Mama's Bab , Papa's Ma be: An American Grammar Book

Author(s): Hortense J. Spillers

Source: Diacritics, Vol. 17, No. 2, Culture and Countermemor : The "American" Connection
(Summer, 1987), pp. 64-81
Published b : The Johns Hopkins Universit Press
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/464747
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TEXTS/CONTEXTS

MAMA'S BABY, PAPA'S

MAYBE: AN AMERICAN
GRAMMAR BOOK

HORTENSE . SPILLERS

Le ' face . I a a a ed a , b e e b d a e.
"Peache " a d "B S ga ," "Sa h e" a d "Ea h M he ," "A ," "G a ,"
G d' "H F ," a "M Eb F ," "B ac W a a he P d ": I
de c be a c f c f ded de e , a ee g g d f e e a d
a he a a ea f he ca ea h. M c eed e,
a d f I e e he e, I d ha e be e ed.
W. E. B. D B ed c ed a ea a 1903 ha he e e h ce
d be he ce f he "c e." We c d add h a e a
c f g a a he he a c f a a g e b e e gh : f he "b ac
a " ca be ee a a a c a f g a f he b ec ha
ch a a c he , he h ce a he e f " " -
f de e e a . The b e bef e dece e e: he e
e c ed a a he eced g a ag a h a e e de e ed
a e e e . E bedded b a e a g ca g d, he
de a e a f e eg a h c c d g; he a e a e aded h
h ca e e ha he e ea a f he age b ed be ea h
he c e c ea . I ha ega d, he a e b h ch I a ca ed he
b c ace e de a e a e f g f g e . I de f e
ea a e d c ce g e f, I d h gh a e f a -
e a ed ea g , ade a e ce e, e e, a g ed b a a c a
h ca de , a d he e a a ha e e a e f e e e .
The e a a e ffe ed he e ce f a c ec e f c .
I ce a h a c e e , a ch d' de de e ed h gh he e
f he M he , b he U ed S a e , f a ea e a h ' f e ,
e f he : "I e e ce, he Neg c ha bee f ced a
a a cha c e h ch, beca e fa f e h he e f
A e ca c e , e e a d he g e f he g a a h e, a d -
e
a c h g b de he Neg a e a d, c e e ce, a g ea
a Neg e a e " [M ha 75; e ha e].
The ba a d, f V c ' ba hed R a he f ch ,
Ca ba , Hea hc ff, a d J e Ch a , ha ff c a fe a e e a e .
Beca e he ad a e a d a f he a ce a e e a he fe a e
ch d, ba a d a g a h e h eed h ch f he
Fa he ' he eg a e he a d h ch e he . F ha ea ,
e ee h he b e f he a e. A " he" ca , he ef e,
a f f ba a d, " a a " a , a d ha he ca de f he
gh he c a d ec f a a cha ea h a d f e. Acc d g

d ac c / e 1987 65

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Da e Pa c M ha ' ce eb a ed "Re " f he a e e , he "Neg Fa " ha
Fa he ea f- h Na e, h La , h S b cf c a he e e g
age c e he e e a fe f he b ac c , he "Re " a a ,a d , -
g , he fa f he Da gh e , he fe a e e. Th g e e a f he ca a
he a c, d ac g he Na e a d he La f he Fa he he e f he M he a d
Da gh e , bec e a a ec f he Af ca -A e ca fe a e' a g. We a e
d h a g de ec a he e a h be ee Fa he a d Da gh e
h h ca a f a e d ffe e c e fc a fc . F Da gh e a d
Fa he a e he e ade a fe he e a e he ca f ab e ce a d de a ,
e b d he d b e a d c a e age c e f a e c bed e ec e deg ada .
"Sa h e" e ac he "O d Ma " d ag, a he "O d Ma " bec e "Sa h e"
age ca ca e.
I he d , he h c e fd a ce, he e ec e b ec - f
"fe a e" a d " a e" adhe e b c eg .A a e he c e c ca
d c e a ea c e ea d e dec ded a d ge de " dec dab ,"
d a ea eac a , f d b, he eg f fe a e/ a e ge de . B
d e g he e c f a f ea g, a he a ea de he e fd a ce, d
e e, a f g a e b , P e he Fe a e (f Ma e ), b a P e
he Ma e (f Pa e ). We d ga , h , he e a f ge de d ffe e a a
gh e e efa g a a ge f e , c d gh a b g e ec-
h he ec f c e.
Th gh a g he ead a a ab e " h gb " f fa ece b c
d c ec ce g Af ca -A e ca a d a a c , "The M ha Re " b
ea ecede ed c c ; be g , a he , aca f b c
a ad g ha 1) c be "e h c " a a ce e f ega a d 2) c f he h a b d
a a e cfg ef a e e e e e fh a a d ca a a ge e .I ha
ega d, he "Re " e a beha a e f b cd c e a . U de he M ha
e, "e h c " e f de fe a a b ec f ca fh a a dc a e - he
" h e" fa ,b ca , a d he "Neg Fa ," b gh a e , ac a
fb a ea g .A a e a e , he e "ac a "a e h
ge e a ed, h e he a f e, a ba c e g f e. M ha '
"Fa e "a e e e e a da a e e. "E h c " h ca e f ee e ea g,
a e c a c ,a e he a d he affec f he E e a . We c d a , he , ha
e f e , "e h c ," f he f e f he "Re ," e b d e h g
e ha a de f e a e, a R a d Ba he e he d a c f h [ ee
"M h T da " 109-59; e . 122-23]. A a g fe ha ha e e he f e d f
g f ca , he e f"e h c " f he g bec e e a ec a e, a h gh e
d be e c cede da ge a d fa a effec .
"E h c " e ce ed a h ca e e ab e a e e f a a e f c ce -
a e a a ce. U de hege , he h a b d bec e a defe e e a ge
f a ea d e e a , a d he b d , a e a a d ab ac ha e, a e ce f
e a h .F e a e, M ha ' " a g e f a h g " de he de c e a eg
f he ' f h cha e , h ch gge ha " de ach e e e " b ac ae f he
e ca e a he fa f b ac fe a e , h ach e e fa ,b h
he be he c a d he a ad g a c e a e bef e he a :
"O a ce h ch e e a e eade h a ea d b c affa .... A b-
c e, ch a ha f he Neg A e ca , h ch h he a e , aced a a
d c d ad a age" [75]. Be ee cha a d d ag a , e a e a ed c de he -
ac f a a e ea e he b ac a e' e f a ce a da d ed e a a ,
a c a ch f h ghe a d fe a a g, e c. E e h gh M ha
d ac e h a g e he e, he c hd a f b e , g-
ge g ha b ac a e h d e g beca e ha he a he a c e ca e
h g : "I c ea a d ad a age f a g be e a g de e c-
e, h e he g ea a f he a ... e a g a he " [75]. Th e e -
g acc d g he e ce ed " a a cha " a e a e, he ef e, ca gh a a e
f c a " a h g ."
E e h gh Da gh e ha e he age da h efe e ce h de f Fa he

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( ag gf he e ha M ha ' f c -a d he e -d e e e e
a ade a e e a d ha he e , ce e d -c e h , a Fa he he e), c e ha
he e c a a d c a b ec a ed be , ab e he e ec e de e , ef-
fec a ac h ca g d, he c - ca de f he Ne W d.
Tha de , h h a e e ce e b d, e e e f Af ca a d -
d ge e e a ce e f ac a a ,d e be e , a d e e. F fa , he
Ne -W d, d a c gh a ed a hef f he b d -a f a d e (a d
ag ab e f h d a ce) e e g f he ca eb d f e , ac e
de e. U de he e c d , e e a ea ge de d ffe e ce he c e, a d he
fe a e b d a d he a e b d bec e a e fc a a d ca a e e , a
a ge de - e a ed, ge de - ec f c. B h b d , a ea f he f e f he ca -
ec ,f c e a a ea d a c a ace, a h ch fc e ge ce
b g ca , e a , c a , c a, g c, a c, a d ch g ca f e . Th
f d ac f e c g de a d ed, h e e , b e e a ed ea -
g a d e : 1) he ca e b d bec e he ce f a ec b e, de e e a-
; 2) a he a e e- gc ad c - he ca eb d ed ce a h g,
bec g be g f he ca ; 3) h ab e ce f a b ec , he ca ed e -
a e de a h ca a d b g ca e e f " he e "; 4) a a ca eg f
" he e ," he ca
eb d a a e a e a f g a d e b d e hee
h ca e e e ha de a e ge e a " e e e ," e a g h gh
a ce e fh a a d ca ea g.
B I d a ead c h ca e be ee "b d " a d "f e h" a d e ha
d c a he ce a e be ee ca e a d be a ed b ec - .I ha e e,
bef e he "b d " he e he "f e h," ha e deg ee f c a c ce a a ha d e
e ca e c cea e de he b h fd c e, he ef e e f c g a h .E e
h gh he E ea hege e eb de - e f he fe a e - f We Af ca
c e c ce h he Af ca " dd e a ," e ega d h h a a d ca -
e a ab a h gh c e aga he f e h, a he e f Af ca fe a e a d Af ca
a e eg e ed he d g. If e h f he "f e h" a a a a a e, he e
ea ea ed, d ded, ed-a a e , e ed he h ' h e, fa e , "e ca ed"
e b a d.
O e f he g a a ec f W a G de ' c e a e d f he
N h A e ca a e c de g e ec e e e he e a d e f ca -
. Re g a a ce f J a ha Ed a d ' b e a he e f e a e-
e , G de a a e : "The ac f he h a da g he ea f h e h a e
he a a , he c ; a d ed h ch de e a d e e a
ace a e he , b ea a f he f e h a a e e a e" [221].
The a a ca ec f ca f e, f a e ed h a e, a e he b ec e
de c f ab a e-e e bea e , a , bac , b a ded, a ef a , a
gh a e, c ed; ee h g, a he ca c a ed f , h , cha , e ,
he ca e a , he b e .
The e dec he ab e a g he ca e b d e de a d f he g hc f
he f e h h e e e e d c e c e be h dde he c a ee g b c .
We gh e a f h he e f a g a d b a d g ac a " a fe " f e
ge e a a he , f d g a b c b a eff cac f ea g
ha e ea he a g e ? A E a e Sca de c be he echa f e
[Sca 27-59], he e ace a , d g , f e , ea , ca , e g , e ,
e , e d g , c e f he f e h c ea e he d a ce be ee ha I d de g a e
a c a e b a a d he c e, h e a e a a a , c d g dge , a e ,
" e ," " d e ," " e ee ," a d " e f G d," a a e c de h a c
f " ea ch a d de ." Th b d h e f e h ca e he fe a e a d he ae he
f e f a bea e he a f a c a e h e de ha bee ed
de.
The f e h he c ce a f "e h c " ha c e a c ca d c e
e he ac edge d c e a a . I h "f e h a d b d" e , he e b e
( " e- e ") f a c ed N h A e ca, ha e e a e ec ed f "The Fe a e
B d We e C e" [ ee S e a , ed.], b a e g d he , c e a e

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"he " a "f ge ," ha e fa ed ea e, ha he Af ca fe a e b ec ,
de he e h cc d , he a ge f a e- e e e, a e ed
a fb d a d d-b a he c f ec f ca e e a ed ac f ea d
a ha e ag e a he ec a ce f a e b a a d e f c ed b
he a e . A fe a e b d g f a ee b, b eed g f he b ea a g e
da ffed beca e he " e ee ," a d g he e g h f a h , ha ed he f e h
e , add a e ca a d gd e he a a e f e c ea d ce
[Da 9]. Th a e a ed ce e f ec ed fe a e f e h - f fe ae fe h
" ge de ed"- ffe a a a d a he , a e f g a d f d g, a d a e h d f
ead g b h h gh he d e e ed a .
A g he ad e h ch he e a ed c a , G de de fe
a e f ed ca e ea ch: "A e f d ea ed, da aged, a d d ab ed Neg e ,
dee ed c ab e a d he e h e a e b gh , ee . .. b ed ca -
, be e e e ed a d e a ed , f e f ' ed ca ed ca ' a d he
e e f ed ca c e ce" [86-87; G de ' e ha ]. F he Cha e Me c f
Oc be 12, 1838, G de e h ad e e e :

'T a e a d he . - Wa ed, f f Neg e , a e , ha g c Neg e ,

c de ed c ab e b he e ec e h ca , a d h g d e f he ,
D . S. a ca h f Neg e affec ed h c f a, g' e , c f ed
h ch d a , a e , d ea e f he e , d e , ee , ach a d -
e e , b adde a d a e dage , d a hea, d e e , e c. The h ghe ca h
ce be a d, a ca a ab e.' a N . 110 Ch ch S ee , Cha e .
[87; G de ' e ha ]

Th f ab e "a g" f he ca e b d de a he a g e he d ded

f e h: e e a h gge f a d e f e h c , f e a ed e be ee h a
e a a d a a ca fea e , be ee e h a e a a d a he , be-
ee h a e a a d c a . T ha e e , he ced e ad ed
f he ca e f e h de a ca e a a b ec f ca , a he e e ca e c
bec e a g ab a .
The ca e b d , he , b g f c a ga he g f c a ea e a e a a
e a h f a e h gh e e he e a a d fg a e e ha e ha
d c be ee he a e a ee . E e h gh he ca e fe h/b d ha bee
" be a ed," a d e eed e e d ha e e he a a d a e , d a
b c ac , he g e e e ha e ea e he d a c f a g a d a a ,
e a g ded he g a g e a h f ca a d a ha a f
e he e h , h g a h a d c , h e e , a he h a
b ec " de ed" e a d e aga b he a f a b de a d a
a cha , h g ef e de d g e. Fa e ' g Ch c Ma The Ma
ca " " b he a e -" he a c e b e e e a a c fea .. ." [227]. A d d ca
he G ea L g Na a Sha e. B e e d a e ha a e- "e ba a -
g," a he e e a f a ed fe a e b d e e be "bac a d" f e e -
e. Ne he he ha eface f he e ba a ed, he - g-bac f he e f-a ed
f ch e e , a d he a a f g d ea . We gh c cede, a
he e ea , ha c a d b c gh b ea b e , b d ce a
US.

The b c de ha I h ace h g, ca g a "A e ca g a a ,"

beg a he "beg g," h ch ea a e a d a ad ca d ffe e d f c a
c a . The a e de g a h c h f , he e f a f a de Af ca
c c e , ha a e ace he b aha a C e d g he a e e
h ch e he A a c S a e T ade he f f ee h ce f Ch , e ed h -
d ed f ea f b ac Af ca c e. We e a d h , he , ab a c e f
a ec f Af ca -A e ca fe he U ed S a e de he e e f h e e e . I
gh a e add ha he fa a f h a a e d e h g a ea e he h ge f
ec ded e , d e he e e ce f he e ea ed b he e e - , f - d

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e e f he e ,e e , a e. I a e ea e e, e e ga e
a e he "d c e "a e aga .

The a a e b Af ca e e a d he de ce da , h gh a e f
h e ea ce e f he "e ec ab e ade" a he e ea che d h, gge , he
a e cc e ce, ha he a hc a e ched ff he Af ca a d E ea " e"
e e be a ed b h de f he e c e . The a a e f he "L fe f O a dah E a ,
G a Va a, he Af ca . W e b H e f," f b hed L d 1789,
a e e c ea ha he f E ea E a b e ed ha N ge a
e ea ea f h a he a d he ha e bee f he E ea ca . The
c e f " he e h e e hh be , ed face , a d g ha ," f he e" ," a
he a a d ha e , cc e e e a age f E a ' a e , a g de a f -
ha d acc f N ge a e fe [27 ff.]. We a e f ed ega d g he c e f
E a ' e e e ce he a e gh a he h e f gh ha e-a a "fa ," a a e ab e
de ce he f c ca e f ce.
If, a T d , he Ma a a d A ec e e " c f c ca "
[61] gh f S a h e e , e c d b e e, a , ha Va a fa a g e
h e a g age a ge h , b h e hab a d ac ce e h a
"a h g":

[The ea, he a e h ] f ed e ha h e , h ch a c e ed
e , he I a ca ed b a d. I a ed a e ha d ed, a d ed
ee f I e e d, b e f he c e ; a d I a e aded ha I had g e
a d f bad , a d ha he e eg g e. The c e ,
, d ffe g ch f , he g ha , a d he a g age he e
( h ch a d ffe e f a I had e e hea d), ed c f e h be ef.
[E a 27]

The ca a g a d e "ea " he gh d e f he ca eb d a ee

f ,b ga ,c e e , he gh a e a d " a e" : E a , f a ce, de fe
a ea h ee d ffe e a e ha he g e e a age be ee h Be
h e a d a d he V g a c , he a e a d E g a d-"M chae ," "Jac b," "G a
Va a" [35; 36].
The c a e b h ch Af ca -A e ca e ha e bee ca ed, ega ded,
ag ed he Ne W d ce e- he e g e f h e a de e a e -
de a e he e fd ha he d a c e e a a f
e ga e. M ha ' "Neg Fa ," he , b a a ee e ge f he g d f
a ca ,f he e a ca d c cf d b ed dee he c ec e a , ha c e
da d g f he ca e e . Th gh he e ab e f
ch g ca a , e gh e ea ce a fa a e ha e d ha e
he b e f deh a ed a g. E ec g f d d ec a d a f ed efe e ce
Af ca e d g he e g ea f he T ade, he b e e d a ed ea d
aga ha h c a b ec c cea ed be ea h he gh deb f he e ed ac-
c , be ee he e f he a e g fc e ca e e e ha e he e e
fca e be e ed e had ga ed c ce g h c ec e h a .E abe h D -
a ' e ,f - ed c e a bec e a ca e .
T g d ec h ce, ed c e ha e had e
f d - ha h ec ed
a ec f he ea ch e de ed b e a c a d ha b e a fafed f a e a d
e a ed c e e a ea g h f he d f he "e e he " [T d 3],
ca ed "a h g " a e . The E ea ae h aded a d ca a ed he e ga e
a d h ced a d c a ed he e h a be g , h d ed f e e f L e
E a, Ja a ca; f he Ca e e I a d , he a Cha e a d Sa e , a d f

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 h ee ce e fh a fe, e e c ab h "ca g " ha b ed, ac ed e
a e a d e a g he ab e b ec . S ch e e a e b ce e b d e gh
be de ed, ba ,a a b f a e, e ce ha e ha e ed.
D a ' f ec e h ee ce e fE ea "d c e " a d "c e ,"
beg g 50 ea bef e C ba , Ch Fe e , he bea e f Ch , adca
ha he h gh a he "I d e ." F G e Ea e de A a a' "Ch c e f he
D c e a dC e fG ea, 1441-1448" [D a 1:18-41], e ea ha he P -
g e e bab ga he d b d c f ha g d ced b ac Af ca he
E ea a e f e de. We a e a e ded ha "Ge g a h " ad egf .
Q e he c a , b da e e e h f ed d g he E ea "Age f C e "
g dd de e a , acc d g he d c a e f c e ga e , he ed c f e a e , he
ec a a f he ed e a Ch a d. L gf he "N e R e ," f e a e,
acc d g he f f ee h-ce P g e e , e e' e. F a ha he e-
C b a "e e " e ab he c e ce f a ga a d ge g a h , e a e -
ed ha e a e f he d d e d "d c e g" E e. Pe ha , f a ce -
a a g e, ha ec e a ha he f d - a a e a e ead g f eg . The P -
g e e, ha g e dea he e he N e a , a ea de d gh a a ha he e e e
e a d e da e - ed ha he e e ,b he e e ec f ca
edgeab e, ge , ab he a fa e a dg g e e e ed b
he . De A a a ec d e c e h "M ," "M e e ," "M a e ," a d e e
"b ac a E h " [1:28], b ee ha he "La d f G ea," f "B ac Me ," f "The
Neg e " [1:35] a ca ed a he e hea f Ca e Ve de, he Ca a e , a d he R e
Se ega , g a a e gh ee h-ce E ea e f he b aha a C e
a g he We Af ca c a [1 :f ece].
Th ee ge e c d c a ea a ab e he P g e e e e, a a g he ff f
ea he : a f e d f ca e , e f he b e ed a e " h e e gh, fa
,a d e - ed." O he a e e " h e e a e ," a d he
"b ac a E h ,a d g ,b h fea e a d b d ,a a a ea ( h e
h a he ) he age f a e he he e" [1:28]. B ca , h " h d a ,"
a d gf he abe a he e he b e g e e, e b d e he g cc -
he E ea . A ab c a a a g he E ea c da
ea " a " he "M "a d c he a he e e , e e ...
T ca , he e h g a a f de c he e ec e f "dec e ," f
a e ,a d f a c- beg ha a a e e f, a a -
a e f fee g, a d eE a , h a a " g " he he ed , h
c ec e ef c e he ea b h ch b ga e he "f e g c de f c c e ce,"
h e ea e a ab e a d e ed ab e d ffe e ce e ce ed c .B he
e f De A a a' d-f f ee h ce a a e a d a ce a d a ha f bef e
Sha e ea e' " d b ac a " f a O he " " ha " h e e e" f a De de a, he
ag c f c a ead a ed a a dec e fac h a dea g .
I De A a a' a a e, e b e e a e ga he a e , a "fe a e" b-
edhe e de he ge e a ca eg f e a ge e . Fe ace he e e ce ca e
ad
c fe a e ace, h gh he e a e e f a a ha e ce e fe a e ca -
e he ca f c -c a f c . Whe he f e d f ca e ( efe ed
ab e) d ded a g he e , heed ad ea , a fa he a e e a a ed
f ,h ba d f e ,b he f e a db he , he f
ch d e - a e a d fe a e. I ee c ea ha he a ca g a fE ea Ch
e h
h e a ch ca e a g a e , a h gh e a g e ac h
h e f Ch a a f he " aga " a he " g ." I a ea ha h a
be g ca e h deg ee f "fa " a d he he "h de ," e e f be a ,a
he e f "fa ," a b he e e , h age d ec ,e e h gh he e he
c a d b a g e ce f N e che' S c a e , h a A he ' g e a d e
a d be c e . The a e ch e g a h ha he P g e e a a e g g be ee
he "fa h e " a d he " g " a f a a e h f da ce a g e f g e. O ce
he "fa h e ," d c a e f he h ee fP g e e c ,a e a ed
E e, he bec e a a e ed h a fac :

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 A d he a ec a ha had bee , ce bef e he had
ed e d f a d b d ; f he , ha he e e e aga ,
h he c ea e a d he gh f he H Fa h; a d f he b d e , ha he
ed e bea , h a c f ea ab e be g - f he had
edge f b ead a d e, a d he e e h c e g f c he , he
dg e fh e ;a d e ha a , h gh he g ea g a ce ha a
he , ha he had de a d g f g d, b e h e
be a h. [1:30]

The a e ed h a fac e de a a e fE ea eg , a e , "d c e "a

dec e he f a ge f ca ca a he b h fa e b . Acc d g he
e a ca g e f he e ce ed a age, e h d, f h E ea b e e ,
ca e a ed a e a da d e f c a de e a , ga ged b ea b a
ed a d ec a ca eg e : ha he e " aga " d d ha e "b ead" a d " e" d d
ea ha he e e fea e , a E a b e e ab he Be d e , c. 1745, he
ce f E a a:

O a e f g e e a ;f a e he a e a e ac a ed h
h e ef e e c e h ch deba ch he a e; b c ,g a ,a d
he g ea e a f he f d. (The e c e e e he c a ea h
f he c , a d he ch ef a c e f c e ce.) The f e h a e ed
a a ; a e a e e e e e e , a d he ce , a d e ha e
a ade f d a he . O ege ab e a e a a , eada , a , bea
a dI da c . The head f he fa a ea a e; h e a d a e ha e
a he e a a e ab e .... [E a 8]

J a f f e e he Gha a a d e da a a a ch-a d-b ead- b e, a e (a

e b he a e a e he e gh ee h-ce a a e f he Be c ) eed
be He Ce a Ma ha' V e a d a d ce- e a de f a g e , a , ag e ha
he ha e ed. Tha Af ca h g a a ge e f he f f ee h ce dd e e -
be h e fa a De A a a' a a eed ha e ea ha he Af ca c -
e he e c e ed e e h d e g . Aga ha b , E a ' a a e gge
he dd e f he e gh ee h ce , a ea , Af ca g a e e e e
d c he c e ca ca , b ha a he a ch ec c acc a e
ef ec ed he c a e a d a a ab f e ce he ca c c a ce: "The e h e
e e e ceed e he gh ; he a e a a b f d, a e d e he
g d, c ed h a e , a d ea a e ed h a d h " [9]. H e a ch ca -
e b h De A a a' a d E a ' a a e a a e a e ce ed d ffe e ce a a
f da e a deg ada a ce de ce, b a ea E a ' ca e, c a ac ce
a e b e ed a a e c ec h c . F a e a d e , he
c f ea , a ed a ge e f he e a e f a e ca e
a d c e e ec c f E ea a - a e , a e f " a ce de ce" a d
"deg ada " he ba f a h c e ce ha e e he h e f de E e
a d b ac Af ca. The e a e c e a e ee e c e e he a e
g e g e a c - he ah ca , f he " ac ed."
B A g 1518, he S a h g, F a c c de L C , de he aeg f a e -
f ega , c d de "4000 eg a e b h a e a d fe a e, ded he be Ch -
a " be a e he Ca bbea , " he a d a d he a a d f he cea ea a ead
d c e ed be d c e ed" [D a 1:42]. Th gh he "M dd e Pa age" a -
ea he e ga a a a bac g d h b da e e a d ace, e ee
e a ed D a ' acc he e g f he e e We e he he e f he
ec f c e f e a e e a d c a . De A a a' a a e be g , he ,
a d c e f a a h e a eg e e fa a c e a g he c a -
e f We Af ca, e ch g, acc d g O a dah E a , "3400 e , f Se ega
A g a, a d [ c de] a a e f gd " [E a 5].
The c d f "M dd e Pa age" a e a g he c ed b e a a e a a ab e

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 he de ,a e a ea ag ab e. La e he ch ce f he A a cSa e
T ade, B a ' Pa a e e e a ed d c c ce g b e " eg a "f
a e e e . A Ca a Pe ed he L e ,a da g he h ha he -
ec ed a "The B e ," bab he e - age f he a e ga e h
e e e a e e ae e ched he d a g e a ca f g e . E abe h
D a ' ec d e ca e he "B e P a ," a g h a e ab a e de ea f
d e f he e ga e e g f Pe h e f: "Le be
ed . .. f he , ha e e a a e be a ed fee b ef f che
f ,e e a f e fee e b ef f ,e e b f e fee b ef ,
a de e g f fee b ef .. ." [2:592, ]. The e f "The B e ," Ja e
J e , had ec e ded ha "f e fe a e be ec ed a f a e , a d h ee b
g a e a g e " [2:592].
The e ca ed e a e c e e he c a d g e f he deh a g,
ge de g, a d defac g ec f Af ca e ha De A a a' a a gh ha e
ec g ed. I ha bee ed e ha he e ea e e d e ea he a ca-
f he ge de e he a e a c d f a age, b I d gge ha
"ge de g" a e ace h he c f e f he d e c, a e e a e a h ha he
ead e ac e f a e a d fe a e b ec e a de g d fh a a d ca
e .D e c a ea ga e b a fac g fc a f c-
ha a e g ded he ec f c f e a e , e e ac ,a a c,
h ch, , a e h e e "c e " a a c a ace. C a , he ca g f
a h gh be ega ded a e e e f he d e c, e e h gh he e e ha ca e
e e a ca ( ca ?) e f ed a " he." The h a ca g f a a e
e e- he f da e a efface e a d e f Af ca fa a d e a e -
ffe a c e - a a e f he d e c.
Th e Af ca e "M dd e Pa age" e e e a e ded he " cea c," f
e h f he a e F e da e : a a a a a g f d ffe e a ed de
e ed f he d ge a d a d c e, a d - e "A e ca " e he , he e ca e
e , h a e ha he ca d ec g e, e e e e ac he
A a c, b he e e a he e a a . I a ch a , a g e da , e gh ag-
e, he ca e e a dd he e /he a , e c d a ha he e e he
c a " ade," h he d f a fg a e da e ha "e ed" he
de e a c e. Of e e gh f he ca a f he e ga e , a ga a
c e ce f he da a ff c e g a a ee he e ded de a . We gh a
ha he a e h , c e , a d h a -a -ca g a d f a d a d c a ed ch e
f b ha e ed, "c ed"/"acc ed," d ffe e a ed,
e e ga he a d h a d f e a a f he f de a e. U de he e
c d , e e he fe a e, a e, a b h b ec a e a e "acc " a
a e . The fe a e "M dd e Pa age," a he a a e a e h ca a , cc e
"e " a d ec a a ab e e ec . B he , e e he e , a f ab e
b he a e e f acc g a he ae c e a .
I d ff c f he de f d "fe a e" "M dd e Pa age," b a , a
He be S. K e b e e , "Af ca e dd e e he A a c a e ade a h g
e he be f Af ca e . A a age , e be ed e he a e h
b d f A e ca f Af ca" [K e 29]. Th gh h b e a d e cha ge he
ea f Af ca e ' ca a d e de Ne W d c e , d e -
de a e ec e f h ch c e a e he e a Af ca a e ade, h ch, ac-
c d g Af ca , e a ed a ed a fe a e a e . K e e e he e aff
ha h e fe a e f ced he ade e e eg ega ed "f e f c g e "
["Af ca W e " 35]. He c a ha b h " e e a ed he a e ace be ee
dec .., a d b h e e fed he a e f d" [35]. I a ge he c ea f Ke '
b e a f h he " ce" e g . I ce a f e de ce e e ed
D a ' h d e ("Ne E g a d a d he M dd e C e ") ha ec a
b h f e e a d fea ed a age, a d e ha e e f d a g ea dea f e de ce
a he ha fe a e ca e a c a ed ec a ac [ ee Wh e
63-64]. Beca e a he e, h e e - he e ce - ha he Af ca fe a e,
b h d ge Af ca c e a d ha bec e he "h e," e f ed a f ha d

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 h ca ab - ch ha he e e a " a e" a a e, b a fe a e- e
de a he ee gd c f he b ec , g a g he a "fe a " ha e a e e
e a ba . I deed, ac he a e fd c e ha I e a ed f h g, he ac f
e a e e a d e e c ea e e ag c e gage e fc f a-
a h e a g a e . The a a dh ca e de ce be a he d a
d c e he a e a c e e, b c e -e de ce ade a e a e : he e -
a a f ca e fe a e a d he e e age aga he e dd
c ee e ha ca a a d he c e hed ec d e e he g
c a e , b a d e e h e he Ne E g a d a a .
O e ec ha he e a e e e a a a ea c gb d, ha ec
gh ha e ed, f e e, a he e b e ea ha he "Fe c-
," f a ce. A a a e, e ge e e he e ec d f he fe f
e , ch d e , a d fa "M dd e Pa age," a d dea f he fa e f he eg a
fe a e ca e a d he b , h ch a g he a c Be H add e e he e -
g cha e f he a hf d g [ ee H 15-49]. F H ' ead, h e e , e
gh g e ha he " e d c f he g" h h c a ce ca e fe f he
be ef fa a a ch ed fe a e ge de , h ch, f e f e , he fe a e
ge de he e .
The e a e e ce f he ec d h c e a f he d e g
ac ae ha fe e ga ee f . S ch e ce he c a e f d , f
he h a ed fac ha a e b cd c e db h d a d e ea . Th
c a b ec c bed h ca a a e a b cd c a e f
E ea -A e ca a (e) e e, f g e e De A a a he P
dd e f he f f-
ee h ce , S h Ca a' He e he e gh ee h. La
Wha c f e a d e che he c ec e he a e e fa e -
a a ha adhe e e ac ac he f ge de . I he e ca c d f ac-
c a d edge ha c eD a ' , he e "Neg e " a d "S a e " de ea
c a .F a ce, e e e acc ,f Se e be 1700 h gh
Se e be 1702, a e ec f ca de c e f he a e f h a d he a e ade
Ba bad h ece e he a ed g d , b "N . Neg e " a d "S df e
head" a e e ac a h e ca ha a f he e add a d ca be g
he he de f a e a [D a 2:25]. O e c b he de a a d ec ha
cha ac e e he e acc , a a a a e, , a a ed b a a a '
a e: "W . Web e ," "J h D ," "Th . B b ," "R b . K e ." B he " he "
de f he age, a e e, e a ec e, h face e . I ee ha h g
b ea he f h g e. If he a , he de c f he Af ca a e, f
, f g c, a d a c ec b he a a hee ha e e d
e .Q e a a , he ade e e ed, a e a c e e, h "bag-
gage" ha he de e ,b ha he a he e ea ea ch he
e a h ca ca f a ga e f he e ce fab e A e ca gf
Af ca e .
The f he d ge a e a d de a e a h fd ace e f he
h a a dc a fea e a d ea , c d g he d ace e f he ge a a, he
fe a e' a d he a e' de e ha e ge de f e. The fac ha he e a ed e ' ac-
ce he e f h /he b d e e c ea h h c e d h
c a a ec f he b d e a , a ca a a e fe b ga
ac edge he . Ac a g de a d h he c f fc a g
ed bec e he ec , beca e he c e g e fa e a he e f ge de
a d a ca he Af ca fe a e ca .

E e h gh he e a C a e C. R be ' a d Ma A. K e ' W e a d
Sa e Af ca ha e ec f ca d h a ec f he e a Af ca a e ade,
e
f he b e a hed gh he ca e f he D a a. A ea he e b e a
ha e he be ef f a e g he d f e e gh a f he e e cha e . F

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e a e, R be ' e a , h ch e he e, d c e he e " a e " a de
a e f ea h . The e a ed e a e de f e he fa a ee e
fa a g .B e a e e he e e e f e
gh e a ge e f he c d fe a e e .L g ec f ca a d c e
f he We Af ca ce e fS gha a d Dah e , C a de Me a e ab a e
e e a fea e f he e / e c e a ha a e h gh gge ef
e d ffe e e .
Me a a g e ha " a e c ea e a ec c a d c a age h e e e
be g de he h e " ["Fe a e S a e ," R be a d K e 50]. Beca e he
A a c ade ed he e ge e ca a de h cf a a e c e e a-
h , e ce a ca ea " h e " ec e he a e a ha
Me a b e e a h he ca e ca c f de ce a g We Af ca
c e e . H e e , he dea bec e ef a a fc e a he e
ha e e e f he Af ca fe a e' e d c e e h he d a ce e -
e fe a e e a d he ge e c e d c f he e a ed. I effec , de c d -
f ca , he ff g f he fe a e d e "be g" he M he , /he
" e a ed" he " e ," h gh he a e " e e " ,a d he Af ca -A e ca -
a ce, f e fa he ed , a d, a f e , h ha e e be ef f a .I he c a
e ha Me a g, he ff g f he e a ed, "be g e a ed b h
he bege e a d he e ..., f d he e e he a f be g ha "
[50].
I he c e f he U ed S a e , e c d a ha he e a ed ff g a " -
ha ed," b he ch d d e bec e, de he e fa a c, a f ca , a ea ,
a d a a cha de , he a / a he b da , h e h a a d fa a a ,
b he e a e f he ca e, had e be def ed. I d ca h e f ced a e f
b each a he a ce f e b a c a f a he e " h " e ea g,
ce ca be aded a a g e a d a b a e he eb ea . I ce -
a d ea a ha Af ca e e he Ne W d d d a a he
e f e f a h ha b d b d- e a a e f fee g, f c .I
ec e ha ea h - c a ec g ed b he c de f a e - ha
h a ha e g de f ed a he ab e "B ac Fa " a d f he gge ha h
c e e a e f he e e c a ach e e e f Af ca -A e ca de c -
d f e a e e [ ee J h B a ga e 79 ff.].
I deed, he e ed "B ac Fa " fe a e e ha e ge de ed a de ad f
h g a h ca a d c g ca g ha e a h .I ca e gh, E.
F a F a e ' Neg Fa he U ed S a e e de he c e c e a
a a e f c ce a a f he "M ha Re ." O g a b hed 1939,
F a e ' de e edac 1948 a d 1966. E e h gh F a e '
h fa a c fg a e a ba ca a g e, I d A ge a Da '
e ca ead g f F a e ' "B ac Ma a cha e" [Da 14]. "E ce he e he a e '
a c ce ed," F a e c e d, h a a cha f g e "de e ed a f -
de e de ce a d a ee e e f he e a gh " [1966: 47; e ha e]. The "e ce -
" h a ce e d be e he g, a he Af ca -A e ca fe a e'
"d a ce" a d " e g h" c e be e e ed b a e ge e a - b h b ac a d
h e, dd e
gh - a a " a h g ," a a e f ca a . F a e ' a ge ,
e gh e, ha Af ca -A e ca de e ed ch e cef e de c d -
f ca ha "fa " be c ceded a e f he ed b ab e c a a -
a e . Th e f e e a ed b B a ga e a d E ge e Ge e e [R ,
da , R 70-75], a g he U.S. h a , a d deed a e a ce a ff c
h g ab he ac a d c e f ca .
I ee c ea , h e e , ha "Fa ," a e ac ce a d de a d " he
We "- he e ca a fe fab d e, f a a c, f e a de e e , f ea
e a e a d he e ga e f "c d ca h," f fa he a d he ed f ee e -
cha ge f affec a e be ee a a e a d a fe a e f h ch ce-bec e he
h ca e e ed ege f a f ee a d f eed c . I ha e e, Af ca e e
he h cDa a had h g e, f he had bee ha he e e ca ab e

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 f "fa " ( ead "c a "), ce g e de , E a ' a a e, f -
a ce, ha Af ca e e ca ab e f he c ce a d he ac ce f "fa ," -
c d g " a e ," b de f e ab a a d a g ha e e a ea a c e a
h e f he " c ea fa "" he We ."
Whe he e dec de ha he e ha Af ca -A e ca de ed
de c d f ca h d be ca ed "fa ," e h g e e, e ea
e e e e . The e a ha ca e e e e f ced a e f
d e a , beg g h he T ade e f, he h a e a ed e f a g age g ,
d c ef a ,b d e , a e ,a d e e b he ega a a ge e f
e a e e .I e ha he " e - ea g" f " a e " (a d he e ha e bee
e) c d ,dd a e he de g ca a d hege c a da e f d a ce. I
be c ceded ha Af ca -A e ca , de he e fah ea dc
a a cha de , b d a d de e ed de he , he e e e he
e ce a d a he behe f he " a e " c a , e e c ed a deg ee f c age a d -
e ha a e he ag a e e . A h gh a e g d e h
ead h a e be a , bab e ha e a h d a ce (a d e ha c -
e a ca ac ce he c d gge cca ) ha he ca e e -
de e ed, e a d aga , ce a e h ca a d e e a fea e ha ed he a d
h , ac he a d ca e he , f e df ha d ha d, f he a e a d d ffe e
b d ac fab c f e a d a .
We gh ch e ca h c ec ed e "fa c ," e," b "
ha a
a he d ffe e ca e f he e fad a
c de , edged ba a he
e ac f ace. I ha de ha f ce "fa " df e f he d e ea
fa f he " a e ," d a e c a e. I h he ca a d b c e ha
dec a e ac e a he h a a d ca ca ,a d ha ca de f h g ,
" ," a ge de f a , ha dec e ega c a eff cac .
We e f e e F ede c D g a ' ca ef e ab a f he a a ge e
f ca ,a d ea ea hed each ead g b d e ed, e g a e a ed, fa-
a e ac e ha gge a c ec be ee " h "a d" e ." D g a e
ea he e g cha e f he 1845 Na a e ha he a e a a ed fa c f
h he : "F ha h e a a [ c] d e, I d , e be h de he
de e e f he ch d' affec a d he , a d b a d de he a a
affec f he he f he ch d. Th he e ab e e " [22].
Pe ha e f he a e ha Me a ad a ce c ce g d ge Af ca
f a fe a e e gh be ed a a e , aga he e ec e f
D ga ' e : he ge e c e d c f he a e a d he ec g f he gh
f he a e h he ff g a chec he f ab f a e ?A dh , f ?
We ee ag e he e f a ga e e, e ec a he e ' ec d ha f a d
e ha he f : he e a ed be e ed e ce e ha he he ha a
h a gh ha a e . Ce a f" h " e e b e, he e ea d
be de ed, ce he ff g d he "be g" a he a d a fa he . I he
e ha D g a a c a e , ge e c e d c bec e , he , a e ab a f
he fe- c e c a e a ,b a e e f he b da e f fe a g
e e . Me a g e fa a a g e ha " a e e he e he a e c a
e d ced h gh a a a a : a a d a e " [50]. S ce, he U ed
S a e , he a e f a e de f ed he ch ef a ea f a a gaca f
e f ced e e ab , ee ha he b g ca e d c f he e a ed a
a e ff c e ee f ce he e a e f a e . If, a Me a c e d , "fe
e ac ed e a e " [64], he d e " he h d" a fe a e b d- e/ gh . T
ha e e , he ca e fe a e b d ca e ec e a e fc e g g ca a d
c a ec ha a he f e h a a ec d f e cha ge. Wh e h
e f he e a , ff ce a ha h e e cha ge f fe a e b d e
he a ffe a d fU - e he d a c f g f ca a d e e e a ha he
ge de ed fe a e d a e.
F D g a , he fh he e e a e a e a f h b he a d
e , h e he a e h e hh : "The ea e a a f f he

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had e gh b ed he fac f ea h f e e " [45]. Wha c d h
ea ? The h ca f he b g e he he ' dea h. The g a he
c ec he h ca e e, b D g a a ea ea a ch g ca b d g
h e cce a da e he he ' e e ce. C d e a , he , ha he fee g f -
h e ab e? Tha de c be a ea h ha a ea " a a ," b be
"c a ed" de ac a a e a c d ? If he ch d' h a ed a
he e e f he , he a e a f c , he e gh be ab e g e ha he
ca b ec g a he h e d a c f e e b a ce a d h b a f he a e
ce.

The e a a a g he a c h be ee a ec f
Na a e a d Ma c E -Ha Ma E Shaba ' A b g a h f Ma c
Th gh he f he he , he a e c e a a ce, he
a " a d he a e-a f ce af e D g a ' g a d de c a c
gh be de g a ed a -e a c a e -e a e e - Ma c a d h
bbed f he ac fa he a - e a b h, a e de d e
a e h f c a e a , b a h f e a ge e a d "d e
ha e e a ea hea , a d e e he , b a f Ma c '
ed, e e a , a ede e cc e ce.
The de c e f he a a he , h e b g ca /ge e c e a
ch d e a e a d a b g , e he e a ed g c a a
cha : he a b g f h /he fa he h d a d a c e f he e a
h ea e ed, ha d dec a e he g' c ec a ge e c a d h
b a f he b g . Tha he fa he D g a ' ca e a e h
b a ea ec a D g a , e a h de a ad . Fa he h
e e c a c e , a e a e he e he e ha d a a
f e he he . O e ha bee " ade" a d "b gh " b d a a e c e
bac a c g f e cha ge a d d a . The de ed ge e c
ch ef a eg f a de ed e h , a f he e ga he fa he '
b a ace he e h e a e f - e e a e ed b he fac , de e f
e . "A d h d e," D g a a e , " b ad e
, a d a e a g a f ca f he c ed de e f ab e a e a
[23].
Whe he he ca e fe a e a d/ he e a e de ed " ea e" f
he ed c a dc g a e e ca e a . Whe he
" ea e" bea a de c d ha I da e a -f eed f b h
e he f he a e ha bee e ed. I deed, e c d g fa a e e a he e
ea b ha " e a ," a a e f ed e a h a d de e, d b a -
a e, a ageab e, acc a e a f he fa a a a ge e de a e f
e a e e ,f he a e ' fa he ca e e c a e. U de he e a a ge e , he
c a e f e a , c d g" e d c ," " he h d," " ea e," a d
"de e" a e h e e ed c .
If he e f L da B e /Ha e Jac b be be e ed, he ff c a e e f
a e ' " a e " c e a eged c a f he e ed, f ch c ad c ca be
e e a ed [B e 29-35]. L da B e /Ha e Jac b ec he c e f he a a e
ce e f a " ch d a a," g he e f a d "M . F ," ha e ha e c e
c de he c a c a g e be ee ca e a a d f ee. S ec g ha he h -
ba d, D . F , ha e a de g he g L da (a d he d c ea h
c e e a , acc d g he e), M . F a e he e f a e a b a
gh a e h he ca e a he f a e ed ed c a e . M . F
he c b h " c de "
de e ac c fe , e a h g e e , a d a
ha he a e a e gh a . (Ga e J e ' C eg d a [1975] ea e a c e -
a fc a a a d he h c f f e a g ed fe a e e a e .) Th a -
a e ce e f B e ' , d c a ed L d a Ma a Ch d, de a a ce f a
e ea ed e e ce, ed ba ed " ea " fe. B he ce e e a ea
c ge g a h he f c e, h ca eb a a e f ch a a , ha e
a e ce a ha he a a ha he ha d a e e e f Ne -W d/U.S.
h ha fe e ga beg g a e . The a a eca :

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 S e e I e ,a df d he be d g e e. A he e he
h e ed ea , a h gh e e he h ba d h a ea g e, a d
e ed hea ha I da e . If he a ed e, ch cca , he
d g de ea h a a ; a d he e g he d e e 1 had bee
a g ee , a d a h I a a g .A a , I bega be fea f f
fe.... [B e 33]

The " ea e " he e (b " ea " f h ?) f a a a g h he " a e "

he e e ha ae d a e de g e he a e he a e a ea f ac
ha he fe a e gh h. The e he ca e f B e ' a a e bec e a
e a h f h ad e ha a e he ec a f chec ed e . M . F e ac a
ae a b a d he c ha b ed a gh , a he a e a ace f he d ea
. I b h a e a d fe a e a ce , he b ec a e c ca e h he
he e ab e, e b d . Th gh h ba e h ed he face f he e , e gh
a ha B e , be ee he e f he a a e, de a ca e a e a ha e e -
b d, a ch a e e e a e e ab a g ga c e a ed e e e
ha a be a e a e e e ed a a e/fe a e. S ce he ge de ed fe a e e f he
a e, e gh gge ha he ge de ed fe a e- a a a g e f a e a
e a- gh be aded/ a ded b a he a a .
If I c de he L fe f a S a e G e e a e, a d he e f a e ca ed
fe a e ca e, he e gh a ha "M . F " a he a a ' ec
, he c ea-
, ha f a he a d c ec b age a d he age f he ca , e
a ec f L da B e e ea ed a a f d e e c ha he d c ' fe c e
a d f . I he ca e f b h a ag ed f c a d he a a e e ha e f B e /
Jac b /Ch d, b hed f ea bef e he ff c a ca a f F eed , e
c d a ha Af ca -A e ca e ' c a d A g -A e ca e ' c -
, de ce a ha ed c a c d , e e he ac a a c
ch c a d ca e, e e b ec he a e fab c f d ead a d h a . Ne he c d
ca he b d a d a d c -f e d ffe e ea , a be -a he ,
a d he ca e f he d c ' fe, he a ea ha e a ed he b d a a , b
de e e e e e e e' , ec f ca , L da B e ' , a a a e ca c a ce f
e a " ea " a d a a . I fac , f e f e , e ca a e e
fe a e' a a e f he he ' , ca dec he e h g e he he .
ha e e, he e " h ead cab e- g" f a ce , e ac a ge ea g c e
a e he U ed S a e a e f he che d a f he ch a a c d e f
c e bef e he c e ce f E ea ch a a a e h d.

B a ed ega d a e be ee fe c d f A e ca
e - ca e a d f ee - e be e h e de ab e c a a d d ffe e ce
dec e ha he Af ca -A e ca fe a e' h cca he e f a h da d
"fe " e d e d he b e a d h f g ca b a f a be a
de g . Va e e S h' ead g f he a e f L da B e a a a e f "ga e g" e ab e
ha fe a e ge de f ca e e ' c he a e be ee he e
a d he - e ace f a A e ca d e c . I h a e ha e a e
c ea e , , ee g h he e a h , "b g e."
If he ha he h cc d f Af ca -A e ca e gh be ead a
a ecede ed cca he a a c e , he ge de a d he a a ge e f
ge de a e b h c c a a d e a e. H d g, h e e , a ec a ed ead g f fe a e
ge de a a c e f a ce a ca , c -c a e e e h he c e
f he U ed S a e , e d ega d d e a he f ge de , e f he ch ef
ee e a a e ed ead g f ge de : "W e a e c de ed f a e, e he
c a c ea e he e ' c . The e e a h a a " [B e 49; e -
ha e]. L da B e ' e a ea c ad c he I d a e, b I a
gge g ha e e h gh he e a ed fe a e e d ced he e a ed e , ed

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 ead "b h" h a ce a a e d c f he g ec e beca e he fe a e,
e he a e, ha bee bbed f he a e a gh , he a e a f c .O e ead
da ge g d gge ga e a be ee fe a e ge de a d he g; fac ,
fe / a a d he ac a da - -da g f be e A e ca e -
b ac a d h e- ha e g e fa b ea he e h a e f a fe a e b ec - he
he e ca a d ac a a f a e .O a he e d be gh e ed c de ab
f ec d de e he e f "N ," he g f ca e ce .I he h cf -
a h ch I ,h e e , he h d a d fe a e ge de g/ ge de g a ea
a e a g ed ha he ee ea he a e a g age. A ea a be a
ha he h d, h e d e e ha he b e a c f fe a e ge de , ffe e
e e fa ach .I d g fa he : Beca e Af ca -A e ca e e -
e e ced ce a ega d g he fa ' e he h c a , ge de g,
c e a efe e ce Af ca -A e ca e , a e a c a d e ed e
b h h c e fe d c e a d h h e d c e c e ha -
e ga e he e e be a c f c e. A e e a e ec ha h - a ea
h a ce- e ea e f e aga ?
E e fea e f ca a d h a d ffe e a d a ea b c d c e ega d-
g he Af ca -A e ca e , a e e c e , he d ca c de f a e , e -
a e f ed. W a G de ' d de a e he he ca a d a a -
f he ab ec , b a e d gh he c f a ha de e
e a e e . If " a e" e ce ed a he e e ce f e (a ea e f"e h c "),
f a d a c h a a e, f ed e a d ace, he he a a c h a e-
b a he e fea e: "S a e ha be dee ed, d, a e , e ed a d ad dged
a be cha e e a, he ha d f he e a d e , a d he e ec ,
ad a , a d a g , a e , c c , a d e ha e e " [23;
G de e ha ].
E e h gh e e d a d a d f a e beha e a f he a c
c de f he a e-h d g U ed S a e e e h ca f ed, f ed, a d e e-
c ed he a ca , ha he "c de" ef a e ge e a ed a d-
ded h c e , e ead e e he e a e ac h - he ea , he a e
a d cha ac e c fea e f a h a a d ca ced e ha e e e a a a h -
ca e e ce a d e e e , c e e , he a a e h ha d f a a ac ha
dd ed, ac ce, h c ad c , acc de , a d e. We c d e ha he
ega e c da f e a e e a d f he a ca a e age ca e, ha he ega c de
de he c f a ec c ea g h ea e ed a d e f-c c . I , e ha ,
b cha ce ha he a ega d g a e a ea c a e he ec e e he
ag a aga he a a ge e bec e a c a e ce a E ea a d Ne -W d
c e . I ha ega d, he a e c de ha G de de c be a e he e e a -
a ce f he c e a d a ed e ha ee e ce he c ad c a d a he e
e ge de ed b . F e a e, a ec f A c e 461 f he S h Ca a C C de ca
a e he f ea c cha ac e ha he " ec a " a -
e a a f g e a e .
1) The " a e" ab e b a e, b " ab e b he e a f a " [G de
24]. A I ead h , a ef c e ed a f a a , a e e e e deg ee,
be d h ch ca e he beha f f he e a ed he f ee. We eca , , ha
he " a e ," de he e e e f dca e , e ed ea he e a ed a
e , a d a e . The e a a d f he d f ca f a ha a ed
f ce he e c e f a g c e he ca ag f c a . The a e b d
he e ab e h a ea h ha He Da d Th ea be e ed cca ed ac f
"c d
bed e ce," he a h h h ch Ma L he K g, J . d b c be
he a e ha f f he e e h ce .
2) S a e ha be e ed a d c de ed ea e a e, " b ec be gaged, acc d-
g he e e c bed b a " [G de 24]. I e ha e " e ed" a d "c de ed" a
ed ca e ad ec e ha e a e beca e he de e a c a ce, a a -
e " ," he a fe f a e e f e ac c a he b a
f a ea e ed c a e. The a f he " e ed" ca cha ge, a g f ca
bef e he e ee h ce c e . The d he e- he " ha be"- ed b c-

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 e,he a de be hed. The he a e-h d g c a f ced, e,
h a dd e h ge e he a a e f e ce ha e a e e e f ha bee
e a gf ac e f ce e .
L a a' a d S h Ca a' e c de ffe a a ad g f a h e -
a ce he e a e e g. I ha ca e, he "cha e c e ha ... bee af-
f ed a d a a ed b he c ,a d ed eg a e ac " [G de 25]. I
Ma a d, a eg a e e ac e f 1798 h f cef a f e be-
ee b a che fc a ab e g e a ce ha a e be ee " d c a " a d " eg a e"
f c ee d a : "I ca e he e a e f a a d ha c f ec f c
a c e , ch a a e , g bea , a a fa d, c ,f e, a e , b ,
a d f h, he C f ha dee ad a age he a d, a a a e, a a
de f he a e he e f" [56]. Th a a ea dc a e e h - he gd c
fa a d- he e e f , gh be, a a ge a e-h d g a e de e a
c ce g e .
The e e a e , h e e , ch a he f h e ac e a a he
de a f de ea .E e he e he de c ed c e , ea e ed b he
a e fd a a e e ag a a ca e e : "S a e" a ea he a e c e
h bea f b de , a a d a a a ( ), a e c ,a da a e de f -
fd e cc e f he c a e he b .U e he a f
B ge ' "Ce a Ch e e e c c ed a," h e c e a e F ca ' O de f
Th g , he e e f a ce a A e ca e c c ed a d a d c e ea d
ca ed " e fc ag ," ha he g d f he c ca e a bee de cca ed
be ea h he . Tha ed f c e he h c , ha eh h f
a ed h g , ea d a a e, c a ed b c g he a e e f " ea ," ca -
e ad b g e e f ace e . T ha e e , he ec f be a
f Af ca -A e ca ha f d ge c a a e a ha a e ed-
1) b ea a a , e e he a f A e ca beha ha a e ch a
b e; 2) d ce a e e a c f e d/f d ea a e h /he h c
e e . I ega d h c a d c , h gh e a ed, e f he e
a e a a e ce ha gh a ea a a c ce a a d e a . The a a e f
L da B e , F ede c D g a , a d Ma c E -Ha Ma E -Shaba (a ec f h ch a e
e a ed h e a ) each e e e b h a a ea b a he cc de he
a ce f "a h ."
Re a ed , e gh e e he h e ca ee f Af ca -A e ca , a dec e fac
a a ca fe ce he d- e e ee h ce , gh f he e e g, -
d g a e, he a e- eB e ' "ga e " ace-"be ee he e ," h ch a e a ead
c bed, a a e a h f ca a dc a a age e . Acc d g h ead g,
ge de , e - ea g a , he c ea d ffe e a f e a ff, a ed
e e he e he c e, d e e e ge f he Af ca -A e ca fe a e h h c -
a ce, e ce d ec , e ce a a a ee f ce h gh he ce f b h g, " he
e d c f he e a f d c " ha e " he e d c f he a e
a d beha a e ece a a a he e f h e a ch a a ec f
ge de , c a , a d ace e h c " [Ma ga e S be , "S a e a d Re d c e Lab
M ba a," R be a dKe 121]. F gS be ' ead, I d gge ha he
f eg g de fe e f he h ee ca eg e f e d c e ab ha Af ca -A e ca
fe a e ca de he eg e f ca .B h e ca f de g e e -
e he ca e f fe a e b ec - ,a d a ea ac e a h c e ed a e f
e he ca e f Af ca -A e ca fe ae .
If e ca acc f a g a a a e a d dca c e ha gh ha e
e ge de ed a "M ha Re ," a ea he e e h ce , e ca d
ch be e ha a G de ' ead g f he a e e e : he c d f
he a e he "f e e e a ed a he e e e ." Th a f c a ,
G de ' e , he "ge e a d deg ad g c e f a e , a ch a ace he
a e a e e h b e a a , e a e a he a e-h d g a e "
[G de 27]. B ha he "c d " f he he ? I he "c d " f e a e e
he e ea , d e he ea he " a " a d he " edge" f he he he
ch d ha he e a a e he c a f b dde a d e? I a e f e ,

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" he " a d "e a e e " a e d c ca eg e f he eg a e a ch a each f
he e ee e def e , effec , a c a a ha fa he - ac g.
G de , h d e e h a f a a a a ec f h fac a ,b
a ega d , a d e D g a , a a f da e a deg ada , e de ce a d de -
h gh he fe a e ea c a ab e ab ea a .K g a ead ha he e
a eh a c e ha a g ca e d c e ced e acc d g he e f he
he , a d G de h ef gh ha e e ea a e , e ca c c de
ha he f a a ch , he e e ace ba ed b he e de a e fa e a -
g c a , dec a e M he R gh , b def , a ega g fea e fh a c .
E e h gh ea e e e a g ab a f he a a cha fea e f ca -
d c / e d c - a f ca , a ea , a a ch - he e ea f he
e a ed e , e e ce e ha he d a c e, a fa a de a d g, a g
a a a ch a e he e d e be g; ac a a e he e f he fe a e
ega d g he e a ed c . S ch a g fa e beca e he fe a e c d ,
fac , c a he ch d, a d fa e, ce aga , beca e " he h d" e ce ed he
e a g ca c a e a a eg a e ced e f c a he a ce.
The Af ca -A e ca a e ha bee ched, he ef e, b he he , ha ded b he
a ha he ca e ca e, a d a ha he h e A e ca ae a ed e -
e b a fa he e e e. Th h a a dh c de e e - he e ha ha bee
c bed he be gh ed hea f he c e - a e he ce e f a e ab e
d ffe e ce he de h f A e ca e ' c : he Af ca -A e ca a ,
he he , he da gh e , bec e h ca he e f a d had e ca fa
c a he ge a a ed - he a f he M he - a d ec e beca e ega
e a e e e ed he Af ca -A e ca ae ch f gh a f e c
e a a a e he e a g ca fc f he Fa he ' a e, he Fa he ' a .
The ef e, he fe a e, h de f h g , b ea he ag a ha
f cef e ha a b h a de a a d a " eg ac ." Beca e f h ec a A e ca
de a , he b ac A e ca a e e b d e he A e ca c f ae h ch
ha had he ec f c cca ea h he fe a e h e f, he fa ch d h
bea he fe aga he c d-be fa ef ga b e, aga he dd f e a a d
de , c d g he .I he he age f he he ha he Af ca -A e ca ae
ega a a a ec f h e h d - he e f" e " he "fe a e" h .
Th d ffe e c a e ac a ec fg e , h ca da ed d c e, ce -
a e
e e a a e a e f Af ca -A e ca : 1) he h d a fe a e b d-
e aged, de ed, a he e a e e ha bec e he f d g e fa
h a a d c a e ac e ; 2) a d a fa he h d e ,c ed f he Af ca
fa he ' ba hed a e a d b d a d he ca fa he ' c g e e ce. I h a f
a ad , he fe a e a d he f e h, b h he a d he -d e ed. Th
be a g f ge de ace he , e , f he ad a b c f fe a e
ge de , a d a a e a ace f h d ffe e ca b ec . I d g , ea e
e e e ed g he a f ge de ed fe a e e ha ga g he ge g d
a fe a e c a b ec . Ac a ca g he ( f a fe a e h he e a
" a e"), h ch he c e e b d e , "Sa h e" gh e e af e a a ad ca
d ffe e e f a fe a e e e e .

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