UNIT-IV – UNIT COMMITMENT AND ECONOMIC DISPATCH

PART- A Questions

1. List the solution methods of Economic Dispatch problems. (Dec 2013)

Two methods to find Economic Dispatch:

i) Base Load Method: Where the most efficient unit is loaded to its maximum
capability, then the second most efficient unit is loaded.
ii) Best point loading: Where units are successively loaded to their lowest heat rate
point, beginning with the most efficient unit and working down to the least efficient
unit.
iii) By Direct Method
iv) λ -iteration method
v) Bmn coefficient method

2. Draw incremental fuel cost curve. (May 2013, Dec 2015)

Draw the incremental cost curve of thermal unit.
(May 2009, May 2012, Dec 2013, Dec 2014).

The incremental fuel cost curve for thermal unit is given below

3. Write about the term incremental operating cost of a power system.

(Dec 2016, R-13, Dec 2020)

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4. Write the condition for the optimal power dispatch in a lossless system.
(R13, Dec. 2017; Dec 2008, Dec 2013)
Write the Lagrangian equation of economic load dispatch and write the condition for
optimum. (Dec 2010)
Relate the necessary condition for the existence of the minimum cost operating for the
thermal power system

The necessary condition for the existence of a minimum cost operating condition is that the
incremental cost rates of all units be equal to some undetermined value, called Lagrangian
multiplier.
dF i
λ=
dPGi

5. What are the all the points to be noted for an economic load dispatch including
transmission losses. (R-17, Dec 2020)

i) The incremental cost of production of a plant is always positive, the incremental transmission
losses, can be both positive and negative.

ii) The individual generator will operate at different incremental costs of production.

iii) The generation with highest positive incremental transmission losses will operate at lowest
incremental cost of production.

6. Write the coordination equation taking the effect of transmission losses (Or) Exact
coordination equation (Dec 2016, R13, Dec 2020)

( IC )i
λ=
1−(ITL)i
where IC = incremental cost;
ITL = incremental transmission Loss.

7. Define incremental transmission loss. (May/Jun 2015)

The Incremental transmission loss (ITL) is defined for a bus and quantifies the change in
total losses produced by an incremental change in the power injected on that bus. The
Incremental transmission losses are obtained from a converged power flow solution.

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 ∂ PL
ITLi=
∂( PG i−P Di)

8. Find the incremental transmission losses for a two area power system, where the bus
voltages are kept fixed and the line power flow is a function of line angle. Power loss is a
function of generation of area B only. (May 2015)

Incremental transmission loss of area ‘A’ (ITL) A=0

dP LdP
Incremental transmission loss of area ‘B’=
dPGB
dP L
dP L ∗dδ
dδ
( ITL)B= =
dP GB dPGB

( IFC)B
λ=
1−( ITL)B

9) Define incremental cost in power dispatch? (Dec 2016)

The rate of change of fuel cost with active power generation is called incremental cost.

10) What is incremental cost criterion? (Dec 2012)

or
What is meant by incremental cost curve? (R-17, Dec. 2021, Dec 2007, Dec 2010)
The incremental fuel cost curve for thermal unit is given below

11. Mention the assumption made in the formation of loss formula matrix, B? (May 2008)
i) Assume generators are identical
ii) Assume generators have identical incremental cost curves
iii) Neglect the shut capacitance of the line
12. Define system blackout problem? Or What is black out in power grid (May 2019)
If any event occurs on a system that leaves it operating with limits violated, the event may
be followed by a series of further actions that switch other equipment out of service. If the
process of cascading failures continues, the entire system of it may completely collapse.
This is referred as system blackout.
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13. Define participation factor. (May 2008, Dec 2009)

ΔPGi 1
Particpationfactor foreachunit= = ¿wher Fi=aiP 2+biPGi+Ci¿
ΔPDi Fi} } over {SumcSub{size8{i=1} cSup{size8{N} { {1} over {FrSub{size8{i} Gi
14. What are the base point and participation factors with respect to economic load
dispatch? (Dec 2008, May 2009)
The economic dispatch problem has to be solved repeatedly by moving the generators from one
economically optimum schedule to another as the load changes by a reasonably small amount,
we start from a schedule obtained from equal incremental cost as base point.

ΔPGi 1
Particpationfactor foreachunit= = ¿wher Fi=aiP 2+biPGi+Ci¿
ΔPDi Fi} } over {SumcSub{size8{i=1} cSup{size8{N} { {1} over {FrSub{size8{i} Gi
15. Distinguish between economic dispatch and unit commitment. (R13, Dec. 2018) (May
2014)
Compare unit commitment and economic dispatch problems. (R-17, Dec. 2021)

Unit Commitment Economic Load Dispatch

Optimum allocation of number of units to be Optimum allocation of generation to each

operated station

Purpose of unit commitment is to find the Purpose of economic dispatch problem is to

optimal subset among the subsets which find the optimum operating policy for these
provide the minimum operating cost ’n’ units

16. State Unit commitment problem. (Dec 2010)

To select the generating units that will supply the forecasted (estimated load in advance)
load of the system over a required period of time at minimum cost as well as provide a specified
margin of the operating reserve, known as the spinning reserve. This procedure is known as unit
commitment.
Tomorrow’s unit commitment (UC) problem may be stated as follows:
Given: The expected system demand levels for the 24 hours of tomorrow and the
operating cost, start-up cost and shut-down cost of the available N Units.

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 To determine: N-generating units, (2N -1) number of combinations will be obtained.
From many feasible subsets, determine the subset of units that would satisfy the expected
demand at minimum operating cost.
Loads vary time to time, so, we are interested not only in determining one subset of units
satisfying economically the demand in one particular hour we want 24 subsets to satisfy the 24
consecutive hour demands per day. This involves consideration of startup and shut down costs as
well as constraints on minimum up time/down time of the units.

17) Write the significance of unit commitment. (May 2012)

Unit commitment is the process of deciding when and which generating units at each
power station to start-up and shut-down.

18) What is minimum up and minimum down time in unit commitment problem?
(May 2011)
Minimum up time: Once the unit is running, it d=should not be turned off immediately.
Minimum down time: Once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum time before it can
be recommitted.
19) Give the names of the hydro constraints. (Apr/May 2011)
Unit commitment problem involves only thermal units. In hydro thermal scheduling, to allocate
maximum hydro units, during rainy seasons and to allocate thermal units during remaining
periods. We are not considering hydro units for unit commitment, because, start-up and shut-
down time, operating costs are negligible.

20) What are cold reserve and hot reserves? (R-17, Dec. 2021; Dec 2020)

Hot reserve : Reserve Capacity of plant in operation but not in service. A hot reserve is
sometimes referred to a power-on reserve though time of its start-up makes 1-2 hours, whereas
start-up time of the power-on reserve is just minutes. A hot reserve should be referred to a standing
reserve.
Cold reserve : Reserve Capacity of plant in service but not in operation. A Cold reserve is ensured
by special reserve units with small start-up and spin-up time. Period of the cold reserve start-up is
deemed to be from 2 to 24 hours and more.
21. Define crew constraints. (R13, Dec. 2018; Dec 2015)
If a plant consist of two (or) more units, all the units cannot be turned on at the same time since
there are not enough crew members to attend both units while starting up.

22. State the different constraints in unit commitment problem.

(Dec 2007, Dec 2010, May 2010. Dec 2014)
Name some thermal constraints in unit commitment problem. (Dec 2012)
What are the constraints in unit commitment?

Spinning reserve Minimum uptime

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 Thermal constraints Minimum downtime
Crew constraint

Hydro constraint
Other constraints Must run constraint
Fuel constraint

23. What is spinning reserve? (May 2013, May 2015)

Define spinning reserve.
The spinning reserve is the extra generating capacity that is available by increasing the
power output of generators that are already connected to the power system. For most generators,
this increase in power output is achieved by increasing the torque applied to the turbine's rotor.

24. What is meant by FLAC? (Nov/Dec 2013)

Full load average production cost = Net heat rate at full load ×Fuel cost

( Ci ( PGi ) ) K ( Hi ( PGi ) )
FLAPC= =
P Gi PGi

25. What is meant by priority list method? (Jun 2016, Dec 2009)
What is meant by FLAPC ?
Priority list method is the simplest unit commitment solution method which consists of
creating a priority list among all the available units. The priority list is prepared based on the Full
Load Average Production Cost of each unit (FLAPC).

26. What are the assumptions made in dynamic programming problem?

What are the assumptions are made for performing dynamic programming approach.
(May 2011)
A state consists of an array of units with specified units operating and the rest of the time. The
startup cost of a unit is independent of the time it has been offline. There are no costs for
shutting down the units.

Other Questions:

27. Define economic dispatch problem?

The objective of economic dispatch problem is to minimize the operating cost of active power
generation.

28. Define base point?

The present operating point of the system is called base point.

29. What are the advantages of participation factor?

 Computer implementation of economic dispatch is straight forward
 Execution time for economic dispatch is short
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  It will always give consistent answers when units reach limits
 It gives linear incremental cost functions or have non-convex cost curves

30.Write the quadratic expression for fuel cost.

Ci (P Gi )=a i P 2 +bi PGi +C i Rs/hr
Gi
where ai,bi and ci are constants
PGi=Power Generation

31. What is meant by scheduled reserve?

These include quick start diesel turbine units as well as most hydro units and pumped
storage hydro units that can be brought online, synchronized and brought up to full capacity
quickly.

32. What are the thermal unit constraints?

i) Minimum up time
ii) Minimum down time
iii) Crew constraints.

33. Define minimum up time?

Once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately.

34. Define minimum down time?

Once the unit is decommited, there is a minimum time before it can be recommended.

35. Define Unit commitment?

Unit commitment means optimum allocation of generators at each generating
station at various station load levels.

36. What are the two approaches to treat a thermal unit to operating temperature?
The first allow the unit boiler to cool down and then heat backup to operating
temperature in time for a scheduled turn on. The second requires that sufficient energy be input
to the boiler to just maintain operating temperature.

37. What are the techniques for the solution of the unit commitment problem?
1. Priority list method
2. Dynamic programming
3. Lagrange relation

38. Define long range hydro scheduling problem?

The problem involves the long range of water availability and scheduling of reservoir
water releases. For an interval of time that depends on the reservoir capacities.

39. List the various constraints in the modern power system.

 Equality constraint
 In Equality Constraint

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 1) Generator constraints
2) Voltage Constraints
3) Running space capacity constraints
4) Transformer Tap Setting
5) Transmission line constraints

40. What is merit order scheduling?

This method ensures that the incremental cost of all the generators is constant over the
full range or successive discrete portions within the range. This method of scheduling is known
as merit order scheduling

PART- B & C Questions

(May 2013/Dec 2015)
1. Formulate the coordination equations with losses neglected and also explain the algorithmic
steps of iterative method to find the solution of coordination equations. (Dec 2019)

2. With a neat flow chart explain the iterative algorithm for solving the economic dispatch
equation of N bus power system taking into account the effects of system losses.
(May 2013)
Explain the Lambda Iteration method for finding the solution of Economic Dispatch
including transmission losses with a neat flowchart. (R13, Dec 2019)
Write the algorithm for iterative solution of economic dispatch with losses co-ordinated.
(R13, May
2017)
Develop an iterative algorithm for solving the optimum dispatch equation of an 'n' bus
power system taking into account the effects of system losses. (May 2015)

3a. (i) With the help of Flow chart explain Economic dispatch by λ Iteration method without
loss.
(ii) The fuel cost of two units are given by
F1 = F1 (PG1) = 1.5 + 20 PG1 + 0.1 PG1^2 Rs./hr
F2 = F2 (PG2) = 1.9 + 30 PG2 + 0.1 PG2^2 Rs./hr
If the total demand on the generator is 200 MW. Find the economic load scheduling of the
two units, Rs/hr
(iii) What is the significance of equality and inequality constraints in the formulation of
optimum dispatch problem?

4a. The input output curve characteristics of three units are

F1 = 940+5.46 PG1+0.0016 PG1^2.
F2 = 820+5.35 PG2+0.0019 PG2^2.
F3 = 99+5.65PG3+0.0032 PG3^2.
Total load 600 MW. Use the participating factor method to calculate dispatch for a load is

reduced to 550MW.

3c. A power plant has two units with the following cost characteristics: (R-17, Dec 2020)

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 C1= 0.6 P12 + 200 P1 + 2000 Rs/hour
C2= 1.2 P22+150 P2 + 2500 Rs/hour
where P1 and P2 are the generating powers in MW. The daily load cycle is as follows:
6:00A.M. to 6:00 P.M. 150 MW
6:00 P.M. to 6:00 A.M. 50 MW
The cost of taking either unit off the line and returning to service after 12 hours is Rs 5000.

Considering 24 hour period from 6:00 A.M. one morning to 6:00 A.M. the next morning.
(i) Compute the economic schedule for the peak load and off peak load conditions,
(ii) Calculate the optimum operating cost per day.
3i. A heat rate of 100MW fuel fired generator is (May 2014)
10 Mkcal /MWhr at 25% rating
9 Mkcal / MWhr at 40% rating
8 Mkcal / MWhr at 100% rating
Find
(1) Fuel cost at 25, 40, 100% loading
(2) Incremental cost
(3) Fuel input rate using quadratic approximation to deliver 101 MW.

3h. The fuel inputs per hour of plants 1 and 2 given as (R-17, Dec. 2021; R13, May 2019 & R13,
Dec. 2017; Dec 2013/ 2020)
F1 = 0.2 P1² + 40P1 + 120 Rs/hr.
F2 = 0.25P2² + 30P2 + 150 Rs/hr.
Determine the economic operating schedule and the corresponding cost of generation. The
maximum and minimum loading on each unit is 100 MW and 25 MW. Assume the transmission
losses are ignored and the total demand is 180 MW. Also determine the saving obtained if the
load is equally shared by both the units.

3j. The fuel input data for a three plant systems are: (Dec 2020)
F1 = 0.01 P12 + 1.7 P1 + 300 Millions of BTU/ hour
F2 = 0.02 P22 + 2.4 P2 + 400 Millions of BTU/ hour
F3 = 0.02 P32 + 1.125 P3 + 275 Millions of BTU/ hour
where Pi’s are the generation powers in MW. The fuel cost of the plants are Rs 50, Rs 30, Rs 40
per Million of BTU for the plants 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The loss coefficient matrix expressed
in MW ‐1 is given by
0.005 −0.0005 −0.001
B = −0.0005 0.01 −0.0015
−0.001 −0.0015 0.0125

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 The load on the system is 60 MW. Calculate the power dispatch for λ = 120 Rs/MWh. Calculate
the transmission loss. Also determine the power dispatch with the revised value of λ taking 10%
change in its value. Estimate the next new value of λ. (Dec 2018)
3d. Determine the economic generation schedules of three generating units in a power system to
meet the system load of 925 MW. The operating limit and cost function is given below:
Operating limits 250 MW ≤ PG1 ≤ 450 MW
200 MW ≤ PG2 ≤ 350 MW
125 MW ≤ PG3 ≤ 225 MW

Cost function is F1 (PG1) = 0.0045 PG1² + 5.2 PG1 + 580

F2 (PG2) = 0.0056 PG2² + 4.5 PG2 + 640
F3 (PG3) = 0.0079 PG3² + 5.8 PG3 + 820

3b. The cost characteristics of two units in a plant are (R13, May 2018)
C1 = 0.4 P12 + 160 P1 + K1 Rs/h
C2 = 0.45 P22 + 120 P2 + K2 Rs/h
where P1 and P2 are power output in MW. Find the optimum load allocation between the two
units, when the total load is 162.5 MW. What will be the daily loss if the units are loaded
equally?
3g. A two systems shown in Figure. If 100MW is transmitted from plant 1 to the load, a
transmission loss of 10MW is incurred. Find the required generation for each plant and power
received by load when the system incremental cost is Rs. 25 MW-hr. The cost equations of the
two plants are given below.
Two Unit system
F1 = 0.01 P1² + 16 P1 + 180 Rs /hr.
F2 = 0.02 P2² + 20 P2 + 160 Rs /hr. P2
P1 Load
(May 2013 & 2019/Dec 2013 & 2020)
3e. a) i) the fuel cost function for the three thermal plants in Rs/h are given by

F1 = 0.004 P12 + 5.3 P1 + 500 Rs/Hr

F2 = 0.006 P22 + 5.5 P2 + 400 Rs/Hr
F3 = 0.009 P32 + 5.8 P3 + 200 Rs/Hr
where P1, P2 and P3 are in MW. The total load is 800 MW. Find the optimal dispatch
and the total cost in Rs/h. (R13, May 2017) (8)
3k. a) Determine the economic operation point for the three thermal units delivering a total load
of 600 MW. Without considering generator limit as well as considering generator limit.

Given; (Apr/May 2015)

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 Unit 1: maximum output = 600 MW, minimum output = 150 MW.
The fuel cost function is F1 (P1) = 550 +7.7 P1 + 0.00165 P12 Rs/hr
Unit 2: Coal fired: maximum output = 500 MW, minimum output = 125MW.
The fuel cost function is F2 (P2) = 300 +7.88 P2 + 0.002 P22 Rs/hr
Unit 3: Coal fired: maximum output = 600 MW, minimum output = 150 MW.
The fuel cost function is F3 (P3) = 80 +7.99 P3+ 0.005 P32 Rs/hr

3f. Consider the following three units: (R-17, Dec 2020)

IC1= 7.92 + 0.003124 PG 1
IC2= 7.85 + 0.00388 PG 2
IC3= 7.97 + 0.00964 PG 3
PD= 850 MW; PG 1=392.2 MW ; PG 2=334.6MW ; PG 3=122.2MW.
Determine the optimum schedule if the load is increased to 900 MW by using Participation

Factor method.
4b. a) The incremental cost of three units in a plant are :
IC1 = 0.8 P1 + 160 Rs /MWh;
IC2 = 0.9 P2 + 120 Rs /MWh; and
IC3 = 1.25 P3 + 110 Rs /MWh;
where P1 and P2 and P3 are power output in MW. Determine the optimum load allocation when
the total load is 242.5 MW. Using participating Factors, determine the optimum scheduling when
the load increased to 250MW.

5. State the unit commitment problem. With the help of a flow chart, explain forward dynamic
programming solution method of unit commitment problem. (R13, May 2019; R13, Dec. 2020)
Describe the Dynamic Programming Solution for Unit Commitment Problem with Flowchart.
(R13, Dec 2019)
Explain various constraints in UC and indicate the steps involved in solving UC by DP method.
Explain the forward dynamic programming method of solving unit commitment problem.
Explain in detail, forward dynamic programming approach for solving Unit Commitment
problem with a neat flow- Chart. (Nov/Dec 2014)
Explain in detail, with the help of a flow- Chart, the forward dynamic programming solution
method of Unit Commitment problem (R13, Dec. 2018)
Explain with the neat flowchart, the procedure for finding solution for Unit Commitment
problem using forward dynamic programming method (R13, May 2017; Dec. 2018) (8)
Outline the steps for forward dynamic programming approach for solving the unit
Commitment problems. (Apr/May 2018) (7)
Formulate the Forward Dynamic Programming method of solving Unit Commitment problem
with a neat flow- Chart. (R-17, Dec 2021)
6. (i) Explain the unit commitment problem using priority ordering load dispatch.
(ii) Explain the term ‘Incremental Operating Cost’ of power system related with economic
dispatch. (Dec 2019)

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7. Explain the priority list method of solving unit commitment Problem. State merits and
Limitations of this method. (May 2016)
Explain priority list method using full load average production cost (R13, May 2017) (8)
Determine the simple shut –down algorithm used in priority list scheme. (6)
Outline the steps for forward dynamic programming approach for solving the unit
commitment problems. (R13, Apr/May 2018) (7)
8. What is unit commitment problem? Discuss the constraints that are to be accounted in unit
commitment problem. (ii) Obtain the priority list of unit commitment using full load
average production cost for the given data: (Dec 2015 / 2020) (May 2013)
Heat rate of unit1 H1 = 510+7.2PG1+0.00142 PG1^2
Heat rate of unit2 H2 = 310+7.85PG2+0.00194PG2^2 MW\hr.
Heat rate of unit3 H3 = 78+7.97PG3+0.00482PG3^2 MW\hr.
Unit Min(MW) Max(MW) Fuel cost(K)
1 150 600 1.1
2 100 400 1.0
3 50 200 1.2
PD Unit = 500 MW
9. There are three thermal generating units which can be committed to take the system load. The
fuel cost data and generation operating units data are given below:
F1 = 0.001093 P12 + 5.544 P1 + 392.7
F2 = 0.001358 P22+ 5.495 P2 + 217
F3 = 0.004049 P32 + 6.695 P3 + 65.5
P1, P2, P3 in MW Generation limits:
150 <= P1 <= 600 MW;
100 <= P2 <= 400MW;
50 <= P3 <= 200MW
There are no other constraints on system operation. Obtain an optimum unit commitment
table. Adopt Brute force enumeration technique. Show the details of economic schedule and
the component and total costs of operation for each feasible combination of units for the load
level of 900 MW. (R17, Dec. 2020; May 2014)
10. Determine the priority list using full load average production coat for the data given below.
Loading Units Fuel cost Parameter
Unit No. Min. Max. ai bi ci Fuel cost.
1 100 400 0.006 7 600 1.1
2 50 300 0.01 8 400 1.2
3 150 500 0.008 6 500 1.0
Also obtain optimum unit commitment solution for the power demand of 800 MW.
11. The following are data for three units in a power plant: (R13, May 2018)
Unit 1: Max. load = 600 MW,
The cost function is C 1=561+7.92 P1 +0.001562 P 21 Rs/h
Unit 2: Max. load = 400 MW,
2
The cost function is C 2=310+7.85 P2+ 0.00194 P2 Rs/h

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 Unit 3: max. load = 200 MW,
The cost function is C 3=561+9.564 P3 +0.005784 P23 Rs/h
Obtain the priority list for the Unit commitment problem.

Create a unit commitment using the priority list of method for the following three units.
The fuel cost equations are as follows:
Unit 1: F1 (P1) = 561 +7.92 P1 + 0.001562 P12 150 ≤ P1 ≤ 600
Unit 2: F2 (P2) = 310 +7.85 P2 + 0.00194 P22 100 ≤ P 2≤ 400
Unit 3: F3 (P3) = 93.6 +9.56 P3+0.005784 P3 50 ≤ P3 ≤ 200
2

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