1 THE CELL’S STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION

OVERVIEW
On your previous sciences you have already learned about cell and its parts.
However, to go deeper about Biochemistry, we need to have a refreshment about the cell
and restart our journey!
Life has an immense variety of forms that arose by the process of biological evolution,
but all living organisms share a master plan of structural and functional units called cells. As
building blocks of life, cells come in different types, forms, shapes, and numbers. Some
organisms function as one-celled, and others perform tasks as many- celled organisms.
This module is about the building blocks- cells- that constitute the unity of the living
world. Moreover, it has been organized to facilitate learning by proceeding from simple to
more complex matters. Your knowledge on basic compounds and chemicals will be used in
this module. There are examples of some of the questions I may have on the tests and
quizzes and diagrams that will help you understand the different parts of cells and some
suggestions for learning all this stuff. My advice is for you to do whatever it takes to learn
from this material. It can be overwhelming and time consuming. But it can be done! And it is
worth doing and learning!

LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this module, we shall begin our study of cells by learning its basic
structure and various parts. At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. trace the history of the discovery of the cell and the scientists behind it;
2. discuss the cell theory;
3. identify the different functions performed by the cell;
4. identify the parts of the cells and their functions.

INTRODUCTION
“The cell is as fundamental to biology as the atom is to chemistry. Everything an
organism does is fundamentally occurring at the cellular level.” Neil Campbell, Biology, 4th
Edition, Benjamin-Cummings, New York. The cell is the simplest organization of molecules
that show the properties of life. Cells are either prokaryotic or eukaryotic; these two basic
types differ fundamentally in structure. Unlike eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic cells do not
contain a system of internal membranes. For example, they lack well-defined nuclei (yet still
contain DNA) and don’t have other comparable membrane-bound organelles. A plasma
membrane serves to separate a cell from its surroundings. The membrane is composed of
amphipathic phospholipids and proteins. It is selectively permeable to the solutes that it
allows to pass. All cell membranes are asymmetrical phospholipid bilayers with embedded
proteins; each monolayer differs in lipid and protein composition. Cells are highly diverse in
their sizes and structures—often related to specializations in function. In some simpler living
things, a single cell is the entire organism performing all the life functions. In multicellular
organisms, cells tend to be more specialized—each doing one or a few of the life functions,
but depending on different cells to do the rest. In our bodies, for example, muscle cells
produce movement and nerve cells (neurons) are communication specialists. In this module
your goal is to understand the important

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structural components of cells and how these subunit work together in carrying out life
processes.

Early Discoveries Related to the Study of Cells

In 1665, an English scientist, Robert Hooke (1635-1703), examined a thin slice of
cork under the microscope. He observed that the piece of cork was
composed of many compartments that resembled little rooms with Hooke also
discovered
surrounding walls. the Uranus
and was the
Hooke named these compartments cells. The cells that Hooke first to use the
observed were not living. He concentrated his study only on the word “cell.
structure, particularly the cell wall, and did not pursue his
investigation of the cell content.
In 1674, the Dutch inventor Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) observed red
blood cells, sperm cells, and a multitude of single-celled organisms in pond water. He
discovered free cells and observed the nucleus within some red blood cells. It was he who
also discovered bacteria, free-living and parasitic protists, and many other microscopic
organisms. His researches opened up an entire world of microscopic life to other scientists.
Another scientist, a Scottish botanist named Robert Brown (1773-1858), discovered
the nucleus in 1831. He also theorized that this structure is a fundamental and constant
component of the cell.
Aside from giving the cell nucleus its name, Brown was also honored for his discovery
of a cell phenomenon called Brownian Movement, the random movement of minute particles
of matter suspended in a fluid.
In 1835, a French biologist, Felix Dujardin (1802-1860), found out that living cells
contain an internal substance. Not knowing exactly what this substance was, Dujardin gave
it the name sarcode. It was Bohemian physiologist, Jan Evangelista Purkenji (1787-1869)
made a thorough investigation of this internal material. He gave it the name protoplasm, the
colloidal substance in the cell.
Development of Cell Theory
In 1838, Matthias Schleiden (1804-1881), a German botanist,
stated that all plants are composed of cells. After him, in 1839, German It is estimated
that the
zoologist Theodor Schwann (1810-1882) concluded that all animals are human body
composed of cells. Jointly, Schleiden and Schwann came out with the has about 40
theory that all living things are composed of cells.
Twenty years later, in 1858, a German biologist, Rudolph
Virchow (18021-1902), theorized that all living cells come from pre-existing living cells.
His conclusion arose from observing dividing cells during his work.
These observations became the major components of the cell theory:
-All living things are composed of one or more cells and cell products;
-All living cells come from pre-existing cells by the process of cell division;
-Cells are the basic units of structure and functions in organisms.

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Activity 1. Briefly answer the following questions.

1. What is meant by the statement Cells come from pre-existing cells? Give
processes, theories or proofs that support this claim.

2. Give the significant contributions of each of the following to what we know about
cells today.

a. Robert Hooke

b. Robert Brown

c. Anton van Leeuwenhoek

d. Matthias Schleiden

e. Theodor Schwann

f. Rudolph Virchow

3. Discuss the cell theory. What are its importance to the modern biology?

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Cell Functions

All the life processes of a living cell involve transformation of energy and matter. The
source of this life energy are the molecules undergoing chemical reactions within the cell. A
living cell performs the following life processes.

Nutrition - the process by which cells obtain food molecules to support their
activities.
Digestion - the process by which food particles are broken down with the help of
enzymes into smaller, soluble units suitable for cell use
Absorption- the process by which cells absorb from their environment, water,
minerals, and other materials essential to life.
Biosynthesis-the process by which all cells organize complex chemicals from simple
building units or substances. For example, all living cells synthesize
amino acids to produce proteins.
Excretion- the process by which cell by-products that are not needed for further cell
functioning are eliminated.
Egestion- the process by which insoluble, undigested particles are eliminated by
the cell (these egested particles have not been a part of any cellular
metabolism)
Secretion- the process by which substances that are synthesized by the cells are
expelled from the elimination process. These influence extra cellular
activities, and help in the functioning of the body (hormones are
examples of such substances)
Movement- a process that consists of the locomotion of cells by means of special
structures like cilia or flagella
Irritability- the process by which cells respond or react to external factors or
conditions around them
Respiration- the process of breaking down food molecules into chemical energy that
cells need to function
Reproduction- a process by which a cell copies or replicates its DNA and increases in
number by cell division. In reproduction, cells give to new cells. As a
result, organisms grow.

Insoluble, nondigested
particles discharged from a Nerve cells are A ciliated cell and flagellated cell move
cell membrane through the most irritable with cilia and flagella, respectively.
egestion. cells in the body.

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Activity 2. How do I live without you?
Compose a poem that will about how important the cell and its functions are. The
poem must be composed of 5 stanzas, each containing four lines. Make sure to use the
terms discussed. You will be rated from 1-5, 5 being the highest on each criterion:
Message/Content (Ideas), Word Choice and Grammar Usage, Organization, Creativity.

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The Cell- Structural Organization

Ideas about cell structure have changed considerably over the years. Early
biologists saw cells as simple membranous sacs containing fluid and a few floating
particles. Today's biologists know that cells are infinitely more complex than this.

There are many different types, sizes, and shapes of

cells in the body. For descriptive purposes, the concept of a
"generalized cell" is introduced. It includes features from all
cell types. A cell consists of three parts: the cell membrane,
the nucleus, and, between the two, the cytoplasm. Within the
cytoplasm lie intricate arrangements of fine fibers and
hundreds or even thousands of miniscule but distinct
structures called organelles.

Cell Membrane
Every cell in the body is enclosed by a cell (Plasma) membrane. The cell membrane
separates the material outside the cell, extracellular, from the material inside the cell,
intracellular. It maintains the integrity of a cell and controls passage of materials into and out
of the cell. All materials within a cell must have access to the cell membrane (the cell's
boundary) for the needed exchange.
The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid molecules. Proteins in the cell
membrane provide structural support, form channels of passage of materials, act as
receptor sites, function as carrier molecules, and provide identification markers.

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Nucleus and Nucleolus
The nucleus, formed by a nuclear membrane around a fluid nucleoplasm, is the control
center of the cell. Threads of chromatin in the nucleus contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
the genetic material of the cell. The nucleolus is a dense region of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in
the nucleus and is the site of ribosome formation. The nucleus determines how the cell will
function, as well as the basic structure of that cell.

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Cytoplasm
About 80% of
The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It is the medium for
is water. It is
chemical reaction. It provides a platform upon which other organelles
can operate within the cell. All of the functions for cell expansion, growth as the cell
and replication are carried out in the cytoplasm of a cell. Within the substance.
cytoplasm, materials move by diffusion, a physical process that can
work only for short distances.

Cytoplasmic organelles
Cytoplasmic organelles are "little organs" that are suspended in the cytoplasm of the cell.
Each type of organelle has a definite
structure and a specific role in the function of
the cell. Examples of cytoplasmic organelles
are mitochondrion, ribosomes, endoplasmic
reticulum, golgi apparatus, and lysosomes.
-Mitochondria- These are sac-like
organelles inside the cells. They have their
own single-stranded DNA. Because of this
DNA presence, mitochondria have the ability
to self replicate. Hence mitochondria multiply
within the cell even before a cell
divides. This is because they are worn out during the process of respiration. So, they form
new ones to carry out the function non-stop.
-Golgi Bodies- These are the vacuoles or sac-like structures. They occupy a
considerable amount of cytoplasm. They are formed from the endoplasmic reticulum. They
have two sets of vesicles as Cis and Trans Golgi networks. Cis-set is at the center while the
trans set is at the periphery of the apparatus. From these vesicles, lysosomes are formed.
-Lysosomes- These are cell organelles found mostly bound to Lysosomes
the cell membrane. This organelle is found in all the cells and contains are the
hydrolytic enzymes. suicide bag
-Peroxisome- These are vesicles which store enzymes of energy
metabolism.
-Centrosome- These contain centrioles which form spindles and help in separation
of genetic material in cell division.
-Vacuoles- These are pouches in the cell that store materials such as water, salts,
proteins, and carbohydrates.
-Cell Wall- This is a non-living outer envelope of the cell. This is
very characteristic and seen only in plant cells. Even
bacteria possess cell wall and hence are sometimes
classified under plants. It is a rigid, firm, thick external
covering of the cell. It is made of cellulose,
mucopolysaccharides and muco-peptides
-Endoplasmic Reticulum- This is also a sac-like
structure attached to the nucleus and extends thereof like
being suspended in the cytoplasm. This is of two types
rough and smooth types. Smooth ER helps in the formation
of lipids whereas Rough ER helps in the formation of
proteins.

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Activity 3. The Cell is like the School!
A cell is like our school. Each part of the cell (and school) has responsibilities that
must be done and certain organelles (people or places) do them. Identify the function of the
following parts of the cell. Then, identify which person does the same job (or a place like it)
in the school. The first one is done for you as an example to follow.

Part of the School that

Organelle Function
has the same Function

Cell Membrane

Cytoplasm

Golgi Body

Lysosome

Mitochondria

Nucleus

Nucleolus

Ribosome

Rough ER

Smooth ER

Vacuole

Cell Wall

Peroxisome

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 SUMMARY

Discoveries that led to the study of living cells were made possible with the invention
of the microscope.
Early scientsists whi made valuable contribution to the progressive study of cells
include Robert Hooke, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, Robert Brown, Felix Dujardin, Jan Purkenji,
Schleiden and Svhwann,a nd Rudolph Virchow.
Cells perform several tasks necessary for living things to survive. These tasks include
nutrition, digestion, absorption, biosynthesis, excretion, egestion, secretion, movement,
irritability, respiration and reproduction.
The cell membrane is described to have a fluid-mosaic structure that makes it semi-
permeable, allowing only selected materials to pass through.
The protoplasm is the living substance of a c ell where most processes take place. It
contains mitochondira, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, goldi bodies, vacuoles,
lysosomes, centrosomes.
Cells may group together to form tissues, and tissues organize and work together to
form organs. Different organs perform particular functions in an organ system, and organ
system form multicellular organisms.
On the next chapter, you will learn about major difference sof prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cell, plant and animal cell.

FEEDBACK

It must have been one tiring journey about cell and its history. Congratulations for
showing patience and interest in learning.

So far, were you able to trace the history of the discovery of the cell and the scientists
behind it? How well did you understand the cell theory?

Can you now identify the different functions performed by the cell? Do you think it is
easy for you to identify the parts of the cells and their functions?

SUGGESTED READINGS

Books
You and the Natural World: Biology. Capco and Yang. 2015. Third Edition.
Cell and Molecular Biology. Robertis and Robertis, Jr. 2017. Eighth Edition.
Biological Science. Gould and Keeton. 2019. Eighth Edition

Internet
www.youtube.com: Amoeba Sisters Channel- The Natural World of Cells
Crash Course- The Living Cell
www.natgeo.org: The Amazing Journey to the Cell

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 CHAPTER PRACTICE TEST

1. What are the three main concepts of the cell theory?

2. Describe in your own words what an organelle is?

3. Are organelles living things? Explain.

4. Do animal and plant cells have all of the same organelles? Explain.

5. Why would your heart cells have more mitochondria than your eye cells?

6. How do mitochondria and chloroplasts differ?

7. Why is it unnecessary for our cells to have a cell wall?

8. What might happen if the lysosomes inside a cell stopped working properly?

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 REFERENCES/SOURCES

Cell and Molecular Biology. Robertis and Robertis, Jr. 8th Edition.
You and the Natural World: Biology. Capco and Yang. 3rd Edition.
Biological Science. Gould and Keeton. 6th Edition.
Cellular Biology and Human Anatomy. Campbell. 5th Edition.

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