

• Molecular weight of alum:

=2*26.97+3*32.066+36*1.008+30*16
=666
• Molecular weight of CO2=(1*12.0)+(2*16)
= 44
• Thus
666mg of alum release 6*44mg of CO2
14mg of alum will releases=(14*6*44)/666
=5.55mg of CO2
 Exercise
A water treatment plan uses Ferrous
sulphate and lime as a coagulant at the rate
of 10mg/l of water .Find out the quantity of
Ferrous sulphate and the required to treat 27
million liters of water.
 Feeding of coagulant
• In order to feed chemicals to the water regularly and accurately,
some type of feeding equipment must be used.
• Coagulants may be put in raw water either in powder form or in
solution form.
I. Dry-feed Type
 Dry powder of coagulant is filled in the conical hopper.
 The hoppers are fitted with agitating plates which prevent the
chemical from being stabilized.
 Agitating plates are used to prevent arching of chemicals.
 Feeding is regulated by the speed of toothed wheel or helical
spring.
 Activated carbon and lime are added to raw water in powder
form.
Feeding of coagulant
 Feeding of coagulant
II. Wet feeding type
First, solution of required strength of
coagulant is prepared.
The solution is filled in the tank and allowed
to mix in the mixing channel in required
proportion to the quantity of water.
It can be easily controlled with automatic
devices.
 Coagulation-flocculation process
overview
• coagulation/flocculation process is a two step
process - the water first flows into the Flash
mix (Rapid mix)chamber, and then enters the
flocculation basin(slow mix).
 Rapid Mixing and Flocculation
• Rapid mixing is used to:
• Disperse chemicals uniformly
throughout the mixing basin
• Allow adequate contact between the
coagulant and particles
• Micro flocs are produced
• Lasts only for about 45secs
• Flocculation is used to:
• Agglomerate micro flocs to larger ones
Rapid Mixing and Flocculation
Rapid mix Chemical mixing

Coagulation Destabilization

Flocculation Floc formation

Sedimentation Flocs settle out

 Rapid mixing
• Provide complete mixing of the coagulant & raw water.
• Best for the occurrences of;
Destabilization of colloidal particle
Early stage of floc formation
• Design parameters for rapid-mix units are mixing time t
and velocity gradient G.
• The velocity gradient is a measure of the relative velocity
of two particles of fluid and the distance between.
E.g. two water particles moving 1m/s relative to each other at
a distance of 0.1m apart would have G of:
G= (1m/s)/0.1m =10/s
 Rapid mixing
• A more useful concept of G, however, is given in terms of
power dissipation per volume.

G = velocity gradient, sec-1

W = power imparted per unit
W P
G  volume of basin, N-m/s-m3
 V P = power imparted, N-m/s
V = basin volume, m3
 = absolute viscosity of
water ( =0.00131 N-s/m2)
 Rapid mixing Devices
• A tank utilizing a vertical shaft mixer
• A pipe using an in-line blender
• A pipe using a static mixer.
• Hydraulic jump
 Rapid Mixing

G and t Values for Rapid Mixing

Contact time t (s) Velocity gradient, G (s-1)
0.5 – 1.0 (in-line blenders) 4,000
10-20 1,000
21-30 900
31-40 800
41-60 700
 Rapid Mixing
• May be single compartment or double
compartment
• Single compartment basins are usually
circular or square in plan view.
Liquid depth = 1 to 1.25 X (basin diameter or width)
• Small baffles are desirable to minimize
vortexing.
 Example – Rapid Mixing
• A square rapid-mixing basin, with a depth of
water equal to 1.25 times the width, is to be
designed for a flow of 7570 m3/d. The
velocity gradient is to be 790 s-1, the
detention time is 40 seconds, the operating
temperature is 10 C, and the turbine shaft
speed is 100 rpm. Determine:
• The basin dimensions
• The power required
• µ=0.0013 N-s/m2 at 10oC
Solution
• Find the volume of the basin,
7570m 3 min
V   40 sec
1440min 60 sec
• The dimensions are
(W)(W)(1.25W) = 3.50 m3
W = 1.41 m
The depth of the basin, H = (1.25)(1.41 m) = 1.76 m
Use W = 1.41 m; H = 1.76
Using the velocity gradient equation
P  G 2V  (0.0013N  s / m2 )(790 / sec)(790 / sec)(1.411.411.76m3 )
P  2839N  m / s
 Flocculation (slow mixing)
• Flocculation is stimulation by mechanical
means to agglomerate destabilized particles
into compact, fast settleable particles (flocs).
• The objective is to provide in the number of
contacts between coagulated particles by
gentle and prolonged agitation.
• The flocculation process relies on turbulence
to promote collisions (slow mixing).
• Fragile flocs require low G values (<5/sec)
• High-strength flocs require high G values
(10/sec)
……..Flocculation (slow mixing)
• Design criteria
 ……..Flocculation (slow mixing)
• G must be controlled within a relatively narrow range in order to
get good floc formation & not to shear of already formed flocs.
• G value for mechanically driven flocculators is calculated;
First, the power input is determined by
P = DVp……………(2)
 Where P = power input, W (Nm/s)
D = drag force on paddles, N
Vp = velocity of paddles, m/s
The drag force on the paddle is given by

 Where CD = dimensionless coefficient of drag, 1.8 for flat blades

Ap = area of paddle blades, m2
ρ = density of water, kg/m3
 ……..Flocculation (slow mixing)
• Now equation (2) becomes

• Substituting into equation (1)

• The area of the paddle Ap refers to the combined area of

the slats that are perpendicular to the cylinder of rotation.
This area should not exceed 40 percent of the total area
encompassed by the paddle.
• The velocity of the paddle tip Vp is the velocity relative to
the water;
It is about 75 percent of the actual paddle speed.
Paddle velocity should be less than 1 m/s,
Minimum distance of 0.3 m should be maintained
between paddle tips and all other structures in the
Flocculator to prevent local areas of excessive G
……..Flocculation (slow mixing)
• Time is also an important factor, and the design parameter for
flocculation is Gt, a dimensionless number.

Type G (s-1) Gt (unit less)

Low-turbidity, color removal 20-70 60,000 to 200,000
coagulation
High-turbidity, solids removal 30-80 36,000 to 96,000
coagulation
Softening, 10% solids 130-200 200,000 to 250,000
Softening, 39% solids 150-300 390,000 to 400,000

 Values of Gt from 104 to 105 are commonly used, with t ranging

from 10 to 30 min (contact opportunity in the basin).
 Flocculation Basins
• Flocculation is normally accomplished with
 an axial-flow impeller,
 a paddle Flocculator, or
 a baffled chamber
 ……..Flocculation Basins
Hence, Flocculation basins are composed of
two or more compartments to:
 Minimize short circuiting
 Facilitate tapered flocculation
……..Flocculation Basins
……..Flocculation Basins
……..Flocculation Basins
……..Flocculation Basins
……..Flocculation Basins
……..Flocculation Basins
……..Flocculation Basins
……..Flocculation Basins
 Example on Flocculation
A cross-flow, horizontal shaft, paddle wheel flocculation basin is to be
designed for a flow of 25,000m3/d, a mean velocity gradient of 26.7/sec (at
10 C), and a detention time of 45 minutes.
The Gt value should be from 50,000 to 100,000.
Tapered flocculation is to be provided, and the three compartments of
equal depth in series are to be used.
The G values determined from laboratory tests for the three compartments
are G1 = 50/sec, G2 = 20/sec, and G3 = 10/sec. These give an average G
value of 26.7/sec.
The compartments are to be separated by slotted, redwood baffle fences,
and the floor of the basin is level.
The basin should be 15m in width to adjoin the settling tank. Determine:
1. The Gt value
2. The basin dimensions
3. The power to be imparted to the water in each compartment
Solution
The GT value = (26.7/sec)(45 min)(60 sec/min) = 72,100
Since GT value is between 50,000 and 100,000, the detention time is
satisfactory.
Basin volume, V = (flow)  (detention time)
= (25,000 m3/24hr)(45 min)(hr/60 min) = 781 m3
Profile area = (volume / width) = (781 m3 / 15 m) = 52.1 m2
Assume compartments are square in profile, and x is the compartment
width and depth.
Thus, (3)(x)(x) = 52.1m2 = 17.37  x = 4.17 m and
length = 3x = 3(4.17) = 12.51m
Then, width = depth = 4.17 m and length = 12.51 m
volume = (4.17)(12.51)(15.0) = 783 m3
The Power, P = G2V (at 10 C,  = 0.00131 N-s/m2)
P (for 1st compartment) = (0.00131 N-s/m2)(502/s2)(783 m3/3)
= 855 N-m/s = 855 J/s = 855 W
P (for 2nd compartment) = (0.00131)(202)(783/3) = 137 W
P (for 3rd compartment) = (0.00131)(102)(783/3) = 34.2 W
 EXAMPLE
Problem:
Design the water depth for a mixing basin having around the end
baffle in order to meet 48MLD of water. The tank divided in to two
similar compartments by providing a longitudinal partition wall
and each half may have a clear width of 8m. Assume suitable values
of detention period and flow velocity through the basin. The clear
distance between baffles may be kept as equal to minimum
permissible. Mention the number of channels in the tank and also
the overall inside length of the tank.
EXAMPLE
Solution:

Volume of water → 48x10⁶ /(24x1000) → 2000m³/hr

Assume a detention period of 30minutes (20-50 minutes)
Volume of water/30 minutes → 2000/2 → 1000m³
Assume the flow velocity of 0.30m/sec (0.15-0.45m/sec)
Length of flow → velocity x time → 0.30x30x60 →540m
Cross sectional area of the channel → 1000/540→ 1.85m²
The distance b/w baffle→ assume as 45cm (min)
Then the depth of water→ 1.85/0.45 → 4.12m; Say → 4.2m
Solution:

Clear distance b/w the wall and baffle → 1.50 times

the distance b/w baffles = 1.5x45 → 70cm
Effective length→8 - 2x half opening
→8 - 2x0.50x70 → 7.30m
Number of channels required → 540/7.3 → 74 Nos
That is 74/2 → 37channelsin each half of the tank
Any Questions?