A Technology Portfolio of Nature Based Solutions (PDFDrive)

Sean
O'Hogain · Liam McCarton
A Technology
Portfolio of
Nature Based
Solutions
Innovations in Water Management
A Technology Portfolio of Nature Based Solutions
Sean O’Hogain • Liam McCarton
A Technology Portfolio of
Nature Based Solutions
Innovations in Water Management
Sean O’Hogain Liam McCarton
School of Civil & Structural Engineering School of Civil & Structural Engineering
Dublin Institute of Technology Dublin Institute of Technology
Dublin, Ireland Dublin, Ireland
ISBN 978-3-319-73280-0 ISBN 978-3-319-73281-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73281-7
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Foreword
The Nobel Prize-winning atmospheric chemist, Paul Crutzen, has argued we have,
since the Industrial Revolution, entered a new geological epoch – the Anthropocene –
defined by the overwhelming influence of one species, our own, on the natural
world. We are already beginning to witness the catastrophic effects of anthropo-
genic climate change brought about by the massive disruption of the carbon cycle
produced by the emission of greenhouse gases. The significant and unpredictable
alterations to the nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur cycles induced by human action
are disrupting both plant and animal life. The terrestrial water cycle, so vital to
human existence, has been modified by deforestation, disruptions to river systems
and changing land use.
Recent years have seen the food security and livelihoods of millions of men,
women and children seriously undermined by unusually severe floods, droughts and
storms. Climate change and environmental degradation have enormous and far-
reaching consequences on our capacity for the realisation of human rights. Indeed,
it is becoming increasingly obvious that the effects of extreme weather events
threaten the effective enjoyment of a range of basic human rights, such as the right
to safe water and food and the right to health and adequate housing.
Pollution, climate change, the loss of biodiversity and of course the growing
scarcity of fresh water are part of a complex system which we must come to under-
stand in each of its parts. It is becoming increasingly apparent that our existing
models of production, consumption, distribution and exchange are no longer suffi-
cient to ensure that the needs – in terms of water, food, shelter and intellectual and
material resources – of a growing population are met. The great challenge of this
century will be to meet the requirement for a just and sustainable development that
encompasses and includes all communities and nations without imperilling the eco-
systems upon which we all depend.
This will require brave and wise decisions from world leaders and a willingness
to re-examine and re-imagine what has become a fractured relationship between the
economy, ecology and ethics. It will also require a renewed dedication to the devel-
opment of science and technology, and a commitment to making new science avail-
able to all, to ensure the best outcomes for all of humanity.
v
vi Foreword
At the heart of great and good science lies a creative and moral instinct to explore,
to question and to create a better world. Just as the causes of climate change are
myriad, so too are its solutions. We must now, from the smallest fragment of the
local, think and act globally. These qualities of mind and practice will be essential
if we are to, as a national and global community, realise all of the potential of our
people and to prove ourselves equal to the difficult challenges that lie ahead in the
coming decades.
Will the pursuit of new knowledge and advances in science be adapted to serve
the public good, or will it be subordinated to the quest for private profit? This is a
pressing question for the development and transfer of technology to and for the
developing world and for the achievement of sustainable development and for the
mitigation of climate change.
The needs of this new century cannot be met by the stale and disproven assump-
tions of any inevitability claimed for unilinear change. They will demand new sci-
ence and new technology, and new modes of thought, animated by and drawing on
the spirit of discovery, patience and perseverance.
In its recognition that water is vital human right, and by offering a new model of
understanding the consumption and distribution of water, this collection of innova-
tive nature-based solutions represents an important resource for all those seeking to
forge a new path to a sustainable future, one that can meet human needs while
respecting and potentially restoring ecosystems.
President of Ireland Michael D. Higgins

Preface
There is a finite amount of water available to the world. The global water cycle
involves the circulation of water into and out of various reservoirs, including atmo-
sphere, land, surface water and groundwater. The volume of renewable supplies,
through the global water cycle, remains constant, and is set to remain so, despite
climate change. This water is not distributed equally as it falls on the earth.
Theoretically there is enough water for everyone on the earth, but due to inequality
of distribution, certain areas of the world are more water stressed than others. This
has resulted in certain parts of the world being well populated, while other parts are
scarcely populated.
The universal problem with water has been competition for its use. Circulation
of water through the planet has been altered with the reclamation of wetland areas
and mangrove forests. The problems with loss of biodiversity, climate change and
eutrophication of freshwater and some seas are all consequences of the mismanage-
ment of the water environment.
The traditional approach to water and water infrastructure has been a uni-
directional linear model. Water is abstracted at source, treated to potable (drinkable)
standard, then used and treated again prior to final disposal to the environment.
Water is viewed as a raw material that requires a treatment process to make it a
finished product. This is then supplied to users, both domestic and industrial, who
use it for various purposes. Some of these uses require advanced treatment to pro-
duce water of a higher quality. The use of water reduces the quality and therefore it
has to be treated again before it can be discharged back into the environment.
Similarly, wastewater treatment systems involve collection, treatment and dis-
charge. This second form of treatment has two purposes; the removal of constituents
in the water which could harm the aquatic environment, and the improvement of
water quality to raw water standards.
The traditional approach also allows for the transport of water resources over
large distances, i.e. from points of storage and capture to centres of population.
Simultaneously, rainwater is discharged unused via expensive storm-water drainage
systems. Surface water is also seen as a design problem, especially in urban and
vii
viii Preface
peri-urban areas. The surface water infrastructure is designed to remove surface

water from centres of population, and it can be said that water is designed out of
these urban developments.
A circular economy is an alternative to a traditional linear economy. In a circu-
lar economy, resources are kept in use for as long as possible. The maximum value
is extracted from them whilst in use, and products and materials are recovered and/
or regenerated at the end of each service life. This concept can be applied to water
management and is termed “the circular economy of water”. This has introduced the
concepts of resource recovery and resilience. It is a recognition that the stewardship
of water resources up to now has been deeply flawed. In the linear approach to
water, it is disposed of after use. The emphasis is on the removal of substances in the
water, not on recovery of resources in the water.
The circular economy of water is waste-free and resilient. The circular economy
of water sees wastewater and its contents as a potential resource, containing miner-
als, carbon and nutrients, which can be recovered and reused. This approach requires
the development of a smart water economy. By smart, we mean the efficient, inno-
vative and clever use of water. It also involves an increase in the rational use and
reuse of water. The past 40 years have seen a growing concern over the status of our
water resources. It has seen the almost universal adoption of “The Polluter Pays”
principle. It has also seen the application of water pricing as a means of water con-
servation. Water pricing sees water as a commodity, similar to other commodities,
like copper or gold. An economic value is given to the commodity and it is used and
traded for profit.
However, water is more than a commodity. It is a basic human right. It is, in fact,
a life-support medium. We cannot live without it. High quality water is necessary
for health. Industry also cannot function without water, and therefore, economically
it is necessary for society to exist. The industrialised society cannot exist without
the water that is in commodities or the water that allows the industries to function.
Water is also required for energy, and it is an important amenity for recreation and
indeed rural income. These functions of life support, industrial use, energy supply
and amenity can be termed the “value of water”.
The circular economy also asks the question “what is the value in water?” The
“value in water” can be thought of as the economic and societal value that can be
realised by extracting and valorising the resources embedded in used water streams.
These include the nutrients, minerals, chemicals, metals and energy which are
embedded in water. It also refers to the reuse potential of the water.
Combining these two concepts of a life-support medium, the value of water and
the potential for resource recovery and reuse, or the value in water, we can talk of
the “worth of water”. The worth of water is the value of water combined with the
value in water. In a circular economy of water how is the worth of water achieved?
It occurs when every government decision is governed by water.
This includes integrating water into development planning, building supportive
institutional structures with the mandate to control and regulate adaptability in both
supply and demand management. It is essential for cities to manage their water as a
finite resource that is integral to their overall development planning. It also includes
Preface ix
community involvement and community input. However, there are few places in the
world where this happens. Water is not given its full worth. To give water its full
worth involves change.
The adoption of the principles of the circular economy means we have to act dif-
ferently, think differently and interact differently. Thinking differently means
placing the value of water to the forefront of all planning, development and educa-
tion projects. Water and water stewardship should govern every government deci-
sion. It also involves not only recognition of the multiplicity of water sources, e.g.
rainwater and saline brackish water, but also the importance of closing water loops
by implementing reuse/recycling/cascading and resource and energy recovery. This,
as we have seen, involves the value in water.
Interacting differently not only involves governance but most importantly
involves participation. It involves a multidisciplinary approach, not only featuring
the water-energy-food-land use-climate change network, but also involving cross-
disciplinary design and participation, involving architects, engineers, planners,
ecologists, government and community stakeholders. It is a bottom-up methodol-
ogy, rather than a top-down one. These interactions will give rise to new ways of
dealing with all users of water be they domestic, agriculture, large urban areas or
water transport interests.
Acting differently involves the redesign of the water infrastructure, taking advan-
tage of the recent developments in technology and integrating human-built water
infrastructure with nature-based ecosystems.
Nature-based solutions (NBS) are both natural and constructed systems which
utilise and reinforce physical, chemical and microbiological treatment processes.
These processes form the scientific and engineering principles for water/wastewater
treatment and hydraulic infrastructure. Nature-based solutions may be low cost,
require low energy for operation and maintenance, generate low environmental
impacts and provide added value through the benefits that accrue to humanity (eco-
system services). These benefits include biodiversity, mitigation of the effects of cli-
mate change, ecosystem restoration, amenity value and resilience. This new design
will result in both centralized and decentralized water technologies which will reduce
water loss, promote reuse of water and will feature the use of multiple waters for
multiple uses, i.e. “Design Water In”. It will also recover resources from these mul-
tiple waters. This combination of grey and green water infrastructure will also stimu-
late sustainability and resilience, which is of great importance in combating climate
change events such as droughts and flooding. In the NBS approach nature is integral
to the solution, i.e. “Design Nature In”. In the conventional grey infrastructure
approach nature is not integral to the solution, rather the solution is superimposed on
the natural surroundings, i.e. “Design in Nature”. A feature of the circular economy
of water and NBS is to “Design Water In”, whereas the linear economy of water is
characterised by removing water for off-site treatment, i.e. “Design Water Out”.
NBS will form an integral component of future water infrastructure that com-
prises a mix of high tech human built engineered (Grey) infrastructure and NBS
(Green) infrastructure. This combination of approaches can be termed “Hybrid
Infrastructure”. To achieve this transformation to a smart water society and the
x Preface
integration of the hybrid infrastructure into water design, these innovative technolo-
gies require trials and demonstration sites, in effect living labs. Living labs are user-
centred, innovative ecosystems which aim to integrate research and innovation
processes in real-life communities and settings. They place the citizen at the centre of
innovation, are constructed in a real-life setting, involve multi-stakeholder participa-
tion, a multi-method approach and co-creation, which involves the iterations of
designs with different sets of stakeholders. Nature-based solutions are examples of
living labs.
This publication aims to define and characterise nature-based solutions (NBS) in
terms of water source, contaminants, removal mechanisms and resource recovery
potential within the context of a circular economy and to illustrate this definition
with a range of case studies. These are selected from members of the European
Innovation Partnership (EIP) Water Action Group (AG 228) “Nature-based tech-
nologies for Innovation in water management-NatureWat”. This action group serves
to promote the use of NBS through its technology portfolio, which is based on a
number of demonstration sites in the fields of climate change adaption, water and
wastewater treatment, resource recovery and reuse, and restoring ecosystems. It will
present a multidisciplinary approach to NBS. This approach involves bringing
together social scientists, governance representatives, scientists and engineers
together with end users to define the problem and opportunities to utilise ecosystem
services, i.e. the benefits that accrue to humans from using an NBS methodology.
In the ancient world, technology and nature were combined to solve water prob-
lems. Examples of this are the viaducts of the Romans, the Qanats of the Persians
and the irrigation systems of the Incas. These NBS allowed the societies to prosper.
It would be our hope that nature-based solutions will prove as important a techno-
logical contribution to the present issues of climate change, increased population
and resource depletion.
Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland Sean O’Hogain

Liam McCarton
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to a wide range of people: Noreen Layden of the Environmental
Sustainability Health Institute and Mark Sweeney of Enterprise Ireland; Prof. Joan
Garcia of Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya; Anna Fabregas and Merce Aceves at
Area Metropolitiana de Barcelona (AMB); Marc Freixa of Depuradores Osona,
Catalunya for site visits; Anna Garfi of Gemma, UPC Barcelona who arranged all
for us in Spain – it was not her fault we got lost; Alenka Mubi Zalaznik of LIMNOS
in Slovenia, who guided us round her country and the NatureWat sites – thanks for
your time and your company; Victor Beumer, Remco Van Ek and Stefan Jansen of
Deltares for their time and help; Albert Jansen, of Water Innovation Consulting for
inviting DIT to participate in the European Water Supply and Sanitation Technology
Platform (WssTP) working groups; John Turner, Aidan Dorgan, Stephen McCabe,
Catherine Carson and Richard Tobin in DIT Bolton Street; Catherine McGarvey
and Debbie McCarthy in DIT Rathmines: special thanks to Anna Reid, without
Anna this would not have been possible – all journeys start from home – to our long-
suffering families, thanks, in particular to Jackie, Angie and Sadhbh.
The authors acknowledge the financial support of the Environmental Protection
Agency, Ireland.
xi
Contents
1 Nature-Based Solutions �� 1

1.1 Introduction�� 1
1.2 The Circular Economy of Water (CEW)�� 2
1.3 Nature-Based Solutions�� 2
1.4 Are There Nature-Based Solutions? �� 4
1.5 Towards a Nature-Based Solutions Methodology�� 7
1.6 Further Information�� 9
2 European Innovation Platform Action Group
NatureWat (AG228) �� 11
2.1 European Innovation Partnership (EIP)�� 11
2.2 NatureWat Action Group (AG 228): “Nature-Based
Technologies for Innovation in Water Management” �� 12
2.3 NatureWat Action Group Members�� 12
2.4 Specific Issues Which the NatureWat Action Group Seeks
to Address �� 16
2.4.1 Barriers to Market Uptake�� 17
2.4.2 Demand/Market Potential �� 17
2.5 European Working Groups�� 17
3 Nature-Based Solutions: Technology Portfolio�� 21
3.1 NBS Technology Portfolio�� 22
3.2 Case Study 1: Inland Shore Concept Lake Ijsselmeer�� 23
3.2.1 Site Location:Koopmanspolder�� 24
3.2.2 Inland Shore Concept�� 24
3.2.3 Design Criteria�� 25
3.2.4 Key Drivers �� 26
3.2.5 Operation Characteristics�� 26
3.2.6 Maintenance�� 27
3.2.7 Performance�� 27
3.2.8 Resource/Recovery/Product�� 27
3.2.9 Community Involvement�� 28
xiii
xiv Contents
3.3 Case Study 2: Managed Aquifer Recharge- Llobregat River�� 28

3.3.1 Llobregat Delta Site Location�� 29
3.3.2 Managed Aquifer Recharge Concept�� 29
3.3.6 Reactive Compost Layer Performance �� 34
3.4 Case Study 3: Green Port Concept: Rotterdam Mallegats Park�� 35
3.4.1 Mallegats Park, Rotterdam�� 35
3.4.2 Green Port Concept�� 36
3.5 Case Study 4: Restoration of Ecosystems: Granollers,
Barcelona�� 40
3.5.1 Site Location Can Cabanyes �� 41
3.5.2 Concept �� 41
3.6 Case Study 5: Constructed Wetlands Sludge Treatment
Systems: La Guixa, Barcelona Region �� 45
3.6.1 La Guixa Site Location �� 46
3.6.2 Sludge Treatment Wetlands Concept�� 46
3.6.6 Resource Recovery Product�� 49
3.7 Case Study 6: Mill Pond �� 50
3.7.1 Site Location �� 51
3.7.2 Concept �� 51
3.8 Case Study 7: Nature-Based Nutrient Recovery�� 55
3.8.2 Concept �� 56
Contents xv
3.9 Case Study 8: Nature-Based Wastewater Treatment Systems

in Slovenia�� 60
3.9.2 Concept �� 61
3.9.3 Application 1: Sveti Tomas Total Wastewater
Treatment System �� 61
3.9.7 Application 2: Sodinci Wastewater Treatment System �� 64
3.9.8 Application 3: Industrial Site, Ribojstvo Goricar �� 65
3.9.9 Results�� 65
3.10 Case Study 9: Ecoremediation Polygons, Slovenia�� 67
3.10.2 Concept �� 68
3.10.3 Ecoremediation Polygon, Modraze�� 68
3.11 Case Study 10: Domestic Rainwater Harvesting, Ireland�� 73
3.11.2 Concept �� 74
3.11.6 Natural Treatment Mechanisms�� 76
3.11.9 Consumer Acceptance�� 77
3.12 Case Study 11: Agricultural Rainwater Harvesting, Ireland�� 78
3.12.2 Concept �� 79
3.13 Case Study 12: School Rainwater Harvesting, Ireland �� 83
3.13.2 Concept �� 84
3.13.8 Community Involvement�� 86
3.14 Case Study 13: Zero Discharge Natural Wastewater
Treatment, Ireland�� 87
3.14.2 Concept �� 88
xvi Contents

3.14.4 Facility Design and Installation�� 89
3.14.5 Monitoring Regime�� 89
3.14.7 Reed Bed Performance �� 91
3.15 Overall Performance Characteristics of NBS Case Studies�� 93
4 Reclaimed Water�� 95
4.1 What Is Reclaimed Water�� 95
4.1.1 The Circular Economy of Water (CEW)�� 95
4.1.2 Reclaimed Water �� 95
4.1.3 Fit for Purpose Model �� 96
4.2 Potential Uses for Reclaimed Water �� 96
4.2.1 Agricultural Reuse�� 98
4.2.2 Environmental Reuse�� 99
4.2.3 Groundwater Recharge �� 99
4.2.4 Non-potable Reuse�� 99
4.3 International Water Reuse Applications�� 100
4.3.1 The Aquarec Project�� 100
4.3.2 US Agricultural Reuse Standards�� 100
4.3.3 WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater,
Excreta and Greywater�� 100
5 Constraints and Barriers to the Adoption of NBS�� 103
5.1 NBS Water Reuse Constraints�� 103
6 Hybrid Infrastructure: Local, Regional and Global
Potential of Nature Based Solutions �� 105
6.1 Traditional Engineered Water Infrastructure System�� 105
6.2 The Circular Economy of Water (Recover, Reuse, Recycle)�� 106
6.3 Hybrid Grey and Green Infrastructure�� 106
6.4 Hybrid Infrastructure: Case Study at Local Level�� 108
6.5 Hybrid Infrastructure: Case Study at Regional Level �� 109
6.6 Hybrid Infrastructure: Case Study at Global Level�� 111
References �� 115
Index�� 119
Acronyms and Annotations
AdP Águas de Portugal

AMB Area Metropolitiana de Barcelona
CBA Cost Benefit Analysis
CBD Rio Convention on Biological Diversity
CE Circular Economy
CER Commission for Energy Regulation
CIREF Iberian Centre of River Restoration
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
CPA Community Participatory Approach
CW Constructed Wetlands
DB Design Build
DBO Design Build Operate
DBOF Design Build Operate Finance
DECLG Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government
DIT Dublin Institute of Technology
DTC Development Technology in the Community Research Group
EC European Commission
EC European Communities
EcoSan Eco Sanitation Club
EFRO European Fund for Regional Development
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EIP European Innovation Platform
ENSAT Enhancement of Soil Aquifer Treatment
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EQS Environmental Quality Standards
ERI Environmental Research Institute
ESHI Environmental Sustainability Health Institute
GSI Geological Survey of Ireland
GWP Global Water Partnership
HLR Hydraulic Loading Rate
HRT Hydraulic Retention Time
xvii
xviii Acronyms and Annotations
HWTS Hybrid Reed and Willow Bed Treatment System

INBO International Network of Basin Organizations
IRBD International River Basin Districts
JRC European Commission’s Joint Research Centre
LCA Lifecycle Analysis
MAR Managed Aquifer Recharge
NBS Nature-Based Solutions
NewERA New Economy and Recovery Authority
NFGWS National Federation of Group Water Schemes
NIMBY Not In My Back Yard
NPWS National Parks and Wildlife Service
NRWMC National Rural Water Monitoring Committee
OIEAU Office International de l’eau
OPW Office of Public Works
P Phosphate
PE Population Equivalent
PPCP Pharmaceuticals Personal Care Products
PTEA Spanish Water Technology Platform
RWH Rainwater Harvesting
SDCC South Dublin County Council
SDRB Sludge Drying Reed Bed
SF CW Subsurface
SME Small Medium Enterprise
STW Sludge Treatment Wetlands
TSS Total Suspended Solids
UPC Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya
WIRC Water Innovation Research Centre
WssTP Water Supply and Sanitation Platform
WTP Water Treatment Plants
WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plants
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Characteristics of the circular economy of water (RRR) �� 2

Fig. 1.2 New approach required to implement a NBS�� 4
Fig. 2.1 NatureWat members �� 13
Fig. 3.1 Inland shore concept�� 24
Fig. 3.2 Aerial view of Lake Ijsslemeer showing inland shore�� 25
Fig. 3.3 Inland shore with unique spiral design�� 26
Fig. 3.4 Managed aquifer recharge�� 30
Fig. 3.5 Inlet from Llobregat river �� 30
Fig. 3.6 Inlet from sedimentation pond and piezometer well�� 31
Fig. 3.7 Two connected sedimentation and filtration ponds�� 32
Fig. 3.8 Sedimentation Pond�� 33
Fig. 3.9 The green port concept showing the creation of natural
habitats to protect the shoreline�� 36
Fig. 3.10 5 km of natural shoreline banks �� 37
Fig. 3.11 Creation of mudflats �� 38
Fig. 3.12 Green port concept �� 39
Fig. 3.13 Industrial facility adjacent to Can Cabanyes�� 42
Fig. 3.14 Added value through ecosystem services�� 42
Fig. 3.15 Activated sludge wastewater treatment plant �� 48
Fig. 3.16 Sludge biomass�� 48
Fig. 3.17 Influent pumped onto wetland system�� 49
Fig. 3.18 End product showing mineralised sludge�� 49
Fig. 3.19 Theoretical operation of flood control storage �� 52
Fig. 3.20 Collector bypass �� 53
Fig. 3.21 Inlet structure�� 53
Fig. 3.22 Storage reservoir�� 54
Fig. 3.23 Nitrate removal from tile drains �� 57
Fig. 3.24 Sand/soil mixture with wood chips�� 57
Fig. 3.25 Purifying bench for phosphate removal�� 59
xix
xx List of Figures
Fig. 3.26 Schematic showing LIMNOWETR

constructed wetland operation�� 62
Fig. 3.27 Sveti Tomaz treatment system showing LIMNOS
four stage treatment system with sludge treatment�� 62
Fig. 3.28 Inlet channel to horizontal reed bed �� 63
Fig. 3.29 Coarse inlet screens�� 63
Fig. 3.30 Sludge reed bed�� 64
Fig. 3.31 Constructed wetland system for village of Sodinci�� 65
Fig. 3.32 Treatment of wastewater from fish processing
factory, Slovenia �� 65
Fig. 3.33 Natural wastewater treatment system, fish processing
factory, Slovenia �� 66
Fig. 3.34 Ecoremediation Polygon, Modraze�� 69
Fig. 3.35 Ecopod residential units �� 69
Fig. 3.36 Ecosystem training materials�� 71
Fig. 3.37 Examples of education in biodiversity systems�� 71
Fig. 3.38 Working model of constructed wetland�� 72
Fig. 3.39 Ballinabranagh housing scheme �� 74
Fig. 3.40 Domestic rainwater harvesting system, Carlow �� 76
Fig. 3.41 Agricultural rainwater collection system�� 80
Fig. 3.42 Filter unit on downpipes�� 80
Fig. 3.43 Rainwater storage system with mains water back-up�� 82
Fig. 3.44 Rainwater consumers�� 82
Fig. 3.45 Rainwater system for school�� 86
Fig. 3.46 Overview of treatment system showing PVF reed bed,
SVF reed bed, HF reed bed and Willow bed�� 90
Fig. 3.47 Tipping bucket distribution system�� 90
Fig. 3.48 System operating in winter 2012�� 91
Fig. 4.1 The circular economy of water�� 96
Fig. 4.2 Multiple waters for multiple uses can achieve desired
levels of water quality to suit reuse�� 97
Fig. 6.1 Traditional engineered water infrastructure system �� 106
Fig. 6.2 Circular Economy of Water (Multiple waters
for multiple uses)�� 107
List of Tables
Table 2.1 NatureWat European working groups

(WGs) and networks�� 18
Table 3.1 Removal mechanisms Can Cabanyes wetland system �� 44
Table 3.2 Design characteristics of La Guixa sludge
treatment system�� 47
Table 3.3 La Guixa design characteristics�� 49
Table 3.4 Removal mechanisms in Slovenia natural wastewater
treatment systems �� 66
Table 3.5 Monitoring results for natural wastewater treatment
systems at Sveti Tomaz and Sodinci�� 66
Table 3.6 Overall treatment performance�� 92
Table 3.7 Principal contaminants and removal mechanisms
in NBS case studies�� 93
Table 4.1 Water reuse matrix�� 98
Table 4.2 National water reuse criteria�� 101
Table 5.1 Constraints and Barriers to the adoption of NBS �� 104
xxi
Introduction
Organisation of the Book
Chapter 1 proposes a definition of NBS and reviews NBS in terms of the circular
economy and proposes a methodology for implementing NBS projects. Chapter 2
discusses the European Innovation Partnership (EIP) on Water, together with the
EIP Action Group NatureWat (AG228). The members of the action group are pre-
sented together with particular issues which the action group will seek to address.
Chapter 3 presents a technology portfolio of nature based solutions. These case
studies are based on projects carried out by the members of NatureWat. The case
studies are summarised in terms of water sources, contaminants, removal mecha-
nisms and resource recovery potential as well as considering reuse applications.
Chapter 4 presents definitions of reclaimed water, reused water and the term “Fit
For Purpose”. This chapter also presents an overview of potential uses for reclaimed
water together with examples of European and global water reuse guidelines.
Bottlenecks and barriers related to NBS for water resources management are identi-
fied in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 presents case studies at the local, regional and global
level. These examples illustrate the application of hybrid infrastructure systems.
This is a combination of traditional engineered infrastructure with nature-based
solutions.
xxiii
Chapter 1
Nature-Based Solutions
Abstract This chapter proposes a definition of Nature Based Solutions (NBS),

reviews NBS in terms of the circular economy and proposes a methodology for imple-
menting NBS projects. The circular economy of water (CEW) prioritises the concepts
of resource recovery and resilience within water resource management. The CEW
operating within planetary boundaries, is waste free and resilient and is by design
restorative of ecosystems. NBS can form an integral component of this new approach.
This publication defines NBS as both natural and constructed systems which utilise
and reinforce, physical, chemical and microbiological treatment processes. These
processes form the scientific and engineering principles for water/wastewater treat-
ment and hydraulic infrastructure. NBS may be low cost, minimise energy for opera-
tion and maintenance, generate low environmental impacts and provide added value
through the benefits that accrue to humanity (ecosystem services). These benefits
include biodiversity, mitigation of the effects of climate change, ecosystem restora-
tion, amenity value and resilience. This chapter defines and characterises nature based
solutions in terms of water source, contaminants, removal mechanisms and resource
recovery potential. It will also propose an NBS Methodology.
Keywords Nature Based Solutions · Circular Economy of Water · Ecosystem Services
1.1 Introduction
The methodology of how human society has interacted with the environment has
evolved over the last 40 years. Following on from Rachel Carson’s work in the
1960s society was concerned with minimising environmental damage (Carson
1962). This had as an underlying principle, the prevention or mitigation of damage
to the environment, stated as “do the least possible harm”. This gradually led to the
adaption, in the 1990s, of the principle of “sustainability” and the need to preserve
resources and to hand them on intact to future generations (Bruntland Commission
1987). This approach was enshrined within subsequent Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) procedures (Directive 2014/52/EU). This is the process by which
the anticipated effects on the environment of a proposed development or project are
measured. If the likely effects are unacceptable, design measures or other relevant
mitigation measures can be taken to reduce or avoid those effects.
© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 1

S. O’Hogain, L. McCarton, A Technology Portfolio of Nature Based Solutions,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73281-7_1
2 1 Nature-Based Solutions
Fig. 1.1 Characteristics of

the circular economy of
water (CEW)
The current system of water supply and management is based on a linear

approach, focusing on commodity sourcing, treating, using and disposing. Currently,
water demand is typically met by importing large volumes of water across long
distances from neighbouring catchments. Simultaneously, rainwater is discharged
unused via expensive storm water drainage systems. Similarly, wastewater treat-
ment systems involve collection, treatment and discharge. This contrasts with the
objectives of the circular economy as described on the next section.
1.2 The Circular Economy of Water (CEW)
The circular economy has introduced, in the last few years, the concepts of resource
recovery and resilience. The circular economy is by design restorative of ecosys-
tems. In the linear approach to water, products are disposed of after use. The circular
economy, operating within planetary boundaries, is waste free and resilient. The
circular economy of water (CEW) sees water and its contents, as a resource (Fig. 1.1).
1.3 Nature-Based Solutions
The term ‘nature-based solutions’ (NBS) has been adopted to inform policy and
discussion on biodiversity and conservation, climate change adaptation, and the sus-
tainable use of natural resources (Potschin et al. 2015). The term NBS appears to
have first been used in the early 2000s, in the context of solutions to agricultural
problems. NBS has also been used in discussions on land-use management and
planning and water resource management, i.e. the use of wetlands for wastewater
treatment and the value of harnessing ecosystem services from wetlands as a form
of nature-based solution for watershed management (Guo et al. 2000; Kayser and
Kunst 2002; Brink et al. 2012). The NBS concept was also used to describe indus-
trial design and biomimicry. The term “biomimicry” has also been used for green
1.3 Nature-Based Solutions 3
infrastructure and other soft engineering approaches, which have been used as
nature-based solutions to urban water management problems. Here the term refers
to learning from nature, rather than finding strategies based on nature that would
contribute to its conservation (Grant 2012).
More recently NBS have been selected as a priority area for the European
Commission (EC) Horizon 2020 Research Programme, though more than one
definition of NBS can be found in related literature. The EC Expert Group on
NBS suggests that the NBS concept “builds on and supports other closely related
concepts, such as the ecosystem approach, ecosystem services, ecosystem-based
adaptation/mitigation, and green and blue infrastructure” (EC 2015). Another
report for Horizon 2020’s Societal Challenge 5 (EC 2014) proposes that NBS
and the utilisation of biomimicry be used to position the EU as a world leader in
the development of industrial and technological solutions “inspired by, using,
copying from or assisted by nature”. This idea is also included in the aforemen-
tioned EC Expert Group Report on NBS definition as follows: “NBS therefore
involve the innovative application of knowledge about nature, inspired and sup-
ported by nature” (EC 2015). It is further stated in the report that industrial chal-
lenges and environmental problems caused by human activities can be resolved
“by looking to nature for design and process knowledge”, but these aspects are
not strongly emphasised. The EU BiodivERsA (www.biodiversa.org) also view
NBS as being a way to “conserve and use biodiversity in a sustainable manner”
(Balian 2014). There are, however, some differences in emphasis on the compo-
nents and aims of NBS.
These different perspectives are largely compatible. However, what is not clear,
is how NBS differs from other concepts associated with improving human well-
being, i.e. by managing ecosystem services and natural capital in appropriate ways.
Yet, a clear link between NBS and these concepts is needed to ensure consistency
and avoid redundancy or confusion.
When NBS are considered from a water management viewpoint, and with the
focus on natural technologies and systems that replicate scientific and engineering
principles, the following definition can be proposed. This links ecosystem services,
natural capital and NBS.
The authors propose the following definition:
Nature-based solutions are both natural and constructed systems, which

utilise and reinforce, physical, chemical and microbiological treatment pro-
cesses.These processes form the scientific and engineering principles for
water/wastewater treatment and hydraulic infrastructure. Nature based
solutions may be low cost, require low energy for operation and mainte-
nance, generate low environmental impacts and provide added value
through the benefits that accrue to humanity (ecosystem services). These
benefits include biodiversity, mitigation of the effects of climate change,
ecosystem restoration, amenity value and resilience.
Fig. 1.2 New approach

required to implement a
NBS
Act
differently
Think
differently
Interact
differently
1.4 Are There Nature-Based Solutions?
Nature – can be considered as relating to biodiversity as a totality or the individual

elements of biodiversity (individual species, habitats, ecosystems), and/or ecosys-
tem services.
Nature-based– can be considered as referring to ecosystem approaches,
ecosystem- based approaches, biomimicry, or direct utilisation of elements of
biodiversity.
Solutions –recognisable solutions to a specific problem or challenge.
It is the latter term that distinguishes the NBS approach from other previous
terminology, such as sustainable solutions and resilience. When responding to a
challenge in the past, the normal approach was to define the problem being
addressed. This involved, understanding the context, and then reviewing the techno-
logical solutions available. This approach often led to a single focused technological
solution. The proposal of a nature-based solution requires that the problem be
solved using a multidisciplinary approach (Potschin et al. 2015). The innovation
supplied by the nature-based approach is that the question that is addressed may not
have a purely technological solution. The review of possible alternative solutions
start with the question ‘is there a nature-based solution?’. Thus, the field of pos-
sible solutions and the range of options considered are broadened. This then facili-
tates exploring a NBS centred design methodology.
Problem solvers or opportunity finders
A review of EIP case studies has led to the conclusion that to initiate and promote
NBS, a change has to be made in the way we act, the way we think and the way we
interact when considering water infrastructure projects (De Vriend and Van
Koningsveld 2012). Figure 1.2 illustrates this approach graphically.
1.4 Are There Nature-Based Solutions? 5
Act Differently
To effect a change in how we act, and to facilitate using NBS, it is necessary to
consider the context of the project not only in terms of the physical site (both biotic
and abiotic), but also in terms of the socio-economic and the governance issues
surrounding the problem. This approach, which also takes into account the con-
text as an open ecosystem, is in marked contrast to the traditional problem solving
approach followed by project designers, which tends to focus on a single aspect
(technological).
The traditional approach can be said to focus on function and to solve a narrowly
defined problem in a given timeframe and for a given cost. This traditional method,
best described as linear, sought to first define the problem, before progressing to
review and propose alternative solutions. These alternatives would then be evalu-
ated using such metrics as EIA, Lifecycle Analysis (LCA), Cost Benefit Analysis
(CBA) and others. This method produced a preferred solution. If there was no solu-
tion forthcoming, designers returned to defining the problem and proceeded as
before until a solution was reached.
In following an NBS methodology, which is a circular approach, the context of
the project is dealt with by adopting a multidisciplinary outlook from the beginning.
The multidisciplinary approach involves bringing together social scientists, gover-
nance representatives, scientists and engineers together with end users to define the
problem. This management group then define multi-functional opportunities within
the context of the project. These opportunities are also referred to as ecosystem
services, as they are the benefits that accrue to humans from using an NBS method-
ology. These opportunities not only solve the engineering problems but also supply
added value. This added value is typically given in terms of ecosystem services.
These benefits can include any or all of the following:
• Adaption to climate change,
• Wastewater treatment,
• Ecosystem restoration or resource recovery,
• Biodiversity,
• Recreational amenities.
Think Differently
NBS not only deliver the primary functions for which the project was designed, but
also provide added value from both an ecological and economic perspective. For
example, the issue of flooding in a particular catchment might be defined by a tech-
nical review which defines the problem as one of limited capacity within a river
system for certain storm events. The solution may focus on methods of online or
offline storage and may proceed to evaluate and rank the possible solutions in terms
of Environmental Impact assessment (EIA), Lifecycle Analysis (LCA), Cost Benefit
Analysis (CBA) and others. Prerequisites, such as budget and time constraints,
often narrow the scope of a project and preclude or hamper innovative solutions.
The preferred solution, may be the most technically feasible to solve the narrow
problem (increase storage locally) with least environmental impact and minimal
cost. Adopting an NBS methodology may widen the scope of the project and offer
new perspectives and opportunities. The issue of flood protection may be seen to
offer possibilities to create new habitats. The example of the Green Gate project in
Rotterdam illustrates the possibility of combining engineering solutions with eco-
systems for bank protection and ecosystem services (Deltares 2015a).
A change in thinking involves incorporating the characteristics of NBS from the
start. These characteristics include:
1. Considering multifunctional solutions. This may involve catering for more
than one function in a project and therefore extending traditional proven design
approaches using dynamic natural or environmental processes.
2. Considering the project as a dynamic entity that is in flux and open to change.
Natural processes are not static. Therefore resilience has to be built in. Though
the project may be built in a natural setting, i.e. building in nature, the change
in thinking involves building nature in.
3. Addressing the level of uncertainty that is increased when dynamics and multi
functions are considered. Natural systems involve the introduction of uncertainty
and may increase some levels of risk. Uncertainty can be allowed for and dealt
with by a knowledge base, which increases the available information. However
contingency measures and flexibility are required as built-in adaptive measures
to increase the feasibility of the solution.
4. Incorporating the increases in risk that follow on from dynamic and natural sys-
tems. Such concepts as uncertainty are what mainstream project designers seek
to avoid and the idea of learning by doing, which is an underlying principle of
NBS, is not widely accepted (Deltares 2015b).
The European Innovation Partnership (EIP) action group NatureWat was set up
to promote NBS, and to make available a knowledge base on various NBS technolo-
gies. This group has a portfolio of NBS, which aim to make available the NBS
technologies and methodologies. This technology portfolio consists of demonstra-
tion plants, which while serving to supply ecological and economic services, also
function to further the understanding of how to best implement a NBS. These dem-
onstration plants are tactile, practical and easily accessible in terms of access to
the plant and its environs but also in access to the technology used and the scien-
tific and engineering principles underlying the technology. They serve to promote
the NBS approach by demonstrating how the problem was identified and how the
solution was arrived at. The demonstration sites also illustrate the NBS
methodology.
Interact Differently
To effect a NBS methodology, a change is required in how we interact, and this
requires interdisciplinary collaboration and active stakeholder involvement (De
Vriend and Van Koningsveld 2012). Water-related infrastructure projects are likely
1.5 Towards a Nature-Based Solutions Methodology 7
to affect the interests of a variety of stakeholders, especially in densely populated

areas. “Building Nature In” also means building with society. Stakeholder involve-
ment is important for two reasons:
• Traditional infrastructure projects often encounter growing resistance from
people who will be affected by the project. It is easy to dismiss such resistance
as the “Not In My Backyard”, or NIMBY syndrome. However, project develop-
ers have to recognise that they are interfering with these people’s social
habitats.
• Local people know a lot about the area where they live, and their knowledge base
can be very useful for understanding natural systems and processes, and how
they will interact with hard engineering structures. Stakeholder involvement can
inspire surprising new solutions. Involving the public provides valuable insights
into local systems and processes, and so is more likely to lead to better solutions
that stakeholders are more likely to accept. Rather than opposing ideas that have
been precooked in some faraway ‘ivory tower’, people take ownership of proj-
ects and even promote them. Therefore the interaction could be summed up as
the community participatory approach (CPA), where the community is involved
in all aspects of the project.
There is also a need to develop a “hybrid engineer”. This is an engineer who has
a background in social science, ecology and environmental services. Such individu-
als, and they can also be hybrid architects and hybrid planners, allow a greater
nature-based input as a result of their training and experience in green projects. The
inclusion of legislators and governance has been mentioned. Such flexibility can
also be incorporated into the design and build stage of the project or into such other
existing procurement methods such as Design Build (DB), Design Build Operate
(DBO) and Design Build Operate Finance (DBOF). Further innovations may
involve management and operation. It is essential that the primary function of infra-
structure be aligned with the interests of both nature and stakeholders, in order to
arrive at sustainable and socially acceptable solutions.
1.5 Towards a Nature-Based Solutions Methodology
NBS challenges project developers, designers and users to think, act and interact
differently. Each project provides a unique opportunity to induce positive change
and NBS can be introduced in any phase of any project. The case studies in
Chapter 3 describe projects that have been realized using NBS. These projects
taken together form a knowledge base of NBS systems.
They also serve to suggest an NBS methodology and taken together with other
studies can assist in drawing up a set of principles for NBS project implementation
(De Vriend and Van Koningsveld 2012):
1. Understand the context of the problem/project. This stage differs from con-
ventional engineering analysis in that it involves a multidisciplinary consultation
group made up of engineers and non-engineers including stakeholders. The
problem is evaluated in a holistic manner from viewpoints of the many disci-
plines involved in the project. This includes the environmental, technical, s ocietal
and aesthetic aspects of the project. This involves identifying ecosystem ser-
vices, potential and actual.
2. Identify realistic alternative solutions that where possible, use NBS or that
provide or use ecosystem services.
3. Evaluate each alternative, from an engineering and ecosystem point of view
and format a multifaceted solution yielding added value.
4. Consider the proposed NBS design analysis in terms of practical limitations and
governance. Fine tune where necessary.
5. Finalise Initial Design Phase – prepare the solution for implementation in the
next phase of the project.
The general design process may be approached from the perspectives below:
The natural environment perspective
In any project, opportunities for NBS are to be found in the natural environment or
ecosystem in which the project is to be embedded. Each environment is unique,
with its own characteristics, related ecosystem services and associated
opportunities.
The project perspective
Each phase of a project presents an opportunity to introduce NBS. Project phases
include: initiation, planning and design, construction, and operation and
maintenance.
The governance perspective
The governance context, involves the complex set of legislation, regulations,
decision-making processes, etc. It also involves networks, regulatory contexts,
knowledge contexts and realization frameworks.
The knowledge base
The knowledge base, consists of a wide range of tools, demonstration sites, case
studies and other examples. The tools include methods, concepts and strategies that
can be used in the different project phases and design steps. Together, the example
cases form a technology portfolio of NBS as they have been implemented in proj-
ects. The knowledge pages contain information on the various topics and issues that
have been addressed during the programme.
1.6 Further Information 9
1.6 Further Information
EcoShape is a consortium of Dutch companies that include international dredg-

ing contractors, public bodies and engineering firms and research institutes such
as Deltares. They have developed course materials and tutorials that are being
used in workshops and training courses at various collaborating education insti-
tutes, i.e. Delft University of Technology, Wageningen University and Research
Centre, and the Zeeland and Van Hall Larenstein Universities of Applied Sciences
(www.ecoshape.nl).
Chapter 2
European Innovation Platform Action
Group NatureWat (AG228)
Abstract This chapter discusses the European Innovation Partnership (EIP), together
with the EIP Action Group NatureWat. Almost half of European freshwater bodies
are currently not achieving the good ecological status set by the EU Water Framework
Directive. Water scarcity, droughts and floods are an increasingly frequent and wide-
spread phenomenon in the European and non-European countries. In this scenario,
NBS are proven to be cost-effective solutions for wastewater treatment, climate
change mitigation, disaster risk reduction, flood protection, greening cities, degraded
areas restoration and biodiversity preservation. Their success is related to good perfor-
mance, potential low maintenance and operational costs, minimised energy require-
ments, resulting in improved environmental and public health. NatureWat has been
formally adopted as an action group within the EIP Water structure. The members of
the action group are presented together with particular issues which the action group
will seek to address. This Action Group aims to identify and overcome bottlenecks
and barriers (e.g. market opportunities, policy implementation, financial issues and
technical aspects) related to nature-based solutions for water resources management
in rural, peri-urban and urban areas of European and non-European countries. The
final goal is to define innovative marketable technologies addressing water challenges
related to ecosystem services (www.eip-water.eu/NatureWat).
Keywords European Innovation Partnership · NatureWat Action Group
2.1 European Innovation Partnership (EIP)
The European Innovation Partnership (EIP) on Water facilitates the development of

innovative solutions to address major European and global water challenges.
The objective is to pool expertise and resources by bringing together public and

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73281-7_2
12 2 European Innovation Platform Action Group NatureWat (AG228)
private actors at EU, national and regional level, combining supply- and demand-side
measures. The EIP Water also supports the creation of market opportunities for
these innovations, both inside and outside of Europe. The EIP Water aims to advance
the European knowledge base for innovations within the water sector across the
public and private sector, non-governmental organisations and the general public.
At the core of the EIP Water and its implementation are a number of multi-stake-
holders Action Groups (AGs). These groups are composed of a large variety of
research institutions, small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs), public institu-
tions and others. Activities within these action groups are being developed to over-
come five key barriers to innovation in water management: Finance, Procurement,
Partnerships, Regulation and Demonstration Sites.
2.2 N
atureWat Action Group (AG 228): “Nature-Based
Technologies for Innovation in Water Management”
Almost half of European freshwater bodies are currently not accomplishing the
good ecological status set by the EU Water Framework Directive (Council Directive
2000/60/EC). Water scarcity, droughts and floods are an increasingly frequent and
widespread phenomenon in the European and non-European countries. In this sce-
nario, NBS are proven to be cost-effective solutions for wastewater treatment, cli-
mate change mitigation, risk disaster reduction, flood protection, greening cities,
degraded areas restoration and biodiversity preservation. Their success is related to
good performance, low maintenance and operation costs, low or lack of energy
requirements, resulting in improved environmental and public health.
NatureWat has been formally adopted as an action group within the EIP Water
structure. This Action Group aims to identify and overcome bottlenecks and barriers
(e.g. market opportunities, policy implementation, financial issues and technical
aspects) related to nature-based solutions for water resources management in rural,
peri-urban and urban areas of European and non-European countries. The final goal
is to define innovative marketable technologies addressing water challenges related
to ecosystem services (www.eip-water.eu/NatureWat).
2.3 NatureWat Action Group Members
The action group members comprise a cross section of research institutes, govern-
ment and non-government organisations and professional firms working on devel-
oping nature-based solutions for a variety of water management issues across
Europe. The Action Group promoter and Coordinator is Professor Joan Garcia,
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain. Figure 2.1 illustrates
the existing demonstration sites and action group partners.
2.3 NatureWat Action Group Members 13
Fig. 2.1 NatureWat members
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya

BarcelonaTech. Environmental
Engineering and Microbiology
Research Group (GEMMA-UPC),
Spain.
GEMMA-UPC has long term experience in applied research of NBS for water and wastewater
treatment, water reuse and risk prevention. GEMMA has had an active role in boosting and
implementing these technologies at international level, including developing countries. The main
research topics are:
1. Natural low-cost bioprocesses for wastewater and sludge treatment;
2. Wastewater treatment with algal based culture and biofuel production from algal biomass;
3. Microbial fuel cells in constructed wetlands;
4. Phosphorous removal and recovery from wastewater;
5. Life cycle assessment and economic evaluation of products and technologies;
6. Numerical simulation of bioprocesses.
AIMEN Technology Centre, Spain.
(continued)
AIMEN Technology Centre was set up in 1967 as an initiative of the industry as a non-profit private
association. The Centre is focused on developing and strengthening the competitive capacities of
companies through the promotion and execution of R&D activities, as well as providing technological
services of high added value. The goal of AIMEN is to be a technological and strategic partner, thus
contributing to the improvement of their technological capabilities and increasing their competitiveness.
AIMEN provides industry with technological services and engages in R&D activities in different areas
such as environmental technologies, laser processing, joint technologies, materials and manufacturing
processes, engineering, industrial design, simulation and automatics or industrial organization.
Development Technology in the
Community Research Group
(DTC-DIT),
School of Civil and Structural
Engineering,
Dublin Institute of Technology, Bolton
Street, Ireland.
DTC has been active in research in the areas of water resources, wastewater management, resilient
and sustainable water supplies and appropriate technology applications in water self-sufficiency,
both in Ireland and internationally. In Ireland, this has focused on rainwater harvesting systems
which were constructed, installed, and monitored by DTC. Waste management research has been
with Hybrid Reed beds, willow bed wastewater polishing systems, investigations into zero discharge
waste treatment systems and also sludge treatment. Internationally DTC have been involved with
water and wastewater projects in: Sierra Leone 2009–2012, Bolivia 2011 and Liberia 2014.
Deltares Enabling Delta Life, The
Netherlands
Deltares is an independent institute for applied research in the field of water, subsurface and
infrastructure. Throughout the world, they work on problem analysis and smart solutions,
innovations and applications for people, environment and society. Their main focus is on deltas,
coastal regions, cities and river basins.
Their Nature-Based Engineering programme offers new solutions for flood protection or
prevention, wastewater treatment and water storage in intensively-used deltas. Involving nature
in the process makes it possible, for example, to improve flood defenses and generate societal
benefits. The flood defenses are under considerable pressure due to phenomena such as sea-level
rise, land subsidence and periods of extreme rainfall. Deltares develops top-end knowledge and
tools in the fields of planning, designing, installing and operating of Nature-based Solutions.
Barcelona Metropolitan Area (AMB),
Spain
AMB is a public administration composed of 36 municipalities and 3.2 million inhabitants. The
main competencies include social cohesion, territorial and urban planning, mobility, transport,
waste management, water cycle management, environment protection, social housing. With regard
to water cycle, the main responsibilities include drinking water supply, wastewater treatment and
reuse. AMB has been involved in a pilot project about soil aquifer treatment to recharge Llobregat
River and in a project for flood risk prevention by ponds implementation.
AdP – Águas de Portugal, SGPS,
Portugal
2.3 NatureWat Action Group Members 15
AdP Group develops R&D activities, in partnership with other institutions, companies and
Universities, in a wide range of subjects including novel processes and methods for optimizing
water network systems and wastewater treatment processes and developing simulation tools
for optimizing wastewater treatment and collection. AdP and its subsidiary companies work
together, in matters of water supply and wastewater treatment. They cover about 80% of Portugal
population and operate/manage (2011 data) 899 Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTP), 2187
pumping stations, 6347 km of main sewage system, 845 water abstraction, 247 Water Treatment
Plants (WTP), 1361 water reservoirs and 12,520 water main supply network and 485 Mm3/year of
wastewater treated and 611 Mm3/year of produced drinking water.
Budapest Waterworks, Hungary
Budapest Waterworks, being the utility market leader of the Hungarian water sector, has a
history of 147 years providing high quality drinking water to more than two million inhabitants
of the capital city and the surrounding settlements. Budapest Waterworks is a constantly
improving operator with strong interests in the field of ecological water and wastewater
management, ecosystem services and zero emission processes. Through strategic partnerships
and cluster memberships the company plays a significant role in the international water and
wastewater sector.
LIMNOS Ltd., Slovenia
LIMNOS carries out the following activities/services: development and design of wastewater and
sludge treatment, natural reclamation of degraded areas (including landfill sites), revitalization of
streams and lake management (including eutrophication prevention). Their experiences include
over 200 built constructed wetlands for treatment of domestic sewage, industrial wastewaters
and landfill leachate and several projects of sludge sanitation from WWTP using sludge drying
reed bed technology (SDRB). LIMNOS is also involved in the development of a method for
degraded soils rehabilitation, which was tested in one major landfill site in Slovenia. It is involved
in measures for reducing and rehabilitation of risk factors for eutrophication in five locations in
Slovenia. Current R&D efforts include optimisation of drying reed bed technology.
AUTARCON GmbH, Germany
AUTARCON is specialized in decentralized water treatment technologies that can be run without
the external supply of energy and chemicals. The core component of the system is an inline
electrolytic unit to disinfect the water for a pathogen free and safe supply. These disinfection units
are installed worldwide, with a current focus on India and Africa. AUTARCON is conducting
on-going research to develop products, which allow a stronger market penetration by offering
modularized water treatment solutions that can be installed depending on locally existing water
quality challenges. This way AUTARCON can offer cost and energy efficient solutions for
polishing treated wastewater, as well as the removal of turbidity, pathogens, hardness, iron and
manganese from source water.
(continued)
Kre_ta Landschaftsarchitektur,
Germany
Kre_Ta Landscape Architecture is a creative small medium enterprise (SME), running an office
for landscape architecture and urban planning in Berlin, Germany. Established in 2003 Kre_Ta is
focusing on sustainable and green urban designs with a strong focus on R&D projects to develop
and design eco-innovative solutions. The Kre_Ta staff has a wide range of experiences in
ecological architecture, urban design, and R&D activities in the fields of urban and space planning
and rain water harvesting concepts in cities.
Fundación Nueva Cultura del Agua
(New Water Culture Foundation),
Spain
FNCA is an Iberian (Spain and Portugal) non-profit organization composed of over 200
outstanding members from academia, research institutions, public administration, private sector,
stakeholders and citizens, aiming at promoting a change towards a more sustainable water
management. Main skills: wetlands, rivers and riverbank restoration, green river infrastructures
for flood risk management; methods for estimation of environmental flows, assessment of river
habitat; biological indicators; application of inter and trans-disciplinary approaches; models for
integrating the ecological, economic, social and cultural dimensions; water governance and
participatory approaches.
CEEweb for Biodiversity Non-
Governmental Organisation,
Hungary
CEEweb for Biodiversity is a network of non-governmental organizations in the Central and

Eastern European region. The mission of CEEweb is the conservation of biodiversity through the
promotion of sustainable development. CEEweb follows water-related EU policy developments
and raises awareness regarding the possibilities to influence it, with a specific website for Green
Infrastructure, which also includes Blue Infrastructure. They update different stakeholders about
latest issues and present case studies as examples.
2.4 S
pecific Issues Which the NatureWat Action Group
Seeks to Address
The currently identified challenges which the action group members will seek to
address are:
2.5 European Working Groups 17
2.4.1 Barriers to Market Uptake
(a) To improve technical performance of nature-based technologies for water man-

agement (i.e. artificial wetlands, ponds, sustainable urban drainage systems,
combined sewer overflow treatment systems, green roofs, vertical gardens) by
defining innovative design and operation appropriate in different environmental
and socio-economic conditions and for different purposes (i.e. wastewater treat-
ment, climate change mitigation, risk disaster reduction, flood protection,
greening cities, degraded areas restoration and biodiversity preservation).
(b) To increase market opportunities for nature-based technologies in water

management by identifying innovative and successful strategies for market
uptake and verifying the show cases where market strategies are implemented.
(c) To increase the positive perception and social acceptance of nature-based tech-
nologies for water management through the dissemination of successful show
cases among public entities, companies, users and associations.
(d) To improve networking and collaboration among European and international
stakeholders (i.e.: R + D entities, Universities, SMEs, municipalities) interested
in this topic.
2.4.2 Demand/Market Potential
As stated in the EC Roadmap on Resources Efficiency (EC 2011) 60% of the Earth’s
ecosystem services have been degraded in the last 50 years. It was declared that by
2020, natural capital and ecosystem services should be properly valued and
accounted for by public authorities and businesses. NBS are identified as instru-
ments for investing in ecosystems. NBS for water management are considered effi-
cient strategies for wastewater treatment, climate change mitigation, risk disaster
reduction, flood protection, greening cities, degraded areas restoration and biodiver-
sity preservation. They are proven to be cost-effective solutions which require low
energy and low operation and maintenance. Since NBS for water management can
be applied to urban, peri-urban and rural areas of developed or emerging countries
to address different urgent challenges, their market potential is huge. NatureWat
aims to quantify market opportunity and identify strategies for market uptake.
Solutions proposed by NatureWat will have an impact on an international market,
creating jobs and stimulating the green economy.
2.5 European Working Groups
NatureWat members work across a variety of key networks, platforms and European
working groups dedicated to NBS for water management. A brief synopsis is pre-
sented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 NatureWat European working groups (WGs) and networks

Water supply and sanitation Technology Platform (WssTP – EU Water Platform)
WssTP is the European Technology Platform for Water. Initiated by the European Commission in
2004, WssTP strives to promote coordination and collaboration of Research and Innovation in the
European water sector, improving its competitiveness.
Website http://wsstp.eu/
Working Group on Green Infrastructure of the WssTP (EU Water Platform) (lead by
Deltares)
The main objective of this WG is to promote the development of innovative and effective green
infrastructure solutions based on scientific evidence for local, regional, river basin and coastal
environments.
Website http://wsstp.eu/communities/working-groups/
Spanish Water Technology Platform (PTEA)
The Spanish Water Technological Platform is an association integrated by over 100 companies,
universities and research institutions from Spain, with the aims of expanding knowledge on water,
provide networking opportunities and relations among different agents in the water sector and
research funding opportunities.
Website http://www.plataformaagua.org/
Catalan water network (Water.cat)
The network was created to give more visibility to the partners at international level. The aim was
to communicate Research & Development requests and challenges directly to the European
Commission, in order to achieve funding instruments in programs financed by the European
Union and to be represented in forums and European lobbying and decision making groups.
Eco Sanitation Club (EcoSan Club)
The EcoSan Club was funded as a non-profit association in 2002 by a group of people active in
research and development as well as planning consultancy in the field of sanitation.
The underlying aim is the realisation of ecological concepts to close material cycles in
settlements.
Website http://www.ecosan.at/
International Network of Basin Organizations (INBO)
The main goal of the International Network of Basin Organizations is to upgrade and support the
development of organizational initiatives for integrated water resources management (IWRM) in
river basins/lake basins/aquifer level.
Website www.inbo-news.org
Office international de l’eau (OIEAU)
The objective of the International Office for Water is to gather public and private partners involved
in water resources management and protection in France, Europe and the rest of the world. Its
mission includes: Training, Information, Management and Cooperation in the water sector.
Website www.oieau.fr
Global water partnership (GWP)
GWP was founded in 1996 to foster integrated water resources management (IWRM) which is
defined as the coordinated development and management of water, land, and related resources in
order to maximise economic and social welfare without compromising the sustainability of vital
environmental systems. Their mission is to advance governance and management of water
resources for sustainable and equitable development.
LIMNOS is a national partner (contact office) for GWP Slovenia. This year they finalised a
small water retention measure project: http://www.gwp.org/en/GWP-CEE/gwp-cee-in-action/
news-and-activities/Small-water-retention-measures/
(continued)
2.5 European Working Groups 19
Table 2.1 (continued)
Website http://www.gwp.org/en/
International Rivers
International Rivers works to protect rivers and rights and to promote green and soft solutions for
meeting water, energy and flood management needs around the world. They have experience in
dam removal, soft solutions for floods risk management and environmental flows.
Website www.internationalrivers.org
Iberian Centre of River Restoration – CIREF
CIREF is a Spanish entity composed of experts in river restoration coming from universities,
public administrations, consulting companies and NGOs. CIREF is promoting NBS for river
management, flood prevention and river biodiversity enhancement. CIREF is linked to the
European Centre for River Restoration (ECRR), following the examples of countries as
Denmark (DCVR), Italy (CIRF) or United Kingdom (RRC).
Website http://www.cirefluvial.com/
CEEweb for Biodiversity
CEEweb deals in its Working Groups with Blue-Green Infrastructure, NBS, MAES, Ecosystem
Services and Natura 2000, among others.
Website www.ceeweb.org
European Habitats Forum WG on Target 2 (Green Infrastructure Implementation and
Restoration)
The WG comprises leading European NGOs active on the Topic of Target 2 of the European 2020
biodiversity Strategy in the policy context.
Chapter 3
Nature-Based Solutions: Technology
Portfolio
Abstract This chapter collates best National and International Practice through a
series of case studies. These case studies are based on demonstration projects car-
ried out by the members of NatureWat. The NatureWat knowledge base consists of
a wide range of tools, demonstration sites, case studies and examples. These dem-
onstration plants are tactile and easily accessible in terms of access to the plant and
its environs but also in access to the technology used and the scientific and engineer-
ing principles underlying the technology. The tools developed include methods,
concepts and strategies that can be used in the different project phases and design
steps. Together, the example cases form a technology portfolio of NBS. The concept
of NatureWat is to increase the knowledge base continuously and enhance the con-
cept of NBS by constantly evaluating the effectiveness across a variety of applica-
tions. The case studies are summarised in terms of water sources, contaminants,
removal mechanisms and resource recovery potential as well as considering reuse
applications.
Keywords Living Labs · Nature Based Solutions Technology Portfolio

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73281-7_3
22 3 Nature-Based Solutions: Technology Portfolio
3.1 NBS Technology Portfolio
The EIP action group NatureWat was set up to promote NBS. The NatureWat
knowledge base consists of a wide range of tools, demonstration sites, case studies
and examples. These demonstration plants are tactile and easily accessible in terms
of access to the plant and its environs but also in access to the technology used and
the scientific and engineering principles underlying the technology. The tools devel-
oped include methods, concepts and strategies that can be used in the different proj-
ect phases and design steps. Together, the example cases form a technology portfolio
of NBS. The concept of NatureWat is to increase the knowledge base continuously
and enhance the concept of NBS by constantly evaluating the effectiveness across a
variety of applications.
3.2 Case Study 1: Inland Shore Concept Lake Ijsselmeer 23
3.2 Case Study 1: Inland Shore Concept Lake Ijsselmeer
Inland Shore Concept
Faced with water

supply shortages,
increased flood levels, Restoring Climate
eutrophication, Ecosystems Change
declining fish stocks Adaption
and a need to develop
ecosystem services
Deltares have
implemented an
innovative nature based
solution at Lake
Ijsselmeer, North
Holland.
Characteristics of the
inland shore concept
are:
· Inland water storage Resource Water /

· Flood prevention Recovery Wastewater
· Water Treatment & Reuse Treatment
Nutrient Removal
· Dynamic
landscapes , new
habitats
· Opportunities for
economic activities
based on ecosystem
services
www.deltares.nl Site Location: Project Partners
Lake Ijsselmeer, Deltares, Rijkswaterstaat,

Koopmanspolder, Staatsbosbeheer, Hoogheemraadschap
North Holland Holland.
DeltaresThe Hoogheemraadschap Hollands
Netherlands NoorderkwartierProvince Noord-
Fig. 3.1 Inland shore concept
3.2.1 Site Location:Koopmanspolder
The Inland shore project is located at Koopmanspolder near the village of Andijk
along the border of Lake Ijsselmeer, in the Province of North-Holland in the
Netherlands. It receives water from Lake Ijssel, has a surface area of 1,100 km2
which serves as a reservoir and a source of drinking water, as well as an area of
recreation. Koopmanspolder lies 1.5 m below lake level and has a surface area of
16,00 m2 and was formerly a depot for soil storage.
3.2.2 Inland Shore Concept
In 2010, Rijkswaterstaat, the Dutch water body and Deltares joined forces with the
Province of Noord-Holland, the regional waterboard, Hoogheemraadschap Hollands
Noorderkwartier, and the Government Service for Land and Water Management
(DLG) to develop a unique project: Koopmanspolder is the first pilot project within
the broader innovative framework of “inland shores”. It aims at creating a ring of
high quality wetland areas around Lake IJsselmeer where ecosystem services are
optimised for different land-use functions. Figure 3.1 illustrates the concept of an
Inland shore. This is an area for water storage connected to a nearby lake or river,
in which ecosystem services are optimised for multiple land-use, thereby creating
new economic opportunities. Large water level fluctuations are taken into account
in advance, thus optimising sustainability. The additional area provides room for
water storage, facilitating flood prevention and reducing susceptibility to water
scarcity. Inland shores are connected to the lake or river through inlets in the dike.
The design concept allows the storage area to function as a helophyte (plant which
has its buds underwater) filter to allow improvement of water quality, principally the
reduction of nutrients and suspended solids (turbidity). A helophyte is a plant that
grows in areas partly submerged in water, so that it regrows from buds below the
water surface. Examples include Typha and Phragmites Australis which are typi-
cally used in constructed wetland systems used to treat wastewater. Inland shores
can store and release water if needed, allowing the area to function as a climate
buffer. Additional ecosystem services (e.g. recreation, fishing, aquaculture, floating
infrastructure for living and working, sustainable energy production by sun, wind
and water, floating agriculture, nature development) can be added depending on the
Fig. 3.2 Aerial view of Lake Ijsslemeer showing inland shore (Source: Deltares)
wishes of stakeholders. The dynamic landscape created by the Inland shore allows
natural processes to function and increases the environmental quality of the area. It
also serves as a carbon sink.
3.2.3 Design Criteria
The storage area was excavated and berms created in the shape of a spiral with a
small pond at the centre. The design of the inland shore polder was such that a 1 m
change in water level resulted in a volume of 80,000 m3. The shape of the design
allows the public to enter and experience the ecosystem (Fig. 3.2). A wind driven
axial pump, which is designed to facilitate fish passage, allows water to be either
taken into storage or pumped back into the lake, depending on the water levels. The
pump is provided with a back-up power system. The project was designed to function
as a living laboratory, with on-going monitoring allowing the designers to evaluate
the impact of water level changes on water quantity and water quality, to monitor the
biotic response and also to consider the issue of water safety and storage. Field tests
form part of the monitoring regime, and these aim to analyse the impact of different
water level regimes on water quality, water quantity, flora and fauna. In 2014, the
impact of a ‘natural water regime’ was tested with high water levels during the winter
and spring period and a natural draw down of water levels during the growing season.
In 2015 a drought situation was simulated with exceptionally low water levels and in
2016 a flood event with exceptionally high water levels, was simulated.
Fig. 3.3 Inland shore with unique spiral design (Source: Deltares)
3.2.4 Key Drivers
Lake Ijsselemeer presents many challenges with respect to freshwater supply, water
quality, fish stock depletion, loss of habitat and recreation facilities. In 2011, the
proposed design won first prize in a competition run by one of the local water boards.
This established public awareness of the project and allowed Deltares together with
the Province of Noord-Holland, the regional waterboard Hoogheemraadschap
Hollands Noorderkwartier, and the Government Service for Land and Water
Management (DLG) to develop the concept to design/construction stage. This estab-
lished the inshore concept, but also allowed for the concept of “learning by doing”.
This principle was key and allowed a practical on-going methodology to be devel-
oped to evaluate ecosystem services in a unique way. It also established the design-
ers’ concept that more space for water is needed in a world with a changing climate,
and that water can create new opportunities for economy and quality of life in the
Netherlands. Figure 3.3 illustrates the unique spiral design of the system.
3.2.5 Operation Characteristics
From 2014 to 2017 – Field tests were run, to analyse the impact of different water
levels in the inshore shore lake on water quality, water quantity, flora and fauna as
follows:
2013 – This was considered as a rest year allowing the vegetation to colonise and
the rehabilitation of a wetland ecosystem.
2014 – This was designated as a year with a ‘natural’ water regime, i.e. high water
levels in winter, low in summer and a natural draw down of water levels during
the growing season as a function of evapotranspiration.
2015 – This was operated as a dry year. The pumping regime was set to simulate
extreme low water levels.
2016 – This was operated as a wet year with the pumping regime set to simulate a
flood event resulting in extremely high water levels.
3.2.6 Maintenance
The facility requires normal on-going maintenance in the form of seasonal grass
cutting of banks and maintenance of the pumping system.
3.2.7 Performance
The monitoring of flora and fauna for the years 2012–2013 saw a rapid growth in
vegetation particularly of submerged aquatic plants. These were mostly common
land and riparian species. There was thus a pronounced increase in biodiversity.
During this period there was also an increase in bird biodiversity and population
size. Especially notable here, were birds of the wetland species, whose population
increased after a 20 cm water level rise. There was also an increase in several rare
and protected bird species. Water quality results showed a decrease in chlorophyll,
ammonia, nitrates, phosphates and suspended matter. There was also an increase in
water transparency in the inland shore.
Over the same period the fish population rose. Initially in 2012 small fish were
observed with low population and species density. It was observed in 2013 that the
fish population was mostly Roach (Rutilus Rutilus). Monitoring in 2014 observed
many Pike (Esox lucius), especially of one year olds. Results for 2015 saw the
monitoring of fish species typical of a fresh water habitat.
3.2.8 Resource/Recovery/Product
The amenities generated by the inland shore at Koopmanspolder illustrate the con-
cept of ecosystem services, which are the benefits humans obtain from ecosys-
tems. Uniquely, this project combines ecosystem services with water treatment
and hydraulic infrastructure. This achieves all of the benefits associated with eco-
system services.
3.2.9 Community Involvement
The competitions, which led to the design, involved the local community. The
publicity surrounding the prize, and the innovative nature of the winning concept
resulted in community interest in the project being commissioned and built. The
design brought the community closer to the water storage/treatment facility and also
created a sense of local ownership, which would not be possible in a more tradi-
tional non nature-based “engineered” solution. Consumer acceptance is shown by
the local communities’ use of the wetland, as a recreation facility, and by local
schools, as an open air natural history laboratory.
3.3 C
ase Study 2: Managed Aquifer Recharge- Llobregat
River
Managed Aquifer
Recharge
Managed aquifer
recharge (MAR) is a
method of introducing
water to an aquifer
through infiltration.
The technique
employed in this
project involved an
Resource
experimental two
stage process using a Recovery Climate
sedimentation pond Reuse Change
and infiltration pond. Adaption
Characteristics of this
system are:
· Two stage ponds

comprising a
sedimentation
pond and a
filtration pond. Water /
Wastewater
· An innovative Treatment
reactive layer of
compost / soil.
3.3 Case Study 2: Managed Aquifer Recharge- Llobregat River 29
3.3.1 Llobregat Delta Site Location
This enhancement of soil aquifer treatment (ENSAT) project was funded under the
EU LIFE program 2010–2012 (www.life-ensat.eu). The project is located within the
Barcelona Metropolitan Area (Area Metropolitana de Barcelona, AMB). The
recharge system of Sant Vicenç dels Horts is situated in the Llobregat Delta, and is
one of the pioneering zones in Spain in terms of artificial aquifer recharge. The aim
of the project was to improve the quality of recharge water in the Llobregat River
Delta Aquifer.
3.3.2 Managed Aquifer Recharge Concept
Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) is a technique used worldwide. It operates by

introducing water to the aquifer through infiltration ponds, deep recharge wells,
trenches and many other techniques (Fig. 3.4). These recharge techniques are not
only used in the water scarce countries of southern Europe but they are also wide-
spread in central Europe and Nordic countries. The benefits of using groundwater
are that aquifers provide a store of water, which, if utilised and managed effectively,
can play a vital role in:
• Poverty reduction/livelihood stability,
• Risk reduction (both economic and health),
• Increased agricultural yields resulting from reliable irrigation,
• Increased economic returns,
• Distributive equity (higher water levels mean more access for everyone),
• Reduced vulnerability (to drought, variations in precipitation).
One of the most common methods of artificial aquifer recharge is the use of
infiltration ponds. Figure 3.4 shows a cross section through the reactive cell. This
requires excavation of permeable terrain close to the water source. These systems
also often have a sedimentation pond to improve water quality through deposition
of suspended solids. Figure 3.5 shows the inlet to the system.
The main advantages of infiltration ponds compared to other recharge techniques
include:
• Low construction and maintenance costs,
• Long residence time in a non-saturated zone,
• Improvement of water quality during infiltration,
The main disadvantage is the need for large areas of permeable ground.
Denitrification and reduction of organic matter in water are good examples of
water treatment processes which are achieved through recharge. These processes are
boosted by the microbiological activity of the non-saturated zone. They require suffi-
cient residence time and the presence of easily degradable organic carbon to facilitate
the growth of microorganisms. The water used for aquifer recharge in this case study
Fig. 3.4 Managed aquifer recharge (Source: ENSAT 2012)
Fig. 3.5 Inlet from Llobregat river
came from the Llobregat River, which had a low organic content (4 mg/l of dissolved
carbon). The ENSAT Life + project concept was to create the natural conditions for
the elimination of micro-pollutants in the water through the application of a reactive
layer at the bottom of the infiltration pond. This achieves two core principles:
• Biodegradation, by increasing the organic matter available
• Adsorption, by increasing the contact area
Fig. 3.6 Inlet from sedimentation pond and piezometer well
Water from the Llobregat river (Barcelona) is purified by percolating it through the
reactive layer into the aquifer. The system of Sant Vicenç was built in 2007 and
started functioning between 2008 and 2009, under the management of the Catalan
Water Agency (ACA). The system includes a sedimentation pond of 4000 m2 and an
infiltration pond of 5600 m2 The extraction rate is of the order of 1.0 m3/m2 surface
area/day. The design flow was 250 m3/h. The operative flowrate was in the range
200–500 m3/h. The system was designed to receive water from the Llobregat River
via the deviation of Molins de Rei, and reused water from El Prat del Llobregat
water reclamation plant (Fig. 3.6).
The design requirements for the reactive layer were to provide a constant
supply of dissolved organic carbon, be readily available, (to ensure the project
could be replicated anywhere), be of low cost (reuse of sub product or waste from
another process), be safe in terms of human health and easy to handle with regard
to installation.
A compost was chosen, i.e. a natural product obtained from the crushing of gar-
den waste. This waste was mixed with local soil material to ensure maximum infil-
tration. A small amount of highly adsorbent material was finally added to the mix
(clay and iron oxide) to boost these processes. Over 1500 m3 of compost mixed with
the local soil was spread at the bottom of the pond to a depth of 1 m. Figure 3.7
shows the two connected ponds.
Fig. 3.7 Two connected sedimentation and filtration ponds
3.3.4 Key Drivers
The key drivers in this project were:

• Assessment of the feasibility of utilising an NBS comprising a substrate layer to
enhance the treatment of low quality water prior to infiltration into the aquifer
• Development of a series of modelling tools to model the processes within the
system
• Dissemination of results throughout Europe
The project was also part of a wider reuse scheme where El Prat de Llobregat
water reclamation plant, located upstream treats water to a basic standard which is
then discharged through the aquifer recharge scheme to provide a buffer against
water shortages, within the aquifer.
The dimensions of the pond of Sant Vicenç enabled experimental work to be carried
out under real conditions and with a high level of control of the system. The system
installed 16 control points where piezometric levels were measured both outside
and inside the pond. In addition, during the project a third measurement point inside
the pond was added to the existing control equipment. A piezometer is an
Fig. 3.8 Sedimentation pond
instrument for measuring pressure or compressibility; especially for measuring the

change of pressure of a material subjected to hydrostatic pressure. Some of the
piezometers installed were environmental piezometers, installed to obtain samples
of the entire profile. Some other piezometers were multilevel piezometers, located
at specific depths to analyse the variation in water quality at different depths. To
measure the chemical parameters during the recharge process, porous cups were
buried under the pond at 1, 2 and 5 m depth. These capsules enabled the gathering
of water samples in the non-saturated zone. Other devices, such as tensiometers and
humidity sensors, were also placed to measure the saturation conditions of the ter-
rain. Figure 3.8 shows a photo of the sedimentation pond.
3.3.6 Reactive Compost Layer Performance
The final design of the reactive layer is composed of 50% of vegetal compost
coming from a compost plant near to Barcelona and 50% of local sand and gravels
from the bottom and the slopes of the infiltration pond. This mixture was enriched
with 1% of red clay and less than 0.1% of iron oxides. An extra layer of 5 cm of
local sand and gravel was put at the bottom to reduce floating elements. The ENSAT
project proved the efficiency of the reactive layer in terms of reduction of emerging
pollutants, such as gemfibrozil and carbamazepine epoxy in recharge water. It also
improved the quality of the aquifer water. The processes which promote pollutant
removal are the increased amount of dissolved organic carbon available and the
increased level of adsorption supplied by the compost. The impact of the reactive
layer is local, only on the non-saturated zone, while the good quality water will
remain available for the future in the aquifer.
The utilisation of a reactive compost layer led to the removal of organic pollut-
ants and to a higher quality recharge water. This process provides an alterna-
tive solution to conventional pre-treatment needed for aquifer recharge, which
requires more energy and reagents. The prerequisites in designing a reactive layer
are the availability of the selected materials and their costs. To implement a reac-
tive layer in a new site, part of the methodology established in the ENSAT project
can be applied.
Further Information
http://www.amb.cat
http://www.life-ensat.eu/
3.4 Case Study 3: Green Port Concept: Rotterdam Mallegats Park 35
3.4 C
ase Study 3: Green Port Concept: Rotterdam Mallegats
Park
Green Port
The Ministry of
Infrastructure and the
Environment, the Port
of Rotterdam
Authority, the
Municipality of
Rotterdam, Deltares
and the Wereld Natuur
Fonds organize projects
in which nature and
economic interests Restoring
reinforce one another.
Ecosystems
This project involves
the development of
sustainable natural
banks along the
entrance to Rotterdam
port.
Green Port Concept
· Reuse of dredged
material and
construction
demolition waste to
form 5km of
longitudinal dams
Resource Climate
Recovery Change
· Creation of natural Reuse Adaption
habitats.
3.4.1 Mallegats Park, Rotterdam
Deltares, the Ministry of Infrastructure and the Environment, the Port of Rotterdam
Authority, the Municipality of Rotterdam and the Wereld Natuur Fonds (the Dutch branch
of the World Wide Fund for Nature) organise projects in which nature and economic
interests reinforce one another. The first project was officially launched on 2 October
2013. The development of sustainable natural banks along the river is an integral compo-
nent of the “Green Port” concept in the region. The site of this case study is part of this
strategy and it is located in Mallegats Park on the southern side of the port of Rotterdam.
3.4.2 Green Port Concept
The Green Port nature-based design project has two important functions. The first is
to capture, naturally, the tidal sediment/sludge. This is done using dams, to capture via
sedimentation the suspended particles in the river system. The second is to use groynes
(A groyne is a rigid hydraulic structure built from an ocean shore (in coastal engineer-
ing) or from a bank (in rivers) that interrupts water flow and limits the movement of
sediment) to reduce wave velocity allowing the restoration of the natural shore.
Groynes are hydraulic structures built at right angles to the shore. Sediment from
longshore drift is trapped behind the groyne to form sandbanks. These natural pro-
cesses are augmented by dredged material from the harbor being recycled to promote
sand bank formation. The site will increase water quality, provide natural value and
increase citizens’ awareness of the tidal system they live in. This natural shore will
then provide ecosystem services in the form of recreation facilities such as cycling,
fishing and nature walkways. Figure 3.9 illustrates the creation of natural habitats.
This project utilises NBSs to solve a marine engineering problem and to create added
value through the creation of public recreation facilities/ecosystem services. The
marine engineering is focused on the use of tidal dams and groynes to accumulate
sediment, keeping the shipping channel free from sediment and creating sand banks
to reduce tidal erosion. The dredge material removed from the shipping channel is
also recycled, increasing the accumulation of solids and promoting sank bank forma-
tion. The recreation strand takes as its focus the ‘river as a tidal park’, and by utilising
the marine engineering innovations to create cycle paths, walkways and fishing
areas, aims to give the general public a sense of the river as a diurnal amenity.
Fig. 3.9 The green port concept showing the creation of natural habitats to protect the shoreline
(Source: www.deltares.nl)
The project consists of constructed dams to capture solids. The dams, allow the
accumulation of suspended materials behind the dam walls. This traps the sus-
pended materials and prevents them settling in and blocking the main shipping
channel. The dams and groynes also serve as a site to recycle the dredge material
from the shipping channels. Figure 3.10 shows an example of the groynes.
Characteristics of the project are as follows:
Five kilometres of natural shoreline banks
Along the banks of the Landtong, from the ferry slip to the Maeslantkering, longitudinal
dams were constructed in the water (Fig. 3.10). These are stone dams which run paral-
lel to the banks. The dams protect the banks from ship-induced waves. The harbour’s
waste material is used to create dams. Material from old quay walls, as well as support
and concrete piles, were stacked to form a dam through which water could flow. eas The
water depth between the dam and the banks will also be reduced. Waste material from
concrete constructions in the surrounding area will be used to make this area shallower.
Mud flats and groynes
Between the groynes an intertidal area is formed. This transitional zone from water
to land dries up when the tide goes out and floods when the tide comes in. In this
‘mud flat’ habitat, salt-loving plants feel at home as shown in Fig. 3.11. An intertidal
area offers a peaceful, living and foraging environment for various fish and bird spe-
cies. This nutrient-rich habitat is an ideal environment for young fish and shrimp.
Migratory birds and migratory fish, such as the eel and the salmon, rest in this habi-
tat. It is hoped that if the Atlantic Sturgeon survives, it will inhabit the site, as this is
a suitable habitat for this species.
Fig. 3.10 5 km of natural

shoreline banks
Fig. 3.11 Creation of

mudflats
3.4.4 Key Drivers
Rotterdam port, one of the busiest in the world has historically struggled to keep the
shipping channels at the required depth to allow access to all shipping. Sludge accu-
mulation and erosion due to wave motion have resulted in a constant need to dredge
areas of the harbour prone to silting. This resulted in costly transport, treatment and
disposal processes. Innovative marine engineering processes, allow these practices to
be reduced as the dredge material is now used on site in the dams and at the groynes.
The accumulation of sediment within the dam structure and behind the groynes,
shown below, results in the creation of sandbanks. These serve a twofold purpose,
in that they reduce the erosion effects of wave motion, and they will be colonised by
grasses. It will also lead to the creation of a recreational area for walking, biking and
fishing.
3.4.6 Performance
The mechanisms involved are primarily sedimentation and settlement. The dams
and the groynes slow down the motion of the water allowing the water to shed its
load. This load accumulates within the wall of the dam and at the groyne wall.
Figure 3.12 illustrates the concept.
Further Information
http://www.rotterdam.nl/getijdenpark
http://www.landtongrozenburg.nl/green-port.html?l=2
www.deltares.nl
Fig. 3.12 Green port concept

3.5 C
ase Study 4: Restoration of Ecosystems: Granollers,
Barcelona
Espai Natural de Can

Cabanyes
Can Cabanyes is a
highly industrialised
area near the river
Congost in the
municipality of Restoring
Granollers, Ecosystems
Barcelona.
system are:
· Tertiary
Treatment of
industrial
wastewater
· Restoration of
river water
quality
· Provision of
ecosystem
services
Water / Resource
· Education Wastewater Recovery
facilities
Treatment Reuse
Site Location: Project Partners
Can Cabanyes, Granollers GEMMA-UPC

Barcelona Region, Granollers City Council
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya Spain
BarcelonaTech. Environmental
Engineering and Microbiology
Research Group (GEMMA-UPC),
Spain.
www.gemma.upc.edu
3.5 Case Study 4: Restoration of Ecosystems: Granollers, Barcelona 41
3.5.1 Site Location Can Cabanyes
The Surface Flow Constructed Wetland (SFCW) was created in the peri-urban park
of Can Cabanyes (Granollers, Catalonia, northeastern Spain), located next to a high-
way, an old landfill, a large conventional urban WWTP, a solid waste treatment plant
and a frequently used racetrack (Fig. 3.13). The wetland has a Mediterranean coastal
climate, characterised by warm temperatures, mild winters (average minimum tem-
peratures above 5 °C) and hot and dry summers (average temperatures of around
25 °C, particularly in July). The average annual precipitation is 647 mm. The inten-
sity and frequency of rainfall events vary throughout the year.
3.5.2 Concept
Can Cabanyes is situated in a peri-urban industrialised area near the river Congost
in the municipality of Granollers (Barcelona). This project aimed to clean up and
restore this river environment with a series of measures, which can reconcile envi-
ronmental improvement with the use of the area (ecosystem services). One of the
measures was to build a 1 ha constructed wetland, which is fed with the effluent
from the Granollers WWTP. The final reclaimed water from the natural treatment
system is reused for urban and agricultural purposes (i.e. street cleaning and irriga-
tion of public parks). As well as conventional water contaminants (i.e. Total sus-
pended solids (TSS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonium and faecal
microbial indicators), this project also focused on the efficiency of the system in
removing pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs). The selected com-
pounds include a large range of chemicals commonly used by humans (analgesics,
anti epileptics, anti lipidics and fragrances).
The focus of the project was to develop an NBS, which could achieve the required
technical treatment efficiency and also provide added value through ecosystem ser-
vices with the site serving as a recreational area for the locality and environmental
education facility. Figure 3.14 shows the educational communication facility at the
site.
The constructed wetlands, consisted of a zone planted with Phragmites australis; a

zone planted with Typha latifolia; a deep zone free of macrophytes and an island.
The system provides treated water for park irrigation and several ecosystem ser-
vices. The flow to the wetland was calculated based on an influent ammonium con-
centration of 30 mg N/L, and the objective was to produce an effluent with an
ammonium concentration lower than 2 mg N/L. The SF CW is a single cell system
Fig. 3.13 Industrial facility adjacent to Can Cabanyes
Fig. 3.14 Added value

through ecosystem services
with an elongated shape and a surface area of 1 ha (maximum length and width of
around 189 m and 53 m, respectively). It was planted with 2250 transplanted units
of Phragmites australis and Typha latifolia, creating different vegetation zones and
increasing the ecological variability of the system.
3.5.4 Key Drivers
The final reclaimed water from the natural treatment system is reused for urban and
agricultural purposes (i.e. street cleaning and irrigation of public parks).
3.5 Case Study 4: Restoration of Ecosystems: Granollers, Barcelona 43
A number of published studies have evaluated the scientific and economic

performance of the system (Llorens et al. 2009; Alfranca et al. 2011; Matamoros
et al. 2008). The wetland began operating in April 2003. The vegetation grew very
quickly and by September 2003 the planted surface was dense. Between the initia-
tion of the constructed wetland and April 2006, the wetland received approximately
100 m3/day of secondary effluent from the Granollers WWTP, operating with a
hydraulic retention time (HRT) of around 1 month and a hydraulic loading rate
(HLR) of 1 cm/day. The Granollers WWTP serves an equivalent population of
approximately 154,000 people and treats urban wastewater (55%) mixed with a
considerable amount of industrial discharge (45%), without complete nitrification.
The subsurface flow constructed wetland (SF CW) influent only represented 0.4%
of the WWTP flow rate. Because the plan is to reuse the effluent from the wetland,
in April 2006 the flow to the wetland was increased to approximately 250 m3/day in
order to check the operation efficiency of the wetland under the new conditions. As
a result, the HRT decreased to 12.4 days and the HLR increased to 2.5 cm/day. In
both periods, the effluent from the SF CW was discharged into the Congost River,
as is the case for the other treated effluents from the Granollers WWTP.
3.5.6 Performance
Table 3.1 summarises the principal removal mechanisms in the system. The low
COD and TSS removal rates observed in the SF CW of the peri-urban park of Can
Cabanyes are linked to the low incoming pollutant concentrate ions and to its strong
eutrophic character, which is in fact a consequence of the WWTP effluent properties
(i.e. high ammonium concentrations). However, the created wetland efficiently
removed ammonium (80%), faecal bacteria indicators (around 2 logarithmic units
of Faecal Coliforms) and the amount of PPCPs discharged into the system, resulting
in a quite good quality effluent. A seasonal pattern was clearly observed in ammo-
nium concentrations, which shows the temperature dependence of the mechanisms
involved in ammonium removal.
Effluents from the SF CW were sampled between 2003 and 2006 for physical and
chemical parameters and faecal bacteria indicators. In addition, 8 PPCPs were mea-
sured in June 2005 and February 2006. The system showed a good reliability for
Table 3.1 Removal mechanisms Can Cabanyes wetland system

Wastewater constituent Removal mechanism
Gross solids Coarse/fine screening
Fats oils and grease removal(flotation)
Grit removal
Suspended solids Sedimentation
Filtration
Soluble organics Aerobic microbial degradation
Anaerobic microbial degradation
Nitrogen Ammonification
Nitrification
Denitrification
Phosphorus Precipitation/organic removal
Pathogens Sedimentation
Filtration
Natural die-off
Predation
UV irradiation
ammonium and faecal bacteria removal, with average ammonium efficiencies

between 64% and 87% and a removal of approximately 2 logarithmic units of Faecal
Coliforms. The results for PPCPs demonstrated that the wetland has a good capacity
for removing a large variety of these compounds; the removal efficiencies were
higher than 70% for most of them, with the exception of clofibricacid (34%) and
carbamazepine (39%), (Alfranca et al. 2011). The analysis of the physical and
chemical parameters in the present study revealed that the SF CW effluent
could be suitable for agricultural irrigation.
The externalities of the wetland were evaluated using the travel cost method. The
travel cost method is widely used to estimate the value of natural resources, particu-
larly in recreational sites (Gurluk and Rehber 2008). The value of the wetland is
expressed in terms of the price of the water that flows through the system, which is
estimated to range from 0.71 to 0.75 €/m3. The value of positive externalities (1.25
€/m3) was greater than private costs (from 0.50 to 0.54 €/m3). These results consti-
tute empirical evidence that created wetlands in peri-urban parks can be considered
to be a source of positive externalities when used in environmental restoration proj-
ects focusing on the reuse of treated wastewater. This study also illustrates the small
influence of the hydraulic infrastructure depreciation costs on the overall cost of
constructed wetlands (less than 10%), and the low investment costs of constructed
wetlands in comparison with operation and maintenance costs (less than 10% of
total private costs).
3.6 Case Study 5: Constructed Wetlands Sludge Treatment Systems: La Guixa… 45
3.6 C
ase Study 5: Constructed Wetlands Sludge Treatment
Systems: La Guixa, Barcelona Region
Nature Based Sludge

Treatment
Constructed wetlands
are successfully
employed for
wastewater and Water / Resource
sewage sludge Recovery
Wastewater
treatment. The natural
Treatment Reuse
treatment systems
employed in this
project avoided the
need for high costs of
transporting sludge
off site and provided
added value through
resource recovery of
potential products.
system are:
· No off site
transport costs
· Low capital,
operation and
maintenance costs
· Organic matter
and nutrients
removed by
microbial action
Estacio depuradora ‘aigues Spanish Ministry of

residuals (EDAR) de Santa Environment
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya Eulalia de Riuprimar. Depuradores d’Osona S.L.
BarcelonaTech. Environmental EDAR Les Cases Noves, The Technical University of
Engineering and Microbiology Les Masies de Roda. Catalonia.
Research Group (GEMMA-UPC), La Guixa.
Spain. Barcelona Region, (MMARM, Project
Spain 087/PC08).
www.gemma.upc.edu
[email protected]
3.6.1 La Guixa Site Location
La Guixa is a small WWTP (1000 Population Equivalent, PE) located in the province
of Barcelona (Spain), which treats 100 m3/d of urban wastewater in an activated
sludge process with an extended aeration system. Five wetlands with a total surface
of 210 m2 were established in 2007 to treat waste activated sludge.
3.6.2 Sludge Treatment Wetlands Concept
Sludge treatment wetlands (STW) consist of shallow tanks (beds) filled with a
gravel layer and planted with emergent rooted wetland plants. These beds provide a
drying phase and a mineralisation phase as in conventional reed bed systems. In
these systems, secondary sludge is usually pumped and spread on the wetland’s
surface. The sludge fed is rapidly distributed over the wetland and part of its water
content is rapidly drained by gravity through the gravel layer; while another part is
evapo-transpired by plants. In this way, a concentrated sludge residue remains on
the surface of the bed. After some days without feeding (resting time), thickened
sludge is spread on the surface once again, starting the next feeding cycle.
The STW technology is an environmentally regenerative and sustainable technique,

which does not require any chemical additives and sophisticated electronic control.
The technology has extremely low operating, maintenance and energy costs. The
technological principles are based on biological, chemical and physical processes
that occur in natural wetlands. Depuradores d’Osona S.L. constructed nine STWs at
their rural WWTPs.
Site selection criteria were based on an assessment of the following:
• That there was enough sludge being produced to warrant on-site treatment,
• There was sufficient land available to construct the required area of wetland,
• There was sufficient distance between the proposed STW and the central treat-
ment area in Vic to prove cost effective in terms of reducing transport costs,
• The WWTP was sufficiently automated to allow for the modifications necessary
to run the STW.
La Guixa is one example of this strategy and comprises a WWTP (1000 PE)
located in the municipality of Vic, comarca Osona, Catalyuna (Spain), which treats
urban wastewater in an activated sludge system with extended aeration. Average
annual rainfall is of the order of 650 mm while temperatures range between 8 and
28 °C. In 2007, 5 basins with a total surface of 210 m2 were constructed with con-
crete walls and planted with P. australis. Design criteria are described in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Design PE 1000

characteristics of La Guixa
Sludge loading rate (kg 50
sludge treatment system
dry matter/m2/year)
Average influent Total 0.4
Suspended Solids (%)
Total surface area (m2) 210
Number of beds 5
Uggetti et al. (2012b)
3.6.4 Key Drivers
The existence of small and remote communites (<2000 PE) in the province of
Catalyuna led to the practice of tankering sludge from each treatment plant to a
central plant for treatment. The construction of STWs on-site remove this cost.
Depuradores d’Osona S.L. have twenty seven.
WWTPs of various sizes within their jurisdiction. The smaller plants were not con-
structed with any system of sludge drying or dewatering. Therefore, the liquid sludge
was stored to reduce volume before being transported to the central wastewater treat-
ment plant at Vic for treatment. Here, the sludge was mixed with sludge from the Vic
WWTP (Fig. 3.15) dewatered, and tankered to Landfill. STW facilitated the following:
• Sludge treatment at source (i.e. where it was generated),
• Reduced operational costs,
• Reduced transport costs and other associated risks,
• Improved sludge management practices and the environmental impact of sludge.
Operation Characteristics
Figure 3.16 illustrates the operation of the system. The sludge is distributed over the
wetland and part of its water content is rapidly drained by gravity through the gravel
layer; while another part is evapotranspired by plants. In this way, a concentrated
sludge residue remains on the surface of the bed where, after some days without feed-
ing (resting time), fresh thickened sludge is spread, starting the next feeding cycle.
During feeding periods, the sludge layer height increases at a rate of around
10 cm/year. When the layer approaches the top of the banks or walls surrounding
the STW (usually after 8–12 years), feeding is stopped. The sludge remains in the
beds for a final resting period (from 1–2 months to 1 year), aimed at improving
sludge dryness, mineralisation and dewatering. This resting period improves the
sludge dryness and mineralisation. The final product is subsequently withdrawn
Fig. 3.16. Biosolids obtained from the treatment are suitable for agricultural uses.
Figure 3.17 shows the influent loading system.
Essentially, the STW is a vertical flow reed bed, and the reeds provide aerial and
subterranean stalks and roots. These supply drainage through windrock and also
through root penetration increasing the amount of hydraulic pathways through the
sand and gravel layers. It is estimated that about 1% of the sludge liquor is absorbed
Fig. 3.15 Activated sludge

wastewater treatment plant
Fig. 3.16 Sludge biomass
by the roots, 9% is lost through evapotranspiration and the remaining 90% is filtered
to the draining layers. This liquid is then recycled back to the treatment plant.
Table 3.3 shows the operational design characteristics for one of the systems.
3.6.5 Performance
The waste activated sludge generation at La Guixa was 500 m3/year. Sludge produc-
tion in the STW was 66 m3/year. Pump electricity consumption was 50 kWh/year.
CO2 emission rate was 0.25 kg/m2.d (Uggetti et al. 2012a, b).
Fig. 3.17 Influent pumped

onto wetland system
Table 3.3 La Guixa design Resting period between feeding 8

characteristics
Bed depth (m) 1.7
Gravel volume per system (m3) 21
Sludge storage capacity per 42
system (m3)
Average operating cycle (years) 10
Uggetti et al. (2012a, b)
Fig. 3.18 End product

showing mineralised
sludge
3.6.6 Resource Recovery Product
The construction of STWs are economically viable, the main cost being the
construction of the reed bed. In the case of La Guixa and other plants in the area,
investment has been recovered in 6–8 years. Operational costs are a minimum.
The STW has reduced labour costs in the central WWTP. No chemical input was
required (Fig. 3.18).
3.7 Case Study 6: Mill Pond
Mill Pond
Located in the
municipalities of
Gavà, Viladecans
and SantCliment de
Llobregat
(Barcelona), Spain.
The mill pond acts as

a retention basin,
storing rainwater
during storm events.
There are two
tributaries of the
Sant Lloerenc which Climate
also enter the Mill Change
pond, during storm Adaption
events.
system are:
· Provides flood
protection,
· Reduces risk
disaster
· Mitigates the
effects of climate
change
Bassa de Laminacio, Riera de Area Metropolitiana de

Barcelona Sant Llorenc, Barcelona
Metropolitan Area Barcelona,
(AMB) Catalyuna,
Spain
http://www.amb.cat
http://www.life-ensat.eu/?
3.7 Case Study 6: Mill Pond 51
3.7.1 Site Location
The project is located in Bassa de Laminacio, Riera de Sant Llorenc, Catalyuna. It

is a mill pond constructed to reduce the risk of flooding from the San Llorenc river
in the municipalities of Gavà, Viladecans and Sant Climent de Llobregat (Barcelona).
3.7.2 Concept
A millpond is a pond constructed to store storm water through a storm event. The
stored water is later released when the flood event has passed, and the water from
the mill pond can be safely released. The mill pond provides flood protection,
reduces risk disaster and mitigates the effects of climate change. The characteristics
of a site which make it suitable for an online storage solution, such as a mill pond,
can be summarised as follows:
• A suitable location within the catchment for the purpose intended with sufficient
storage volume.
• A suitable site for the impoundment structure – for example taking advantage of
a narrower part of the valley to allow the dam to be shorter.
• A wide floodplain that allows a low dam height to be deployed.
• A relatively impermeable foundation.
• Suitable foundation conditions for supporting the dam and control structures.
• Suitable access for construction, operation and maintenance.
• The availability of suitable construction materials on or near the site.
• Minimum adverse impacts on landowners, land-use and local residents.
• Minimum adverse impacts on the environment.
• Opportunities for environmental enhancement (Fig. 3.19).
The mill pond was sized at 157,480 m3. This was the design volume to deal with a
100-year storm event with an inflow of 20 m3/s into the mill pond through the inlet
by-pass structures. Figure 6.1 illustrates the operation of the storage facility. The
inflow hydrograph (shown in blue) starts to overflow into the mill pond structure at
flowrates in excess of 20 m3/s. The flood storage pond provides storage during peak
flood events and slowly releases the water into the catchment downstream after the
storm event has subsided. The retention of this volume of water prevents flooding of
the towns of Viladecans and Gava.
Water stored in reservoir
Inflow
Maximum discharge to
be passed downstream Outflow
Flow
Water released from storage
Time
Fig. 3.19 Theoretical operation of flood control storage
3.7.4 Key Drivers
The Sant Llorenc river flooded regularly and caused extensive damage to an area in
the municipalities of Gavà, Viladecans and Sant Climent de Llobregat (Barcelona).
A solution to this recurring problem was the driver behind the project.
The storm water from three tributaries is gathered in the mill pond. The construction
and operation of the nature-based flood storage solution are detailed in the f ollowing
photos (Figs. 3.20, 3.21, and 3.22).
3.7 Case Study 6: Mill Pond 53
Fig. 3.20 Collector bypass
Fig. 3.21 Inlet structure

Fig. 3.22 Storage reservoir

3.8 Case Study 7: Nature-Based Nutrient Recovery 55
3.8 Case Study 7: Nature-Based Nutrient Recovery
Nutrient Recovery
The Netherlands is
characterised by
intensive
agricultureresulting in
high concentrations of Restoring
nutrients and Ecosystems
pesticides, leading to
eutrophication,and
cyanobacteria blooms,
in some areas. There is
little space for
extensive solutions.
Characteristics of
nature-based nitrate
removal
• Denitrification using
microorganisms in soil
and groundwater using
an energy source
comprising wood
chips, ethanol, etc.
Characteristics of
nature-based phosphate
removal:
Chemical
immobilisation using Resource Water /
iron coated sand and a Recovery Wastewater
purifying bench. Reuse Treatment
Flower/bulb growing regions The project partners are the

of north Holland and south Hoogheemraadschap van
Deltares Holland in the Netherlands Rijnland, which is the oldest
The Netherlands water board in the Netherlands,
and three Dutch research
institutes Alterra, Deltares and
www.deltares.nl
Arcadis.
3.8.1 Site Location
The “nutrient removal from tile drainage” project is located in the flower/bulb
growing regions of north and south Holland in the Netherlands.

3.8.2 Concept
The project is an application of low cost robust water technology. Nutrient removal
occurs within the drainage cycle. The technology seeks to remove nitrates, by utilis-
ing wood chips and ethanol as sources of carbon, to stimulate microorganism activ-
ity in the soil and groundwater. This promotes denitrification, which converts the
nitrate to nitrogen gas. The technology seeks to remove phosphates by immobilising
them and removing them from the drainage cycle. A binding material, e.g. iron
coated sand, is added to the soil surrounding the pipe drain to remove phosphates.
Electrocoagulation, at the end of the drainage channel, and a purifying bed, com-
prising of two materials, iron coated sand and poly-aluminium chloride/sand were
also part of the designs used in the studies.
Nitrates
In designing for nitrate removal two methods were employed. The first required
excavating the tile drains and surrounding the pipe drain with a sand/soil which
contained wood chips and in some examples beet pulp (Figs. 3.23 and 3.24). As the
irrigation water drained from the pipe, it came into contact with this source of car-
bon which promoted denitrification.
Fig. 3.23 Nitrate removal

from tile drains
Fig. 3.24 Sand/soil mixture with wood chips
The other method employed a methanol dosing reactor placed at the discharge point
of the drain, which allowed the drain water to pass through it, thus promoting deni-
trification and the release of nitrogen gas.
Phosphates
In designing for phosphate removal a number of methods were evaluated. The first
excavated the drains and filled the pipe surround with iron coated sand. The second
method was referred to as a phosphate removing reactor which promoted electrocoagu-
lation of the P at the end of the drainage channel. The third method, known as a purify-
ing bench, consisted of two materials, iron coated sand and poly-aluminium chloride/
sand. This allowed the drainage water to pass through and the phosphate to be bound.
3.8.4 Key Drivers
The high pressure on land for agriculture and human settlement has resulted in
intensive agricultural and horticultural practices within the Netherlands. Agriculture
and horticulture account for 10% of the Dutch economy. This has resulted in inten-
sive crop cultivation with high inputs of the nutrients, nitrate and phosphates and
also of pesticides. The intensive drainage systems that have developed with these
practices, tile drains or pipe drains, carry a water rich in nutrients that can promote
eutrophication and give rise to cyanobacterial blooms. This has been a recurrent
problem over a number of years. Given the high density of population and agricul-
ture there is little space for extensive solutions.
The additives to the soil surrounding the pipe drains, i.e. the wood chips and the iron
coated sand required excavation of the drains and backfill of the material surround-
ing the pipe drains.
The ethanol reactor, the purifying bench and the electrocoagulator were all
installed to allow passage of the drainage water through each one (Fig. 3.25).
3.8.6 Performance
Nitrate removal
Denitrification is effected by denitrifying microorganisms which reduce nitrates to
nitrites and then to nitrogen gas. The addition of wood chips and ethanol promotes
bacterial activity by supplying a source of carbon. Nitrate levels were reduced from a
reference level in the range 5–7 mg N/l to zero using wood chips and beet pulp as the
surrounding pipe media. The ethanol reactor showed removal rates of between 2% and
100%. The 100% removal rate was observed after a period of 8 weeks in operation.
Phosphate removal
Phosphate is precipitated using the metals aluminium or iron. All methods of
removal achieved phosphate removal rates of between 80–95%. The removal rates
for the pipe drains enveloped in iron coated sand were 94%. The puri bench saw
Ortho-P removal rates of 80% and Total P removal rates of 90%. Hydraulic perme-
ability varies through the systems with the iron coated gravel more permeable than
the aluminium sand. This is important in terms of capacity and sizing.
Fig. 3.25 Purifying bench

for phosphate removal
The projects quoted focused on removal of nutrients. However, there is scope to

evaluate the potential to use the technologies to adapt a process, which uses the
removal material as a product in another process.
Further Information
www.deltares.nl
3.9 C
ase Study 8: Nature-Based Wastewater Treatment
Systems in Slovenia
Nature-Based
Wastewater Treatment,
Slovenia
Constructed Wetlands
(CW) are successfully
employed as an
alternative technology
for wastewater and Restoring

sewage sludge treatment Ecosystems
for rural communities in
Slovenia.
Limnos CW systems:
· Easy to set up and

maintain
· Low investment costs
· Low operation and

maintenance costs
· Organic matter and

nutrients removed by
microbial action
Water / Resource
Wastewater Recovery
Treatment Reuse
Sveti Tomaz (500 pe) Limnos Ltd. was established in

Sodinci (1,100 pe) 1994. The company is engaged
RIBOGOJSTVO Goricar Fish in research development and
LIMNOS Ltd Processing factory, Slivje, application of NBS in
Slovenia. Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro
http://www.limnos.si/eng/index.php Italy, Macedonia, Albania,
Bosnia & Herzegovina.
3.9 Case Study 8: Nature-Based Wastewater Treatment Systems in Slovenia 61
3.9.1 Site Location
NBS applications in Slovenia are presented at a number of different locations:

• The village of Sveti Tomaz located in South East Slovenia. This project com-
prised a total wastewater treatment solution for a small village of 500 PE.
• The village of Sodinci, comprising a constructed wetland wastewater treatment
system for a PE of 1100.
• An industrial application of a natural wastewater treatment system located in a
fish processing factory, Ribogojstvo Goricar near Slivje.
3.9.2 Concept
Horizontal Subsurface Flow Treatment Systems

Horizontal subsurface flow (HSF) wetlands typically employ a gravel bed planted
with wetland vegetation. The water is kept below the surface of the bed and flows
horizontally from the inlet at one end through a flat gently sloping bed of 1–2%
slope to the outlet. The water level in the bed is typically controlled by an outlet
level control device.
The basic schematic of the LIMNOWETR system, which is patented, is as shown
in Fig. 3.26. The treatment stages are:
• Primary treatment comprising inlet coarse screens, sedimentation tank,
• Secondary treatment comprising a filtration bed followed by a treatment bed and
a polishing bed.
The actual treatment system designed and installed may differ from the concept
depending on the site specific requirements of the project.
3.9.3 A
pplication 1: Sveti Tomas Total Wastewater Treatment
System
The function of the reed bed system in Sv. Tomaz is to provide a total wastewater
solution for a small community. The reed bed system includes a STW which deals
specifically with the sludge in the wastewater. This STW allows for onsite treatment
of the sludge and eliminates the need for off-site tankering, thereby significantly
reducing operational costs for the community. The effluent from the STW is subse-
quently treated by the reed bed system (Fig. 3.27).
Inflow
Treatment Filtration Sedimentation

bed bed basin
Polishing
bed
Outflow
Fig. 3.26 Schematic showing LIMNOWETR constructed wetland operation (Source: Limnos)
Fig. 3.27 Sveti Tomaz

treatment system showing
LIMNOS four stage
treatment system with
sludge treatment
The following design was proposed and built for a PE of 500. A sedimentation tank
of size 50 m3 was installed, followed by a screen which allowed the reed beds to be
fed by gravity. The reed beds had a total sizing of 1250 m2. This consisted of three
horizontal beds. Bed 1 was sized at 12 m × 25 m (total area 300 m2), Bed 2 at
25 m × 25 m (total area 625 m2) and Bed 3 at 13 m × 25 m (total area 325 m2).
Figure 3.28 shows the inlet channel to the horizontal reed bed.
Fig. 3.28 Inlet channel to

horizontal reed bed
Fig. 3.29 Coarse inlet

screens
The first bed functioned as a filtration bed, the second as a treatment bed and the
third bed as a polishing bed. The effluent is discharged to a nearby watercourse. The
beds are all lined with an impermeable liner, and the media is a washed gravel of sin-
gle grading (Fig. 3.28). The beds are planted with Phragmites Communis (Fig. 3.29).
A separate STW was constructed adjacent to the sedimentation tank to treat the
sludge (Fig. 3.30). This was sized at 12 m × 12 m Total area (144 m2). It is lined and
has a layer of washed gravel and is planted with Phragmites Communis. The drained
liquid from the STW enters the filtration reed bed for treatment.
Fig. 3.30 Sludge reed bed
3.9.5 Key Drivers
The local community/municipality can operate and maintain the community

wastewater treatment system without necessary external inputs that could include
chemicals, skilled labour, technicians, plant and machinery. It also facilitates the
treatment and management of municipal sludge on site.
The plant is located below the village of Sv. Tomaz and wastewater flows by gravity
to the sedimentation basin. This allows for solids accumulation and also allows the
supernatant to overflow, through screens, onto the reed bed system. Pipework is
used to distribute the influent onto the treatment reed bed. It proceeds from this bed,
by plug flow, to the treatment bed and then to the polishing bed. The accumulated
sludge in the sedimentation basin is pumped monthly to the STW, where it is dewa-
tered and stored. The dewatered solids are mineralised, while the filtrate water is
passed to the reed bed.
3.9.7 Application 2: Sodinci Wastewater Treatment System
The village of Sodinci, in south east Slovenia, has a PE of 1100. A reed bed facility
was constructed to treat the village wastewater. This was a Horizontal-flow reed bed
as shown in Fig. 3.31.
Fig. 3.31 Constructed
wetland system for village
of Sodinci
Fig. 3.32 Treatment of wastewater from fish processing factory, Slovenia
3.9.8 Application 3: Industrial Site, Ribojstvo Goricar
This application is the treatment of wastewater from a fish processing factory special-
ising in the production of rainbow trout for the domestic Slovenian market. Figure 3.32
shows the fish processing unit. The wastewater from the factory is treated in a hori-
zontal-flow reed bed, which discharges to a local water course (Figs. 3.32 and 3.33).
3.9.9 Results
Table 3.4 summarises the treatment and removal mechanisms within the systems in
Slovenia.
Table 3.5 presents results for the villages of Sveti Thomas and Sodinci. Both sys-
tems achieved removal efficiencies for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) in excess
of 93% and for Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) in excess of 97%. Results for
the Industrial Fish Site, Ribojstvo Goricar were not available from the Local Authority.
Fig. 3.33 Natural wastewater treatment system, fish processing factory, Slovenia
Table 3.4 Removal mechanisms in Slovenia natural wastewater treatment systems

Wastewater constituent Removal mechanism
Gross solids Coarse/fine screening
Fats oils and grease removal(flotation)
Grit removal
Suspended solids Sedimentation
Filtration
Soluble organics Aerobic microbial degradation
Anaerobic microbial degradation
Nitrification
Denitrification
Phosphorus Precipitation/organic removal
Filtration
Natural die-off
Predation
UV irradiation
Table 3.5 Monitoring results for natural wastewater treatment systems at Sveti Tomaz and Sodinci
Sveti Tomaz
Sodinci (1100 PE) (500 PE)
Sampling October April October Slovenia limit
Parameter location 2013 2014 2014 June 2015 values
COD Inflow 160 380 440 427
(mg/l) Outflow 50 60 30 <30 150
BOD5 Inflow 80 150 200 267
(mg/l) Outflow 10 13 6 <9 30
Limnos (2016)
3.10 Case Study 9: Ecoremediation Polygons, Slovenia 67
3.10 Case Study 9: Ecoremediation Polygons, Slovenia
Ecoremediation
Polygons
The concept of the

“Ecoremediation
Polygon” has been
integrated into the ResourceRe
Slovenian educational Restoring covery
system. This is a Ecosystems Reuse
facility whereby
students and teachers
can understand and
experience the
scientific and
engineering principles
of nature-based
solutions through
experiential learning.
The learning centres

focus on:
· Climatogeography
· Hydrology
· Geology
· NBS
Climate Water /
Change Wastewater
Adaption Treatment
Ecoremediation Polygon, International Centre for

Modraze, municipality of Ecoremediations, University
Poljcane, Slovenia of Maribor, Ministry
LIMNOS Ltd of Education and Sports,
Limnos Ltd.
http://www.limnos.si/eng/index.php
3.10.1 Site Location
This project is located in Modraze, municipality of Poljcane, Slovenia. It is an

experiential learning centre (Fig. 3.34). The ecological characteristics of the poly-
gon are varied including forest, river, natural wetlands, springs, fish ponds and
constructed wetlands. The polygon is designed to get students/residents to think
about environmental problems in an experiential way. The focus is to learn by
doing through the hands-on field equipment and experiments available. This allows
the student to understand the functions and variety of natural systems, while acquir-
ing the skills of observation, orientation, measurement and reporting. It also pro-
motes awareness of the role of the individual and society in the world stimulating
the seeds for lifelong learning.
3.10.2 Concept
In Slovenia, a major effort is underway to integrate learning about NBS within

the school and college curriculum. The International Centre for Ecoremediation
from the University of Maribor together with its partners in the Ministry of
Education and Sports, decided to start a project called “Establishment of the
implementing conditions for experiential education for sustainable develop-
ment” (Krajnc et al. 2011). They established a series of learning centres in various
locations within Slovenia called “ecoremediation polygons”. Ecoremediation
comprises systems and processes, which function in both natural and artificial
ecosystems, designed to protect and restore the environment. The polygon is a
facility whereby students and teachers can “learn by doing”. This educational
policy has effectively created a serious of nature-based educational centres.
They are designed to be interdisciplinary and innovative, where participants can
learn and experience the scientific and engineering principles concerning vari-
ous applications of NBS.
3.10.3 Ecoremediation Polygon, Modraze
A polygon is located in a small village Modraže in the municipality of Poljčane in

the middle of a natural landscape. The function of the polygon in Modraze is to
allow students to gain an experience of nature-based systems at work in both a field
setting and in a classroom setting (Fig. 3.35). The demonstration site achieves this
Fig. 3.34 Ecoremediation Polygon, Modraze
Fig. 3.35 Ecopod
residential units
through the use of nature as a classroom. The different ecological zones, e.g. forest,
river and wetlands allow different research methods to be acquired. The constructed
wetland and the innovative tactile-learning exhibits facilitate understanding of water
and wastewater treatment processes, but also allow for monitoring of water quality
and treatment performance. The presence of two protected species in the river sys-
tem, is of special interest and stimulation.
Educational Facilities
Educational facilities within the polygon enable independent or guided learning and
teaching of the laws and processes that occur in nature (ecosystems), as a basis for
understanding complex physical geographical processes in the environment
(Fig. 3.36). The existing forest and water ecosystem within the chosen area was
retained and a residential block with cooking, toilet, classroom and laboratory facil-
ities was constructed. A constructed wetland was added to treat the wastewater from
this block. This allowed for innovative tactile demonstration models of the pro-
cesses involved in water and wastewater treatment.
A nature trail has been constructed to allow students to engage with the natural
environment comprising mixed deciduous forest, coniferous forest, forest edge, iso-
lated springs, streams, river embankment and its vegetation buffer zone, dry
meadow, wet meadow – wetland, farm, pond and fish pond. Tactile exhibits are set
up within each ecosystem highlighting the various characteristics of each habitat.
This biodiversity serves as the classroom for students (Fig. 3.37). The principles of
ecology, forests, riverine flora and fauna, geography and eco-remediation are
acquired by the students through mapping and sampling.
The learning environment focuses on the acquisition of knowledge and skills in
a number of areas:
• Climatogeography – At the site temperature, wind speed, and air pressure can
be measured. By observing the weather, the microclimate of a given area can be
determined.
• Geomorphology – By collecting rocks in the area, students can train in the study
of types of rocks, as well as the determination of the chemical properties of soil.
Students can also observe and sketch a set of the landforms that occur on the ground.
• Hydrology–students can be trained in the physical and chemical analysis of
water, as well as in interpreting the data. There is also a possibility to construct
simple devices for monitoring the characteristics of water.
• Phytogeography and Zoogeography- Students can determine by themselves
the dominant plant and animal species in this area. There is the facility to com-
pare natural vegetation with anthropogenic vegetation and to identify the interac-
tions and consequences.
• Soil mechanics – At the site students learn and practice the various methods of
identifying soil characteristics. Through the use of various drills they learn how
to take a soil sample and analyse soil properties.
Fig. 3.36 Ecosystem
training materials
Fig. 3.37 Examples of

education in biodiversity
systems
Fig. 3.38 Working model

of constructed wetland
Constructed wetlands
The constructed wetland serves to facilitate demonstration of the principles of water
and wastewater treatment. Demonstration rigs are used to explain hydraulic and
organic loading, and the function and structure of wetland treatment mechanisms.
These demonstration rigs also allow for sampling so the techniques of sampling
water and wastewater are acquired under controlled conditions. The constructed
wetland experimental rigs consist of 3–4 successive chambers, which are insulated
with foil and filled with medium through which sub-surfacewater flows (both hori-
zontal and vertical) (Fig. 3.38). Students can determine, with chemical analysis, the
level of water pollutants before the treatment plant and the quality of water atthe
outlet of the wetland. The model design facilitates the addition of a dye to the con-
taminated water allowing direct observation of flow paths within the media.
3.11 Case Study 10: Domestic Rainwater Harvesting, Ireland 73
3.11 C
ase Study 10: Domestic Rainwater Harvesting,
Ireland
Domestic Rainwater
Harvesting
A pilot project was set

up in Ireland in 2005
to examine the
potential of using
ResourceRe
rainwater harvesting
covery
systems to replace
treated mains water, Reuse
for non-potable uses.
Characteristics of
the system are:
· Resource
Recovery
· Good water
quality
Climate
· Supply unit costs
in the range of €6 Change
-€13/m3 Adaption
The project leaders were the

Department of Civil &
Structural Engineering, Dublin
Development Technology in Millford Park, Institute of Technology (DIT),
the Community Research Ballinabrannagh, in association with the
Group (DTC-DIT), Co Carlow Department of Environment,
Dublin Institute of Heritage &Local Government,
Technology, Ireland. the National Rural Water
Monitoring Committee and
www.dit.ie/dtc
Carlow County Council.
Fig. 3.39 Ballinabranagh housing scheme
A pilot project was set up in Ireland in 2005 to examine the potential of using
rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems to replace treated mains water, for non-pota-
ble uses (Fig. 3.39). The site of this project was a new housing estate 6 km south of
Carlow town at Milford Park, Ballinabrannagh, Co. Carlow, at 52° 47′ 08″ N 6° 59′
56″ W. Mains water was supplied by the Ballinabrannagh group water scheme.
Initially four houses were selected for the study: one, a bungalow fitted with RWH
facilities, and three 2 storey houses with standard plumbing. The three standard
houses acted as controls to allow savings on mains water usage by the installed
RWH system to be evaluated.
3.11.2 Concept
This study addressed concerns over harvested rainwater quality by undertaking a

monitoring programme to establish the quality of harvested rainwater in an Irish
context and to examine the potential of using RWH systems to replace treated mains
water for non-potable uses for domestic applications. The project involved the
design, installation, commissioning and monitoring of RWH facilities in a rural
housing development. A monitoring program was carried out to examine the
physico-chemical and microbiological quality of the harvested rainwater. A water
usage monitoring program was also established to quantify the volume of water
used and the efficiency of the RWH system installed. Daily/monthly rainfall, water
demand, mains top-up were monitored and analysed for the domestic sites. An
economic model was developed to: (i) calculate the cost of producing one m3 of
water using RWH, (ii) compare the Net Present Value (NPV) cost of RWH water
supply versus mains water supply and to (iii) illustrate the preferred scenarios in
Ireland under which RWH is economically viable.
The design criteria for the RWH system was to supply 45 l per head per day
(L1hd−1d−1) for toilet use in a four-person household with capacity for a thirty day
dry storage period. This required that the system have 5.4 m3 storage capacity.
3.11.4 Key Drivers
Water demand in Ireland is typically met by importing large volumes of water from
neighbouring catchments. All mains water in Ireland is treated to drinking water
quality standards. The key driver in this study was the fact that rainfall in Ireland is
available throughout the year, with annual rainfall depths varying depending on
whether the location is on the east of the country or the west of the country. RWH
in Ireland has had limited uptake, with concerns expressed by local authorities over
water quality and possible cross-contamination of the mains water system by har-
vested rainwater. In addition, the economics of supplying harvested rainwater com-
pared to the cost of mains water had not been investigated. This study sets out to
address these knowledge gaps.
The RWH system installed collected the harvested rainwater in a 9 m3 underground
storage tank. The rainwater was pumped on demand to a header tank in the attic
from which the toilets and garden tap were supplied by gravity. The RWH system
collected water from roof surfaces only. Rainwater from the downpipes was diverted
to an underground Rainman 1Tm filter that separated solids from the rainwater. The
solids were diverted to the surface water drainage system. No first flush or diversion
device was installed (Fig. 3.40). All connections to the rainwater drainage system
were sealed to prevent contamination from surface water. In periods of low rainfall
the rainwater header tank was filled from the mains water header tank by means of
a solenoid valve. A tundish type AA air gap was installed to ensure that no backflow
Fig. 3.40 Domestic rainwater harvesting system, Carlow
to the mains water supply could occur. A data logger system was also installed with
flow monitoring to assess household water usage. A weather station was installed on
site to collate weather data.
3.11.6 Natural Treatment Mechanisms
As the water passes through the various stages in the system it is exposed to pro-
cesses that simultaneously reduce/eliminate the microbiological load. The roof-
top provides the entry point for the majority of contaminants although parallel
processes simultaneously reduce the microbiological load through UV, heat and
desiccation. Within the tank, it has been shown that biofilms actively remove
contaminants from the water supply. Filtration occurs as the rainwater passes
through the filter with sedimentation also occurring in the storage tank. Tank
water must pass through a pump and possibly through a hot water system before
human contact, which impose sudden stresses on bacteria, disrupting cell struc-
ture and integrity. Each of these components influences water quality within the
collection train.
3.11.7 Performance
• The rainwater harvested at the domestic installation in County Carlow was in

compliance with the Bathing Water Regulations for 100% of samples taken and
was of a suitable quality for use in non-potable applications.
• Results showed that the harvested rainwater complied with the more stringent
Drinking Water Regulations for 37% of samples taken.
• These monitoring results represent a worst case scenario, as no first flush device
was installed and no disinfection of the system took place.
• An efficient disinfection programme could have ensured that the quality of the
harvested rainwater was in compliance with microbiological Drinking Water
Regulations.
• A discount variable analysis on the cost of rainwater supplied versus the cost
of mains water shows that harvested rainwater cost in the range of €6.81/m3 to
€13.43/m3.
Roof water from this development would normally be discharged directly to a sur-
face water network without any treatment. This is a potentially valuable resource
that could be recovered to produce a product, fulfilling the basic requirements for a
circular economy approach to water.
3.11.9 Consumer Acceptance
As regards installation, operation and maintenance the householder expressed

satisfaction with the system and the product, i.e. water for non-potable uses. The
main issue identified with regard to consumer acceptance concerned the increased
cost of RWH over mains water.
3.12 C
ase Study 11: Agricultural Rainwater Harvesting,
Ireland
Agricultural
Rainwater
Harvesting
This project assessed

the feasibility of
utilising harvested ResourceRe
rainwater in terms of covery
quantity, quality and
Reuse
cost.
Characteristics of
this system are:
· Resource
Recovery is
technically
feasible.
· Water quality
depends on
system design and
operation.
· Unit costs to
supply harvested
rainwater are
greater than Climate
equivalent mains Change
water. Adaption

Development Technology in the Clonalvy, Co. Meath Institute of Technology (DIT),
Community Research Group in association with the
(DTC-DIT), Department of Environment,
Dublin Institute of Technology, Heritage & Local Government,
Ireland. the National Rural Water
www.dit.ie/dtc Monitoring Committee.
3.12 Case Study 11: Agricultural Rainwater Harvesting, Ireland 79
A pilot project was set up in Ireland in 2005 to examine the potential of using RWH
systems to replace treated mains water, for non-potable uses. The agricultural site
was located at Clonalvy, Co. Meath, approximately 50 km north of Dublin at 53° 34′
54″ N 6°20′ 26″ W. Originally, a dairy farm, the farmer switched to beef production
during the project. In March 2007, there were 114 cattle and 50 calves on the farm.
Potable water was supplied to the farm by Meath County Council.
3.12.2 Concept
This study set out to establish the quality of harvested rainwater in an agricultural
context in Ireland and to examine the potential of using RWH systems to replace
treated mains water for non-potable uses for agriculture. Two distinct sampling
regimes were carried out. The first, a 12-month regime, was carried out on the first
installation. Modifications to this system resulted in a second sampling regime.
The farm buildings lie in the centre of the farm and the relevant buildings to the
project are two sheds/barns, each of approximately 1000 m2 roof area (Fig. 3.41).
Potable water was supplied to the farm by Meath County Council. Rainwater from
the two barns was drained by gravity to an underground precast 9 m3 concrete col-
lection tank. The system was designed to supply non-potable water for cattle in the
barn and in the troughs around the farm. The collection tank was fitted with a pump
and a float switch, and the overflow pipe was connected to an adjacent field drain.
The harvested rainwater was pumped via a 25 mm rising pipe to two 22 m3 precast
concrete reservoir tanks located on an adjacent elevated site. A mains top-up con-
nection ensured mains water supply to the reservoir during periods of low rainfall.
The harvested rainwater was distributed, via a 25 mm pipe, by gravity to supply the
drinking troughs for cattle on the farm.
Harvested rainwater was conveyed via underground pipe work to a collection tank.
A 9 m3 pre-cast concrete tank acts as an initial collection tank for the rainwater. A
filtration system was needed to prevent leaves and other material being washed into
the gutters thus entering the RWH system. Commercially available filtration com-
ponents were sourced and installed (Fig. 3.42).
Fig. 3.41 Agricultural rainwater collection system
Fig. 3.42 Filter unit on downpipes
A Lindab leafbeater™ and a BRAE ™ filter were installed on the three

d ownpipes conveying rainwater to the collection tank via the underground pipe
work. The Lindab leafbeater filtered off any large debris from the rainwater flow-
ing in the down pipe. As the rainwater flowed it washed any trapped debris away
and out of the water stream flowing downwards towards the collection tank. The
BRAE ™ filter removed any particles which passed through the leafbeater. A sub-
mersible Multigo pump was installed in the collection tank to allow pumping of
rainwater up to the storage tanks. From the collection tanks the rainwater was
pumped up to two interconnected 22 m3 concrete storage tanks giving a total stor-
age capacity of 44 m3. The cattle troughs on the farm were fed from the storage
tanks by gravity feed. The storage tanks are approximately 9 m above the collec-
tion tank and cattle troughs. An electronic RWH system controller was installed in
3.12 Case Study 11: Agricultural Rainwater Harvesting, Ireland 81
the farm building adjacent to the collection tank (Fig. 3.43). This controller was
connected to ball-cocks installed in the storage tanks to control the movement of
water within the RWH system. Two ball-cocks were installed in the storage tanks;
one controlled the infilling of rainwater from the collection tank, the second con-
trolled the flow of mains water to top up the system. On the side panel of the con-
trol panel a red light was connected and mounted to give a quick visual check that
the pump was functioning. The ballcock controlling the rainwater flow to the stor-
age tank was set at approximately 3 m from the tank floor. It controlled the pump
in the collection tank, switching it on and off as required. The second ball-cock
was installed at approximately 1 m above the tank floor providing mains water
back up to the storage tank. This ensured water supply to the cattle troughs during
periods of dry weather when there was insufficient rainwater available or in the
case that the pump failed. Gravity was used to distribute water to the farmyard
troughs and some of the field troughs.
Removal Mechanisms
The rainwater was exposed to
• Thermal treatment on the barn roof,
• UV treatment on the barn roof,
• Filtration as the rainwater passed through the filter,
• Sedimentation in the collection tank,
• Sedimentation in the storage tank.
Performance
• The RWH installation in Clonalvy, Co. Meath, supplied harvested rainwater,
which complied with Bathing Water Regulations.
• The physicochemical results from the site during the initial period complied with
the Drinking Water Regulations over the sampling period, except for ammonia.
The microbiological results breached both the Drinking and Bathing Water
Regulations on all sampling dates.
• The results from the agricultural site illustrate the importance of the system
design and construction, on the harvested rainwater quality. Properly engineered
and constructed systems can provide a potential onsite water resource for agri-
culture in Ireland.
Roof water from the agriculture buildings would normally be discharged directly to
a surface water network without any treatment. This is a potential valuable resource
circular economy approach to water (Fig. 3.44).
Fig. 3.43 Rainwater storage system with mains water back-up
Fig. 3.44 Rainwater consumers

3.13 Case Study 12: School Rainwater Harvesting, Ireland 83
3.13 Case Study 12: School Rainwater Harvesting, Ireland
School Rainwater
Harvesng
The function of the

project was to
monitor a rainwater
harvesting system for
a school which ResourceRe
minimised installation covery
and operational costs. Reuse
Characteristics of
this system are:
· Resource
Recovery is
technically
feasible.
· On-going
pumping costs are
avoided.
· The system met
50% of mains
water demand for
non-potable uses
in the school.
Climate
Change
Adaption

Development Technology Carrowholly National School, Institute of Technology (DIT),
in the Community Westport, Co. Mayo in association with the
Research Group (DTC- Department of Environment,
Heritage &Local Government,
DIT), the National Rural Water
Dublin Institute of Monitoring Committee.
Technology, Ireland.
www.dit.ie/dtc
The site was at Carrowholly National School, Westport, Co. Mayo. A RWH facility
was installed in the school as part of a new extension. The school is located in the
parish of Kilmeena in County Mayo at 53°48′ 52.92″, −9°.35′ 28.29″. Situated on
the shores of Clew Bay and at the base of Croagh Patrick, the school is positioned
three kilometres north–west of the town of Westport. It is sited on a high, level plain
and the prevailing wind direction is south-westerly.
3.13.2 Concept
The function of the project was to determine the feasibility of utilising harvested
rainwater to replace treated mains water, for non-potable uses in a school (McCarton
and O’Hogain, 2011). The harvested rainwater was supplied to toilet cisterns.
The RWH system was designed by Robert Kilkelly & Associates, Civil Engineering
and Architectural Services, Westport, Co. Mayo. The design parameters and speci-
fications were:
• Roof Catchment Area = 124 m2
• RWH Tanks: Two number 682 l polyethlene coldwater cistern covered tanks,
supplied by Envirocare Pollution Control, Dunmore Road, Glenamaddy, Co.
Galway.
• Rainwater filters used were Koss Milk Sock Filters, supplied by Chemical
Services Ltd., Chapelizod Industrial estate, Dublin 20.
• A standard ball cock was placed on the mains inlet pipe which shuts off when full
and prevents syphonage. There were no non- return valves placed here.
• A meter was fitted on the inlet from the mains, which was supplied by T.C.M
Controls Ltd., Greenmount Industrial Estate, Dublin 6.
• The meter on the toilets that was fed from the water harvesting tank was placed
on the outlet from the water tank in the plant room.
• The cost to supply and fit the water harvesting units, including the filters, meters
etc. was €7000.
• Annual cost of water to the school was a flat rate of €325.
• The 4 WCs fed from the RWH tanks were fed directly by gravity and were the
only pipe work from these tanks.
• There was no pump in the RWH system.
3.13 Case Study 12: School Rainwater Harvesting, Ireland 85
3.13.4 Key Drivers
A key driver in sustainable water management in schools is maximising e xisting

resources to augment mains water supply for non-potable uses. The school in
this pilot study had green flag status, which signified the school’s efforts to
promote environmental awareness. The RWH facility was a component of the
school’s activities in promoting awareness and implementing sustainable water
management practices.
The roof catchment area draining to each system was 62 m2, providing a total
catchment area of 124 m2. The roof covering was a Sarnafil® membrane. The roof
was pitched at approximately 10° resulting in rainwater draining to the roof edge,
which had a 150 mm deep perimeter. The roof perimeter gutters channelled the
rainwater directly to the storage tanks located on each side of the roof space. Each
tank had a storage capacity of 682 l and was fitted with a lid. A first flush device
was not fitted to either RWH system. Rainwater was directed straight through to
the storage tank via a 50 mm pipe. A 100 mm diameter overflow pipe drained to
the external roof channel. A cloth geotextile filter was fitted on the inlet with 4 mm
aperture to capture any fines from the roof surface. Mains water was piped to the
rainwater storage tank. A ball-cock valve controlled the mains water inflow. The
level of the ball-cock was set below the level of the intake from the rainwater.
During periods of low rainfall intensity, when the level of water stored in the tank
fell below this critical level the mains water supply valve opened. Conversely, dur-
ing period of high rainfall intensity, the mains supply valve closed and water was
supplied by rainwater only. This top up system ensured reliability of supply. The
rainwater storage tank had a secondary overflow system comprising two 50 mm
pipes. There were no pumps in this system. Rainwater from the roof drained by
gravity to the storage tanks. Supply from the storage tanks to the building was also
by gravity (Fig. 3.45).
3.13.6 Performance
Results showed that 56% of non-potable water demand was met, thus the installa-
tion could be said to be 56% efficient.
Fig. 3.45 Rainwater system for school
Roof water from the school buildings would normally be discharged directly to a
surface water network without any treatment. This is a potential valuable resource
circular economy approach to water. In this installation, harvested rainwater was col-
lected, filtered and used to augment mains water supply to toilets within the school.
3.13.8 Community Involvement
The green school initiative is an international environmental education programme,

environmental management system and award scheme that promotes and acknowl-
edges long-term, school action for the environment. Students and teachers partici-
pate in a range of actions from waste management to energy to water. The school
was involved in the operation and monitoring of water usage through this scheme.
3.14 Case Study 13: Zero Discharge Natural Wastewater Treatment, Ireland 87
3.14 C
ase Study 13: Zero Discharge Natural Wastewater
Treatment, Ireland
Nature Based Sludge

Treatment
This case study

illustrates that a reed
willow bed
combination has the ResourceRe
potential to achieve a
covery
zero discharge and
Reuse
create a valuable
biomass resource.
Characteristics of
this system are:
· Low investment,
operation and
maintenance costs
· Organic matter
and nutrients
removed by
microbial action
· Zero discharge
· Resource
recovery with a
biomass yield.
Water / Restoring
Wastewater Ecosystems
Treatment
Lynches Lane, in the The project partners were

Development Technology administrative area of South South Dublin County
in the Community Dublin County Council Council (SDCC) and
Research Group (DTC- (SDCC). Dublin Institute of
DIT), Technology (DIT).
Dublin Institute of
Technology, Ireland.
www.dit.ie/dtc
This project was a 2-year study to monitor the performance of a hybrid reed bed/
willow bed facility at Lynches Lane, in the administrative area of South Dublin
County Council (SDCC).
3.14.2 Concept
Reed Bed Wastewater Natural Wastewater Treatment

Reed beds have been used for the last 50 years to treat wastewater, in Europe
(Vymazal 2005). The design has evolved from horizontal-flow reed beds through
vertical beds to hybrid beds, and latterly compact vertical flow beds (Weedon 2003).
The principal mode of treatment is a combination of sedimentation, filtration, aero-
bic/anaerobic degradation, ammonification, nitrification/denitrification, plant
uptake and matrix adsorption (Brix 2004). The efficiency of vertical-flow beds over
horizontal-flow beds in treating wastewater has seen their use increase, especially
over the last 10 years.
Willow Bed Wastewater Treatment
Denmark was one of the first countries in Europe to conduct research into willow
wastewater treatment systems. The Danish research prompted pilot studies in other
countries. The purification efficiency of willow treatment systems has been demon-
strated in several countries (Borjesson 2008; Perttu 1999). Performance of systems
has varied depending on site specific conditions, influent, design and operational
and maintenance regimes. Some general performance characteristics of properly
designed willow treatment systems can be defined as follows (Brix 2006)
• The system can be designed to facilitate all wastewater being evaporated to the
atmosphere on an annual basis.
• Nutrients and heavy metals are removed by harvesting the willows (or accumu-
late in the bed).
• Sizing of beds is determined by the difference between precipitation and
evapotranspiration.
3.14.3 Key Drivers
The site is a kilometre away from the nearest mains sewer. The mission of the SDCC
is to achieve environmental excellence in all its projects. The option of storing
wastewater on site and tankering it to a wastewater treatment facility would have
incurred on-going operational costs. The adoption of a NBS also avoided on-going
operational costs and the requirements for chemicals to be stored on site.
3.14.4 Facility Design and Installation
This hybrid reed and willow bed sewage treatment system (HWTS) currently
services the Parks department depot at Grange, Lucan, Co. Dublin. The initial sys-
tem was commissioned in 2002. It was designed for a PE of 15. This resulted in a
design flow of 3.0 m3 day−1. Three sites are served by the system, a local authority
depot, a private house and a travellers’ halting site. A willow bed tertiary filter sys-
tem was installed in 2008. The wastewater flows by gravity to a septic tank. From
here it overflows to a pump sump, where it is pumped to the HWTS. The wastewater
flows by gravity through the system (Fig. 3.46).
The vertical beds were sized at 2 m2 PE−1, to achieve BOD removal and complete
nitrification on two vertical stages (Cooper et al. 1996). The beds were lined with a
high-density polyethylene liner. An overall depth of media of 0.6 m comprised two
bottom layers of 15 cm each, 20 cm of 6 mm diameter washed pea-gravel and 10 cm
sharp sand layer. The sand was selected using the Grant method, with a test value of
45 s (Cooper et al. 1996).
3.14.5 Monitoring Regime
The reed bed was monitored for 2 years. Samples were taken aseptically at four
points within the system. The physico-chemical analysis tested for nitrate, ammo-
nia, Kjeldahl nitrogen, pH, total suspended solids (TSS), orthophosphate, chemical
oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Samples for
microbiological analysis were taken in sterile bottles to ensure no cross- contamina-
tion. They were analysed for the time dependent parameters, Coliforms and E. Coli.
All analysis of water quality parameters was carried out in an Irish National
Accreditation Body (INAB) accredited laboratory as per Standard Methods.
Figure 3.48 shows the system during winter 2012. Figure 3.47 illustrates the tipping
bucket system which avoids the need for a pump (Fig. 3.48).
3.14.6 Performance
A fortnightly programme was set in place over the 2 years of the project. This moni-
tored clogging of reed beds, odour, flow and pipework including tipping buckets,
pumps, reeds, willows, pipework. Table 3.6 shows the overall performance charac-
teristics for the system.
Fig. 3.46 Overview of treatment system showing PVF reed bed, SVF reed bed, HF reed bed and
Willow bed
Fig. 3.47 Tipping bucket

distribution system
Fig. 3.48 System operating in winter 2012
3.14.7 Reed Bed Performance
Removal values for COD and BOD were comparable with results achieved at other
hybrid systems built in Ireland. Suspended solids removal was slightly lower, at
85%. Coliform and E.coli removal rates were also marked at 94% respectively.
Willow Bed Performance
No outflow was observed from the willow bed during the monitoring period. There
were frequent periods when the willow bed was dry throughout. This left three pos-
sible pathways for the effluent. These were passage through the soil, absorption to
the roots and evapotranspiration of the wastewater, and or evaporation in the open
trenches due to climatic factors such as wind and sunlight. To determine percolation
through the soil, a series of tests were performed. The average permeability of the
samples was 2.3 × 10−7 m/s. From this, we may conclude that the wastewater is
being removed primarily by evapo-transpiration effects. During the 2-year monitor-
ing period, the Reed bed/willow bed system at Lynches Lane Co. Dublin achieved
zero discharge (O’Hogain and McCarton, 2011).
The system produces a resource in the form of willow biomass. A total of 180
willow cuttings were planted in February 2008. Three willow varieties were
planted namely Salix triandra, S. purpurea and S. Viminalis. In winter 2009,
a biomass audit was carried out. The biomass audit determined the average plant
height to be 1.9 m with a range of 1–3.1 m. Stem thickness ranged from 6 to
92
Table 3.6 Overall treatment performance

Influent (Sewage) Horizontal flow reed bed (Effluent) Percentage removal
Parameter Mean S.D. Median Min Max Mean S.D. Median Min Max Mean S.D. Median
NH4−N (mg l−1) 45 40 28 3 144 13 12 12 0 41 71 71 56
KJN as N (mg l−1) 44 31 35 4 117 13 12 11 0 45 70 71 69
NO3−N(mg l−1) 5 10 1 0 40 34 47 4 0 19 −586 −353 −418
PO4P(mg l−1) 4 4 2 0 14 2 1 2 1 6 45 73 17
Coliforms (MPN/100 ml) 2,389,261 4,808,118 1,198,000 1 24,196,000 133,685 402,744 10,462 31 1,986,300 94 92 99
E.coli (MPN/100 ml) 711,074 1,459,254 233,300 1 7,270,000 40,572 121,023 1710 10 579,400 94 92 99
COD (mg l−1) 289 206 327 33 890 37 26 32 0 105 87 88 90
BOD5 (mg l−1) 129 99 136 4 316 11 15 4 1 58 91 85 97
TSS (mg l−1) 101 117 60 17 524 15 22 9 1 96 85 81 85
pH 8 1 8 7 12 7 0 7 7 8 – – –
3 Nature-Based Solutions: Technology Portfolio
3.15 Overall Performance Characteristics of NBS Case Studies 93
24 mm with an average thickness of 14 mm. The resulting biomass could be har-
vested and then utilised for heat and electricity production. 2500 ha of miscanthus
(miscanthus giganteus). Further studies are required in Ireland on the application
of willow systems in different climatic regions and on the capability of achieving
zero discharge (EPA 2016).
3.15 O
verall Performance Characteristics of NBS Case
Studies
The various case studies illustrate the application of NBS across a variety of
water sources. The water sources include rain water, surface water, ground water,
wastewater, sludge, flood water, industrial effluent, drainage water, agricultural
Table 3.7 Principal contaminants and removal mechanisms in NBS case studies
Predominant Contaminants
and Removal Mechanisms NBS CASE STUDY
Contaminant Removal
13. Zero Discharge WWT

Mechanisms
11. RWH - Agriculture

7. Nutrient Recovery
10. RWH - Domestic

2. Managed Aquifer
9.Ecoremediation,
12. RWH - School

4. Can Cabanyes
8. NBS Slovenia
1.Inland Shore
6. Mill? Ponds
3. Green Port
Recharge
Slovenia
5. STW
Gross Solids Screening

Filtration
Suspended Sedimentation

Solids Settlement
Dissolved Aerobic /
Organics Anaerobic

Digestion.

Nitrification
Denitrification
Phosphorous Precipitation
Organic
Removal
Recovery
Filtration
Natural die-off
Predation
UV Irradiation
runoff and lake water. The predominant contaminants and the removal mechanisms
required to improve water quality, are given in Table 3.7. NBS incorporate these
removal mechanisms either naturally or by design into their structure. The physical
removal mechanisms, such as settlement/sedimentation and filtering tend to occur
in all NBS, in particular where influent velocity is reduced. Biological treatment
also occurs in most NBS systems, though the majority would tend to feature aerobic
treatment, as they are amenities and anaerobic conditions would only occur locally
within the system as in Case Studies 1 and 4. Nutrient removal can also occur natu-
rally or can be part of the NBS system as in Case Study 7. Pathogen removal is a
function of residence time and structure of the NBS which tend to be in the open air
and exposed to sunlight. Residence time and exposure to sunlight can prove effec-
tive in removing pathogens, but the low trophic status of most NBS mean that there
is organic material for pathogen survival (Table 3.7).
Chapter 4
Reclaimed Water
Abstract This chapter presents a definition of reclaimed and reused water. It also
presents an overview of potential uses for reclaimed water in terms of agricultural
re-use, environmental re-use, groundwater recharge, non-potable water re-use. This
section will also consider the circular economy of water (CEW) and define the term
“fit for purpose”. Finally it will present an overview of European and Global Water
Reuse guideline and applications.
Keywords Reclaimed Water · Reused Water · Water Reuse Guidelines
4.1 What Is Reclaimed Water
4.1.1 The Circular Economy of Water (CEW)
Water infrastructure has traditionally adopted a linear model, where water is

abstracted at source, treated, used and treated again prior to disposal to the environ-
ment through either surface water or groundwater regimes. In the linear approach to
water, products are disposed of after use. The circular economy is by design restor-
ative of ecosystems. The circular economy, operating within planetary boundaries,
is waste-free and resilient. The characteristics of the circular economy of water
involve an approach where water and its contents, along the entire supply chain are
viewed as a resource to be recovered and reused. NBS are an inherent component of
this model. This approach will result in a multi-functional solution which is resil-
ient, particularly to the challenges faced in a post climate change environment and
that is restorative of ecosystems as illustrated in Fig. 4.1.
4.1.2 Reclaimed Water
Typically in the linear economy raw water is abstracted and treated to potable
(drinking) water standards. This is then supplied to users, both domestic and indus-
trial who use it for various purposes. Some of these uses require advanced treatment

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73281-7_4
96 4 Reclaimed Water
Fig. 4.1 The circular

economy of water
to produce water of a higher quality. The use of the water changes (reduces the
quality) and therefore it has to be treated again before it can be discharged back into
the environment. Water after use is typically termed “wastewater” but more accu-
rately should be termed “used water”. Reclaimed water is used water that has
undergone treatment to upgrade the quality to enable it to be reused.
4.1.3 Fit for Purpose Model
A portfolio of engineered and natural treatment options exist to mitigate microbial

and chemical contaminants in reclaimed water facilitating a multitude of reuse
options (Multiple Waters). The treatment level required depends on the end use and
is focused on protecting public and environmental health. This concept can be con-
sidered as “Fit for Purpose” where the level of treatment produces a quality of water
equal to or above that required for the intended reuse function of the water. This fit
for purpose model will result in multiple waters for multipe uses where the function
of the water governs the water quality. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.2.
If we apply a fit for purpose model to the water management system it is possible
to create a system where used water is reclaimed to different quality levels suitable
for reuse within various applications.
4.2 Potential Uses for Reclaimed Water
There are two major types of water reuse: direct reuse and indirect reuse.
• Direct Reuse is typically considered as the introduction of reclaimed water
directly from a water reclamation facility to a water distribution system.
• Indirect Reuse can be considered as the placing of reclaimed water into storage
(lake, river or aquifer) where it can be abstracted to be used again through con-
ventional water treatment and distribution systems.
4.2 Potential Uses for Reclaimed Water 97
Quality level
Quality
Level
Potable
TREATMENT PROCESS
Water Fit for
Purpose
Raw
Water
Usedwater
Fig. 4.2 Multiple waters for multiple uses can achieve desired levels of water quality to suit reuse
(Adapted from USEPA 2012)
Typically divide water into two principle q uality levels, potable water (suitable for
drinking) and non-potable (suitable for other uses). This facilitates a subdivision of
possible reuse of reclaimed water as follows;
Class 1: Direct Potable Reuse – This is reclaimed water that is treated and dis-
charged from a wastewater treatment facility directly to the potable water
network.
Class 2: Indirect Potable Reuse – This is reclaimed water that is discharged
directly into water reservoirs (storage) and aquifers that are then used as raw
water abstraction points to drinking water treatment facilities which treat the
water to potable standards.
Class 3: Direct Non-Potable Reuse – This is reclaimed water that is used directly
after treatment for non-potable uses either on site or off site.
Class 4: Indirect Non-Potable Reuse – This is reclaimed water that is discharged
from the treatment facility to a water body (storage) that is then used as a water
source for non-potable uses.
Use of reclaimed water may have other benefits, such as recycling of nutrients
and energy savings. The contexts for the use of reclaimed water vary significantly
across the world. Therefore, there is no ‘one size fits all’ approach which would be
appropriate.
The NBS technology portfolio within this book has outlined some applications
of reuse of water in the following areas:
• Urban Reuse
• Agricultural Reuse
• Environmental Reuse
• Ground Water recharge
• Non-Potable Reuse
Table 4.1 Water reuse matrix
Water reuse
applications NBS case studies
11. RWH - agriculture

Nutrient recovery
Managed aquifer
10. RWH - domestic

Ecoremediation,
13. Zero Discharge

Can Cabanyes
12. RWH - School

NBS Slovenia
Inland shore
Green port
Mill ponds
recharge
Slovenia
WWT
STW
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Urban reuse.
Recreation
Irrigation
Agricultural reuse
Food chain
Non food chain
Environmental
reuse
Wetlands
Ecosystem services
Hydraulic
infrastructure
Ground water
recharge
Non-potable reuse
Harvested
rainwater
Grey water
Table 4.1 shows the water reuse matrix for the NBS portfolio.
4.2.1 Agricultural Reuse
Agriculture is the main water use in many countries and in some cases it accounts
for up to 80% of all freshwater abstractions, i.e., Spain. Agricultural water reuse is
generally regarded as irrigation water and can be considered for use in the food
chain and with non-food chain products. Higher water quality standards are required
if the water reuse is for products entering the food chain. The mechanisms used to
4.2 Potential Uses for Reclaimed Water 99
distribute the water are also regulated if food production is involved. Reclaimed
water can also contain levels of nitrogen and phosphorus which could potentially
reduce the need for additional application of mineral fertilisers.
4.2.2 Environmental Reuse
Environmental reuse covers a variety of applications, designs and functions.

Wetlands can be used for wastewater treatment, water treatment, storm water
treatment as well as wild life habitat, fisheries habitat and biodiversity promo-
tion. They also play a role in ecosystem services as the benefits of wetlands are
benefits to humans also. Wetlands can serve many hydraulic infrastructure uses
also, from storm water collection, to water storage to the inland shore discussed
in Case study 1.
4.2.3 Groundwater Recharge
Groundwater recharge has been used to restore underground aquifers that have been
over used. Case study 2 in the NBS technology portfolio shows an example of aqui-
fer recharge from Barcelona for rainwater and for reclaimed wastewater with the
use of a unique mix of local clay and compost. Both surface waters and groundwater
are governed by legislation (i.e. The European Communities (Good Agricultural
Practice for Protection of Waters) Regulations 2010).
4.2.4 Non-potable Reuse
Non-potable reuse refers to all water use except that for drinking and life support.
It is normally divided into harvested rainwater and grey water. Harvested rainwater
can potentially supply toilet use, washings machines and outdoor use. Grey water
is referred to as used water from sinks, baths, showers and washing machines. With
treatment this water can be used as carriage water domestically and grey water
recycling is a common domestic reuse application. Further guidance on the design,
installation and operation and monitoring of RWH and greywater reclamation sys-
tems can be sourced in the British Standards: BS8515:2009 RWH Systems – Code
of Practice (BS8515 2009) and BS 8525-1:2010 Greywater systems – Code of
Practice (BS8525 2010). Industrial reuse would also fall under this category.
Industrial water use is determined by the quality requirements of the industry or
process.
4.3 International Water Reuse Applications
4.3.1 The Aquarec Project
The AQUAREC project on “Integrated Concepts for Reuse of Upgraded

Wastewater” was funded by the European Commission within the 5th Framework
Programme. The project aimed to define criteria to assess the appropriateness of
wastewater reuse concepts in particular cases and to identify the potential role of
wastewater reuse in the context of European water resources management. In their
policy brief they concluded that if utilisation of reclaimed wastewater is not to
contradict the “whenever appropriate” guidance of the Urban Wastewater
Treatment Directive, a definition of ‘appropriateness’ is needed. In other cases,
they concluded that switching from conventional water resources to reclaimed
wastewater is primarily hindered by cost arguments. This would demand the estab-
lishment of water prices that reflect the full-cost recovery principle on the one
hand, and the monetarisation of the potential environmental benefits of wastewater
reuse, on the other.
4.3.2 US Agricultural Reuse Standards
The use of reclaimed water from agriculture has been widely supported by regula-
tory and institutional policies in the United States. In 2009, California adopted both
the “Recycled Water Policy” and “Water Recycling Criteria.” Both policies promote
the use of recycled water in agriculture (SWRCB 2009; California Department of
Public Health 2009). The California Water Recycling Criteria require stringent
water quality standards with respect to microbial inactivation (total coliform
<2.2 cfu/100 mL). In 2012 the USEPA issued updated guidelines for water reuse
providing comprehensive information on different water reuse practices including
international aspects (USEPA 2012). Globally, the US EPA Guidelines for Water
Reuse has had far-reaching influence with many countries either referencing the
document or adopting the guiding principles.
4.3.3 W
HO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta
and Greywater
The WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater:
Volumes 1 – 4, widely adopted in Europe and other regions, is a science-based stan-
dard that has been successfully applied to irrigation reuse applications throughout
the world (WHO 2006). The World Health Organisation (WHO 2006) 3rd edition
4.3 International Water Reuse Applications 101
Table 4.2 National water reuse criteria

Member state Type of criteria Comment
Belgium: Flemish Aquafin proposal Based on Australian EPA guidelines
Regional Authority to the government
(2003)
Cyprus Provisional Quality criteria for irrigation stricter than WHO
standards (1997)standards but less stringent than California Water
Recycling Criteria (Total Coliforms <50/100 ml in
80% of cases)
France Arrete du Refers to water reuse for agricultural and urban
2/10/2010 landscapes. Allows the use of sprinkler irrigation with
minimum distances to sensitive areas. Associates
water quality levels to crop to be grown. Specify
distances between irrigated plots and public areas.
Portugal Portugese Chemical and microbiological treated wastewater
National Standard parameters and treatment levels are defined to protect
NP4434:2005 public health, environment and crop protection.
Greece Ministerial The guidelines are based on three kinds of water use:
Decision restricted, unrestricted and urban uses. For each use, a
145116/2001 different minimum treatment is required and a
different set of limit values for water characteristics is
established.
Italy Decree of Quality requirements are defined for the three water
Environment reuse categories: agriculture, non-potable urban uses
Ministry 185/2003 and industrial uses. Possibility for regional authorities
to change some parameters or implement stricter
regional norms.
Spain Royal Decree Quality Criteria defined for five sectors: residential,
1620/2007 agricultural, environmental, industrial and
recreational.
Regional Guidelines from Developed their own guidance documents based on
Authorities of Regional Health the WHO 2006 guidelines concerning wastewater
Andalucia, Balearic Authorities recycling for irrigation use.
Islands and
Catalonia
WssTP (2009)
of the guidelines are based on a risk assessment. These set the standards and reduc-
tion goals for pathogens and chemical parameters and give recommendations for
reduction measures to achieve human health and environmental protection. The
guidelines specify treatment processes, water quality standards, and monitoring
regimes that minimise risks for use of reclaimed water for irrigation of crops that
are ingested by humans.
Several other European countries have adopted specific water reuse criteria as
summarised in Table 4.2.
The early adopters in urban water reuse projects tend to be in the USA, Japan,
Australia and China. There are a number of NBS in this sector where water is
reclaimed and reused in the urban context for parks and street cleaning. The role of
NBS to deliver planned indirect potable reuse (after blending with other sources) is
summarised by the WssTP report entitled Sustainable Water Management inside
and around large Urban areas (WssTP 2009). These include:
• Infiltration basins: ponds which allow water to infiltrate into an underlying
aquifer
• River bank filtration; extraction of groundwater from a well near a river to induce
infiltration from the river to the well thereby improving the quality of recovered
water
• Dune filtration: infiltration of water from ponds constructed in dunes
• Aquifer storage and recovery: the storage of water in a suitable aquifer and the
recovery of water when needed.
One of the longest running aquifer storage and recovery schemes is in Orange
County, California where reclaimed municipal wastewater is treated by microfiltra-
tion combined with reverse osmosis and UV and hydrogen peroxide disinfection
and used to replace 30% of the water withdrawn from the aquifer. The “Groundwater
Replenishment System” which began in 2008 provides enough recycled wastewater
to meet the needs of 850,000 orange county residents. The resulting program has
been publicised as “toilet to tap”(Deshmukh and Steinbergs 2006).
Chapter 5
Constraints and Barriers to the Adoption
of NBS
Abstract This chapter examines some of the key bottlenecks and barriers related to
NBS for water resources management. Considerations here will include public
acceptance and understanding of water reuse, contaminant risk, demonstration proj-
ects, financing water reuse projects and legislation/policy together with water re-use
management.
Keywords Water reuse public acceptance · contaminant risk · financing
5.1 NBS Water Reuse Constraints
A detailed assessment of the NBS case studies presented in Chap. 3 illustrates some
general trends regarding constraints and barriers to the adoption of NBS.
NBS, by their nature, adopt a multidisciplinary approach to water resource man-
agement (Brink et al. 2012). The basic tenet of the NBS approach is to achieve
added value through ecosystem services, i.e. the benefits that accrue to humans
from nature. The NBS approach gives equal importance to the scientific/engineer-
ing performance of both the infrastructure and the ecosystem services provided. The
NBS approach requires a change in mind-set on the part of the professions
(Architects, Engineers, Planners, etc.) and State Agencies to incorporate this multi-
disciplinary approach into the initial project concept.
NBS also include the local community in defining the problem and exploring
feasible solutions (De Vriend and Van Koningsveld 2012). The community are con-
sidered central to both the design team and operational and maintenance team. Their
local knowledge and experience make them a source of invaluable information. The
existing top down approach to infrastructure provision often only considers com-
munity input when the preliminary design has been completed and provides mini-
mal opportunity for change.
NBS are site specific, in that the solution/s are unique and incorporate local char-
acteristics and design features that do not necessarily replicate (Deltares 2015b).
This presents a challenge to the traditional approach to engineering design which
seeks to standardise solutions according to strict codes of practice. The international
experience presented within the case studies in this report suggests that one should
seek to replicate the NBS methodology rather than the site specific solution.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73281-7_5
104 5 Constraints and Barriers to the Adoption of NBS
Table 5.1 Constraints and Barriers to the adoption of NBS

Water reuse constraints in Water reuse constraints in urban, environmental, groundwater
agriculture and rainwater harvesting
Public acceptance and Public acceptance and understanding
understanding The success of developing countries in providing a
Use of reclaimed water is dependable, inexhaustible supply of safe water at low cost to
perceived to change crop households has effected the willingness of the public to
production rates contemplate alternative reuse schemes
Public awareness for Public acceptance dictates that cost of non-potable water
health risks should be less than that for potable water
Retailer perception Contaminant risk
Legislation/policy and Perceived risk of contaminants requiring additional montoring
management programs which are time consuming and expensive
Lack of incentives to us Financing reuse projects
reclaimed water while Supply of non-potable water including the costs of collection,
sufficiency in conventional treatment, storage and distribution are often comparable or
water resources greater than for potable water schemes.
Lack of common water Dual distribution networks increase costs
reuse regulations for Low profit margins make it commercially unattractive for
agriculture in Europe utility companies
Water Framework Need to develop new business models
Directive sets the Need to Cost added value (for. Ex ecosystem services)
principles to achieve Legislation/policy and management
sustainable water Water governance and legal frameworks immature in Europe
governance but not the to facilitate and regulate urban reuse projects
means Commercial actors nervous to participate in an area with poor
Demonstration legal clarity
Feasibility of large scale Commercial actors nervous to “learn by doing” which limits
direct use of nutrient rich creativity and innovation within the sector
water for crop irrigation is Lack of skills and competencies along the entire supply chain
not yet demonstrated from design, planning, regulators etc.
Another constraint to the adoption of NBS solutions is legislation, and more

specifically the way legislation is currently framed. Used water is considered a
waste. Water legislation puts the onus on “how not to” and discharge limits are
based on environmental and/or public health considerations. This study has demon-
strated that NBS can be used to remove contaminants and return water to a quality
which can then be considered “Fit for Purpose”.
Financial models also require readjustment to fully evaluate the costs and bene-
fits of adopting NBS. The proper costing of added value, whether it is an amenity or
an aesthetic value of ecosystem services, or the benefits in terms of climate resil-
ience requires further research. Another financial barrier involves the return on
investments for companies, especially SMEs, investing in NBS projects. The inter-
national experience suggests that profit margins tend to be low, thus rendering NBS
commercially unattractive.
The lack of sufficiently large scale NBS demonstration projects with monitoring
is a significant constraint. Internationally, pilot demonstration sites serve to promote
innovation within the NBS approach and provide data on local and regional perfor-
mance to assist in replication of the methodology.
Table 5.1 further summarises these constraints according to the reuse potential.
Chapter 6
Hybrid Infrastructure: Local, Regional
and Global Potential of Nature Based
Solutions
Abstract The traditional approach to water supply and wastewater treatment

involves centralized systems designed almost exclusively at protecting community
health. Future systems will focus on the provision of an integrated service to cus-
tomers. Advancing innovations in water efficient strategies will be an integral com-
ponent of this new water sector. This chapter presents case studies at local, regional
and global level which illustrate a new approach to water management. The case
studies presented include the Rain Cities of South Korea, Philadelphia Clean City
Clean Waters program and Singapore Four Taps National Strategy. NBS will form
an integral component of future water infrastructure that comprises a mix of high
tech human built engineered (Grey) infrastructure and NBS (Green) infrastructure.
This combination of approaches can be termed “Hybrid Infrastructure”. These case
studies illustrate the application of this hybrid infrastructure system. This hybrid
infrastructure system combines centralised and decentralised systems to optimise
the reclamation of water for reuse in a fit for purpose model.
Keywords Hybrid Infrastructure · Rain Cities of South Korea · Philadelphia

Clean City Clean Waters program Singapore Four Taps
6.1 Traditional Engineered Water Infrastructure System
Currently, local water demand is typically met by importing large volumes of pota-
ble water from centralised water treatment facilities to decentralised water users.
The water supplied is single quality (potable) without regard to the required water
quality at the point of use. Simultaneously, rainwater is typically discharged unused
via expensive storm water drainage systems. Current wastewater treatment systems
involve decentralised collection, centralised treatment facilities and discharge to
either ground or surface water systems. This traditional system is unidirectional,
running from source to the site of use to disposal, without any loops or recirculation
and/or recycling. The resilience and sustainability of these traditional systems, par-
ticularly given the implications of climate change, is uncertain (Fig. 6.1).

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73281-7_6
106 6 Hybrid Infrastructure: Local, Regional and Global Potential of Nature Based Solutions
Fig. 6.1 Traditional engineered water infrastructure system
6.2 The Circular Economy of Water (Recover, Reuse, Recycle)
This system seeks to maximise recovery of valuable products from within the water
stream in addition to maximising reuse and recycling options at all levels within the
system. In this system rainwater is harvested, treated and reused on site. Treated
rainwater is recycled back into the house for both potable and not potable use. In
this system we do not use the term wastewater, rather the term “used water”. Used
water is collected and carried to a resource recovery facility. Here the used water is
reclaimed and the improved quality allows for its reuse earlier in the process, i.e.
either in the potable water treatment process, in the domestic water use, for agricul-
tural use or for industrial use or ground water recharge. Excess water is discharged
to the local water source or to groundwater. Valuable nutrients and other resources
can also be mined from the used water stream for reuse. This system produces mul-
tiple waters for multiple uses (Fig. 6.2).
6.3 Hybrid Grey and Green Infrastructure
NBS will form an integral component of a future water infrastructure that comprises
a mix of high tech human built engineered (Grey) infrastructure and NBS (Green)
water infrastructure. This combination of approaches can be termed “Hybrid
Infrastructure”. This approach will require us to rethink and redesign the current
6.3 Hybrid Grey and Green Infrastructure 107
Fig. 6.2 Circular Economy of Water (Multiple waters for multiple uses)
system both by combining centralised and decentralised water treatments and by

optimising the exploitation of alternative water sources in a circular economy
approach to water. New localised and regional closed loop systems will ensure that
used water from point of use systems is collected and carried to a resource recovery
facility. Here the used water can be reclaimed and the improved quality allows for
its reuse. Hybrid centralised and decentralised systems will enable a “Fit for pur-
pose” concept to be applied to multiple waters, using different water qualities for
multiple uses, depending on the local availability and user needs. This will facilitate
the development of a more holistic water portfolio that utilises the benefits of both
engineered and natural ecosystems. In this future system NBS can contribute to
developing a robust, flexible and resilient water infrastructure at a local, regional
and global level.
Unlocking the environmental, social and economic benefits of a hybrid infra-
structure by combining a range of measures to store, reuse and slowly dissipate
rainwater, reducing flooding and helping to conserve precious water resources
has to date been viewed as aspirational. However, three examples, Star City,
South Korea, Singapore and Philadelphia illustrate approaches that show that
sustainable water infrastructure is not just about water management. When
viewed in a holistic manner, hybrid infrastructure can involve the creation of
sustainable community spaces, urban regeneration, physical infrastructure, job
creation and biodiversity.
6.4 Hybrid Infrastructure: Case Study at Local Level
The potential to integrate NBS into water resources management can be considered
at a local, a regional and global level. The local level refers to cities and towns. The
same solutions can be applied with a difference in scale being the main difference
between a town of say 4000 inhabitants and a city of four million people. The same
principles of working with a spectrum of professionals, planners architects engi-
neers etc., listening and involving the community from the start of the project,
designing water in rather that designing water out and building nature in rather than
building in nature all apply. A technology portfolio similar to that presented earlier
in this publication is also required.
Decentralized water resource management and reuse – Star City South Korea
The Local Level: The massive migration to the cities, which characterised the closing
decades of the twentieth century and the opening decades of the 21st, means that water
resource management is most effectively applied to the city. In discussing hybrid infra-
structure at a city level, one of the better examples are the rain cities of South Korea.
Climate change has meant that flooding and drought are becoming a worldwide
problem. However, both flooding and drought are related to rainwater so through
water resource management both can be mitigated. This can be achieved through the
collection of rainwater before it impacts on the surface water/sewerage collection
system, i.e. the drainage system. The authorities in South Korea adopted a plan to
create Rain cities, based on scientific and engineering data and principles. This was
aimed at Climate Change adaption through the promotion of Rain Cities (Han 2011).
Rainwater is high quality water and most of the contamination of rainwater can
be said to occur after it has fallen and come into contact with the ground and trav-
elled to a drainage system. Therefore impoundment and use on site reduces the need
for treatment and transport and impacts on climate change through reduced carbon
emissions and reduced infrastructure needs. The drainage collection system, be it
combined or separate, is designed for a certain volume of rainfall. However climate
change has resulted in more intense rainfall events where the capacity of the drain-
age system is unable to cope with the volume of water. Rainwater tanks and storage
devices can be designed to increase the capacity of existing sewer systems without
reconstruction of the sewer system.
Faced with the consequences of climate change, increased flooding and water sup-
ply problems, the South Korean Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs
(MLTM) MTML announced that the rain cities were to be designed such that rainwa-
ter is collected rather than running to surface/sewerage drains. This policy of a multi-
purpose system has the dual purpose of flood mitigation and water conservation. It is
also proactive utilising a remote control system which allows, where appropriate, the
emptying or filling of the storage tanks. This was based on the Korean philosophy
that all people depend on the same water. It was also based on the concept of water-
shed management. River basin management parameters included low carbon emis-
sions, growth of green areas, water self-suffiency and climate change adaption.
Finally any development should ensure that the water system is the same after devel-
opment as before.
6.5 Hybrid Infrastructure: Case Study at Regional Level 109
Implementation of these changes also involved an amendment to design guide-

lines. The Korean Ministry of Environment proposed a law that all the government
buildings collect rainwater from the roof. The South Korean National Emergency
Management Agency in their Natural Disaster Law, insisted rainfall runoff reducing
facilities be installed. Selected sites were to serve as demonstration sites with full
scientific and meteorological monitoring. There was also a Rain City: Regulations
in Cities incentive which saw Seoul City apply the first proactive rainwater regula-
tions to install rainwater tanks for new buildings and monitor the water level. The
latter were accompanied by incentives and subsidy programs.
These initiatives led to the adoption of the Rain City policy by many cities
throughout South Korea. Based on this many cities in Korea adapted this policy
implementing and enforcing similar rainwater regulations. This was especially the
case after recent drought problems. There is a movement toward the RainCity,
where rainwater is stored for multipurpose use, instead of letting it run to surface
water/sewerage drains.
Star City, Seoul :Star City was a major development project in Gwangjin-gu, a
district in eastern Seoul. It consisted of more than 1300 apartment units. The design
team for the complex, uniquely, comprised of an alliance of academics, the land
owner and developer, the local government, the designer of the development proj-
ect, and the general contractor. The Star City rainwater harvesting project was
designed to capture the first 100 mm of rainfall on the complex and to use the har-
vested water for toilets and gardening. Storage tanks were also installed of suffi-
cient volume to mitigate flooding during the monsoon season. These tanks collected
rainwater and groundwater. Rainwater used in the garden was infiltrated and
returned to the Storage tank. Results from the Star City project show a local rain-
water utilisation rate of 67%. This is a measure of the amount of rainwater used
compared to the total annual rainfall in the area. Therefore 67% of the annual rain-
fall was captured and utilised. The motto in Star City is “from Drain city to rain city
by training Brain citizens”.
This decentralised NBS water management system is replicated in the rain cities
of Korea. It shows the importance of cooperation across the sectors, most particu-
larly the involvement of local government (Han 2009).
6.5 Hybrid Infrastructure: Case Study at Regional Level
At the regional level, or the river basin level, a similar methodology applies. This
involves a wide range of professional input, community involvement and natural
engineering. However often times river basins cross national and international
boundaries and present the added problem of a historical legacy in terms of disputed
territory and bitter conflict. The application to river basins within a nation is a sim-
pler task, if the implementation of water resources management can ever be classed
as simple.
Philadelphia – Clean Waters, Clean City Program, − example of watershed

management using an NBS Portfolio
The Philadelphia Water Department (PWD) provides water and wastewater treat-
ment to a population of over 1.4 million people on the eastern seaboard of the
USA. PWD has implemented a new approach to rainwater entitled “Green City,
Clean Waters” (Philadelphia Water Department 2011). The Key to this approach is
considering rainwater as an urban asset to be captured and used. The approach also
considers the traditional concept of moving rainfall downstream as quickly as pos-
sible causes a reduction in the quality of the rainwater and increases the risk of
flooding. The traditional concept is therefore not sustainable. The “Green City,
Clean Waters” approach regards the participation of local communities as partners
within the design, construction and management process as having equal impor-
tance with technological considerations. The approach stresses the importance of a
knowledgeable community as a capable partner, able to actively participate in the
design, construction and management of their own local infrastructure. Education at
schools, community and business levels, has been fundamental to the water strategy.
Initially the concepts were opposed by all levels of the engineering profession.
However, now it is held as a case study in sustainable urban design.
The basic principles of the City’s Green City, Clean Waters approach to
regarding rainwater as a resource is the recycling of the harvested rainwater, its
re-use, and infiltration of the rainwater into groundwater aquifers rather than pip-
ing it away from communities into stressed tributaries. This approach also main-
tains and upgrades water infrastructure. The strategy is aimed at reducing the
storm water discharging to sewers, and using this water to improve the quality of
the cities impervious areas by changing the landscape. PWD measure the prog-
ress of the approach through the number of Greened Acres achieved. Each
Greened Acre refers to an acre of impervious cover within the combined sewer
service area of Philadelphia that has at least the first inch of runoff managed by
greened stormwater infrastructure. This includes the area of the stormwater man-
agement feature itself and the area that drains to it. If the land is impervious, it
all runs off into the sewer and becomes polluted. A Greened Acre will stop
80–90% of this pollution from occurring.
Another feature of the Green City, Clean Waters concept is the integrated water-
shed Planning Approach. The city lies in the downstream section of a number of
watersheds. Therefore without the involvement of upstream neighbours, stakehold-
ers and local government agencies the effect of the approach would be limited.
Watershed management involves the City and surrounding areas in a programme
that aims to protect drinking water supplies, recreational sites and other water
resources such as streams and parks.
The Green City, Clean Waters approach is based on a technology portfolio. In
Philadelphia the NBS technology applied includes storm water tree trenches, down-
spout planter areas, green roofs, storm water planter areas, storm water wetlands, rain
gardens. Other NBS innovations include green car parks, green schools, green homes
and industries. In some cases these NBS technologies are used with pervious paving,
rain water storage tanks and barrels and extended drainage facilities. When these non
6.6 Hybrid Infrastructure: Case Study at Global Level 111
NBS technologies are used in conjunction with NBS technologies it is referred to as

an integrated or hybrid NBS system (http://www.phillywatersheds.org/).
6.6 Hybrid Infrastructure: Case Study at Global Level
At the global level the adoption of the methodology proposed in this publication
involves political, theoretical and even philosophical issues. The input of the com-
munity to any NBS water resources strategy is a fine ideal but in reality the com-
munity is often the last bastion of resistance to the water resource management
policies of local, regional and national government, as well as to business interests.
The change of attitude, to viewing the local people, be they indigenous groups or
internal migrants as custodians of their land is seismic. In effect it empowers local
residents and gives them a large input into the decision making process. The cul-
tural, political and demographic implications of such a change in focus are beyond
the terms of this publication. Some areas of the world face situations where water is
not going to be available in sufficient supplies to allow development of resources,
and even in some cases, tolerable human living conditions. It is in this context that
water has become a sustainability issue and the minimisation of water use has
become a central tenet of sustainability.
However, this involves such themes as water recycling, massive infrastructure
repairs, conservation and reclamation of destroyed water systems amongst others. It
involves sustainable agriculture instead of industrial agriculture and local water
rights for all. It involves strong laws and strong law enforcement against pollution
and polluters, and transparency in all parts of the legal system. It involves equal
access to the legal system also. Further considerations involve limits on industrial
growth, the promotion of locally appropriate technology, an end to the construction
of large dams and in order to offset ground water problems in the future, severe
limits on groundwater extractions. Some of these topics are political, some are leg-
islative, but most are beyond the scope of this publication.
Singapore – example of water underlying every government policy
Singapore is an example of the holistic approach to water, on the level of a nation
state. All hard surfaces are considered water catchments, and all water that falls is
considered a useful resource. These unprotected water catchments supply raw water
which is treated to potable water standards. Wastewater is recycled and treated to
drinking water standard and resold to users as a high quality brand “NEWater”.
Singapore is an example where innovation in thinking has resulted in it moving
from being a net importer of water to becoming self-sufficient in a period of
30 years. At the time of independence, Singapore was dependent upon importing
water from its neighbour, Malaysia, to supplement water supply. This led to a pol-
icy decision in the Prime Minister’s office “that water should govern every
Government decision” (Num 2017).
Singaporeans refer to the water loop that is the basis for a sustainable water sup-
ply as the “Four Taps”.
Singapore four taps water management strategy
The First National Tap is potable water that comes from a network of waterways
and reservoirs throughout the peninsula. These were initially fed by protected
catchments, areas of land where industrial and housing developments were strictly
controlled to protect the quality of the rainwater which was harvested. However as
land demands increased for housing and industry, less land could be spared for
additional protected water catchments. Therefore, the radical decision was taken to
develop unprotected catchments. Unprotected catchments are areas of water catch-
ment where all types of land use are allowed upstream of the storage area, regard-
less of potential effects on water quality. These include parks, pavements, roads
drains etc. Every drop of rain is captured and all surfaces are regarded as water
catchments. Water is designed into a system, as against being designed out via
storm water drainage.
Example of rainwater collected from unprotected water catchment
The Second National Tap refers to the imported water from Malaysia, which
was the main source of water prior to the 1960s and is still purchased, but no longer
6.6 Hybrid Infrastructure: Case Study at Global Level 113
has the same strategic value. The Third National Tap is NEWater. In 1998 two
Singaporean engineers were sent on a study trip to the USA, specifically Southern
California and Florida. This trip was a turning point in Singapore’s efforts to recycle
its wastewater. Wastewater is now treated to a potable standard and the end product
is branded as “NEWater” and sold to Information Technology companies and also
used in the national water supply. The Fourth National Tap is Desalination, which is
being developed with the focus on reducing the power inputs required.
Wastewater treated to potable standards and rebranded “NEWater”
These initiatives were not without their difficulties. The engineering profession
opposed the introduction of unprotected catchments on the grounds that water qual-
ity would be compromised and that drinking water standards would prove impos-
sible to achieve. To overcome consumer reluctance to accept the concept of drinking
water produced from sewage—literally their own excreted waste—a public
campaign was conducted to convince consumers of the potability, lack of taste and
odour of this treated water. This was rebranded “NEWater” to offset the “yuck fac-
tor”. The campaign culminated with a high-visibility event at the 2002 National Day
Parade when the then Prime Minister Tong lead sixty thousand people in a toast to
Singapore with “NEWater” as the beverage.
More recently the Singapore government launched a campaign that they call ABC,
referring to an active beautiful and clean waters programme. This is an initiative
aimed at improving the quality of water and life by harnessing the full potential of
waterbodies. By integrating the drains, canals and reservoirs with the surrounding
environment in a holistic way, the ABC Waters Programme aims to create beautiful
and clean streams, rivers, and lakes with postcard-pretty community spaces for all to
enjoy. The idea is to promote local people’s participation in, and use of, the waterways
of Singapore in the hope that this will instill appreciation and water values into the
community. Singapore is promoting the Worth of Water. As they say themselves, “we
used to keep the community away from our water. Now we want them to use it, play
in it, respect it. In other words, to take ownership of water and water resources”.
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Index
A D
Adoption, NBS, 103, 104 Deltares, 14
Agricultural rainwater harvesting, Ireland Design Build Operate Finance (DBOF), 7
concept, 79 Development Technology in the Community
design criteria, 79 Research Group (DTC-DIT), 14
operation characteristics, 79–81 Domestic Rainwater Harvesting, Ireland
removal mechanisms, 81 concept, 74–75
resource recovery product, 81–83 consumer acceptance, 77
RWH installation, 81 design criteria, 75
site location, 79 domestic installation, 77
Águas de Portugal (AdP), 14 natural treatment mechanisms, 76
AIMEN Technology Centre, 13 operation characteristics, 75, 76
The AQUAREC project, 100 resource recovery product, 77
Area Metropolitana de Barcelona site location, 74
(AMB), 29 water demand, 75
AUTARCON GmbH, 15
E
B Ecoremediation polygons, Slovenia
Bi-direction system, 106 concept, 68
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), educational facilities, 70, 72
65, 89 Modraze, 68–73
Biomimicry, 3 site location, 68
BRAE™ filter, 80 Ecosystem services
Budapest Waterworks, 15 natural capital and NBS, 3
wetlands, 2
EIP action group NatureWat, 22
C Enhancement of soil aquifer treatment
CEEweb, 16 (ENSAT) project, 29
Chemical oxygen demand (COD), 41, 65, 89 Environmental Impact assessment (EIA), 5
Circular economy of water (CEW), 2, 95, 96 EU Water Framework Directive, 12
Climatogeography, 70 European Innovation Partnership (EIP)
Community participatory approach (CPA), 7 demand/market potential, 17
Contaminant risk, 104 European knowledge, 12
Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA), 5 European working groups, 17–19

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73281-7
120 Index
European Innovation Partnership (EIP) (cont.) performance, 27

market uptake, 17 resource/recovery/product, 27
NatureWat Action Group Members, 12–16 site location, 24
pool expertise and resources, 11 unique spiral design of system, 26
water level fluctuations, 24
Irish National Accreditation Body (INAB), 89
F
Financing reuse projects, 104
Fundación Nueva Cultura del Agua (FNCA), 16 K
Kre_Ta Landscape Architecture, 16
G
Geomorphology, 70 L
Good Agricultural Practice for Protection of Lifecycle Analysis (LCA), 5
Waters, 99 LIMNOS Ltd, 15
The Green Port LIMNOWETR system, 61
concept, 39 Lindab leafbeater™ filter, 80
design criteria, 36–38 Llobregat River, 30
mud flats and groynes, 37
natural shoreline banks, 37
operation characteristics, 38 M
Rotterdam Mallegats Park, 36 Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR)
shipping channels, 38 description, 29, 30
site location, 35 design criteria, 31, 32
operation characteristics, 32–34
project, 32
H reactive compost layer, 34
Horizontal subsurface flow (HSF), 61 resource/recovery/product, 34
Hybrid infrastructure site location, 29
global level, 111 Mill Pond
grey and green, 106, 107 concept, 51
local level, 108 design criteria, 51
PWD, 110 municipalities, 52
regional level, 109 operation characteristics, 52–55
Singapore “Four Taps”, 111–113 site location, 51
Star City project, South Korea, 108, 109 Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime
Star City project, Seoul, 109 Affairs (MLTM), 108
Hybrid reed and willow bed sewage treatment Miscanthus, 93
system (HWTS), 89
Hydraulic retention time (HRT), 43
Hydrology, 70 N
Nature-based engineering programme, 14
Nature-based solutions (NBS)
I biomimicry, 2
Inland Shore Concept CBA, 5
aerial view, 25 CEW, 2
challenges, 26 challenges, 7
community involvement, 28 characteristics, 6
design criteria, 25, 26 definition, 3
ecosystem services, 24 design process, 8
helophyte, 24 EC Expert Group Report, 3
Koopmanspolder, 24 EcoShape, 9
maintenance, 27 ecosystem services, 5
operation characteristics, 26–27 EIA procedures, 1, 5
Index 121
EIP case studies, 4 R

European Commission Horizon 2020 Rain cities of South Korea, 108
Research Programme, 3 Rainwater harvesting (RWH), 74
flood protection, 6 Reclaimed water
hybrid engineer, 7 agricultural reuse, 98–99
LCA, 5 AQUAREC project, 100
physical site, 5 aquifer storage and recovery, 102
principles, 8 areas, 97
stakeholder involvement, 7 CEW, 95
sustainability, 1 domestic and industrial, 95
technology portfolio, 6 dune filtration, 102
terminology, 4 environmental reuse, 99
traditional approach, 5 fit for purpose model, 96, 97
water supply and management, 2, 3 groundwater recharge, 99
water-related infrastructure projects, 6 Groundwater Replenishment
NatureWat Action Group System, 102
Águas de Portugal, 14 infiltration basins, 102
AIMEN Technology Centre, Spain, 13 national water reuse criteria, 101
AUTARCON GmbH, Germany, 15 NBS portfolio, 98
Barcelona Metropolitan Area, Spain, 14 non-potable reuse, 99
Budapest Waterworks, Hungary, 15 raw water, 95
CEEweb, Hungary, 16 river bank filtration, 102
Deltares Enabling Delta Life, the subdivision of reuse, 97
Netherlands, 14 the US agricultural reuse standards, 100
demand/market potential, 17 water reuse, 96
DTC-DIT, Ireland, 14 WHO guidelines, 100–102
GEMMA-UPC, Spain, 13 WssTP report, 102
innovation in water management, 12 Recycled Water Policy, 100
Kre_ta Landschaftsarchitektur, Restoration of Ecosystems, Barcelona
Germany, 16 COD and TSS removal rates,
LIMNOS Ltd, Slovenia, 15 43, 44
market uptake, 17 concept, 41
members, 12, 13 design criteria, 41–42
New Water Culture Foundation, natural treatment system, 42
Spain, 16 operation characteristics, 43
Not In My Backyard (NIMBY) syndrome, 7 resource/recovery/product, 43–44
Nutrient recovery Reused water, 95, 96
intensive drainage systems, 58
nitrate removal, 58
nitrates, 56, 57 S
operation characteristics, 58 School rainwater harvesting, Ireland
phosphate, 57 community involvement, 86
phosphate removal, 58 concept, 84
resource/recovery/product, 59 description, 85
site location, 56 design criteria, 84
non-potable water demand, 85
operation characteristics, 85
P resource recovery product, 86
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products site location, 84
(PPCPs), 41 Sludge treatment wetlands (STW), 46, 49
Philadelphia clean city clean waters Small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs),
program, 110 12, 16
Philadelphia Water Department (PWD), 110 Soil mechanics, 70
Phytogeography, 70 South Dublin County Council (SDCC), 88
122 Index
South Korean National Emergency Water reuse matrix, NBS portfolio, 98

Management Agency, 109 Water reuse public acceptance, 104
Surface Flow Constructed Wetland (SFCW), 41 Wetlands Sludge Treatment Systems,
Barcelona Region
description, 46
T design criteria, 46, 47
Total suspended solids (TSS), 41, 89 operation characteristics, 47, 48
resource recovery product, 49–50
site location, 46
U small and remote communities, 47
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), 12 waste activated sludge generation, 48
The US EPA Guidelines, 100 WWTPs, 47
Working groups (WGs), NatureWat, 18–19
W
Wastewater treatment systems, Slovenia Z
design criteria, 62–64 Zero discharge natural wastewater treatment,
HSF wetlands, 61 Ireland
industrial site, Ribojstvo Goricar, 65, 66 facility design and installation, 89
LIMNOWETR system, 61, 62 monitoring regime, 89
local community/municipality, 64 performance characteristics, 89, 92–94
operation characteristics, 64 reed beds, 88, 91
removal mechanisms, 65, 66 resource recovery product, 91–93
site location, 61 SDCC, 88
at Sveti Tomaz and Sodinci Wastewater, site location, 88
61, 62, 64–66 tipping bucket system, 89
Water infrastructure system, 105–106 willow beds, 88, 91
Water Recycling Criteria, 100 Zoogeography, 70

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ISBN 978-3-319-73280-0 ISBN 978-3-319-73281-7 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017964120

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

President of Ireland Michael D. Higgins

peri-urban areas. The surface water infrastructure is designed to remove surface

Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland Sean O’Hogain

1 Nature-Based Solutions ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1

3.3 Case Study 2: Managed Aquifer Recharge- Llobregat River�������������� 28

3.9 Case Study 8: Nature-Based Wastewater Treatment Systems

3.14.3 Key Drivers �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 88

AdP Águas de Portugal

HWTS Hybrid Reed and Willow Bed Treatment System

Fig. 1.1 Characteristics of the circular economy of water (RRR) �������������� 2

Fig. 3.26 Schematic showing LIMNOWETR

Table 2.1 NatureWat European working groups

Abstract This chapter proposes a definition of Nature Based Solutions (NBS),

Keywords Nature Based Solutions · Circular Economy of Water · Ecosystem Services

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 1

Fig. 1.1 Characteristics of

The current system of water supply and management is based on a linear

1.2 The Circular Economy of Water (CEW)

1.3 Nature-Based Solutions

Nature-based solutions are both natural and constructed systems, which

Fig. 1.2 New approach

1.4 Are There Nature-Based Solutions?

Nature – can be considered as relating to biodiversity as a totality or the individual

to affect the interests of a variety of stakeholders, especially in densely populated

1.5 Towards a Nature-Based Solutions Methodology

1.6 Further Information

EcoShape is a consortium of Dutch companies that include international dredg-

Keywords European Innovation Partnership · NatureWat Action Group

2.1 European Innovation Partnership (EIP)

The European Innovation Partnership (EIP) on Water facilitates the development of

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 11

2.3 NatureWat Action Group Members

Fig. 2.1 NatureWat members

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya

CEEweb for Biodiversity is a network of non-governmental organizations in the Central and

2.4.1 Barriers to Market Uptake

(a) To improve technical performance of nature-based technologies for water man-

2.4.2 Demand/Market Potential

2.5 European Working Groups

Table 2.1 NatureWat European working groups (WGs) and networks

Keywords Living Labs · Nature Based Solutions Technology Portfolio

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 21

3.1 NBS Technology Portfolio

3.2 Case Study 1: Inland Shore Concept Lake Ijsselmeer

Inland Shore Concept

Faced with water

· Inland water storage Resource Water /

www.deltares.nl Site Location: Project Partners

Lake Ijsselmeer, Deltares, Rijkswaterstaat,

Fig. 3.1 Inland shore concept

3.2.1 Site Location:Koopmanspolder

3.2.2 Inland Shore Concept

3.2.3 Design Criteria

3.2.4 Key Drivers

President of Ireland Michael D. Higgins

Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland Sean O’Hogain

1 Nature-Based Solutions �� 1

3.3 Case Study 2: Managed Aquifer Recharge- Llobregat River�� 28

3.9 Case Study 8: Nature-Based Wastewater Treatment Systems

3.14.3 Key Drivers �� 88

Fig. 1.1 Characteristics of the circular economy of water (RRR) �� 2

1.2 The Circular Economy of Water (CEW)

1.3 Nature-Based Solutions

1.4 Are There Nature-Based Solutions?

1.5 Towards a Nature-Based Solutions Methodology

1.6 Further Information

2.1 European Innovation Partnership (EIP)

2.3 NatureWat Action Group Members

2.4.1 Barriers to Market Uptake

2.4.2 Demand/Market Potential

2.5 European Working Groups

3.1 NBS Technology Portfolio

3.2 Case Study 1: Inland Shore Concept Lake Ijsselmeer

3.2.1 Site Location:Koopmanspolder

3.2.2 Inland Shore Concept

3.2.3 Design Criteria

3.2.4 Key Drivers

3.2.5 Operation Characteristics

3.2.9 Community Involvement

3.3.1 Llobregat Delta Site Location

3.3.2 Managed Aquifer Recharge Concept

3.3.3 Design Criteria

3.3.4 Key Drivers

3.3.5 Operation Characteristics

3.3.6 Reactive Compost Layer Performance

3.4.1 Mallegats Park, Rotterdam

3.4.2 Green Port Concept

3.4.3 Design Criteria

3.4.4 Key Drivers

3.4.5 Operation Characteristics

3.5.1 Site Location Can Cabanyes

3.5.3 Design Criteria

3.5.4 Key Drivers

3.5.5 Operation Characteristics

3.6.1 La Guixa Site Location

3.6.2 Sludge Treatment Wetlands Concept

3.6.3 Design Criteria

3.6.4 Key Drivers

3.6.6 Resource Recovery Product

3.7 Case Study 6: Mill Pond

3.7.1 Site Location

3.7.3 Design Criteria

3.7.4 Key Drivers

3.7.5 Operation Characteristics

3.8 Case Study 7: Nature-Based Nutrient Recovery