microorganisms or foreign matter.

In simple terms, the presence in food of harmful, Food Contaminant

unpalatable, or otherwise objectionable foreign substances, this may be chemicals, -
microorganisms or diluents, before, during, or after processing or storage, is food
contamination.

Codex Alimentarius (or food code elaborated by the Codex Alimentarius Commission
of the Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization) defines ,
'food contamination' as any substance not intentionally added to food, which is
present in such food as a result of the production (including operations carried
out in crop husbandv, animal husbandv and veterinary medicine), manufacture,
processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of
such food as a result of environmental contamination.

In day to day practice, our food can get contaminated by the water used for cooking
or washing, by the soil in which the food is grown, by the container used for storage,
preparation and service, by the personnel handling the food at various stages etc.
During recent years, the problem of dioxin contaminated chickens, hormone injected
cattle, genetically modified varieties of maize such as star link, animal carcasses used
to make animal feed and subsequent mad cow disease among animals consuming
such feed, pesticide residue containing mineral water and soft drinks of popular brand
etc. had received considerable media attention. The list of contaminated food is
getting longer and longer.

Contaminants in foodstuffs can chiefly be classified as physical, biological and chemical

contaminants. Physical contaminants include extraneous matter such as sand, soil,
hair etc. Biological contaminants consist of microorganisms such as fungi and their
metabolic products. Chemical contaminants, on the other hand, are the products of
fast growing modem technology. The increasing population, as well as, the mass
migration into the cities, demands a massive and rapid increase in our food supply.
Increased agricultural productivity requires constant large scale application of fertilizers,
insecticides, pesticides, antibiotics and chemicals for stimulating the growth of plants
and farm animals. Residues, sometimes at toxic levels, from most of these products,
end up in the food supply via the soil, air and water. Chemical contaminants may also
come fiom other sources besides agriculture. Modernization of the population's lifestyles
also has resulted in the production of synthetic chemicals for use in all aspects of
modem life - in industry, transportation, housing, household activities, entertainment,
leisure activities, education and research.

You would realize some of these contaminants may be naturally occurring in foods,
others may be environmental contaminants while some may be intentionally added to
adulterate food about which we will learn in the next unit. Here we will focus on all
contaminants, natural or otherwise found in foods. For your convenience we have
classified them as under:
Naturally occurring toxicants, including toxicants in plant, animal food and anti-
nutritional factors in foods. * .
Environmental contaminants, including biological contaminants, pesticide residues,
veterinary drug residues and heavy metals.
Miscellaneous, including dioxins, acrylamide, contaminants from plastic etc.

Let us learn about these contaminants next.

6.3 NATURALLY OCCURRING TOXICANTS

Some of the foods contain naturally occurring toxic compounds, which man has
identified by experience and learnt to avoid. Naturally occurring toxicants are products
iood Microbiology and
Safety
Food Contaminants
~ o o dMicrobiology and and water temperature is poor. The incidence of shellfish poisoning has been declining, ,
Safety most likely because of careful monitoring and improved public awareness all over the I

world.
Next, let us look at some of the other well known toxicants present in seafood.
Ciguatera
Ciguatera probably represents the most common cause of poisoning from fish in
tropics. Ciguatera comprises over 50% of all reported cases of seafood poisoning.
This poisoning is very common in temperate and inland areas. Ciguatera toxin, a
polyether, is found in blue-green algae and protozoans and is known to affect
thermoregulation and sensory, motor and muscular activities. These organisms are
ingested by herbivorous fish, which, in turn, are eaten by larger fish. Ciguatera is
concentrated in the flesh, adipose tissue and organs of the larger fish. Clguatera toxin
is odourless and tasteless, and contaminated .fish tastes normal. What is more important,
here is the fact that the toxin is heat stable and thus may affect people even if fish
are prepared properly. Further, ciguatera toxin is secreted into breast milk and freely
crosses the placenta, affecting the foetus. Symptoms usually are evident within 2-6
hours after ingestion and may last as long as 48 hours. It produces a spectrum of
illness that is not easy to understand. Over 150 symptoms have been described,
involving multiple body systems: gastrointestinal, neurological, musculoskeletal,
dermatological and cardiopulmonary. Symptoms generally consist of abdominal cramps,
nausea, vomiting, profuse watery diarrhoea, myalgias (pain in the muscle), arthralgias
(neuralgic pain in a joint or joints), weakness and dysuria (painful or diff~culturination).
Neurologic symptoms tend to occur later (up to 72 h) and may persist for months.
These are predominantly paresthesias (a skin sensation, such as burning, prickling,
itching, or tingling), but a myriad of other sometimes bizarre neurologic symptoms also
may be observed, including sensation of loose painll teeth, tingling in the lips, tongue
and throat, vertigo, ataxia, visual changes and seizures. Death is rare, with a reported
mortality rate of approximately 1 in 1000 patients. Contrary to saxitoxin, the cigutera
toxin is more potent. In fact, saxitoxin is a derivative of ciguatera toxin.
Scombroid
Ingestion of improperly handled and stored seafood (yellow-fin tuna, skipjack, bonit
and mackerel) causes scombroid poisoning. Maitoxin has been implicated in scombroid
poisoning,which releases neurotransmitters and increases the contraction of smooth,
cardiac and skeletal muscle. Decarboxylation of histidine, a aminoacid, naturally
found on fish, into biogenic amines, such as histamine, occurs at temperatures greater
than 15°C. Histamine, an organic compound, derived from histidine is released from
certain cells upon tissue injury or during the activity of certain antibodies. At high
concentrations, they are risk factors for food intoxication whereas moderate
levels may lead to food intolerance. Histamine is not inactivated by heat, therefore,
proper cooking is not a remedy for improper storage. Patients sometimes describe a
peppery or bitter taste to the fish, but often the fish tastes completely normal.
A host of symptoms, including skin flushing, facial swelling, dizziness, throbbing
headache, oral burning, metallic, sharp or peppery taste in mouth, abdominal cramps,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, palpitations, a sense of unease, and, rarely, prostration or
loss of vision characterize scombroid poisoning. A rash that looks like sunburn may
occur and a small number of patients have hives, i.e., allergic skin reaction. Symptoms
usually occur within 10-30 minutes of ingesting fish and generally are self-limited.
Physical signs may include a diffuse erythema (a reddening of the skin due to
capillary dilation), tachycardia, wheezing and hypotension or hypertension. Scombroid
is second in incidence only 'to ciguatera poisoning, however, it often is misdiagnosed
because it resembles an allergic reaction. Best precaution, therefore, is to avoid
organ meats and gonads.
Before, we move further, we would like to elobrate further on the biogenic amines.
What are biogenic amines? The biogenic amines are biologically active compounds
 synthesized from amino acids. Foodborne biogenic amines are most commonly Food Contaminants
synthesized by spoilage microorganisms and are usually considered to. be potential
toxins. Biogenic amines should not always be considered to be potential toxicants but
can also be considered to be non-hormonal growth promotants.
In our discussion above, we studied that in addition to the release of endogenous
histamine during allergic reactions, certain foods contain histamine produced by
decarboxylation of histidine by enzymes produced by bacterial contamination of foods,.

An example of latter mechanism is scombroid poisoning, which is one of the three

most common illnesses associated with seafood consumption. Other biogenic amines
such as putrescine and'cadaverine may play a synergistic role with histamine by
inhibiting the histamine detoxifying enzymes, diamine oxidase and histamine N-
methyltransferase. While allergic reactions affect only susceptible individuals, the
contamination of foods with histamine will cause symptoms in all individuals exposed
to sufficient amounts of the food involved.

Puffeelfish poisoning
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) causes pufferfish (tetrodon) poisoning, also known as blowfish
poisoning or fugu. How does a pufferfish look like? Well, a typical pufferfish is
shown in the Figure 6.3. TTX is one of the most potent non-protein neurotoxin found
in nature that blocks sodium channels of excitable cells and exposure can result in
rapid death. Symptoms occur within 15 minutes of ingestion but may be observed as
late as several hours later. More rapid onset of symptoms is associated with higher
levels of toxin ingestion. Symptoms principally are neurologic and cardiovascular in
nature and may include peri-oral (around the mouth) tingling, a floatini sensation, a
feeling of overall warmth, weakness, incoordination, slurred speech, bradycardia (slow
heart rate), hypotension and dyspnea (shortness of breath). Decreased levels of
consciousness, seizures and death have occurred in as few as 17 minutes. TTX is
concentrated in organ meat and gonads. Best precaution, therefore, is to avoid eating
the organ foods. :..,

Figure 6.3: Pufferfish

' Hallzlcinogenic fish poisoning

Hallucinogenic fish poisoning can occur with the ingestion of a number of fish species.
Indoles with similar effects to the notorious drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
have been implicated with sources in algae and plankton. Hallucinations occur in
isolation with no other symptoms.

The symptoms of acute poisoning include nausea, vomiting, occasional diarrhoea,

sweating, headache, hypertension, tachycardia (very rapid heart beat) and twitching 129
 /

~ o o Microbiology
d and among other symptoms. Vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels),' hypertension and -
Safety respiratory depression may occur at doses 20-60 mg/kg. Bradycardia may be present
at higher doses. Convulsions and coma have been reported. Effects on the central
nervous system may include euphoria, hyper excitability and alertness, rambling speech,
deliria, uncontrollability, transcendental mood, distractibility, depersonalization and
impairment ofjudgement. A temporary psychotic state with sensory illusions, distortions
or visual hallucinations consisting of shimmering intensification of colour and texture,
brightly coloured lights, geometric designs, animals and occasionally human images
may occur. Hearing or tasting colours and seeing sounds have been reported. Rarely,
anxiety, fearful auditory, visual and tactile hallucinations, panic states and paranoid
delusions, suspiciousness, emotional liability, intense depression, loss of control, suicidal
ideation and self destructive or aggressive acts may occur. Deaths have resulted
from hallucinatory effects leading to accidental'death.

Miscellaneous shellfish poisonings

Other shellfish poisonings include oyster, abalone and red whelk poisoning. Sea urchin
gonads contain an acetylcholine like-substance that produces symptoms including
salivation, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and abdominal pain. Starfish ingestion may
be associated with nausea and vomiting as a result of asteriotoxin.

The discussion above was an elaborate compilation of toxicants found in animal

foods, mainly sea food. Next, let us review the toxicants in plant foods which
contaminate the foods.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) ~ e f i n ethe term 'Food Contamination'? What are the three main types of
contaminants present in our foods?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
.2) What are naturally-occurring toxicants?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3) Mention the different types of shellfish poisonings.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
4) List the symptoms of the following poisonings:
a) Ciguatera poisoning
......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................
b) Scombroid poisoning
.......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................
130
 Food Contaminants
6.3.2 Toxicants in Plant Foods
Several foods, some of which we con.sume regularly, have toxic compounds'in them
which are best avoided. These compounds can be proteins, amino acids, alkaloids or
cyanogenic glycosides in nature. You would recall studying about a few of these in
Unit 4. Let us have a look at the different toxicants which have been identified in
foods fbr human consumption.
Favism is a condition characterized by haemolytic anaemia (breakup of red blood
cells) after eating fava beans. Fava beans, wh~chare a major protein source for the
Middle and Far East and North Africa, are a hazard for those individuals who have
a deficiency of the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Initial symptoms
of the diseasefavism caused by eating these beans include headache, nausea, vomiting,
pain and fever. This is followed by haemoglobin in the urine resulting from a rapid
breakdown of red blood cells, jaundice and death.
Gossypol, another toxicant is present in cotton seed and may come into the cotton
seed oil if it is not treated properly. Erucic acid, which has been linked to heart
disease: is found in mustard and rapeseed oil. In fact, the consumption of bitter
cucumber, bitter squash zucchini and other cucurbits has resulted in symptoms of
severe cramps, diarrhoea and collapse. This is because of the increased levels of the
toxin ct~curbitacinsin the bitter cucurbits. Bitter cucurbits, should, therefore, not be

Let us look at some specific toxicants found in plant foods. You may recall reading
about these earlier in Figure 6.1.
A) Toxic amino acids
Lathyrus sativus (kesari dhal) seeds contain toxic amino acid beta-oxalyl
aminoalanine (BOAA), is considered to be responsible for the disease lathyrism. It
is an excitotoxin, which is a toxin capable of over stimulating and destroying nerve
cells, thus contributing to the development of the uppermotor neuron disease. The
disease has been especially occurring in parts of the States Madhya Pradesh,
Chattisgarh, Bihar, Maharashtra and in countries like Bangladesh where the pulse
used to be consumed in larger quantities. The classical symptom is the spastic
paraplegia, the paralysis of lower limbs as you may recall reading earlier in Unit 5,
sub-section 5.7.1. Consumption of the pulse in lower quantities would result in painful
spasms in the calf muscles, heaviness of the lower limbs, pain in the knee and ankle
joints and difficulty in walking. The toxic amino acid from Lathyrus sativus can be
reduced by steeping the seeds in water and discarding that water, or by using a
process similar to parboiling of paddy. It is, however, advisable to avoid consuming

B) Toxic alkaloids
Alkaloids are the nitrogen heterocycles which occur mainly m plants as their
salts of common carboxylic aciak such as citric, lactic, oxalic, acetic etc. Their
arnine character produces an alkaline solution in water, hence the origin of their name

When eating potatoes, you must have been told to avoid green potatoes or the green
and damaged portions of potatoes. This is because potatoes contain toxic compounds
known as glycoalkaloids e.g solanine, which are concentrated in the green portions
'
and also the peel of the tuber. Alkaloids are the nitrogen heterocycles which occur
mainly in plants as their salts of common carboxylic acids. They impart a bitter
taste to the potatoes. Symptoms of poisoning, which develop after consuming such
green potatoes or the skin of potatoes are diarrhoea, vomiting, severe abdominal pain,
apathy, restlessness, drowsiness and visual disturbance. To min~mizethe hazard,
insect attack to potato tubers during growing, mechanical damage during harvesting
and storage have to be avoided.
Food Microbiology and Contamination of food products may also occur when certain toxic plants may be
harvested or mixed with the edible species unintentionally. For instance, the seed of
Argemone mexicana, a seed with toxic alkaloid compounds e.g. sanguinarine,
resembles the seed of mustard which we use for seasoning in our cooking, as well
as, for extraction of mustard oil. The argemone plant grows wild as a weed alongside
mustard in the fields and may accidentally be harvested with the mustard. Consumption
of mustard oil contaminated with argemone oil can lead to a condition known as
epidemic dropsy, in which there is oedema over ankles, gastrointestinal disturbances
and vascular and cardiac complications, which can result in death. We will learn more
about this condition in Unit 8, Food Adulteration, as argemone oil is often intentionally
added to mustard oil by traders to increase their profit margins.

There are several other examples of food being contaminated with toxic weeds and
resulting in serious ailments. Veno-occlusive disease (VOD) of the liver is a well
known form of liver injury produced by pyrrolizidine group of alkaloids as you
may recall studying in Unit 5. In one such outbreak in the tribal areas of Madhya
Pradesh, millet called gondhli (Panicum miliare) consumed by the tribals got
contaminated with the toxic weed seeds of Crotalaria nanaburn. The tribals
consequently suffered symptoms of ascites (fluid accumulation in the abdominal
region), pain in the stomach and several of them subsequently djed. Such a form of
contamination is easily prevented by removal of the toxic plant in the fields by de-
weeding. If the contamination is found in the grains before consumption, the toxic
grains could be removed either by winnowing or hand picking.

Cyanogenic glycosides
Cyanogenic glycosides are present in a number of food plants and seeds. Cassava
is a staple dietary item in tropical Africa, South America and South East Asia. The
plant is a rich source of cyanogenic glycosides, which may be hydrolysed chemically
or enzymatically to yield the poisonous hydrogen cyanide. Signs and symptoms of
acute cassava poisoning are headache, breathlessness, gasping, paralysis, muscle
weakness, coma and death. Linamarin, a cyanogenic glycoside, can be removed
fiom cassava by leaching out with water. Jn fact, cassava is consumed only after
treatments like soaking, fermentation and drying which will minimise the amount of
toxin in the root. Tt can be detoxified by chopping and grinding in running water prior

Lima beans as illustrated in the Figure 6.4, contain a high concentration of cyanide
precursors. These inhibit the oxidative processes of cells causing them to die very
quickly. Because the body rapidly detoxifies cyanide, an adult human can withstand
50-60 ppm for an hour without serious consequences. However, exposure to
concentrations of 200-500 ppm for 30 minutes is usually fatal. Other foods rich in
cyanide are apple seeds, bitter almonds and laetrile, the bogus cancer remedy produced
fiom peach kernels. Consumption of these foods has resulted in cases of severe
Figure 6.4: Lima beans illness and even death.

Mushroom Poisoning
Mushroom poisoning is caused by the consumption of raw or cooked fruiting bodies
(mushrooms, toadstools) of a number of species of higher fungl. Figure 6.5 shows a
varikty of mushrooms, of which some could be poisonous as well. The term toadstool
(from the German word Todesstuhl, meaning death's stool) is commonly given to
poisonous mushrooms, but for the individuals who are not experts in mushroom
. identification, there are generally no easily recognizable differences between poisonous
and non poisonous species. The toxins involved in mushroom poisoning are produced
naturally by the fungi themselves, and each individual specimen of a toxic species
should be considered equally poisonous. Most mushrooms that cause human poisoning
cannot be made non toxic by cooking, canning, freezing, or any other means of
Foald Contaminants
~ood Microbiology and important anti-nutritional factors are protease inhibitors, phytates, oxalates, tannins,
Safety lectins and goitrogens etc. as highlighted in Figure 6.1.
Here, let us see how they can be a cause for concern.
A) Protease inhibitors
Protease inhibitors are the compounds which are found to some extent in cereal
grains such as oats, wheat, barley and maize; vegetables such as onion and beetroot;
nuts such as peanuts. These inhibitors interfere with the action of enzymes trypsin
and chymotrypsin produced by the pancreas to break down ingested proteins.

Tipsin inhibitors are proteins distributed widely in the plant foods like legumes and
certain animal foods like white of an egg. They generally inhibit the activity of trypsin
(an enzyme secreted by the pancreas) in the gut and interfere with the digestibility
of dietary proteins, thereby, reducing their utiiization. The trypsin inhibitors present in
the dhals that we eat daily and the hen egg white, are easily inactivated by the
normal cooking procedures and do not pose any problem. More drastic heat treatment
is necessary to inactivate these inhibitors in soyabeans, peas, lima and kidney beans
and also the duck egg white. Thus, for better digestibility and utilization of the
. proteins, these foods need to be thoroughly cooked before consumption.

Raw soybeans too have high levels of trypsin inhibitors. These can cause growth
retardation and hypertrophy of pancreas. It hampers the release of essential amino
acids like methionine. The trypsin inhibitors are generally heat labile and are largely
destroyed in the normal process of cooking.

B) Haemagglutinins
Haemagglutinins are the globulin type of proteins which are present in the seeds of
plants like double bean, field bean, white bean and horse gram, which have the .
property of agglutinating RBCs (Red Blood cells). The agglutinins combine with the
cell lining of the intestinal wall and thus interfere with the absorption of essential
nutrients. Consumption of improperly processed beans result in symptoms such as
nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. It also leads to growth depression, a decrease in food
intake and death.

C) Phytates
Phytates are widely distributed in seeds of vegetables, fruits and grains. Unrefined
cereals and millets are the richest sources of phytates. Refined or polished cereals,
like rice, have lower levels of phytates. The phytates present in cereals form insoluble
complexes with the minerals such as iron, magnesium, zinc and calcium and contribute
significantly to their poor absorption from the cereal-based diets. You may recall
reading in tKe Advance Nutrition Course about phytate as an inhibitor present in
cereals which prevents the absorption of iron. Germination or overnight soaking of
grains reduces the phytate content considerably because of breakdown of the phytate
by enzymes which can do their 'cleaving' job in presence of water or moisture. This
also improves the availability of minerals in the grains.

D ) Tannins
Tannins are another class of compounds which interfere with the absorption of
minerals like iron and reduce the availability of proteins by binding to them. These
are widely distributed in the plant kingdom and are present in high amounts in the
seed coat of most legumes, spices, tamarind, turmeric, certain vegetables, fruits and
particularly the tea. Millets like bajra, ragi, sorghum also contain a fair amount of
tannin. A typical Indian diet based on cereals, legumes, vegetables and spices may
contain as much as 2-3 g of tannin. Removal of seed coat of legumes, exclusion of
tamarind and avoiding tea with meals may improve iron absorption from the diet by
134 reducing the tannin content of the diet.
E) Oxalates Food Contaminan.

Oxalates are widely distributed in plant foods mostly in the form of calcium salts.
Oxalates are known to interfere with calcium absorption. High intake of oxalates
increases their excretion in the urine, which in turn, may predispose the person to
urinary stones. Rich sources of oxalates are green and leafy vegetables and some
legumes like horsegram and kesari dhal (Lathyrus sativus).

F) Goitrogens/anti-thyroid substances
Goitrogenslanti-thyroid substances present in certain plant foods have been found to
interfere with the uptake of iodine by the thyroid gland in the body. This can contribute
to the development of iodine deficiency disorders when iodine intakes are marginal.
Thiocyanates, isothiocyanates and their derivatives are the chief goitrogens which
occur in leaves and vegetables belonging to the Brassica genus and family Cruciferae,
like radish, cabbage, cauliflower, rapeseed, mustard, broccoli, brussels sprouts, turnips,
etc. Soyabean and other legumes, bujru, peanut and lentils also contain goitrogens.
The enzymes required for production of goitrogens in the plant are destroyed by
cooking. Goitrogens are also lost through leaching into cooking water.

G) Other substances
Legumes contain a wide range of some other biologically active and anti-nutritional
components. These include oestrogenic isoflavones, coumestans (linked with
reproductive disturbance in mammals) and saponins. However legumes are a rich
source of proteins and minerals for humans and can be safely eaten daily. The only
precaution to be taken is that they should be thoroughly cooked before eating, as
cooking destroys most of the anti-nutritional factors.

In fact, the presence of anti-nutritional factors does not mean that we stop consuming
the above mentioned foods. Trypsin inhibitors, as mentioned before, are easily*destroyed
by cooking, germination of grains reduces the phytate content, removing the seed
coat of legumes and decreasing the intake of tea and tamarind can easily decrease
the intake of tannins. Orrfy -excessive intake of foods containing goitrogens in the face
of marginal intake of iodine fiom foods and water may lead to precipitation of iodine
deficiency disorders. Hence, a little care and precaution can he1p.w overcome the
problem of contamination, if any caused by these substances.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1 7 - ~ i s t four toxicants which have been identified in plant foods for human
consumption.
--

.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
--
.................................................................................................................
2) What is mushroom poisoning? How can it be avoided?
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
-
)%...............................................................................................................
Food Microbiology and 3) What are anti-nutritional compounds? Give some examples.
Safety
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
4) Match the following foods to the toxins they contain:
Food Toxin
i) Cassava a) Cucurbitacins
ii) Fava beans b) BOAA
iii) Lathyrus sativus c) Solanine
iv) Potato d) cyanide precursors
v) Cucumber e) Linarnarin
5) Match the following anti-nutritional compounds to the harmful effect caused
by consuming them in excessive amounts:
Anti-nutritional Toxic effect
Compound
i) Phytate a) predisposes to urinary stones
ii) Oxalate b) interferes with digestibility of dietary protein
iii) Goitxogens c) causes poor absorption of iron, zinc and calcium
iv) Qpsin inhibitor d) predisposes to iodine deficiency disorders
 Food Contaminants
As illustrated in Figure 6.6, industrial effluents, untreated sewage and household
chemical wastes (detergents, soaps, pesticides, discarded batteries, etc.) and residues
of pesticides, fertilizers and veterinary drugs used in agriculture and animal husbandry,
may find their way into soil, water and air. These toxic chemicals present in the soil,
water and air are taken in by the plants and by land and marine animals. For example,
selenium, arsenic, fluorides, nitrates in the soil may accumulate in plants to toxic
levels. Indirect contamination of meats, milk or eggs may occur as a result of
ingestion of contaminated plants by animals. Since man is on top of the food chain,
he is the worst affected. Many instances of man being poisoned as a result of indirect
contamination of food are recorded in literature. In fact, one of the oldest accounts
of poisoning is mentioned in the Bible. It is said that the Hebrew were poisoned after
consuming quails. Normally quail flesh can safely be eaten. However, in this case,
it was suggested that the toxicity resulted fiom the quails having earlier eaten hemlock
seeds, which are poisonous.

In the coming sections, we will discuss about the different types of environmental
contaminants. These are:
biological contaminants - like fungi and fungal toxins, bacteria and their toxins
due to improper storage or processing of the food products
pesticide residues - found in milk, grains, oil, bottled water, vegetables and fruits
veterinaly drug residues - found in milk and milk products, meat and meat

metallic contaminants - e.g. nikkel due to the improper processing of vanaspati,

suji, from rollers used in processing etc.
We shall begin with microbial or commonly referred to as biological contaminants.

6.4.1 Biological Contaminants

You may recall reading about food borne diseases caused by the consumption of
contaminated food items in the last unit. In the developing countries, food-borne
diseases continue to be a serious health hazard and a major cause of morbidity and
mortality. In fact, they are a major public health concern, which cut across national
boundaries in terms of human ailments and economic loss. Most of the reported
cases of food-borne diseases are due to the consumption of food contaminated with
microorganisms. Microorganisms present in the soil, water and air may infect the
growing plant and stored foodstuffs and produce harmful metabolites. Warm
temperatures and high moisture content serve as ideal conditions for the growth of
microorganisms like bacteria and fungi in stored food products. These types of
contaminated foodstuffs have been the cause of many serious poisonings in man and
animals which have even resulted in death.

Toxins produced by fungi are collectively termed as mycotoxins and the disease
caused by them as mycotoxicosis. You have already read about them in the last unit.
Mycotoxins have been found in many types of foods for human consumption, particularly
cereals and nuts. Contamination can occur in the field or during storage. Meat, eggs
and milk fiom animals that have fed on mycotoxin contaminated feed can provide an
indirect route of exposure for us. Some examples of mycotoxins, you may recall, are
aflataxins produced by the fungi Aspergillus Jlavus and Aspergillus parasiticus,
deoxynivalenol, fumonisin and zearalenone produced by the Fusaria species and
ergot alkaloids produced by Claviceps spp. and ochratoxin by Aspergillus ochraceus
and Penicillium species.

The foods which are at a risk for aflatoxin contamination include a wide range of
commodities like maize, groundnut, dried coconut, cottonseed and spices like chilli,
pepper. Coffee may contain ochratoxin and deoxynivalenol in wheat. 13;
1 Food Mirrobiolog and There have been a few recorded outbreaks as a result of fungal contamination in

symptoms of nausea, vomiting, giddiness and drowsiness. Aflatoxicosis, which is

caused by consumption of foodstuffs contaminated with aflatoxins, was reported in

portal hypertension. In 1987, a considerable segment of the population of the Kashmir

valley was affected by a gastrointestinal disorder symptomised by abdominal pain and I
vomiting. The outbreak was associated with the consumption of bread made from 1
I
mould-damaged wheat and the presence of varying quantities of trichothecene mainly I
deoxynivalenol.

Bacteria, you may recall reading in Unit 5, also produce toxins which result in
!
food poisoning. Important bacterial agents implicated in poisoning outbreaks in I

cases fever.

6.4.2 Pesticide Residues

~ Codex Alimentarius defines pesticides as any 'substance intended for

preventing, destroying, attracting, repelling or controlling any pest including
1

unwanted species of plants or animals, during production, storage, transport,

distribution and processing of food agricultural commodities, or animal
feeds or which may be administered to animals for the control of ectoparasites
(parasites that live on but not within their hosts). It includes substances intended
for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant, fruit thinning agent or
sprouting inhibitor and substances applied to crops either before or after harvest to
protect the commodity from deterioration during storage and transport. It normally
excludes chemicals such as fertilizers, plant and animal nutrients, animal drugs and
food additives.
I

Pesticides are used to protect food from pests, such as insects, rodents, nematodes,
fungi, moulds, and bacteria. Pesticides used on food include:
insecticides to prevent, destroy, kill or mitigate insects
II
rodenticides to inhibit growth, destroy or kill rodents
herbicides to prevent or inhibit the growth of weeds
fungicides to prevent, destroy or inhibit the growth of mould and fungus
nematicides to prevent, destroy, repel or inhibit the nematodes, and
I
antimicrobials to control bacteria.
Pesticides can also be classified based on their nature as:
organochlorine pesticides 1
organophosphates and carbamates, and
1
pyrethrins and pyrethroids
I
In addition, a large number of inorganic pesticides are also in use.

The use of pesticides h i c r e a s e d several-fold in India and it is likely to increase

4I
bodies. It is a well-known fact that indiscriminate use of pesticides has also lead to 4
high residue levels in food. Even small quantities of these residues present in food Food Contaminan
lead to high levels in the body fat when these food stuffs are consumed over long
periods of time. The effects of pesticide consumption are many. They vary from
minor health problems like skin and other allergic reactions to carcinogenicity. The
long term effects could also be reduction of life span and fertility in addition to several
metabolic and genetic disorders.

After pesticides are sprayed, they slowly start dissipating. Every pesticide has some
safety or waiting period which is defined as the 'number of days to lapse before
the pesticide residues get dissipated'. Pesticide residues are defined as any specz3ed
substance in food, agricultural commodities, or animal feed resulting from the
use of a pe~ticide.It includes any derivatives of a pesticide, such as conversion
products, metabolites, reaction products and impurities considered to be of toxicological
significance. It differs from pesticide to pesticide and also from one crop to the
other. Food products become safe for consumption only after the waiting period has
lapsed. If fruits and vegetables are harvested before completion of the Gaiting
period, it is likely to have higher level of residues which are hazardous to health.

Residues of pesticides have been found in almost all kinds of foods viz. milk and milk
products, edible oils and fats, food grains, vegetables and fruits. A recent study
estimated that between 50 and 70 per cent of all vegetables grown and sold around
the country were contaminated with pesticide residues, some of them well beyond the
permissible levels. In fact, our own bodies at present may contain at least one
pesticide in detectable amounts. Studies in India have shown the presence of pesticides
like DDT and BHC in the breast milk of some women.

Pesticide residues cause acute and long term toxic effects in human beings, animals,
fish and birds. During spraying operations, they affect the point of contact such as
skin and eyes. Pesticides also affect the internal organs of the body after they are
absorbed. Continued exposure for long periods causes liver or kidney problems and
also affects the nervous system. It can also cause mutation resulting in birth defects.
Lindane is one of the most harmful organochlorines. If consumed over a period of
time, it affects the central nervous system, liver, kidney, pancreas, testes and nasal
mucous membrane. Lindane poisoning symptoms include headache, dizziness,
gastrointestinal disturbances, numbness and weakness of the extremities, apprehension
and hyperirritability. Assessing the impacts of pesticides, especially organochlorines
on fish and wildlife, is becoming increasingly important because of the recent evidenqe
ruggesting that some organochlorines, even at low concentrations, disrupt the endocrine
system, which is responsible for proper hormone balance.

Food poisoning outbreaks due to pesticides being mixed with food inadvertently have
been described. In one instance, people who ate at a community lunch developed
symptoms of nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain. On investigation it was discovered
that the pesticide 'malathion' had been sprayed in the kitchen where the raw
ingredients had been kept for cooking the lunch. Accidental spillage of pesticide on
jowar in another case, resulted in abdominal pain, vomiting and loose motions in
people who consumed rotis made from it. In another outbreak, several lives were lost
when villagers consumed food grains which had been mixed with the pesticide BHC
for storage and preservation purposes.

In recent times, there are several measures being taken to regulate the
contamination of food with pesticide residues to safe levels. In fact, the Prevention
of Food and Adulteration Act, 1954 of India has prescribed limits of tolerance
for pesticidelinsecticide residues in food and food commodities for a selected number
of pesticides. This is presented in Annexure 1, Table I.
check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) Enumerate the environmental contaminants. How do they enter the food
chain?
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
'2) How do biological contaminants lead to food borne illness?
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
3) Define Pesticide residue. What are the different pesticides that are used on
our foods?
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................
4) Define the following terms:
a) Waiting period .
........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
t

b) Mycotoxin
........................................................................................................
........................................................................................................
 in the form of residues in the food that we eat (viz. meat, milk and eggs of contaminated ~ o o dContaminants
animals), they start becoming resistant to the drug. Acute poisoning outbreaks attributed
to veterinary drugs have also been described in literature. Some people in Lyons,
France developed symptoms of tremor, headaches, abnormally rapid heart rate and

, dizziness 1 to 3 hours after eating veal liver. On investigation this was revealed to
be a case of poisoning by clenbuterol residues in the veal liver.
In addition, antibiotic residues present in milk, intended for the production of cheese
or for the formation of milk products requiring the use of bacterial or yeast cultures,
may result in killing of these cultures. This results in subsequent economic losses to
the dairy industry. Use of steroid hormone-diethylstibesterol, in beef production has
now been banned due to indications that it is a carcinogen. Another important hormone
that is naturally present in animals and is used to the stimulation of growth and
lactation in farm animals is bovine sornatotropin (BST). It is legally permitted to be
used in India as no residues in animal products are likely to occur. The salient
veterinary drug residues and their maximum residue limits (MRL) for different food
1 comrhodities, as given by Codex. Alimentarius is given in Annexure 1, Table 11.

, 6.4.4 Heavy Metals

Like the foods we consume, our bodies also contain many metallic elements. Most
I of these metals are actually required for the normal finctioning of our bodies. Some
of these metals, especially the heavy metals are toxic. Heavy metals like mercury,
cadmium, nickel, arsenic, lead and aluminium are used by several industries. These
contaminate our foods when factories throw their waste products Into the seas and
rivers or bury their wastes before appropriately treating them. Smoke from industries,
as well as, exhaust fumes from vehicles and machinery pollute the atmosphere. Thus
heavy metals enter our bodies via the water we drink, the air we breathe and the
food that is grown in such contaminated soil.

Metals may also enter food from metallic cans in which the food is packaged. Acidic
conditions in the stored products may cause the surface layer of the cans to dissolve
into the food products. Aluminium containers which can also be slowly dissolved
under acidic conditions are more rapidly corroded under more alkaline conditions.
Another source of chemical contaminants is vessels and utensils used in cooking and
storage of pripared foods and beverages. Vessels,made of Erass are usually tinned
from inside. Poor quality tin coating or inlproper tinning of the vessels can result in
tin and copper leaching into the food cooked or stored in the vessel.
Heavy metals pose a substantial risk to human health. These metals are not readily
excreted from our bodies and can accumulate to toxic levels over a period of time.
The vegetable crop has been found to suck in heavy metal and other contaminants
from soil, water and air. Fields on the fringes of urban areas, supplying cities, are the
worst affected. Raw sewage water and sludge used for irrigation in some parts of
the country have led to a build-up of heavy metals up to 30 cm in the soil. Recently,
an article in the newspaper reporting high levels of heavy metals tested in vegetables,
particularly the green lea& vegetables, grown in areas in and around Delhi, is testimony

Let us examine these metals, which can be of concern, in greater details.

Arsenic is usually classified as a metalloid, since it has properties both of a metal

and a non-metal. It is present in small quantities in most human foods. In parts of
West Bengal, soil and crops show arsenic build-up after being irrigated with arsenic
-rich water. It is introduced into water through the dissolution of minerals and ores
and also from erosion from -local rocks. Industrial effluents also contribute arsenic to
water in some areas. In fact, contamination of drinking water with arsenic is a major
problem in the area, as it 'poses serious health concerns. Absorption of arsenic
through the skin is minimal and thus hand-washing, bathing, laundry etc. with water
 containing arsenic does not pose human health risk. Symptoms of chronic arsenic
poisoning include general muscular weakness, loss of appetite, nausea and inflammation
of the mucous membrane of the eyes, nose and lungs. The most characteristic
effects following chronic arsenic exposure are hyperkeratosis (thickening of the skin)
seen in the palms and soles of the feet together with hyperpigmei~tation,as highlighted
in the Figure 6.7, particularly in areas not exposed to the sun. While immediate
symptoms of an acute poisoning typically include vomiting, oesophageal abdominal
pain and bloody 'rice water' diarrhoea.

Figure 6.7: Arsenic poisoning

Lead, even at relatively low levels of exposure can cause severe health effects.
Exhaust from vehicles using unleaded petrol serves as an important source of lead
in the atmosphere. Lead may also br* present in industrial wastes, paints, ceramic
glazes, cosmetics and ultimately may pollute not only the air we breathe but also the
soil and water. Several surveys have detected high levels of lead in different foodstuffs,
drinking water and seafoods like shrimps. It affects the human nervous system,
. production of blood cells, kidney, reproductive system and behaviour. It increases the
risk for premature birth and can induce miscarriage. The main effects of chronic lead
poisoning are seen on the blood cells, nervous, gastrointestinal, reproductive and renal
systems. Some of the symptoms of acute poisoning, which occurs on consuming
single large doses of the toxin afe tiredness, abdominal discomfort, irritability and
anaemia.

While this metal is a naturally occurring element, coal-fired power plants and other
industrial processes pump extra tonnes of this contaminant into the environment.
Among the various foods, it is seafood, which has been found to be the most
commonly contaminated with mercury. Much of this mercury ends up in water and
subsequently in the tissues of fish. The source of mercury poisoning is primarily
contamination of food from polluted water containing mercuiic compounds from
industria! waste or organic mercury contained in some fungicides. Food or feed grains
treated with mercury containing fungicides are yet another potential source for
transmission of the metal through both animal and cereal foods. Mercury is one of
the most toxic of heavy metals, in fact it is a neurotokin. In Japan, the Mina-mata
disease was attributed to mercury poisoning. The people affected experienced loss
,
of appetite, spastic paralysis, weight loss, tiredness, impaired vision and finally '
developed kidney failure. In high doses, it can cause neurological problems such as
speech and hearing impairment, loss of coordination and a tingling sensation in the
limbs. What is most alarming is the fact that mercury can easily pass through the Food Contaminants
placenta and harms the foetus during pregnancy.

An increase in the soil cadmium content due to soil pollution by industrial wastes,
burning of coal, fossil fuels, sewage sludge, medical and municipal waste results in
an increase in the uptake of cadmium by plants. High levels of cadmium have also
been detected in seafood like shrimps. The cadmium absorbed by our bodies is
retained for several years. This is, in fact, a problem with all heavy metals. Our body
is not able to effectively throw out these metals. Cadmium is a highly toxic metal.
One example of cadmium toxicity was highlighted by Itai Itai (bone damage) disease
in Japan in 1960. Chronic exposure to this metal causes renal damage, heart disease,
anaemia, skeletal weakening and depressed immune system response.

Alunzinium
Most natural foods have relatively low levels of aluminium. Aluminium in foods
includes what is present naturally plus that coming frofn certain food additives, food
containers and cooking utensils. Besides these, exposure to aluminium may also occur
through the use of some products for treating diarrhoea, haemorrhoid medications,
antiperspirants and lipsticks. This metal has been implicated in Alzheimer 5. disease,
a chronic progressive disease characterized by a gradual loss of cognitive functions.
The role of aluminium in a variety of bone diseases is also well recognized.

Antimony enters the air, soil and water as a by-product from the smelting of lead and
other metals. The symptoms of antimony pokoning are coronary and pulmonary
problems, stomach pain, diarrhoea, vomiting and stomach ulcers. It plays a role in
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome' (SIDS).

It often accumulates in aquatic life, adding to the danger of eating fish that may be
exposed to high levels of chromium.'Low level exposure can irritate the skin and
cause ulceration. The long-term exposure can lead to, kidney and liver damage, as
well as, damage to circulatory and nerve tissue.

Copper, as you may already know, is an essential micronutrient to human life. It

normally occurs in drinking water from copper pipes. When consumed in high dosage,
it can cause anaemia, liver and kidney damage, and stomach and intestinal irritation.
People with Wilson5. disease are at a greater risk for health effects from overexposure

It occurs naturally in some foods and manufacturers use it in the hydrogenation

process. Nickel exposure also occurs from both first and second-hand tobacco smoke.
It accumulates in aquatic food chains with freshwater organisms being more sensitive
than the ones fiom salt water.

Canned foods contain higher levels of tin because the tin coating used to protect the
steel body of the can from corrosion can slowly transfer tin into food. Though no
long-term health effects are associated with consuming tin but it can cause symptoms

In the sections above, some examples of acute po~soningoutbreaks due to the

consumption of contaminants have been discussed. Unfortunately, the appearance of
 -7

~ood Microbiology and the toxic effects of chemical contaminants may not always be immediate. It may be
Safety
delayed in view of the small quantities ingested over a period of time. Thus, the cause
and effect relationship between ingestion of the contaminant and toxic effect seen at
a later date cannot easily be demonstrated. This is hrther complicated by the multiplicity
of chemical contaminants that may be ingested at any given time. Ingestion of
chemical contaminants can be greatly reduced by following good agricultural practices:
minimizing the use of pesticides, chemical fertilizers, following good practices of
animal husbandry especially when the animals need medication and ensuring safe
disposal of toxic wastes from our industries. At the household level, we can do simple
things like washing thoroughly the grains, fruits and vegetables before consuming
them. Removing the peels of h i t s and vegetables also helps in removing contaminants
adhering to the skin. Fruits and vegetables growing in the vicinity of polluting industries
should be avoided. While consuming non-vegetarian foods, organ meats (viz. kidney,
liver, brain) should be avoided as they tend to accumulate heavy metals. Fish from
deep sea and lakes or free-flowing rivers are safer than those caught in water bodies
close to industries releasing effluents or sewage treatment plants.
For your information the tolerance limits of poisonous metals in various items of food
as prescribed under PFA rules is given in Annexure 1, Table 111.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1) What are veterinary drug residues and how do they enter our food chain?
........................................................
......................................................
i

...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
2) HOW do ve&rinary drugs pose a threat to us?
..............................................................................................................
7

...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3) List the ways in which toxic heavy metals enter our food chain.
................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
' 4) Suggest measures to reduce oyr exposure to chemical contaminants.
...............................................................................................................
,'
...............................................................................................................

Finally, in our study of food contaminants, we shall learn about the miscellaneous
contaminants, which are basically the toxic chemicals present in our food as
contaminants.

6.5 MISCELLANEOUS CONTAMINANTS

A host of other toxic chemicals can be present in our foods as contaminants. As the
list is endless, we will be discussing only some of them in this section. Contaminants
derived during storage from packaging and canning materials in contact with the
foodstuffs are of great concern to us. Such contaminants leach out of packaging
144 materials into the food products. Let us learn more about some of these contaminants.
 Food Contaminants
Dioxins are a group of chemicals (polychlorinated aromatic compounds) with similar
structures, chemical and physical properties. You may recall reading about them in
Unit 2 earlier in section 2.5 under the heading. 'Recent Concerns of Food Safety'.
Dioxins, are not produced intentionally or deliberately, but are formed as a by-product
of chemical processes. These range from natural events such as volcano eruptions
and forest fires to manmade processes, such as manufacturing of chemicals, pesticides,
steel and paints, pulp and paper bleaching, exhaust emissions and incineration. For
example, when chlorinated waste is burned in an uncontrolled way in an incinerator,
the emissions to the air contain dioxins.
Dioxins are not soluble in water and are highly soluble in fat. This means that they
bind to sediment and organic matter in the environment and are absorbed in animal
i and human fatty tissue. In addition, they are not biodegradable, so they are persistent
and accumulate in the food chain. This means that once released into the environment,
via air or water, they pile up in the fat tissue of animals and humans. Human
exposure to dioxins can occur through working in industries where dioxin is a by-
product, industrial accidents, food, human breast milk and drinking water. Dioxins can
enter the food supply through a number of different routes. Soil is a natural sink for
dioxins. Apart from atmospheric deposition, soils may be polluted by sewage sludge
or composts, spills and erosio~sfrom nearby contaminated areas.
Dioxins have a broad series of toxicological and biochemical effects and some of
them are classified as known human carcinogens. In laboratory animals, they have
been linked to severe effects on the uterus, developmental ei'fects and learning
disabilities, developmental reproductive effects (low sperm count, genital malformations)
and imrnunotoxic effects. These effects occur at much lower levels of exposure than
carcinogenic effects.
PCBs or poIychIorinated biphenyls are another group of chemicals. They are
chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons. PCB mixtures are still widespread ahd present
today, such as in transformers, building materials, lubricants, coatings, plasticizers and
inks. Some of the PCB compounds have toxicological properties that are similar to
dioxins and are therefore often termed "dioxin-like" PCBs. Although the production
and use of most PCBs has been discontinued in,almost all industrial countries, as a
result of their widespread use in the past, large amounts of PCBs remain present until
today in electrical equipments, plastic products, buildings and in the environment. As
a result, PCBs are also still ending up in waste streams.
Aerial transport and deposition of dioxins and dioxin-like PCBs are also the main
sources of contamination of leafy vegetables, pastures and roughages. Dioxins and
dioxin-like PCBs are poorly soluble in water, but are adsorbed onto mineral or organic
particles in suspension in water and thus enter the aquatic food chain. In general,
food of animal origin contributes to about 80% of the overall human exposure. Animal
fat acts as a sponge for PCB and hence they are found in foods containing animal
fat like meat, fish, eggs and milk.
High levels of PCB in the blood have been linked to reduced cognitive skills, mental
development and suppressed immune reactions, especially in children exposed to
PCB in the womb. The first evidence of mass poisoning by PCB came to light in
1968 in Yusho, Japan. The heat degraded products of this chemical used in the heat
exchangers for decolourization of rice bran oil, contaminated the oil. The number of
still-births in women who consumed this oil increased, as did the number of children
born with varied health problems. Recent studies suggest that PCB can also cause
short-term memory and learning problems in adults.

AcryIamide is a chemical that appears to be produced naturally in food as a result

of baking or frying. It is also likely to be produced by grilling and roasting food. In
industry, it is manufactured as a crystalline white powder and is used in the production
of polyacrylamide. This is used as an additive for water treatment.
Food Microbiology and On the basis of animal data and understanding of its biological effects, acrylamide is
Safety considered to be a probable human carcinogen. It has caused nerve damage in people
who have been exposed to it at work. In studies on male animals, acrylamide was
shown to impair fertility. As acrylamide has very recently been discovered in food
such as potato at such high levels so as to cause concern, practically nothing is
known about its effects on humans via the diet.
The next most important contaminant which is of conckm today in the modem world,
is the use of plastic. Let us get to know how contaminants from plastic enter the
food.
Contaminants from plastics
Plastics are widely used in contact with foodstuffs, namely, in food processing
equipment, food utensils and as food packaging. In their manufacture, numerous
additives are used depending on the type of produced polymer. These additives
include plasticizers, antioxidants, catalysts, suspension and emulsifying agents, stabilizers
and polymerization inhibitors, pigments, fillers etc. These additives are bound either
chemically or physically into the polymer and may be present in their original or an
altered form. In addition, the polymerization process may leave trace quantities of
residual monomer or low-molecular-mass polymer in the plastic. These substances
can be of concern if present in amounts more than specified. It is, therefore, necessary
to specifL the purity of the polymer to be used in the preparation of plastic intended
for food and/or drinking water. This is exactly what is meant by the term 'tfood
grade plastic" - which we often see on the plastic containers, packaging materials
or utensils.
The extent to which the migration of contaminants into foods occur, will depend upon
factors such as the contact area, the rate of transfer, the type of plastic material, the
temperature and the contact time. The migration of substances from plastic into food
is also related to the type of food packaged. Alcoholic beverages and edible fats and
oils will extract substances more readily than dry food such as cereals.
The high-molecular-mass polymer in plastics itself does not pose a toxic hazard,
being inert and essentially insoluble in food. Monomers which make up the polymer
are very reactive and biologically aggressive. Some of them have been shown to
cause allergic effects, to damage the liver and reproductive functions and to cause
cancer.
Plasticizers are used to assist processing and impart flexibility to plastics. They can
be present in food packaging materials in significant amounts and have the potential
to migrate into food. The migration of plasticizers can be aggravated by heat and by
the presence of a food into which the plasticizing chemical will dissolve (for example,
oil, acid or alcohol). We will learn more about contamination from plastics in Unit 11,
under section 11.6

Check Your Progress Exercise 5

1) Why should only food grade plastic materials be used for packaging and
storing foodstuffs?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
. ,

..................................................................................................................
2) How do dioxins enter our food supply?
.................................................................................................................
"
, I

...................................................................................................................
.'.
 Food Contaminants
. 3) What is a~ry~amide?
. Is it harmful? Why?

..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
4) What are the harmful effects of PCB? What foods ire they more likely
to be present in?
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................

The maintenance of good health demands that the food we consume should not only
be nutritious but also safe and of good quality. There has been a growing concern

unit focussed on this aspect.

Further, we learnt that naturally occurring toxicants in some plant and animal foods
pose a health hazard. Shellfish toxins, toxic amino acids, alkaloids and cyanogenic
glycosides are some of the toxicants that can have very serious and sometimes fatal
consequences. Anti-nutritional substances like tannins, phytates, oxalates, enzyme
inhibitors, goitrogens etc. interferes with the assimilation of nutrients by our bodies.
Hence, it is very important to create public awareness about the different kinds of
food toxica~ltsthat can be present in our foods and how the common man can reduce
his exposure to these toxicants.

Biological and chemical contaminants also make our food unsafe to eat. Bacteria,
fungi and their toxic metabolites constitute biological contaminants. The list of chemical
contaminants is long and varied. Going through the unit, you may have realized that
as a part of modem advances in agricultural technology, the application of pesticides
and fertilizers to crops and the use of various compounds in animal husbandry and
veterinary practice have increased, often resulting in residues of these unintended
contaminants persisting in the final food product. In addition, contaminants like heavy
metals, dioxins, PCB, plasticizers and other chemicals from the packaging materials
. may leach into the food. This unit, therefore, focussed on the fact that tbese

6.7 . GLOSSARY
: lack of interest or feeling, indifference.
: defective muscular co-ordinatign, especially during
voluntary muscular movement.
: produced by living organisms.

. . .
F O O ~Microbiology and : swelling due to watery fluid collecting in the cavities
or tissues of the body.

I Hyperkeratosis : overgrowth of the horny layer of the epidermis.

. Hyperpigmentation : increased pigmentation of the skin.
: sickness, indicative of disease.
: of, or relating to death.
Mutation : a change in the chemical constitution of the DNA
in the chromosomes of an organism.
: tenderness or pain in the muscles.
Paresthesias
Perioral : surrounding the mouth.
Plankton : microscopic organisms drifiing or floating in the
sea or fresh water.
Portal hypertension : increased pressure in the portal vein as a result of
obstruction of the flow of blood through the liver.
: dizziness, giddiness.
Veterinary : pertaining to animals, their diseases and treatment.
Wheezing : breathing with an audible whistling sound.
Winnowing : blowing (grain) h e of undesirable foreign particles,
husk etc. by an air current.

6.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Any substance not intentionally added to food, which is present in such food as
a result of the production (including operations canied out in crop husbandry,
animal husbandry and veterinary, medicine), manufacture, processing, preparation,
treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such food as a result of
environmental contamination is referred to as food contamination.
The three main types of contaminants in foodstuffs are biological, physical and
chemical contaminants.
2) Naturally occurring toxicants are the products of the metabolic processes of
animals, plants and microorganisms from which food products are derived. Many
of these substances in food products are potent poisons.
3) The different types of shellfish poisoning are paralytic shellfish poisoning caused
by saxitoxin; pufferfish (Tetrodon) poisoning caused by Tetrodotoxin, ciguatera
toxin poisoning, scombroid poisoning.

watery diarrhoea, myalgias, arthralgias, weakness, and dysuria. Newlogic

symptoms tend to occur later (up to 72 h) and may persist for nionths.
These are predominantly paresthesias, but a myriad of other sometimes
bizarre neurologic symptoms also may be observed, including sensation of
loose painful teeth, tingling in the lips, tongue and throat, vertigo, ataxia,
visual changes and seizures. Death is rare.
 -- -.

b) The symptoms of scombroid poisoning are skin flushing, facial swelling, Food Contaminants
dizziness, throbbing headache, oral burning, metallic, sharp or peppery
taste in mouth, abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, palpitations,
a sense of unease, and, rarely, prostration or loss of vision characterize
scombroid. A rash that looks like sunburn may occur and a small number
of patients have hives, i.e., allergic skin reaction. Physical signs may
include a diffuse erythema (a reddening of the skin due to ca~~illary
dilation),
tachycardia, wheezing, and hypotension or hypertension.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) The toxicants which have been identified in foods for human consumption are ,
toxic amino acids such as beta-oxalyl aminoalanine, toxic alkaloids such as
sdguinarine, cyanogenic glycosides and mushroom poisoning.

2) Mushroom poisoning is caused by the cotisumption of raw or cooked fruiting

bodies (mushrooms, toadstools) of a number of species of higher fungi. The
toxins involved in mushroom poisoning are produced naturally by the fungi
themselves. Most mushrooms that cause human poisoning cannot be made non .
toxic by cooking, canning, freezing, or any other means of processing. The only
way to avoid poisoning is to avoid consumption of the toxic species.

3) Anti-nutritional compounds are the substances present in foods, particularly those

of p l h t origin, which interfere with the assimilation of nutrients by our body.
Some of the important anti-nutritional factors are trypsin inhibitors, phytates,
oxalates, tannins, lectins and goitrogens.
4) i) - e)

5) i) - c)

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) The environmental contaminants are industrial emuents, untreated sewage and

household chemical wastes (detergents, soaps, pesticides, discarded batteries, .
etc.) and residues of pesticides, fertilizers and veterinary drugs used in agriculture
: and animal husbandry. They enter by food chain by soil, water and air. These
toxic chemicals present in the soil, water and air are taken in by the plants and
by land and marine.animals. Indirect contamination of meats, milk or eggs may
occur as a result of ingestion of contaminated plants by animals.

2) The biological contaminants, that is, the microorganisms present in the soil,
- water and air may infect the growing plant and stored foodstuffs and produce
harmful metabolites. Warm temperatures and high moisture content serve as
ideal conditions for the growth of microorganisms like bacteria and fungi in
stored food products. These types of contaminated foodstuffs have been the
cause of many serious poisonings in man and animals which have even resulted
F O O ~Microbiology and 3) Pesticide residue is any specified substance in food, agricultural commodities or
animal feed resulting from the use of a pesticide. It includes any derivatives of
a pesticide, such as conversion products, metabolites, reaction products and
impurities considered to be of toxicological significance. The different pesticides
that are used on our foods are insecticides,.rodenticides,herbicides, fungicides,
nematicides and antimicrobials.

4) a) Waiting period is the number of days to lapse before the pesticide residues
get dissipated

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1) Veterinary drug residues are used to improve or maintain the health of an animal
species regardless of whether these are intended for food products or otherwise.
A significant number of these chemicals ultimately in one way or another, end
up jn okr food (as residues in meat or milk) and water supply.

2) Veterinary d~ugspose a threat to us because of their possible adverse effects

on persons&lal$ to certain antibiotics like penicillin and the potential build up
of antibiotic resistant organisms in humans. When the microorganisms present
in our intestines are exposed to low doses of antibiotics in the form of residues
in the food that we eat (viz. meat, milk and eggs of contaminated animals), they
. start becoming resistant to the drug.
3) Toxic metals can enter our food chain in the following ways:
industrial wastes being thrown into the seas and rivers pollute our drinking
water and the fish that we eat,
burial of untreated industrial waste pollute the soil in which our food crops
are grown,
exhaust from vehicles using unleaded petrol contaminate the air with lead
which might also settle on exposed foodstuffs or be taken in by the
animals which supply us meat,. and
leach into our food from cans and vessels used for packing, cooking or
storing the food.

4) Ingestion of chemical contaminants can be greatly reduced by following good

agricultural practices: minimizing the use of pesticides, chemical fertilizers,
following good practices of animal husbandry especially when the animals need
medication and ensuring safe aisposal of toxic wastes from our industries. At
the household level: washing thoroughly the grains, fruits and vegetables. before
consuming them, removing the peels of fruits and vegetables helps in removing
contaminants adhering to the skin, avoiding fruits and vegetables grown in the
vicinity of polluting industries, avoid eating organ meats and fish from water
bodies close to industries releasing effluents or sewage treatment plants.
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
1) Food grade plastic materials should be used for packaging and storing the food
to ensure the purity of the polymer to be used in the preparation of plastic
intended for food and/or drinking water so that there is a minimum migration of
toxic chemicals in food stuffs.
2) Human exposyre to dioxins can occur through working in industries where
dioxin is a by-product; industrial accidents, through food, human breast milk and
drinking water. Dioxin can enter the food supply through atmospheric deposition,
soils may be polluted by sewage sludge or composts, spills and erosion from
nearby contaminated areas.
Footl Contaminant,