PHYSICS

5054/0625
2023-25
FAQS
SECTION 1
Measurement of length
Tape: Flexible, large range
Least count/ accuracy level: 0.1 cm or 1 mm
Sources of error: keeping line of sight not perpendicular to the reading. (Parallax error)

Meter rule: not flexible

Least count/ accuracy level: 0.1 cm or 1 mm
Range: 1m
Sources of error: keeping line of sight not perpendicular to the reading. (parallax error)

Measuring volume using measuring cylinder of irregular shaped

object:
Measure volume of water without object
Measure volume of water with object
Difference in two volumes is volume of object.

Scalar Quantity: Quantities that need only magnitude for their complete
specification.
Examples: Speed, distance, mass

Vector quantity: Quantities that need both magnitude and direction for their
complete specification.
Examples: velocity, displacement, acceleration, momentum, force
Addition of vectors
Two vectors F1 and F2 in same direction will give resultant vector F1 +F2.
Two vectors F1 and F2 in opposite direction will give resultant vector F 1 -F2
Two vectors F1 and F2 perpendicular to each other will give resultant vector F 2=F12 F22
 

Mass: Amount of matter in a body

Instrument to measure mass: Electronic balance, beam balance, physical balance.
Unit: kg, g
Constant, Scalar
Resistance to change in state, measure of inertia.

Weight: Pull of gravity on a mass in gravitational field.

Instrument to measure weight: Spring balance, newton meter
Unit: Newton
Variable: varies with gravitational field
Vector: direction towards centre of earth.

Gravitational field: Space of region around a mass where its force of attraction can
be felt.
Gravitational field strength: Force per unit mass.
g =F/m
g =W/m
Symbol: g
g of earth is 9.8 N/kg

Density: mass per unit volume

Unit: kg/m3 g/cm3
Density of a pure substance is constant.

How can density of an irregular shaped object be found?

 Experiment
1. Find mass using electronic balance.
2. Find volume using measuring cylinder by taking difference in volume with
object and without object.
3. Find density using the formula:
Density = mass ÷ volume

• Speed: Rate of change in distance covered in unit time.

• Velocity: Rate of change in displacement.

• Average speed: total distance travelled ÷ total time taken

• Uniform acceleration: Equal change in velocity per unit time

• Uniform deceleration: Equal decrease in velocity per unit time

• Sketch speed –time graphs of

1. Body with uniform acceleration

2. Body with uniform speed

3. Body with increasing acceleration

.4. Body with decreasing acceleration.

6. Retardation /deceleration
Sketch Distance –time graphs
1. Body at rest

2. Body with acceleration

3. Body with uniform speed

 3. Retardation /deceleration

• How can speed be found from Distance time graph: gradient of the graph.

• How can distance be found from Speed Time graph: area under graph.

• How can acceleration be found from speed time graph: Gradient of the
graph.

• State free fall acceleration: 9.81 m/s2 it is possible when there is no air
resistance and there is just one force i.e of gravity.

• Effect of balanced forces:

The body at rest will remain at rest.
The body in uniform motion will continue it.
• Types of forces
 Weight (gravitational force),
 friction,
 drag,
 air resistance,
 tension (elastic force),
 electrostatic force,
 magnetic force
 thrust (driving force)
 contact force

• Effect of unbalanced forces: Body will accelerate in the direction of the

resultant force.

• How can a force change velocity:

By changing its direction
By changing it speed.
• Newton’s first law: In the absence of a net force a body at rest will remain at
rest and a body in uniform motion will continue its uniform motion.

• Newton’s third law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
and they mutually act on two different bodies.
 
• Friction: It is an opposing force which slows down the slide motion of one body
over the other.

• Effects of friction: Energy is lost in the form of heat and sound.

• Terminal velocity: when an object reaches its maximum possible velocity in the
state of free fall
• How terminal velocity is achieved when forward force has not changed/
Why the acceleration decreases even when the car’s engine is working at full
strength?
As the speed increases, air resistance increases too. With the same forward
force, increase in air resistance decreases the resultant force. With decrease in
resultant force, acceleration decreases.

• Braking distance: It is the distance covered/ travelled after applying brakes.

Body is always decelerating during this.
• Factors effecting braking distance:
Speed of the car
Friction between car tires and the road surface
Mass of the car

• Thinking distance: Distance covered/ travelled during reaction time. Speed

during this is constant.

• Factors effecting Thinking distance:

Reflexes of the driver.
Focus of the driver.
Speed of the car.

Graphical representation
• Limit of proportionality: It is the point after which hooke’s law is no longer
applicable.
• Extension: It is the difference between the new length and the original length.
• Spring constant: force per unit extension
spring constant = force/ extension
k = F/ x

 Hooks law (igcse only): Force and extension are directly proportional
provided limit of proportionality has not reached.

• Sketch load –extension graph

• State direction of acceleration, velocity and net force for a body moving in a circle

Velocity

a F
a

• Moment of a force: It is the turning effect of force

 Force X Perpendicular Distance

• Principle of moment: For a body to be in equilibrium, sum of clockwise moment

must be equal to sum of anticlockwise moment.
• How to verify principle of moment:
Experiment
1. Balance a meter rule on a pivot at its center of gravity.
2. Hang two different weights on each side and again balance at center of
gravity.
3. Calculate the clockwise moment and the anticlockwise moment. When in
equilibrium both will be equal.

• Conditions of equilibrium:
Sum of all forces/moments must be equal to zero.
• Centre of gravity: It is the point where all the weight of a body seems to be
acting.

 How to find center of gravity of thin lamina

Experiment
1. Hang the lamina to a friction free suspension.
2. Hang a plumb line in front of it.
3. Mark line behind plumb line.
4. Center of gravity lies somewhere on the plumb line.
5. Repeat the process from another line.
6. The intersection of the two lines will give the center of gravity.
7. Repeat the process for confirmation.

• Factors effecting stability:

Base area
Height

 Momentum: product of mass and velocity.

• Impulse: product of force and time. It is equal to change in momentum.

• Law of conservation of momentum: Momentum of an isolated system is constant.
Or
Momentum before collision is equal to momentum after collision in an isolated system.
• Resultant force: Is equal to rate of change of momentum.

• Energy can be stored as

 Kinetic,
 Gravitational potential
 Chemical
 Elastic (strain)
 Nuclear
 Electrostatic
 Internal (thermal)

Energy transfer by force

• Energy transfer by electric currents

• Energy transfer by heating

• Energy transfer by waves

• Law of conservation of energy: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed and
it can only transfer from one form to another.
• Kinetic energy = ½ mv2
• Potential energy = mgh
• work: Product of force and displacement in the direction of force.

• Non-Renewable sources of energy: It is source of energy that is finite in nature

and can exhaust easily
• Examples
Fossil fuels
Nuclear power
• Renewable sources of energy:
It is the source of energy that is infinite in nature and cannot exhaust easily.
• Examples
Solar energy
Wind energy
Tidal energy
Geothermal energy
Hydroelectric power

• How electrical power can be generated, from:

(a) chemical energy stored in fossil fuels
Impact on environment: green house gases. Global warming, Pollution
Non renewable
reliable availability
• Efficiency: ratio of useful output to total input.
• Power: work done per unit time.
• Pressure: Force per unit area.
• Relationship of pressure and volume: Inversely proportional provided
temperature is kept constant.
• Graph between pressure and volume
SECTION 2
Give molecular structure of
1. Solids : closely packed, regularly arranged,
2. Liquids: closely packed, irregularly arranged
3. Gas: far apart, randomly spaced.

• Give movement of particles of

1. Solids: vibration at mean position.
2. Liquids: move in clusters slide past each other.
3. Gas: random motion in zig zag path.
• Forces between particles
Solids: strong
Liquid: strong
Gas: No forces
 Why it is easier to compress gases: it has large inter molecular distances and
weak forces of repulsion.

• How gas exert pressure: Gas particles are in random motion. During motion they
collide with walls of container. During collision there is change of momentum, rate of
change of momentum is force and force per unit area is pressure.
• What happens to pressure if volume increases keeping temperature constant?
As volume increases intermolecular distances increase so frequency of collisions
decreases and pressure decrease.
• What happens to pressure if temperature increases keeping volume constant?
As temperature increases molecules have more kinetic energy so the frequency
of collision increases with harder force so pressure increase.
• What happens to motion of particle when temperature increases?
 Increases.
• Absolute zero temperature: Temperature where all the kinetic and potential
energy decreases to zero.

• For a given amount of heat which expands most solid, liquid or gas
Gas than liquid than solid

• Convert temperatures between kelvin and degrees Celsius

TK= Toc +273

• Specific heat capacity: energy required to raise the temperature of a body of

mass 1 kg by 1oc.
• Experiment to measure the specific heat capacity of a solid and of a liquid

• Melting point: Fixed temperature at which a substance changes from solid to

liquid.
• Boiling point: Fixed temperature at which a substance changes from liquid to gas.
• Evaporation: Few particles at the surface of a liquid have got enough energy to
break the bonds if attraction and leave the liquid body before boiling point.
• Factors effecting evaporation:
Surface area
Temperature
Dry hot air.
• Why heat is needed to change state.
Energy is needed to break the bonds of attraction and to increase the amplitude
of motion.
Transfer of thermal energy
• Conduction: Particles near the heat source vibrate at their mean position, collide
with each other and transfer energy
Conduction in metals: freely moving electrons move from hotter to colder end and
collide with atoms of lattice and transfer energy.
• Convection:
Fluid right above the heat source expands, becomes less dense and rises. Cool dense
fluid will sink down to take its place.
• Radiation: Transfer of thermal energy through infrared radiation, which can travel
even in vacuum.

• Experiment to find good absorbers of infrared radiations

Place a heater between two cans: one black and one white.
Pour 100cm3 of water at same temperature in both.
Attach a thermometer in both.
We will observe that the dull black surface will have a quicker rise in temperature.
• Experiment to find good emitters of infrared radiations.
Place two cans one black and one white.
Pour 100cm3 of water at same temperature in both.
Attach a thermometer in both.
We will observe that the dull black surface will have a quicker drop in temperature.
• How a silver mesh T-shirt stops heat exchange:
Mesh T- shirt traps air
Air is a bad conductor, so conduction reduces.
Air is trapped, so it cannot circulate, reducing convection.
Silver color is bad emitter, so radiation reduces.
Section 3
• Wave: It is the transfer of energy without the net movement of the particle of the
medium.
• Wave front: It is an imaginary line perpendicularly joining all the similar points.

 SPEED OF LIGHT: 3x108 m/s

• Frequency: number of complete waves passing through a point in one second.

• Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive similar points.

• Amplitude: maximum displacement from mean position.

• General wave equation: V= f λ

• Time period: The time taken by one complete wave.

• Transverse wave: When the particle movement is perpendicular to the direction

of transfer of energy.

• Longitudinal wave: When the particle movement is parallel to the direction of

transfer of energy.
• Reflection
It is the bouncing back of the wave to the same medium after striking the reflecting
surface in such a way that angle of incidence is equals to angle of reflection.
Refraction
Whenever waves travel from one medium to another, there is change of speed and
hence change of direction
• Diffraction
The spreading of wave when it passes through a small gap comparable to its
wavelength
• Draw Ripple tank

• Reflection of water wave

  Refraction of water wave

Wave slows down in shallow,

Wave front slows down in shallow , wavelength decreases, bends away from normal.
Frequency remains constant.

• Diffraction of water wave

 Frequency does not change until the

  Speed does not change

 Reflection: When ray bounces back to the same medium in such a way that angle of
incidence is equal to angle of reflection

 Normal
It is an imaginary line perpendicular to the surface at the point of
incidence.
 Draw incident ray and normal

 Angle of reflection

It is the angle between the normal and the reflected ray.

 Angle of incidence

It is the angle between the normal and the incident ray

  Law of reflection
< i is equals to < r.

Characteristics of image formed in plane mirror

1. Upright
2. Virtual
3. Same distance
4. Same size
5. Laterally inverted

Draw the rays to find the image formed of the object in the mirror

 Refraction
Whenever light changes its medium, there is a change of speed and
hence change of direction.
If waves slows down it bends towards the normal and vice versa.
 Law of refraction
Ratio of sin < i : sin < r is constant.
 Refractive index
The ratio of speed of light in vacuum to speed of light in that medium.
Denser medium have high refractive index.
 Angle of refraction
Angle between the refracted ray and the normal.

 Critical angle
Angle of incidence in the denser medium for which angle of refraction is

90° (degrees).

 Total internal reflection

When 100% of the ray of light is reflected back to the same medium.
When the angle of incidence in the denser medium is greater than the
critical angle.
 Uses of optical fiber
Telecommunications and medicine
 Advantages of optical fiber
Fast transmission and less loss of data

 Ray diagram optical fiber

 Principal focus

 Focal Length: distance between principle focus and lens.

 Draw three rays to form image by convex lens

 Draw two rays to form image by concave lens

 Linear magnification: it is the ratio of image height to object height
IMAGES FORMED AT DIFFERENT DISTANCES FROM CONVEX LENS:
 1 virtual image formed in convex lens

 Draw rays to locate image in normal eye.

 Draw rays to locate image in short sighted eye

 Remedy for short sighted eye – use a concave lens

 Draw rays to locate image in long sighted eye

 Remedy for long sighted eye

  Dispersion of light
Splitting up of white light into it’s seven constituent colors

 Colors of white light in order of increasing frequency and deviation.

ROYGBIV
(Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet)
Order of electromagnetic spectrum Increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength or
Speed of electromagnetic waves: 3x108 m/s
Properties common in electromagnetic waves
 All are transverse waves
 All can travel in vacuum
 All travel with the speed of light 3x108 m/s

Properties uncommon in electromagnetic waves

 They all have different frequencies
 They all have different wavelengths

Uses of Radio Waves:

Radio and television communications and astronomy
Uses of Microwaves:
Satellite television, mobile (cell) phone, Bluetooth, Microwave ovens
Uses of Infrared:
Household electrical appliances, remote controllers, intruder alarms, thermal imaging,
optical fibres
Uses of Visible Light:
Photography, vision
Use of Ultraviolet:
Security Marking, Detecting counterfeit bank notes, sterilizing water
Uses of X-Rays:
Hospital use in medical imaging, security scanners, killing cancerous cells, engineering
applications such as detecting cracks in metal
Uses of Gamma Rays:
Medical treatment in detecting and killing cancerous cells, sterilizing food and medical
equipment, engineering applications such as detecting cracks in metal.
Damage caused by electromagnetic radiation

How sound is produced?

Through a vibrating body
How sound is propagated
There is a vibrating body. Due to the vibration particles of the air vibrate in the same
direction as that of the transfer of energy, causing compressions and rarefactions in the
adjacent layers of air
Compression
High-pressure, high-density area
Rarefactions

Low-pressure, low-density area

Audible frequency range
20-20,000Hz
Give an experiment that sound needs a medium to travel
We will connect a vacuum pump in this bell jar and as the vacuum is created, we will
see the bell ringing but the sound will fade away because sound needs a medium to
travel.
When we go to the moon or in space, we are not able to hear each other and so we use
either a micro-phone or we touch our helmets so that the sound can transfer.

Magnitude of speed of sound in solid, liquid, gas

Reduces

Loudness – how loud or soft a sound is heard

Factor effecting loudness – Amplitude

Pitch – how high or low a sound is heard

Factor effecting pitch – Wavelength

Echo
It is the reflection of sound
Give an experiment to show reflection of sound

1. Person A would fire a flare gun

2. Person B, on seeing the flare, would start the stopwatch and on hearing the
sound, would stop the stopwatch
3. This will give the time for sound to travel distance ‘d’
4. Distance ‘d’ can be measured using a measuring tape
5. Speed can be determined using the formula:
Speed = Distance
Time

Ultrasound
It is a sound wave above audible frequency range i.e. above 20,000Hz
Uses of ultrasound
 Cleaning Purposes
 Prenatal Scanning
 Sonar Systems
SECTION 4
State the properties of magnets
1) They acquire north-south direction when freely suspended.
2) Like poles repel each other, unlike poles attract each other

Describe Induced magnetism:

It is the reason of attraction between a magnet and a magnetic material.
There is reshuffling of poles in a magnetic material, when placed near a magnet,
in such a way that an opposite pole is created at the nearer end and a similar
pole is created at the farther end.

Magnets
 They acquire north-south direction when freely suspended.
 Like poles repel each other, unlike poles attract each other

Magnetic Materials
 They are always attracted by a magnet.
 They are iron, nickel and cobalt.

Non-magnetic Materials
 They are neither attracted nor repelled by a magnet.
 For example, copper, rubber and wood.

Describe the plotting of magnetic field lines with a compass

1. place the plotting compass near the magnet on a piece of paper.

2. mark the direction the compass needle points.
3. Repeat the process to complete the field lines.
4. Repeat the process at different points to complete the field.
 Difference between iron and steel

 Iron is a soft magnetic material, easy to magnetize and easy to de-

magnetize. Used as a core of electro-magnetic.
 Steel is a hard magnetic material. Hard to magnetize and hard to de-
magnetize. Used to make permanent magnets like compass.

Sketch the magnetic field around a magnet.

Characteristics of magnetic field lines

 They never intersect
 They are more at the poles and less at center
 Always start from North and end at South
 As we go further away from magnet, the field gets weaker

 How friction makes a body charged

Friction takes off electron from one body and gets it deposited on the other body.
The one which loses electrons becomes positively charged. The one which gains
electrons becomes negatively charged.

 Which partical moves while charging – Electron

 Unit of charge – Coulumb

 Like charges repel

 Unlike charges attract

 Charged and neutral body attract

Electric field
Space or region around a charge body where it’s effect can be felt by a unit
positive charge.

 Sketch electric field

Around a positve charge

Around a negative charge

 Between positive and negative body

Difference between conductors and insulators

Conductors have freely moving electrons which are not present in insulators.

 Examples of conductors: copper , iron, gold all metals

 Examples of insulators: Rubber, wood

 Experiment to distinguish between conductors and insulators:

 Current :the rate of flow of charge

 Unit of current : Ampere

 Define ampere : coulumb per second

 Instrument ro measure current – Ammeter (always connected in series)

 Difference between direct current (D.C) and alternating current (A.C)

Alternating current changes its magnitude and direction continuously.
Direct current has constant magnitude and direction.

 Direction of conventional current: Positive to negative

 Current in metal wire : Due to electrons

 Electromotive force :
Energy given to unit charge to move across the whole circuit. The energy
conversion is from non-electrical to electrical.

 Potential difference :
Energy consumed by unit charge to move across the any two points in the circuit.
The energy conversion is from electrical to non-electrical.

 Unit of potential difference - Volts

 Instrument to measure potential difference – Voltmeter (always connected in

parallel)
 Resistance : Ratio of voltage to current

 Factors effecting resistance

Length increases, resistance increases
Area increases, resistance decreases

 Unit of resistance - Ohm

Ohms Law
Current flowing through any wire is directly propotional to potential difference
across its ends, provided that temperature remains constant.

 Give experiment to measure resistance

Sketch voltage-current graph for:
1. Ohmic conductor

The Gradient is 1/R.

As R is constant, so is gradient.

2. Metal filament

Gradient is 1/R.
As R is increasing, so gradient is decreasing.
 3. Thermistor

Gradient is 1/R.
As R is decreasing, so gradient is increasing
Diode : It allows current only in one direction

Find how resistance of wire changes with length

As length increases, resistance of wire increases
As area increases, resistance of wire decreases
Differentiate between series and parallel combination

Series

 Current is the same

 Voltage is divided according to resistance share

Larger resistor would have larger voltage

 Resistance is added up

Total resistance is greater than the biggest resistor

 Advantage of connecting cells in series
Voltage will add up

Parallel

 Current is divided

 Voltage remains same

 Resistance reduces

 Advantage of connecting cells in parallel – they will last longer

 Advantage of connecting lamps in parallel – they can work independently
 Use of fuse
It limits the amount of current

 Where is fuse, circuit breaker and switch connected and why?

It is connected with live wire in series.
So that when fuse blows up, the appliance is at zero volts.

 How do we decide rating of fuse?

It is slightly above normal current

 Where is earth wire connected?

With the metal casing

 How does an earth wire work?

In case a fault arises, and metal casing becomes live, a huge amount of current
will flow from earth wire to earth and so the fuse blows up, making us safe.

 Explain double insulation

The wires are insulated and then the outer casing is made up of an insulator, so
there is no need of earth wire

 Define KWh
It is an electricity consumption unit. It is the product of power in Kilowatts and
time in hours.

 Live wire
Wire with high voltage charges

 Neutral wire
Wire with zero voltage charges. It is used to provide potential difference or to
complete the circuit
How is e.m.f induced?
Whenever there’s a change in magnetic field strength in a closed loop of wire, EMF is
induced (which is transferred to output terminals through slip rings and carbon brushes).

Give an experiment to demonstrate induce emf

How can we increase induce E.M.F? Draw graphs.

 Increase the number of turns of coil
 Use a stronger magnet
 More revolutions per second/ faster revolution would increase both frequency
and amplitude.
State Lenz’s Law
The direction of induced EMF will always be such as to oppose the change producing it

Give an experiment to demonstrate Lenz’s Law

Draw A.C generator

Use of slip rings – they transfer the induced EMF to the external circuit without tangling
the wires.
Sketch Voltage-time graph of ac generator

Factors effecting magnitude of induced emf

1. Faster rotation

2. Stronger magnet, more turns of coil.

Draw magnetic field around the current carrying wire.
Draw magnetic field between two wires
with same direction of current (first fig) showing attraction
with different direction of current (second fig ) showing repulsion.

Draw magnetic field around solenoid

Factors effecting strength and direction of magnetic field

Number of turns
Current
Relay
Use: used to switch on a circuit with high voltage using low voltage dc supply.

Diagram

How does it work: With low current solenoid becomes electromagnet and attracts iron
which than switches on the circuit.
Loudspeaker

How does it work: Due to ac supply there is a varying magnetic field so there is
attraction and repulsion with permanent magnet. The cone attached to it vibrates and
produces sound.
Force on a current carrying conductor
Fleming’s left hand rule

DC motor

How can the turning effect be increased?

By increasing current
Using stronger magnets
Use of split ring: Reverses the direction of current after every 180 degrees.
Use of carbon brush: Good dry lubricant conductors.
Draw a transformer

Working of transformer
Primary coil is connected with an A.C Supply, so it has a varying magnetic field.
Secondary coil is placed in the varying magnetic field of the primary coil.
Due to change in magnetic field strength, EMF is induced.

Step up transformer:
voltage increases and current decreases.
Number of turns in secondary coil are more than those in primary coil.

Step down transformer

voltage decreases and current increases.
Number of turns in primary coil are more than those in secondary coil.
Why do we use high tension cables in long distance transmission lines?
In long distance transmission lines, the resistance is very high due to the length of the
wire, and the power loss is also very high (=I2R).
In high tension cables, voltage is very high and current is very low, so the power loss
reduces.

Suitable material for coils of transformer and why?

Soft iron core because:
 It prevents leakage of magnetic field
 It is easy to magnetize and demagnetize

Suitable material for core of transformer and why?

Copper because:
 It’s a good conductor of electricity
Uses of an oscilloscope

Measure p.d. and short intervals of time with an oscilloscope using the Y-gain and
timebase

Amplitude gives voltage

Wavelength gives time period
Section 5
Structure of an atom
 Number of protons in the nucleus
 Number of neutrons in the nucleus
 Number of electrons revolving around nucleus

Composition of nucleus –Protons and neutrons

Atomic number – no. of protons
Mass number – no. of protons and neutrons
Nucleon number (mass number: no. of protons+ neutrons)
Number of neutrons: Mass number – atomic number
Nuclide – symbolic representation of the isotopes of an atom
Isotopes – atom of same element with same atomic number but different mass number
Alpha scattering experiment
Experiment
Observation 1:
Majority of alpha particles passed through the gold film
Conclusion 1:
There are large empty spaces in an atom – nucleus is too small as compared to the
atom.

Observation 2:
Few were deflected and few bounced back/rebounded
Conclusion 2:
There is a concentrated positive center

Radioactive decay
When an unstable nucleus emits alpha, beta or gamma and decay to a comparatively
stable nucleus.
Spontaneous
This radioactive decay is not affected by any external factor like pressure/temperature.
Random – the chances of decay for every nucleus is the same
Alpha particles – Helium nucleus
 Helium nucleus
 Mass 4 units
 Charge 2 +ve
 It is 2 protons and 2 neutrons
 Penetration 5 to 7 cm in air
 Can be stopped by thick paper.
 Maximum ionization potential
 Effected by electric field, deflects towards positive plate.
 Effected by magnetic field, Fleming’s left hand rule is applied.
Detection – Cloud Chamber Model (not in Igcse)
Decay equation
Beta particles – fast moving electrons
 Fast moving electrons
 Mass negligible
 Charge -ve
 In beta decay a neutron emits electron and changes into proton.
 Penetration 100 cm in air
 Can be stopped by 5 mm of Aluminum foil.
 Moderate ionization potential
 Effected by electric field, deflects towards negative plate.
 Effected by magnetic field, Fleming’s left hand rule is applied.
Detection – Cloud chamber
Decay equation

Gamma radiations – high frequency electromagnetic radiations

 High energy electromagnetic radiations
 No Mass
 No Charge
 Penetration is enormous. Can only be reduced by thick lead wall
 Negligible ionization potential
 Not effected by electric field or magnetic field
Detection – GM Tube
Background radiations
Radiations which are without any sample around
Causes of background radiations
 Nuclear Fallout
 Radon gas
 Cosmic Rays
Fusion
When two smaller nuclei fuse together and give a bigger nucleus. Some mass is lost
during this which changes into energy. Energy of star is be from fusion reactions.

Fission:
When a big nucleus splits and give smaller fragments. Some mass is lost during these
which changes into energy. Energy of nuclear power plant is from fission reactions.

Nuclear reactor (not in Igcse)

Fuel rods: uranium rods are used as fuel rods. Neutrons are made to hit them and start
fission reaction.
Neutron absorbers: cadmium or Boron rods are used to absorb the rate of reaction or
even to stop the reaction.
Moderators: Heavy water is used as moderator as only slow-moving neutrons can
initiate the reaction.
Coolant: water is used as a coolant which takes up the energy and changes into steam
with which we move the turbine to operate generator.
Chain reaction: As neutrons are emitted as product also so if a critical mass is placed
they hit the uranium nucleus and a chain reaction stars.

Half-life: The time in which the number of nuclei and count rate reduces to half.
Carbon dating: to find the age of a sample we find the amount of carbon 14 in it and
calculate the age. Carbon 14 has a half life of about 5700 years.

Uses of radioactivity

(a) household fire (smoke) alarms

Type of radiation used: Alpha due to high ionizing ability, Half life: very long
(b) irradiating food to kill bacteria

Type of radiation used Gamma

(c) sterilization of equipment using gamma rays
(d) measuring and controlling thicknesses of materials

Type of radiation used : Beta, Half life: long

(e) diagnosis and treatment of cancer using gamma rays
Hazards of radioactivity:
Cancer, Blisters, Cell mutation
Safety precautions:
Keep distance so use of mechanical arms or tongs.
Work behind lead walls or wear lead lined suits
Wear photographic film badges.

SECTION 6
Earth and solar system
Earth
Nature

Movement
Orbiting the sun

Time period

Rotation on its own axis

Revolution of moon

Time taken by light to reach from sun to earth

Solar system
Components of solar system
Sun

Planets

Dwarf planets and asteroids

Moons

Comets

Orbital distance

Orbital period

Density

Surface temperature
Uniform gravitational field strength at the planet’s surface

Factors effecting strength of the gravitational field

(a)

(b)

Mass and gravitational field strength of sun

Relation between the strength of the Sun’s gravitational field and that the orbital speeds
of the planets with the distance from the Sun

Sun A Star

Transmission of energy from sun

Energy and power of a stable star

Stars
Milkyway

Light year

Life cycle of stars

Universe
Red shift

Big bang theory