FOOD TOXICOLOGY

TOXIC HAZARD IN FOOD

 Food toxicology
• focuses on the analysis and toxic effects of
bioactive substances as they occur in foods.
• Food toxicology is a distinct field that
evaluates the effects of components of the
complex chemical matrix of the diet on the
activities of toxic agents that may be natural
endogenous products or may be introduced
from contaminating organisms, or from food
production, processing, and preparation.
• Analysis of food toxicants is somewhat different from
that of straight chemistry.
• The chemicals of interest in food toxicology are the ones
that give adverse effect toward animals and humans.
• In the case of food poisoning, it is important to detect
the presence of a toxicant in foods.
• Therefore, two major processes are essential to the
determination of toxicants in particular foods. One is to
detect the presence of toxicant(s) in a food and the
other is to qualitate and quantitate the toxicant(s).
• Food Hazards refers to any agent with the
potential to cause adverse health consequences
for consumers.
• Food hazards occur when food is exposed to
hazardous agents which result in contamination
of that food.
• Food hazards may be biological, chemical,
physical, allergenic, nutritional and/or
biotechnology-related.
 A. Chemical Hazards

• 1 Mycotoxins
– 1.1 Aflatoxin
– 1.2 Deoxynivalenol (Vomitoxin)
– 1.3 Ochratoxin A
– 1.4 Fumonisin
– 1.5 Patulin
• 2 .Natural toxins
– 2.1 Glycoalkaloids
– 2.2 Other Natural Toxins
• 3. Marine Toxins
– 3.1 Decomposition
– 3.2 Microscopic Marine Algae
• 4. Environmental Contaminants
– 4.1 Arsenic
– 4.2 Cadmium
– 4.3 Lead
– 4.4 Mercury
• 5. Food Additives
• 6. Processing-induced Chemicals
– 6.1 Acrylamide
– 6.2 Ethyl Carbamate (Urethane)
– 6.3 Furan
• 7. Pesticides/Agricultural Products
• 8. Veterinary Drugs
• Chemical hazards occur when chemicals are
present in foods at levels that can be
hazardous to humans.
• Contamination may occur through various
pathways:
• The environment (air, soil, water),
• Intentional use of chemicals, such as
pesticides and veterinary drugs,
• Manufacturing processes,
• Addition of food additives.
• In the food industry, there are various types of
chemical hazards, some notable ones include:
• Mycotoxins
• Natural Toxins
• Marine Toxins
• Environmental Contaminants
• Food Additives
• Processing-induced chemicals
• Pesticides/Agricultural Products and
• Veterinary Drug Residues
 1. Mycotoxins

• Mycotoxins are natural toxins which are produced

by fungi and can be toxic to humans and animals.
They are formed by moulds which grow on crops
and foods under certain conditions. There are
number of mycotoxins present in the environment
but only a few are found in foods and they are
usually associated with particular field crops like
corn. The most prominent mycotoxins which cause
health concerns in humans are aflatoxin,
deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin, fumonisin and patulin.
• Some of the general characteristics of mycotoxins
are listed below.
• resistant to heat
• produced by fungi as secondary metabolites in
response to competitive pressures from other
fungi/bacteria
• can have antibiotic properties
• can cause toxic damage to cells of humans and
animals
• can cause chronic effects such as various
cancers, immunosuppression, growth
retardation, birth defects, renal dysfunction
• can have serious long-term effects even at
small concentrations
• usually associated with particular crops
(i.e. corn, cereal crops, apples)
• Reference: Natural Toxins – Health Canada
 1.1 Aflatoxin

• Aflatoxin is produced by the mould Aspergillus

flavus. Commodities which have a high
potential for contamination with aflatoxin
include tree nuts, peanuts, peanut butter, figs
and corn. It should be noted that
contaminated feed can lead to elevated levels
in milk as well.
• The proliferation of Aspergillus and the
corresponding production of aflatoxin are
affected by drought during the growing season
and high humidity during storage.
• Aflatoxin is a potential carcinogen associated
with the development of liver cancer.
 1.2 Deoxynivalenol (Vomitoxin)

• Deoxynivalenol (DON) is produced by various

species of mould, most notably, Fusarium
graminearum and F. sporotrichioide. 
• Fusarium species are widely dispersed and their
toxins reportedly occur in a wide variety of
cereals, grains and in animal feeds. 
• DON is classified in the trichothecene family of
mycotoxins, a metabolite most commonly found
in crops, such as wheat, barley and corn.
• DON is not known to be carcinogenic.
However it is a potent inhibitor of protein
and DNA synthesis and is known to have
immunosuppressive and cytotoxic effects.
• Symptoms observed as a result of human
exposure to these toxins are vomiting,
dermatitis, cough and rhinitis.
 1.3 Ochratoxin A

• Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a toxic metabolite

formed by Aspergillus ochraceus, Penicillium
verrucosum and other mould species. It is one
of the most commonly occurring mycotoxins
in improperly stored food.
• OTA has been found in corn, peanuts and
decaying vegetation.
• It has also been found in mouldy cereals such
as wheat, rye, barley, oats, and other
commodities, including bread, flour, beans,
peas, rice, and coffee and in samples of meat
where the slaughtered animal may have
consumed feed contaminated with OTA.
• Ochratoxin A is a human carcinogen which has
also been found to cause lesions as well as
teratogenic and neurotoxic effects.
 1.4 Fumonisin

• Fumonisin is a toxin produced by various

species of mould, most notably Fusarium
verticilloides and Fusarium proliferatum.
Fumonisin is one of the most frequent
mycotoxins found in corn. High levels of
fumonisin are associated with hot and dry
weather, followed by a period of high
humidity.
• Fumonisin causes two animal diseases:
porcine (pig) pulmonary edema and
leukoencephalomalacia in horses.
• This mycotoxin is a concern for humans as
there is evidence to suggest it may be
carcinogenic, causing oesophageal and liver
cancers, and may contribute to neural tube
defects in babies.
 1.5 Patulin

• Patulin is a toxic chemical produced by various mould

species including Penicillium spp.,  
Aspergillus spp. and Byssochlamys spp. 
• It is heat stable at a pH<6 and will survive thermal
processing.
• Patulin can be found in mouldy fruits (i.e. apples,
pears, peaches, grapes), as well as mouldy vegetables
and grains; however the major source of patulin
contamination is from apples and apple products.
• The use of mouldy fruit increases the
likelihood of patulin contamination in juices or
ciders.
• Patulin is known to be genotoxic, causing
damage to DNA and chromosomes, which has
led to theories that it may be carcinogenic.
 2. Natural toxins

• Natural toxins are biochemical compounds

produced by plants in response to certain
conditions or stressors.
• Reference: Natural Toxins – Health Canada
 Table 1: Some Natural Toxins in Food Plants

Food commodity Toxin

Ackee fruit hypoglycin
Cassa root, bamboo shoots, stone fruit cyanogenic glycoside
Fiddlehead unidentified
Green beans, red kidney beans, white lectin
kidney beans
Wild mushrooms amanitins, gyromitrin, muscarine,
phallotoxins
Parsnip furocoumarins
Rhubarb oxalic acid
Cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, mustard, goitrogens
turnip
 3. Marine Toxins

• Marine toxins are a group of toxins that

sometimes accumulate in fish and shellfish.
There are two sources of marine toxins:
• decomposition
• microscopic marine algae (phytoplankton,
including diatoms and dinoflagellates)
 3.1 Decomposition

• When certain fish, especially scombroid fish

(i.e. tuna, bonito and mackerel), start to
decompose, histamine is formed.
• Histidine, a naturally-occurring amino acid, is
converted into histamine by an enzyme produced
by certain bacteria during decomposition.
• Histamine, in small doses, is necessary for the
proper functioning of the human immune system.
• However, histamine in higher does may trigger
severe reactions when consumed similar to
those seen in allergic reactions such as rash,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, headache,
dizziness, burning throat, stomach pain and
itchy skin.
• The presence of high levels of histamine
indicates that decomposition has occurred,
even if the decomposition is not obvious.
• Toxic amounts of histamine can form before a
fish smells or tastes bad. As this typically only
occurs in scombroid fish, this is called
Scombroid Poisoning.
 3.2 Microscopic Marine Algae
• Many marine toxins are produced by and can
accumulate in fish and shellfish if they ingest
certain types of algae.
• Table 2 lists some common marine toxins and
the seafood they are commonly associated
with.
Table 2: Common Marine Toxins

Illness Toxin Seafood

Paralytic shellfish poisoning Saxitoxin Oysters, clams, scallops,
(PSP) mussels, cockles, whelks

Amnesic shellfish poisoning Domoic acid Bivalve molluscan shellfish,

(ASP) clams, mussels, oysters,
scallops

Ciguatera poisoning Ciguatoxin Tropical fish such as barracuda,

amberjack, red snapper,
grouper

Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning Okadaic acid Various shellfish, cockles,

(DSP) mussels, oysters

Tetrodotoxin poisoning Tetrodotoxin Pufferfish, California newt,

parrotfish, octopus, starfish,
angelfish, and xanthid crabs

Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning Brevetoxin oysters, clams, and mussels

 4. Environmental Contaminants

• Environmental contaminants are chemicals

that accidentally or deliberately enter the
environment, often, but not always, as a result
of human activities.
• Some of these contaminants may have been
manufactured for industrial use and because
they are very stable, they do not break down
easily. If released to the environment, these
contaminants may enter the food chain.
• Other environmental contaminants are
naturally-occurring chemicals, but industrial
activity may increase their mobility or increase
the amount available to circulate in the
environment, allowing them to enter the food
chain at higher levels than would otherwise
occur.
• Some examples of environmental
contaminants include lead, arsenic, bromates,
dioxins, furans, mercury and polychlorinated
biphenols (PCBs). Division 15 (Table 1) of
the FDA contains maximum limits for some
environmental contaminants in specific
commodities.
• Reference: 
Environmental Contaminants – Health Canada
 4.1 Arsenic

• Arsenic is a naturally occurring element widely

distributed in the earth's crust and is generally
found in trace quantities in soil, rock, water and
air
• Arsenic can take two forms – organic and
inorganic.
• Organic arsenic can be found in fish and
shellfish and is the much less harmful form of
arsenic.
• Inorganic arsenic compounds are found throughout
the environment and can be released into the air
through various processes such as volcanic action,
mining of arsenic-containing minerals and ores and
by industrial and commercial processes such as
copper or lead smelting, wood treatment and
pesticide application.
• Inorganic arsenic is a carcinogen, and long-term
exposure increases the risk of cancers of the skin,
lungs, bladder, liver, kidney and prostate.
 4.2 Cadmium

• Cadmium is a rare element and is usually not found

in nature in its pure state, but exists in combination
with other elements, forming compounds such as
cadmium oxide, cadmium chloride and cadmium
sulphide.
• Cadmium is used in the manufacture of batteries,
pigments, coatings, plating, stabilizers for plastics,
ore processing and smelting, thus it finds its way
into the environment through waste, waste water
and soil uptake.
• Most of the cadmium which enters the body is
directly from plants grown in contaminated
soil, or indirectly, from meat-producing
animals which have eaten plants grown in
contaminated soil. Cadmium and its
compounds are highly toxic and are also
suspected carcinogens.
 4.3 Lead

• Lead is a toxic heavy metal and is found in the

environment in sources such as dust and soil.
It can also be found in water and some food
products (i.e. maple syrup and honey), that
may have come into contact with older
plumbing and cookware that contains lead-
based solder. Lead may be found in older paint
products as well.
• Lead has been shown to cause neurological
disorders, reproductive problems and diminished
intelligence.
• Infants and young children are particularly at risk
because they absorb a higher proportion of lead
from food than adults, as they are still growing and
developing.
• Pregnant women are also susceptible. Other effects
are impaired mental function, visual motor
performance and anaemia.
• Symptoms of exposure to lead may also be
subtle, such as irritability, headaches,
insomnia, gastrointestinal upsets, learning,
behavioural and kidney problems.
• For more information on lead, see Health
Canada's website on Lead and Human Health.
 4.4 Mercury

• Mercury is a heavy metal which occurs naturally in rocks

and soils and can be found in lakes, streams and oceans.
Combustion of fossil fuels, mining, pulp and paper
industries and burning garbage can also release mercury
into the environment.
• There are traces of mercury in almost all foods, with very
low levels in vegetables and fruits, and high levels in
certain types of fish such as shark, swordfish, marlin,
escolar and orange roughly, which absorb the mercury
from the organisms they consume as well as the
surrounding water in which they live.
• Mercury exists in several chemical forms. Two
types are 'inorganic' and 'organic' mercury.
Methyl mercury ('organic' mercury) is the most
common form of mercury found in the aquatic
environment and most fish have trace amounts
present. It has been found that larger and older
fish tend to have the highest levels of mercury,
due to bioaccumulation. Methyl mercury is
suspected to be a human carcinogen.
• Exposure to mercury may cause several health effects:
damage to the nervous system, kidneys, and the
developing foetus. Other effects include brain
damage, irritability, tremors, memory problems,
changes in vision and hearing. Children are more
sensitive to mercury than adults.
• For more information see Health Canada's website: 
Human Health Risk Assessment of Mercury in Fish and
Health Benefits of Fish Consumption
 as well as the information sheet on Mercury in Fish.