Coagulation and

Flocculation

Engr. Arfa Iqbal

Institute of Environmental Engineering and Research
 Why Coagulation is needed?

• Small size particles (colloidal particles) have low

settling velocities.

• Their removal is not possible by gravity settling under

reasonable overflow rates.

• Their effective removal in subsequent units

(sedimentation, filtration) can be achieved by
increasing their size.
 COAGULATION
Definition and Measurement of Colloids

✓ Many of the contaminants in water and wastewater contain

matter in the colloidal form. These colloids result in a
stable “suspension”.

✓ In general the suspension is stable enough so that gravity

forces will not cause precipitation of these colloidal
particles.

✓ So they need special treatment to remove them from the

aqueous phase. This destabilization of colloids is called
“coagulation”.
 Typical colloidal characteristics for water
and wastewater

•· Size range: less than 10 micron. (somewhere in the range

between a molecule and bacteria in size).

•· 50 – 70 % of the organic matter in domestic wastewater is

composed of colloidal matter.

•· In water treatment; color, turbidity, viruses, bacteria, algae

and organic matter are primarily behave as colloids.
Causes for colloidal stability

Colloidal stability can be influenced by the degree of

affinity for the solvent in which the colloid is
suspended. This leads to the following colloid
classification:
 COLLOID CLASSIFICATION: (based on
solvent affinity)

1. Hydrophobic ( water-hating):

✓ These colloids are normally negatively charged and

dispersion is stabilized by electrostatic repulsion.

✓ Generally the negative charge is of physical/chemical origin

(e.g. clays, metal oxides, sulfides).

✓ These colloids are classified as thermodynamically unstable

which means that if enough time is allowed the particles will
aggregate, although very slowly.
2. Hydrophilic ( water-loving):

✓ Such colloids have a great affinity for the solvent (usually

water in our case).

✓ The colloids usually possess a slight charge (negative), but

dispersion is stabilized by hydration (attraction for particles
of water).

✓ Generally these colloids are particles which are biological in

origin: e.g., gelatin, starch, proteins. These particles are
thermodynamically stable.
 There are several possible origins of primary surface
charge:
1. Adsorption of potential determining ions:

✓ This involves preferential adsorption of a specific type of

ion on the surface of the colloid.

✓ Adsorption is usually van der Waals or hydrogen bonding.

For example, a surfactant on clay surface, humic acid on
silica, OH- on many minerals.

✓ The charge that results is a function of concentration and

type of ion in solution, pH, etc.)
 2. Lattice imperfections or isomorphic
replacement:

This is very common in clay minerals.

For example, the isomorphic replacement of Al3+ for Si4+ as

shown below.
3. Ionogenic groups at surface:

✓ (ionizable surface groups such as carboxyl, amino,

hydroxyl, sulfonic, etc.)

✓ The charge here is usually dependent on pH.

 Removal of Colloids from the Aqueous Phase

Removal of colloids in water and wastewater treatment

processes involves two steps:
1. Destabilization (or Coagulation):

✓ Reduce the forces acting to keep the particles apart

after they contact each other (i.e., lower repulsion
forces).

2. Flocculation:

✓ Process of bringing destabilized colloidal particles

together to allow them to aggregate to a size where
they will settle by gravity.
 After coagulation /flocculation, gravity
sedimentation, and sometimes filtration, are
employed to remove the flocculated colloids.
 COAGULATION
COAGULANTS
Chemicals that are used in coagulation are called
coagulants.
Inorganic Salts
Most commonly used coagulant is ALUM.
• ALUM, Al2(SO4)3.14H2O (pH 4 – 7)
Some other coagulants are;
• FeSO4 (pH => 8.5)
• Fe2(SO4)3 (pH =3.5-7 and > 9)
• FeCl3 (pH =3.5-6.5 and > 8.5)
 COAGULATION
COAGULANTS
Polymers (Synthetic organic polymers)
• A polymer is a chain of small subunits or monomers.
• If a subunit in a polymer contains ionizable groups, the polymer is
termed polylelectrolyte.
• Depending upon ionizable group, a polymer is termed:
• Cationic, Anioinc, Ampholytic etc.

• Polymers are generally available under trade names with

maximum concentrations that can be used.
– When using in water treatment their health significance must be
considered.
 COAGULATION
Coagulant Aids
• Coagulant aids are often added to help
stimulate the production of Floc
• They include activated silica, clays, sodium
aluminate, sodium silicate and various synthetic
organic water soluble polyelectrolytes or
polymers
 Coagulant Action
Coagulation with Alum
The process involved are very complex but
may be described as follows;
Coagulant Action
 Coagulant Action
• This complex reaction is frequently represented by the
simplified equation

• The polymeric species formed and the effectiveness of

coagulation are dependent upon both pH and applied
concentration of coagulant.
• For any water, there is an optimum pH range and optimum
coagulant concentration.
IMPORTANCE OF ALKALINITY
• Natural alkalinity acts as buffer.

• If alkalinity not present, pH drops and affects coagulant performance.

• Adequacy of the natural alkalinity may be estimated by the approximate

overall reactions involved.
COAGULANT SELECTION
Requires experimentation (Jar test)
Type of coagulant
Guide for 4 classifications of water
1. High turbidity, High alkalinity
▪ Polymers
▪ Inorganic salts
▪ pH adjustment may not be required
2. High turbidity, Low alkalinity
▪ Polymers
▪ Inorganic salts with pH adjustment
Type of coagulant

3. Low turbidity, High alkalinity

▪ Polymers and coagulant aids

▪ Inorganic salts

4. Low turbidity, Low alkalinity

▪ Polymers and coagulant aids

▪ Inorganic salts and pH adjustment

QUANTITY OF COAGULANT

Dose depends upon raw water quality.

JAR TEST is used to find optimum dose of

coagulant.
 JAR TEST
PROCEDURE (for Alum and other inorganic salts)

i. Place 1 or 2 L water sample in 6 beakers.

ii. Prepare the stock solution of the coagulant (e.g. 10 g/L)

iii. Add the desired amount of coagulant and lime to each

sample.

iv. Mix the coagulant in water sample vigorously. Continue

the flash mixing for 3 min at 100 RPM.
 JAR TEST
PROCEDURE

iv. Flocculate (slow mixing) for 10-20 minutes at 10-15

RPM.

v. Settle the samples for 30 minutes and then syphon the

supernatant for analysis.

vi. Analyze for pH, turbidity, alkalinity etc. and find the
optimum dose according to the desired requirements.
 Methods to Destabilize Colloids
(Coagulation Processes):
Coagulation and flocculation can be caused by any of
the following:

• Double layer compression

• Charge neutralization
• Interparticle bridging
• Enmeshment in a precipitate (colloid entrapment)
 Methods to Destabilize Colloids ( Coagulation
Processes):
1. Double layer compression:

This can be accomplished by addition of an indifferent

electrolyte (charged ions with no specific attraction for
colloid primary surface).

Adding indifferent electrolyte increases the ionic

strength of solution which has the effect of
compressing the EDL. As the counterions are pushed
closer to the surface, the repulsion forces becomes
easier to negate by van der Waals forces.
✓ With this type of coagulation can not get
overdosing.

✓ Also there is no relationship between colloid

concentration and optimum dosage of coagulant.
The same amount of indifferent electrolyte is
required for low and high concentration of colloids.

✓ This means of coagulation is not very effective in

water treatment.
 Assignment
1. Discuss the role of zeta potential in Double Layer
Compression phenomenon?

2. Why no over dosing occurs in Double Layer

Compression?

3. Why there is no relation between colloid concentration

and optimum coagulant dosage?
2. Adsorption and Charge Neutralization:

✓ If charged (+) counterions have a specific affinity

for the surface of the colloid (not merely
electrostatic attraction) then adsorption of the
counter-ion will reduce the primary charge of the
colloid.
 Characteristics of Adsorption/Neutralization:

1. Destabilize at lower concentration than indifferent

electrolytes.

2. Adsorption can result in overdosing with subsequent

surface charge reversal.

3. Optimal dosage of coagulant is proportional to colloid

concentration.
 3. Interparticle bridging:

✓ In this case polymers, metal salt or synthetic

organic types, specifically adsorb to surface, often
charge neutralization occurs.

✓ But further, other parts of the polymer adsorb to

other colloids. This forms a polymer bridge as
schematically shown.

✓ Using the definitions discussed above Reaction 1

represents "coagulation" and Reaction 2 represents
"flocculation". There is stoichiometry of coagulation
(dosage of coagulant is proportional to colloid
concentration.
✓ Adsorption is specific (usually chemical bonding), it is
possible to adsorb negative or neutral polymers to the
typically negative colloid surface. Overdosing is
possible.

✓ Basically the polymer covers the surface of the

colloids without bridging to another colloid. This is
shown in the following figure.
4. Enmeshment in a precipitate (sweep floc):

✓ If metal salts, e.g., Al2(SO4)3 , FeCl3 are added in

sufficient quantities to exceed the solubility products
of the metal hydroxide, oxide or, sometimes
carbonates a “sweep floc” will form.

✓ Colloids will become enmeshed in the settling sweep

floc and be removed from the suspension.
 Dosing Strategies (for hydrolyzing metal
salts)

Define zones of effectiveness:

Zone 1: Low dosage, insufficient coagulant added to
produce destabilization.
Zone 2: Dosage sufficient to cause efficient and rapid
destabilization
Zone 3: Dosage high enough to cause restabilization
(charge reversal or polymer –foldback)
Zone 4: Dosage high enough to get sweep floc which
results in good destabilization.
 Flocculation

• Destabilized particles and chemical

precipitates resulting from coagulation
may still settle very slowly.

• Flocculation is a slow mixing process in

which particles are brought into contact in
order to promote their agglomeration.
 Coagulation/Flocculation Tanks

The mechanics of coagulation and

flocculation are accomplished in coagulation
and flocculation tanks.
 Coagulation/Flocculation Tanks
Rapid Mixer:
• Coagulation is performed in a rapid-mix tank.
• Chemicals are added and intense mixing/agitation is
done to disperse the chemicals throughout the basin
and to allow adequate contact between the coagulant
and the colloids.
• Devices used are Hydraulic Jump, Static mixers using
Impellers
 Coagulation/Flocculation Tanks
Flocculation Basins:

• Flocculation is achieved in the flocculation

basins.

• Slow mixing is done to impart inter-particle

contacts so that they are agglomerated into
large particle.
 Mixing
• Rapid mixing and flocculation are basically
mixing operations and, consequently, are
governed by the same principles and require
similar design parameter.

Parameter for Mixing:

• Velocity Gradient (G) is the parameter used to

describe the intensity of mixing.
Mixing Devices
(Rapid Mixing)
 Design of Tanks

• The Basin (Tank): Detention time (td)

• The mixing system: Velocity Gradient (G)

VELOCITY GRADIENT
 Design Criteria
FLASH MIXERS
– Detention Time 10-30 sec

– Velocity Gradient 700 to 1000 per second

– Shape Square or circular

– Depth 1 to 1.25 the basin

diameter or width
 Design Criteria
FLOCCULATION TANKS
– Detention Time 15-60 minutes

– Velocity Gradient 20-60 per second

– Water depth 3 to 5 m
 1. Perikinetic Flocculation
• For small particles < 0.1 μm
• Primary mechanism: Brownian movement
• Form flocs ranging from 1 to 100 μm
 1. Perikinetic Flocculation
• During perikinetic floc formation, particles
collide as a result of Brownian motion.

• The random motion of the colloidal particles

results from the rapid and random
bombardment of the colloidal particles by
molecules of the fluid (Brownian motion).
 2. Orthokinetic Flocculation
• Orthokinetic flocculation refers to contacts or collisions
of colloidal particles resulting from bulk fluid motion,
such as stirring.
• Chances of collisions are increased by applying
agitation.

• If agitation occurs, velocity of fluid varies both spatially

(from point to point) and temporarily (from time to time).

• The spatial change in velocity is characterized by a

velocity gradient Ğ. Particles which follow the fluid
motion will also have different velocities, so that
opportunities exist for interparticle contacts.
 2. Orthokinetic Flocculation
• For relatively larger particles > 1 μm.

• Mixing causes velocity gradients that causes

collisions between suspended materials.

• Can result in floc breakup due to shear forces

in the water.
 3. Differential Settling
• Flocculated particles (different sizes) settle via
gravitational forces.

• Because of the different in sizes, they have

different settling velocities which causes
particles to collide and form arger flocs; thus,
promoting flocculation.