MABINI COLLEGES, INC.

Graduate School
College of Teacher Education
Daet, Camarines Norte

Name : MA. ELAINE MANLIMOS ALCANTARA

Course : Master of Arts in Education Major in Educational Leadership
Course Title : Seminar on Educational Psychology
Course Code : EDUC 202
Semester Attended : 1st Semester, Academic Year 2020-2021
Professor : NOEL V. IBIS, PhD

REFLECTION PAPER
In accordance to the lessons discussed in our class during the first and second
consecutive meetings via Google meet, I have grasped more about teaching-learning
interaction that really become a big factor in order to learn more effectively. The reading with
comprehension also play as a vital role in order to understand the lesson and integrate
different knowledge. In this subject, I develop an understanding of Educational Psychology
and up bring me to become more flexible and open-minded in the field of education.

The other reflections for each topic in educational psychology are follows:

I. What is learning for you?

To sum up everything what comes into my mind, learning is depends upon on
how are we going apply it through life. Yes, it is all about application and there
are different perspectives to be considered in order to process learnings. It was
broad yet important to discuss each development.
During our class, I have my learnings for each topic. I relished how my classmate
and professor shared their ideas.
A. Behaviorist perspective
According to the study, the behaviorist perspective also known as
behavioral psychology is a theory of learning, which states all behaviors are learned
through interaction with the environment through a process called conditioning.
Thus, behavior is simply a response to environmental stimuli. Behaviorism is key for
educators because it affects how students react and behave in the classroom and
suggest that teachers can directly influence how their students behave. As an educator
I strongly believe that environment greatly affect ones’ learning, it is crucial for the
 teaching and learning process. With good environment, both student and teacher can
interact and share knowledge enthusiastically. Basically, conditioning can greatly
affect student’s behavior towards erudition. As we experience nowadays, different
learnings modalities have been implemented all over the world due to pandemic-
Covid19 we are facing until now. Based from my own experience as a teacher there
students experiencing difficulties in their academic they want actual or face to face
learning modality in order to learn more specifically the students who are dependent
to their teachers.

B. Gestalt perspective
What I have learned about gestalt perspective is that is how people perceive
and apprehend the relationship of the whole to the parts that make it a whole. Since,
Gestalt theory emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts.
There are six (6) categories:
 Proximity
Objects placed near each other tend to be perceived as one group.
 Similarity
The principle of similarity states that when things appear to be similar to each
other, we group them together. And we also tend to think they have the same
function.
 Continuity
The Gestalt Continuity Law explains how our brain experiences visual line of
elements that are grouped together. There is a tendency to perceive a line
continuing its established direction. This principle is considered to be one of
the most important among others, because it has the vastest application in
design.
 Closure
The principle of closure states that when we look at a complex arrangement of
visual elements, we tend to look for a single, recognizable pattern.
 Figure and Ground
The figure-ground principle states that people instinctively perceive objects as
either being in the foreground or the background. They either stand out
prominently in the front (the figure) or recede into the back (the ground).
  Common Fate.
Humans tend to perceive elements moving in the same direction as being more
related than elements that are stationary or that move in different directions.

. The gestalt theory is all about how the people conceptualize things and connect it to
his/her new learnings or a theory that looks at human perception. Thus, we impose a cause
and effect result and at the same time the relationship. It is important to this type of
educational technology are the interaction and collaboration. I have learned that is more on
relationship and patterns of a certain things to be learned by an individual. Moreover, it is
also connected and has an initial response to the behaviorism. I also learned to this topic is
that the unified completely is different from the sum of the parts. Overall, it is a matter of
being placed and configuration to inculcate knowledge.
C. Piagetian Perspective (Endogenous Constructivist)
According to this theory states that Piaget believed that children take an active
role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform
experiments, observe, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world
around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge,
and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information. (Kendra Cherry,
2021).
As I have grasped to this topic, it is all about the development and each stage
on how to acquire knowledge. Since it is constructivist, it is the process wherein the
kids learn through systematic process according to the things they can do. Everyone
has a nature intelligence and it is because of what they have adapt in their
environment, it will be developed according ones’ capability. For example, toddlers or
during the sensimotor stage, they are the one who imitate the most and learning new
words for them respectively. Overall I’ve learnd from this theory that intelligence is
something that grows and develops through a series of stages.

D. INFORMATION-PROCESSING PERSPECTIVE (Exogenous Constructivist)

Information processing is how individuals perceive, analyze, manipulate, use and
remember information. It focuses on the idea that humans process the information they
receive from the environment, in the manner of a computer rather than merely responding to
stimuli. The sequence of events in processing information which includes input, processing,
storage and output. The input stage can be further broken down into acquisition, data entry
and validation. The output stage can also be further divided into interactive queries and
routine reports. The student’s brain bring information in, manipulates it and stores it ready for
future use- this is the learning aspect. Unlike Piaget’s theory, this approach proposes that
cognitive development is ongoing and gradual, not organized into distinct stages. The essence
of information-processing is that it helps performers identify relevant cues via selective
attention, therefore increasing movement reactions which will lead ultimately to a successful
outcome. Successful outcomes are increased if strategies to help enhance our ability to store
more information in the long term memory is practiced.

E. SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the
1960s by Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs
in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment and
behavior. The central premise of social cognitive theory is reciprocal determinism, which is
the interaction of person, environment and behavior. A person’s behavior is shaped by
observing the people around them and their perceptions of the environment. Bandura asserts
that most human behavior is learned through observation, imitation and modelling. There are
four elements to social learning theory namely; attention, retention, reproduction and
motivation. Social Cognitive theory can be incorporate to classroom teaching through Flipped
Classroom Model, Gamifications and Simulations, and Peer Coaching.

II. Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories

A. FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Psychoanalytic theory is the theory of personality organization and the dynamics of
personality development that guides psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating
psychopathology. First laid out by Sigmund Freud in the late 19 th century, psychoanalytic
theory has undergone many refinements since his work. It argues that human behavior is the
result of the interactions among three component parts of the mind: the id, ego, and
superego. Sigmund Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind and a primary
assumption of Freudian theory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a greater
degree than people suspect. Indeed, the goal of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious
conscious. Freud’s theory emphasizes that play is essential in a growing child. Schools
should utilize play in their curriculum because it is vital in handling academic and emotional
problems among children. These are students modifying reality to let go of anxiety or reduce
conflict.

B. ERICKSON’S PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Erickson’s stages of psychosocial development, as articulated in the second half of the
20th century by Erik Erickson in collaboration with Joan Erickson is a comprehensive
psychoanalytic theory that identifies a series of eight stages that a healthy developing
individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood. The eight stages of Erickson’s
psychosocial theory namely; Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (oral sensory, infancy under 2 years),
Will: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (muscular-anal, toddlerhood, 2-4 years), Purpose:
Initiative vs. Guilt (locomotor-genital, early childhood, 5-8 years), Competence: Industry
vs. Inferiority (latency, middle childhood, 9-12 years) Fidelity: Identity vs. Role
Confusion (Adolescence, 12-19 years) Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood, 20-39
years) Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood, 40-59 years) Wisdom: Ego
Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood, 60 years and above). One of the strengths of
psychosocial theory is that it provides a broad framework from which to view development
throughout the entire lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the social nature of human
beings and the important influence that social relationships have on development. Erickson
showed developmental stages that seamlessly integrate into a comprehensive theory of
personality based on self-organization. Each stage corresponds to access to a structural level.

C. KOLHBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to
explain the moral development of children. Kohlberg believed that moral development,
like cognitive development, follows a series of stages. He used the idea of moral dilemmas
—stories that present conflicting ideas about two moral values—to teach 10 to 16 year-old
boys about morality and values. The best known moral dilemma created by Kohlberg is the
“Heinz” dilemma, which discusses the idea of obeying the law versus saving a life. Kohlberg
emphasized that it is the way an individual reasons  about a dilemma that determines positive
moral development. Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional,
conventional, and post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex
stages of moral development (a) Level 1: Pre-Conventional throughout the pre-conventional
level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept and believe the
rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers.  A child with pre-conventional
morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or
wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.
(b) Level 2: Conventional throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is
tied to personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority
figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive
relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during
these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned. (c) Level 3: Post-
Conventional throughout the post-conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined
in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust
and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that
individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their
own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life,
liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than
absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional
individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their
behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at the pre-
conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this.

D. VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory refers to community and culture are integral parts of
children’s development. The more that the students are engage to socialization with more
knowledgeable others, the more they learn and learning varies to culture. Environment has a
vital role of how the children will think or what they think about.

E. BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL THEORY

Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory views child development as a complex system of
relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment, from immediate
settings of family and school to broad cultural values, laws, and customs. To study a child's
development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but
also at the interaction of the larger environment as well. Bronfenbrenner divided the person's
environment into five different systems: the Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem,
Macrosystem, and Chronosystem. The Microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner's
theory, and are the things that have direct contact with the child in their immediate
environment, such as parents, siblings, teachers and school peers. Relationships in a
microsystem are bi-directional, meaning the child can be influenced by other people in their
environment and is also capable of changing the beliefs and actions of other people too.
Furthermore, the reactions of the child to individuals in their microsystem can influence how
they treat them in return. The interactions within microsystems are often very personal and
are crucial for fostering and supporting the child’s development. If a child has a strong
nurturing relationship with their parents, this is said to have a positive effect on the child.
Whereas, distant and unaffectionate parents will have a negative effect on the child. The
Mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child’s microsystems, such as the
interactions between the child’s parents and teachers, or between school peers and siblings. It
is where a person's individual microsystems do not function independently, but are
interconnected and assert influence upon one another. The Exosystem is a component of the
ecological systems theory developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s. It incorporates
other formal and informal social structures, which do not themselves contain the child, but
indirectly influence them as they affect one of the microsystems. An instance of exosystems
affecting the child’s development could be if one of the parents had a dispute with their boss
at work. The Macrosystem is a component of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory that
focuses on how cultural elements affect a child's development, such as socioeconomic status,
wealth, poverty, and ethnicity. The macrosystem differs from the previous ecosystems as is
does not refer to the specific environments of one developing child, but the already
established society and culture which the child is developing in. This can also include the
socioeconomic status, ethnicity, geographic location and ideologies of the culture. The fifth
and final level of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory is known as the Chronosystem.
This system consists of all of the environmental changes that occur over the lifetime which
influence development, including major life transitions, and historical events. These can
include normal life transitions such as starting school but can also include non-normative life
transitions such as parents getting a divorce or having to move to a new house.
III. Cognitive and Language Development of Learners
A. LEV VYGOTSKY
Lev Vygotsky is a Russian psychologist who developed the Sociocultural Theory. He was
born in Russia on 1896 and died of TB on 1934 at the age of 37. His work has become the
foundation of much research and theory in cognitive development.

B. JEROME BRUNER
Jerome Seymour Bruner (October 1, 1915 – June 5, 2016) was an American psychologist
who made significant contributions to human cognitive psychology and cognitive learning
theory in educational psychology. Bruner was a senior research fellow at the New York
University School of Law. Bruner’s studies helped to introduce Jean Piaget’s concept
of developmental stages of cognition into the classroom. His much-translated book The
Process of Education (1960) was a powerful stimulus to the curriculum-reform movement of
the period. In it he argued that any subject can be taught to any child at any stage
of development, if it is presented in the proper manner. According to Bruner, all children
have natural curiosity and a desire to become competent at various learning tasks; when a
task as presented to them is too difficult, however, they become bored. A teacher must,
therefore, present schoolwork at a level that challenges but does not overwhelm the child’s
current developmental stage. Moreover, the task is best presented within a framework of
structured interaction between teacher and child, one that makes use of and builds upon skills
that the child has already acquired. Such frameworks, which Bruner referred to as
“scaffolding,” facilitate learning by limiting the child’s choices, or “degrees of freedom,” in
the learning process to a manageable domain. In addition, he championed the “spiral
curriculum,” in which subjects are taught to student’s year after year at increasing levels of
complexity. Bruner developed a social science curriculum that was widely used during the
1960s and ’70s. He also studied perception in children, concluding that children’s individual
values significantly affect their perceptions.

C. NOAM CHOMSKY
Avram Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian,
social critic, and political activist. Sometimes called "the father of modern linguistics",
Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of
cognitive science. He is Laureate Professor of Linguistics at the University of Arizona and
Institute Professor Emeritus at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and is the author of
more than 150 books on topics such as linguistics, war, politics, and mass media.
Ideologically, he aligns with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism. The Language
Acquisition Device is a controversial claim from language acquisition research proposed by
Noam Chomsky in the 1960s. The LAD concept is a purported instinctive mental capacity
which enables an infant to acquire and produce language. It is a component of the nativist
theory of language. This theory asserts that humans are born with the instinct or "innate
facility" for acquiring language. The main argument given in favor of the LAD was the
argument from the poverty of the stimulus, which argues that unless children have significant
innate knowledge of grammar, they would not be able to learn language as quickly as they
do, given that they never have access to negative evidence and rarely receive direct
instruction in their first language.

IV. Educational Psychologists

A. ALFRED BINET
Alfred Binet, born Alfredo Binetti, was a French psychologist who invented the first practical
IQ test, the Binet–Simon test. In 1904, the French Ministry of Education asked psychologist
Alfred Binet to devise a method that would determine which students did not learn effectively
from regular classroom instruction so they could be given remedial work. Along with his
collaborator Théodore Simon, Binet published revisions of his test in 1908 and 1911, the last
of which appeared just before his death. Alfred Binet, born Alfredo Binetti, was a French
psychologist who invented the first practical IQ test, the Binet–Simon test. In 1904, the
French Ministry of Education asked psychologist Alfred Binet to devise a method that would
determine which students did not learn effectively from regular classroom instruction so they
could be given remedial work. Along with his collaborator Théodore Simon, Binet published
revisions of his test in 1908 and 1911, the last of which appeared just before his death. Alfred
Binet, born Alfredo Binetti, was a French psychologist who invented the first practical IQ
test, the Binet–Simon test. In 1904, the French Ministry of Education asked psychologist
Alfred Binet to devise a method that would determine which students did not learn effectively
from regular classroom instruction so they could be given remedial work.

B. BENJAMIN H. BLOOM AND LEE CRONBACH

Lee J. Cronbach (1916 - 2001) was an American educational psychologist who made
significant contributions to psychological testing and measurement. Born in Fresno,
California, Cronbach received a bachelor's degree from Fresno State College and a master's
degree from the University of California, Berkeley. In 1940, he received a doctorate in
educational psychology from the University of Chicago. Cronbach is most famous for the
development of Cronbach's alpha, a method for determining the reliability of educational and
psychological tests. His work on test reliability reached an acme with the creation
of generalizability theory, a statistical model for identifying and quantifying the sources of
measurement error. Benjamin Samuel Bloom was an American educational psychologist who
made contributions to the classification of educational objectives and to the theory of mastery
learning. He is particularly noted for leading educational psychologists to develop the
comprehensive system of describing and assessing educational outcomes in the mid-1950s.
He has influenced the practices and philosophies of educators around the world from the
latter part of the twentieth century.
Benjamin Bloom also made contributions to the study of intelligence. His experiments
identified how early experiences could influence an individual's ability to learn. As a result,
some of his work appeared to support the nurture side of the nature versus nurture
controversy in psychology. Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used to
classify educational learning objectives into levels of complexity and specificity. The three
lists cover the learning objectives in cognitive, affective and sensory domains. The cognitive
domain list has been the primary focus of most traditional education and is frequently used to
structure curriculum learning objectives, assessments and activities. In the 1956 original
version of the taxonomy, the cognitive domain is broken into the six levels of objectives
listed below. In the 2001 revised edition of Bloom's taxonomy, the levels have slightly
different names and the order is revised: Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate,
and Create (rather than Synthesize). Knowledge involves recognizing or remembering facts,
terms, basic concepts, or answers without necessarily understanding what they
mean. Comprehension involves demonstrating an understanding of facts and ideas by
organizing, summarizing, translating, generalizing, giving descriptions, and stating the main
ideas. Application involves using acquired knowledge—solving problems in new situations
by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules. Learners should be able to use
prior knowledge to solve problems, identify connections and relationships and how they
apply in new situations. Analysis involves examining and breaking information into
component parts, determining how the parts relate to one another, identifying motives or
causes, making inferences, and finding evidence to support generalizations. Synthesis
involves building a structure or pattern from diverse elements; it also refers to the act of
putting parts together to form a whole. Evaluation involves presenting and defending
opinions by making judgments about information, the validity of ideas, or quality of work
based on a set of criteria.

C. JOHN I. DEWEY AND ROBERT GAGNE

John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose
ideas have been influential in education and social reform. He was one of the most prominent
American scholars in the first half of the twentieth century. In many countries, the modern
educational system looks the way it does thanks to John Dewey. His approach to schooling
was revolutionary for his time and proves to be fundamentally important for modern
education to this day. John Dewey probably gained the most publicity thanks to his role in the
studies into progressive education. Progressive education in essence is a vision of education
that emphasize the necessity of learning by doing. According to the John Dewey theory,
people learn best through a hands-on approach. As a result, the philosophies and views of
John Dewey are placed in the educational philosophy of pragmatism. Dewey argued that
education can only truly be effective when children have learning opportunities that enable
them to link current knowledge to prior experiences and knowledge. This was a ground-
breaking idea in those days. Particularly the part related to experience learning, where
children come into contact with their environment, was revolutionary.
Robert Mills Gagné was an American educational psychologist best known for his
Conditions of Learning. He pioneered the science of instruction during World War II when
he worked with the Army Air Corps training pilots. He went on to develop a series of studies
and works that simplified and explained what he and others believed to be "good instruction."
Gagné was also involved in applying concepts of instructional theory to the design of
computer-based training and multimedia-based learning. Gagne's Nine Levels of Learning
model gives trainers and educators a checklist to use before they engage in teaching or
training activities. Each step highlights a form of communication that aids the learning
process. When each step is completed in turn, learners are much more likely to be engaged
and to retain the information or skills that they're being taught. If you use this approach
before any type of training session or presentation, you'll remember how to structure your
session so that your people get the best possible learning experience. (1) Gaining Attention
(Reception) Start the learning experience by gaining the attention of your audience. This
change in stimulus alerts the group that learning will soon take place. (2) Informing
Learners of the Objective (Expectancy) You must ensure that your team knows what they
need to learn, and that they understand why they're about to learn this new information. (3)
Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning (Retrieval) When your people learn something new,
match the new information with related information or topics they've learned in the past. (4)
Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception) Present the new information to the group in an
effective manner. (5) Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding) To help your team
learn and retain the information, provide alternative approaches that illustrate the information
that you're trying to convey. (6) Eliciting Performance (Responding) At this stage, you need
to ensure that your people can demonstrate their knowledge of what you've taught them. The
way that they show this depends on what they're learning. (7) Providing Feedback
(Reinforcement) After your team demonstrates their knowledge, provide feedback  and
reinforce any points as necessary. (8) Assessing Performance (Retrieval) Your team should
be able to complete a test, or other measurement tool, to show that they've learned the
material or skill effectively. Team members should complete this test independently, without
any help or coaching from you. (9) Enhancing Retention and Transfer (Generalization) In this
last stage, your team members show that they've retained information by transferring their
new knowledge or skill to situations that are different from the ones you've trained them on.

D. MARIA MONTESSORI AND HERBERT SIMON

Maria Tecla Artemisia Montessori was an Italian physician and educator best known for the
philosophy of education that bears her name, and her writing on scientific pedagogy. At an
early age, Montessori broke gender barriers and expectations when she enrolled in classes at
an all-boys technical school, with hopes of becoming an engineer. She soon had a change of
heart and began medical school at the Sapienza University of Rome, where she graduated
with honors in 1896. Her educational method is in use today in many public and private
schools globally.

E. BURRHUS K. SKINNER AND CHARLES SPEARMAN

Burrhus Frederic Skinner was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor and
social philosopher. He was a professor of psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until
his retirement in 1974. Skinner referred to his approach to the study of behavior as radical
behaviorism. This philosophy of behavioral science assumes that behavior is a consequence
of environmental histories of reinforcement. Skinner argued that education has two major
purposes: (a) to teach repertoires of both verbal and nonverbal behavior and (b) to interest
students in learning. He recommended bringing student’s behavior under appropriate control
by providing reinforcement only in the presence of stimuli relevant to the learning task.
Because he believed that human behavior can be affected by small consequences, something
as simple as “the opportunity to move forward after completing one stage of an activity” can
be an effective reinforce. Skinner was convinced that, to learn, a student must engage in
behavior, and not just passively receive information.
Charles Edward Spearman, FRS was an English psychologist known for work in statistics,
as a pioneer of factor analysis, and for Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. He also did
seminal work on models for human intelligence, including his theory that disparate cognitive
test scores reflect a single General intelligence factor and coining the term g factor. The result
was Spearmans two-factor theory which attempted to show that all cognitive performance can
be explained by two variables: one general ability (g) and the many specific abilities (s) it
gave rise to. Later, however, further analysis showed that g alone was enough to explain the
correlations between different tests. When people talk about IQ or intelligence, its usually
this general mental ability that they are referring to.

F. LEWIS I. TERMAN AND EDWARD THORNDIKE

Lewis Madison Terman was an American psychologist and author. He was noted as a
pioneer in educational psychology in the early 20th century at the Stanford Graduate School
of Education. He is best known for his revision of the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales and
for initiating the longitudinal study of children with high IQs called the Genetic Studies of
Genius. He was a prominent eugenicist and was a member of the Human Betterment
Foundation. He also served as president of the American Psychological Association. A
Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Terman as the 72nd most
cited psychologist of the 20th century, in a tie with G. Stanley Hall. In 1921, Terman began
his "Genetic Studies of Genius," a longitudinal study that set out to investigate whether high
IQ students were more successful in life. What he found was that his high IQ subjects (which
he referred to as "Termites") tended to be healthier, taller, and more socially adapted than
other kids. Based on his results, Terman suggested that gifted children should be identified
early, offered tailored instruction, and have access to specially-trained teachers. Terman
found that while many of his high IQ subjects were very successful, not all fared as well and
most actually turned out no better than the average. He did find that those who ended up
being the most successful tended to rate higher on self-confidence, perseverance, and goal-
orientation as children. Lewis Terman played an important role in the early development of
educational psychology and his intelligence test became one of the most widely used
psychological assessments in the world. He advocated for support and guidance for kids
identified as gifted in order to nurture their talents and abilities.
Edward Lee Thorndike was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at
Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on comparative psychology and the
learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation
for educational psychology. He also worked on solving industrial problems, such as
employee exams and testing. He was a member of the board of the Psychological Corporation
and served as president of the American Psychological Association in 1912. A Review of
General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Thorndike as the ninth-most cited
psychologist of the 20th century. Edward Thorndike had a powerful impact on reinforcement
theory and behavior analysis, providing the basic framework for empirical laws in behavior
psychology with his law of effect. Through his contributions to the behavioral psychology
field came his major impacts on education, where the law of effect has great influence in the
classroom. The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of
behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and
responses. Such associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and
frequency of the S-R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning in
which certain responses come to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained
without referring to any unobservable internal states. Thorndike’s theory consists of three
primary laws: (1) law of effect – responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding
state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation, (2) law
of readiness – a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will
result in annoyance if blocked, and (3) law of exercise – connections become strengthened
with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued. A corollary of the law of effect
was that responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a rewarding state (i.e.,
punishments, failures) will decrease in strength.

G. WILLIAM JAMES
William James was an American philosopher and psychologist, and the first educator to
offer a psychology course in the United States. James is considered to be a leading thinker of
the late nineteenth century, one of the most influential philosophers of the United States, and
the "Father of American psychology". Along with Charles Sanders Peirce, James established
the philosophical school known as pragmatism, and is also cited as one of the founders
of functional psychology. A Review of General Psychology analysis, published in 2002,
ranked James as the 14th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century. A survey published
in American Psychologist in 1991 ranked James's reputation in second place, after Wilhelm
Wundt, who is widely regarded as the founder of experimental psychology. James also
developed the philosophical perspective known as radical empiricism. James's work has
influenced philosophers and academics such as Émile Durkheim, W. E. B. Du Bois, Edmund
Husserl, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Hilary Putnam, Richard Rorty,
and Marilynne Robinson.

IV. Motivational Theories

A. FLOW THEORY (Mihalyi Csikzsentmihaly)
In positive psychology, a flow state, also known colloquially as being in the zone, is the
mental state in which a person performing some activity is fully immersed in a feeling of
energized focus, full involvement, and enjoyment in the process of the activity. In essence,
flow is characterized by the complete absorption in what one does, and a resulting
transformation in one's sense of time. Optimal Experience use the term to describe those
occasions where we feel a sense of exhilaration, deep sense of enjoyment and becomes
landmark to our own lives. he identified 9 ways through which we can achieve flow. Being in
the flow is where students find themselves in that narrow channel between disinterest and
fear. There is a fine balance between the challenge of the task, and the skills the learner has at
their disposal. Maintaining this balance avoids disillusionment if your skills don’t measure up
to the challenge, or boredom if the task is too simple and easy to achieve. Games
and gamification may offer students the fine equilibrium between boredom and anxiety, as
will other forms of immersive learning such as role play, simulation and problem solving. As
long as the learning resource is designed to have the appropriate levels of challenge built into
it, students will be interested.

B. MODELLING AND RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM (Albert Bandura)

Reciprocal determinism is the theory set forth by psychologist Albert Bandura which states
that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social
environment. Bandura accepts the possibility that an individual's behavior may be
conditioned through the use of consequences. At the same time, he asserts that a person's
behavior (and personal factors, such as cognitive skills or attitudes) can impact the
environment. These skill sets result in an under- or overcompensated ego that, for all creative
purposes, is too strong or too weak to focus on pure outcome. This is important because
Bandura was able to prove the strong correlation between this with experiments.

C. ATTRIBUTION THEORY (Bernard Weiner)

Bernard Weiner is an American social psychologist known for developing a form of
attribution theory which seeks to explain the emotional and motivational entailments of
academic success and failure. His contributions include linking attribution theory, the
psychology of motivation, and emotion. Attribution theories attempt to explain how human
beings evaluate and determine the cause of other people's behavior.

D. INDICATORS OF MOTIVATED PERSONS (Deborah Stipek)

Motivation refers to those reasons that underlie behavior that is characterized by willingness
and volition. Intrinsic motivation is motivation that is animated by personal enjoyment,
interest, or pleasure. Researchers often contrast intrinsic motivation with extrinsic motivation,
which is motivation governed by reinforcement contingencies. Traditionally, educators
consider intrinsic motivation to be more desirable and to result in better learning outcomes
than extrinsic motivation. Motivation involves a constellation of closely related beliefs,
perceptions, values, interests, and actions. For example, self-efficacy is an individual’s
perceived competence in a given area, and people tend to be more motivated to participate in
activities at which they excel. In particular, attributing failure to lack of effort is more
motivating than attributing failure to lack of ability, whereas the opposite is true for
successful performance. Values are incentives or reasons for engaging in certain activities,
with intrinsic values more likely to foster persistence and effort than attainment values or
values focusing on costs. Interests are “interactions between an individual and certain aspects
of his or her environment.” Interests are content-specific and come in two forms: individual
interest and situational interest. Individual interest is a relatively stable trait developed with
respect to a particular topic or subject. Situational interest, on the other hand, is immediate,
affective, and transitory, and reflects certain environmental factors, such as task
characteristics. Individual interest is believed to foster greater long-term persistence than
situational interest. Finally, a person’s goals are related to his or her reasons for engaging
with a task. Mastery goals focus on learning for the sake of learning, whereas performance
goals are concerned with excelling in relation to others. Students holding mastery goals are
more likely than those holding performance goals to have high self-efficacy, to prefer effort
attributions, to persist at challenging tasks, and to use cognitive strategies associated with
self-regulated learning. Such strategies involve setting achievable goals, monitoring one’s
performance, evaluating progress, and framing successes and failures with respect to effort
and ability.

E. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS (Martin Seligman)

Learned helplessness is behavior exhibited by a subject after enduring repeated aversive
stimuli beyond their control. It was initially thought to be caused from the subject's
acceptance of their powerlessness: discontinuing attempts to escape or avoid the aversive
stimulus, even when such alternatives are unambiguously presented. Upon exhibiting such
behavior, the subject was said to have acquired learned helplessness. Over the past few
decades, neuroscience has provided insight into learned helplessness and shown that the
original theory actually had it backwards: the brain's default state is to assume that control is
not present, and the presence of "helpfulness" is what is actually learned.

V. Diversity and Characteristics of Learners

A. CULTURE, CLASS AND GENDER
The increasing diversity in our schools, the ongoing demographic changes across the nation
and the movement towards globalization dictate that we develop a more in-depth
understanding of culture if we want to bring about true understanding among diverse
populations. Some cultures encourage group learning. Give your students time to explore
individually – This is important for students who come from societies where individuality is
paramount. Using both team learning and individual learning strategies will encourage your
students to adjust to different situations. Scientists and psychologists have developed a
number of different models to understand the different ways that people learn best. One
popular theory, the VARK model, identifies four primary types of learners: visual, auditory,
reading/writing, and kinesthetic. Each learning type responds best to a different method of
teaching. Most research suggests that preferred learning styles of males and females can
generally be distributed equally among the four learning modes; however, there is
considerable evidence suggesting a discrepancy between male and female scores in the
abstract- concrete dimension of learning. Studies suggest that females score higher in the
concrete learning mode whereas males score higher on the abstract conceptualization side of
the continuum. Women with a concrete experience learning approach usually prefer hands-
on experiences to learn, they make intuitive or feeling based judgments, they are people
oriented, and they typically feel comfortable with ambiguity. They excel at understanding
people, identifying problems, brainstorming, imagining, taking risks, leading, and getting
work done. Conversely, men who prefer abstract conceptualization take an analytic approach
to learning, they think logically and rationally, they enjoy working with symbols and like
structure. They have a variety of sources—primarily parents, peers, and the media. Teachers
are certainly not the primary cause of gender role differences, but sometimes teachers
influence them by their responses to and choices made on behalf of students.

B. INTELLIGENCE: PERSPECTIVES AND DEVELOPMENT

Intelligence involves some different mental abilities including logic, reasoning, problem-
solving, and planning. While the subject of intelligence is one of the largest and most heavily
researched, it is also one of the topics that generate the greatest controversy. One of the more
recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Gardner
proposed that the traditional idea of intelligence, based on IQ testing, did not fully and
accurately depict a person's abilities. His theory proposed eight different intelligences based
on skills and abilities that are valued in different cultures (a) Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence:
The ability to control your body movements and to handle objects skillfully, (b)
Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,
motivations, and desires of others, (c) Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-
aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes, (d) Logical-
mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and the capacity
to discern logically or numerical patterns, (e) Musical intelligence: The ability to produce
and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre, (f) Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to
recognize and categorize animals, plants, and other objects in nature, (g) Verbal-linguistic
intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings, and
rhythms of words, and (h) Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and
pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly.

C. LEARNING AND COGNITIVE STYLE

Learning style is the unique collection of individual skills and preferences that affects
how a person perceives, gathers, and processes information. It also dictates how your brain
works most efficiently to process, comprehend and learn new information, and how easily or
quickly you learn something new. It describes how information enters the brain: visually,
aurally and etc. Cognitive style or thinking style is a concept used in cognitive psychology to
describe the way individuals think, perceive and remember information. It refers to how
information is processed once the information goes to the brain: field dependence or
independence.

VI. Transfer of Learning

A. KINDS AND LEVELS OF TRANSFER
Transfer of learning is the study of the dependency of human conduct, learning or
performance on prior experience and it occurs when learning in one context or with one set of
materials impacts on performance in another context or with other related materials. It is very
essential in learning because if there were no transfer, students would need to be taught every
act that they would ever perform in any situation. Furthermore, if we did not transfer some of
our prior knowledge, then each new learning situation would start from scratch. Assumption
to education: what is taught in a course will be used in relevant situations in other courses, in
the workplace and out of school.

B. CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING

Critical and creative thinking involves students thinking broadly and deeply using
skills, behaviors and dispositions such as reason, logic, resourcefulness, imagination and
innovation in all learning areas at school and in their lives beyond school. Thinking that is
productive, purposeful and intentional is at the center of effective learning. Critical and
creative thinking is essential for students to become successful learners. This general capability
has 4 main parts: posing questions, gathering, organizing and processing information and ideas
imagining possibilities, suggesting alternatives, seeking solutions and putting ideas into action
talking about and giving reasons for their thinking and applying knowledge in new situations
applying logic and reasoning, drawing conclusions and designing a course of action, and
evaluating procedures and results. During their primary and high school years, students develop
critical and creative thinking as they imagine possibilities, consider alternatives, and create
innovative solutions. They apply logic and reasoning to develop a course of action, and weigh
up the consequences. Critical and creative thinking is essential for students to become successful
learners. 

C. PROBLEM SOLVING
 Problem solving consists of using generic in an orderly manner to find solutions to
problems. Some of the problem-solving techniques developed and used in philosophy,
artificial intelligence, computer science, engineering, mathematics, or medicine are related to
mental problem-solving techniques studied in psychology. An important goal of education is
helping students learn how to think more productively while solving problems, by combining
creative thinking (to generate ideas) and critical thinking. Both modes of thinking are
essential for a well-rounded productive thinker.

VII. Teaching and Learning Environment

A. TEACHING IN DIGITAL ENVIRONMENT

B. TECHNOLOGY AND EDUCATION

Technology and Education is a complex, integrated process involving people,
procedure, ideas, devices, and organization for analyzing problems and devising,
implementing, evaluating, and also managing solution. The ultimate goal of this, is to
facilitating learning process with the use of technology. It also paly as a vital role in
education simply because it supports knowledge instruction for representing learner’s idea,
understanding and beliefs. It is also for producing organized, multimedia bases by learners.

C. TECHNOLOGICAL PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE (TPACK)

Technological pedagogical content knowledge is a framework to understand and
describe the kinds of knowledge needed by a teacher for effective pedagogical practice in a
technology-enhanced learning environment. Mishra and Koehler added technology as a
modeling element to Lee Shulman's pedagogical content knowledge construct. They
proposed that addressing content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and technology
knowledge concurrently provides a framework for technology integration in the curriculum.

D. POSITIVE CLASSROOM CLIMATE

They create a positive school climate to meet physical student needs and develop their
self-management, awareness, empathy and relationship skills. They take deliberate steps to
keep their students healthy and safe by: reducing disengagement from education, and
targeting those at risk of dropping out of school. To create a positive climate for your
classroom, focus on the following three “pieces” of the classroom climate “pie:” Develop and
reinforce classroom rules and norms that clearly support safe and respectful behavior. Having
classroom rules helps you create a predictable, safe learning environment for your students.
Develop and reinforce classroom rules and norms that clearly support safe and respectful
behavior. Having classroom rules helps you create a predictable, safe learning environment
for your students. Rules give your students clear boundaries and opportunities to practice
self-regulation and make good choices. When students feel safe and respected both
emotionally and physically, they are able to focus better on learning.
Promote positive peer relationships. You want to create an environment where your
students support and are kind to one another. Nurture positive relationships with all
students. You need to let your students know that you not only care about their progress in
the classroom, you also care about them as human beings.

VIII. How good I am in the following?

A. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Classroom Management is a term teachers use to describe the process of ensuring that
classroom lessons run smoothly without disruptive behavior from students compromising the
delivery of instruction. The term also implies the prevention of disruptive behavior
preemptively, as well as effectively responding to it after it happens. It is very important to
have a good classroom management to boosts confidence: In an effective classroom, teachers
are able to give more attention to each student and structure lesson plans to meet certain
needs. All of these factors will help in boosting the confidence of students. Effective
classroom management is being to implement and maintain classroom discipline in an
effective manner.

B. ART OF QUESTIONING
Questioning is a very simple and effective teaching strategy that can be applied to
almost any situation. The heart and soul of training--the most widely used instructional
strategy to facilitate learning. The essence of effective teaching because of the numerous
purposes it serves, such as motivating learners intrinsically, assessing knowledge and skills,
and reviewing content. There are different kinds of questions; (a) Factual question it is
soliciting reasonably simple, straight forward answers based on obvious facts or awareness.
These are usually at the lowest level of cognitive or affective processes and answers are
frequently either right or wrong. Used to get information from the students and often test rote
memory. (b) Clarifying questions is intend to provide clarity to both students and teachers.
Such questions have important clueing effects and help students to revisit their earlier
statements with alternative perspectives (c) Broadening or Extension question enlarges the
existing theme, explore implications of the response and can be useful in opening up further
possibilities. Such questions can be used to assess additional knowledge of the students. (d)
Justifying questions probe for assumptions and explore reasons. These questions require
significant comprehension and reasoning skills on the part of the students. (e) Hypothetical
Questions often come in handy during the later part of teacher-student interactions when the
basic facts and concepts are already established (f) Questions about questions probe for
reasons for the question. This allows the students to verbalize their reasoning and
understanding of the events leading to their own questions. (g) Redirecting questions address
the same question to several students and distribute responsibility. The benefits of such
questions include generation of a wider variety of responses and allowing the students to
evaluate each other contributions. This technique shifts the focus from teacher- student
interactions to student-student interactions.

C. DEVELOPING PORTFOLIOS
Developing a portfolio is an ongoing process. As your portfolio develops over time,
you will include documents which provide evidence of a wide range of activities and
achievements, along with your reflections on these documents. A student portfolio is a
compilation of academic work and other forms of educational evidence assembled for the
purpose of (1) evaluating coursework quality, learning progress, and academic achievement;
(2) determining whether students have met learning standards or other academic
requirements for courses, grade-level promotion, and graduation; (3) helping students reflect
on their academic goals and progress as learners; and (4) creating a lasting archive of
academic work products, accomplishments, and other documentation.

D. INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY

Creativity goes hand in hand with innovation. And there is no innovation without creativity.
While creativity is the ability to produce new and unique ideas, innovation is the
implementation of that creativity - that's the introduction of a new idea, solution, process, or
product. Creativity refers to generating new and novel ideas. Innovation refers to the
application of an idea and, in many cases, is a collaborative enterprise. So in other words,
innovation is applied creativity. Or if I put my creative speaker hat on, I might say,
“Creativity is a bioelectrical thunderstorm that precipitates an inescapable notion.” While
Creativity is related to ‘imagination’, but innovation is related to ‘implementation’. The
primary difference between creativity and innovation is that the former refers to conceive a
fresh idea or plan, whereas the latter implies initiating something new to the market, which is
not introduced earlier.