Samar State University COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES Catbalogan City, Samar REVIEW GUIDE-FINALS Electricity and Magnetism

CHAPTER IV. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY A. History of Electricity 600 BC- Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, could be rubbed with cat's fur to attract light objects like feathers. Thales of Miletos made a series of observations on static electricity. 1600- English scientist William Gilbert made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber. He coined the New Latin word electricus ("of amber" or "like amber", from [elektron], the Greek word for "amber") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. 1729- Stephen Gray discovered the principle of the conduction of electricity 1733, Charles Francois du Fay discovered that electricity comes in two forms which he called resinous (-) and vitreous (+), now called negative and positive. 1752- Ben Franklin's important discovery was that electricity and lightning were one and the same. Ben Franklin's lightning rod was the first practical application of electricity. 1786- Italian physician, Luigi Galvani demonstrated what we now understand to be the electrical basis of nerve impulses when he made frog muscles twitch by jolting them with a spark from an electrostatic machine. 1800- First electric battery invented by Alessandro Volta. Volta proved that electricity could travel over wires. 1820- Relationship of electricity and magnetism confirmed by Hans Christian Oersted who observed that electrical currents effected the needle on a compass and Marie Ampere, who discovered that a coil of wires acted like a magnet when a current is passed through it. 1821- First electric motor invented by Michael Faraday. 1826- Ohms Law written by Georg Simon Ohm states that "conduction law that relates potential, current, and circuit resistance" 1831- Principles of electromagnetism induction, generation and transmission discovered by Michael Faraday. 1873- James Clerk Maxwell wrote equations that described the electromagnetic field, and predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves traveling with the speed of light. Electromagnetism as a field of Physics was born. 1879- Thomas Edison demonstrates his incandescent lamp, Menlo Park, New Jersey. 1882- Edison Company opens Pearl Street power station. The first hydroelectric power station opens in Wisconsin. B. The Electrical Atom The atom, the fundamental unit of matter (element), has two major regions. The region or area where the neutron and proton are located is known as the nucleus; while the outermost region or area where electrons are located is known as the electron cloud. Atoms are therefore made up of 3 types of elementary particles electrons, protons and neutrons. These particles have

different properties. Electrons are tiny, very light particles that have a negative electrical charge (-). Protons are much larger and heavier than electrons and have the opposite charge, protons have a positive charge (+). Neutrons are large and heavy like protons; however neutrons have no electrical charge. Each atom is made up of a combination of these particles. An atom is usually made of equal number of protons and electrons making the atom neutrally charged. When electrons are emitted, the atom becomes positively charged. When atoms absorb electrons, there is more electron than protons leading the atoms to become negatively charged. C. Charging by Induction and Charging by Conduction Charging by Conduction Conduction just means that the two objects will come into actual physical contact with each other (this is why it is sometimes called charging by contact). Given a negatively charged metal object and an uncharged metal sphere. The uncharged sphere is on an insulating stand so that it will not interact with anything else. Bringing the two objects close together will cause separation of charge in the neutral object as negative electrons are repelled from the positive charges. At this time, they are not touching between the charged metal object and the neutral metal ball and no charges have been transferred yet. Allowing the two objects to touch, some of the negative charge will transfer over to the uncharged metal object. This happens since the negative charges on the first object are repelling each other and by moving onto the second object they spread away from each other. When the negative object is removed, it will not be as negative as it was. Both of the objects have some of the negative charge how much depends on the size of the objects and the materials they are made of. If they are the same size, made of the same materials, then the charge will be the same on both. Charging by Induction It is possible to charge a conductor without coming into direct contact with it. The most important one is the use of a grounding wire. A grounding wire is simply a conductor that connects the object to the ground. Think of the earth as a huge reservoir of charge it can both gain or donate electrons as needed. Depending on what the situation is, either electrons will travel up the grounding wire to the object being charged, or travel down to the ground. Charging by induction is a more complex process than conduction D. Conductors and Insulators The electrons of different types of atoms have different degrees of freedom to move around. With some types of materials, such as metals, the outermost electrons in the atoms are so loosely bound that they chaotically move in the space between the atoms of that material by nothing more than the influence of room-temperature heat energy. Because these virtually unbound electrons are free to leave their respective atoms and float around in the space between adjacent atoms, they are often called free electrons. In other types of materials such as glass, the atoms' electrons have very little freedom to move around. While external forces such as physical rubbing can force some of these electrons to leave their respective atoms and transfer

to the atoms of another material, they do not move between atoms within that material very easily. This relative mobility of electrons within a material is known as electric conductivity. Conductivity is determined by the types of atoms in a material (the number of protons in each atom's nucleus, determining its chemical identity) and how the atoms are linked together with one another. Materials with high electron mobility (many free electrons) are calledconductors, while materials with low electron mobility (few or no free electrons) are called insulators. Here are a few common examples of conductors and insulators: Conductors: (arrange according to decreasing level of conductivity) silver copper gold aluminum iron steel brass bronze mercury graphite dirty water concrete Insulators: (arranged according to decreasing level of resistivity) glass rubber oil asphalt fiberglass porcelain ceramic quartz (dry) cotton (dry) paper (dry) wood plastic air diamond pure water It must be understood that not all conductive materials have the same level of conductivity, and not all insulators are equally resistant to electron motion. Electrical conductivity is analogous to the transparency of certain materials to light: materials that easily "conduct" light are called "transparent," while those that don't are called "opaque." However, not all transparent materials are equally conductive to light. Window glass is better than most plastics, and certainly better than "clear" fiberglass. So it is with electrical conductors, some being better than others. For instance, silver is the best conductor in the "conductors" list, offering easier passage for electrons than any other material cited. Dirty water and

concrete are also listed as conductors, but these materials are substantially less conductive than any metal. A. Coulomb's Law The quantitative expression for the effect of these three variables on electric force is known as Coulomb's law. Coulomb's law states that the electrical force between two charged objects is directly proportional to the product of the quantity of charge on the objects and inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance between the two objects. In equation form, Coulomb's law can be stated as

where Q1 represents the quantity of charge on object 1 (in Coulombs), Q2 represents the quantity of charge on object 2 (in Coulombs), and d represents the distance of separation between the two objects (in meters). The symbolk is a proportionality constant known as the Coulomb's law constant. The value of this constant is dependent upon the medium that the charged objects are immersed in. In the case of air, the value is approximately 9.0 x 109 N m2 / C2. If the charged objects are present in water, the value of k can be reduced by as much as a factor of 80. It is worthwhile to point out that the units on k are such that when substituted into the equation the units on charge (Coulombs) and the units on distance (meters) will be canceled, leaving a Newton as the unit of force. The Coulomb's law equation provides an accurate description of the force between two objects whenever the objects act as point charges. A charged conducting sphere interacts with other charged objects as though all of its charge were located at its center. While the charge is uniformly spread across the surface of the sphere, the center of charge can be considered to be the center of the sphere. The sphere acts as a point charge with its excess charge located at its center. Since Coulomb's law applies to point charges, the distance d in the equation is the distance between the centers of charge for both objects (not the distance between their nearest surfaces). The symbols Q1 and Q2 in the Coulomb's law equation represent the quantities of charge on the two interacting objects. Since an object can be charged positively or negatively, these quantities are often expressed as "+" or "-" values. The sign on the charge is simply representative of whether the object has an excess of electrons (a negatively charged object) or a shortage of electrons (a positively charged object). It might be tempting to utilize the "+" and "-" signs in the calculations of force. While the practice is not recommended, there is certainly no harm in doing so. When using the "+" and "-" signs in the calculation of force, the result will be that a "-" value for force is a sign of an attractive force and a "+" value for force signifies a repulsive force. Mathematically, the force value would be found to be positive when Q1 and Q2 are of like charge - either both "+" or both "-". And the force value would be found to be negative when Q1 and Q2 are of opposite charge -

one is "+" and the other is "-". This is consistent with the concept that oppositely charged objects have an attractive interaction and like charged objects have a repulsive interaction. In the end, if you're thinking conceptually (and not merely mathematically), you would be very able to determine the nature of the force - attractive or repulsive - without the use of "+" and "-" signs in the equation. CHAPTER V. ELECTRIC CURRENT A. Basic Electrical Quantities Voltage is the potential energy of an electrical supply stored in the form of an electrical charge. Voltage can be thought of as the force that pushes electrons through a conductor and the greater the voltage the greater is its ability to "push" the electrons through a given circuit. As energy has the ability to do work this potential energy can be described as the work required in joules to move electrons in the form of an electrical current around a circuit from one point or node to another. The difference in voltage between any two nodes in a circuit is known as the Potential Difference, p.d. sometimes called Voltage Drop. The Potential difference between two points is measured in Volts with the circuit symbol V, or lowercase "v", although Energy, E lowercase "e" is sometimes used. Then the greater the voltage, the greater is the pressure (or pushing force) and the greater is the capacity to do work. A constant voltage source is called a DC Voltage with a voltage that varies periodically with time is called an AC voltage. Voltage is measured in volts, with one volt being defined as the electrical pressure required to force an electrical current of one ampere through a resistance of one Ohm. Voltages are generally expressed in Volts with prefixes used to denote sub-multiples of the voltage such asmicrovolts ( V = 10-6 V ), millivolts ( mV = 10-3 V ) or kilovolts ( kV = 103 V ). Voltage can be either positive or negative. Batteries or power supplies are mostly used to produce a steady D.C. (direct current) voltage source such as 5v, 12v, 24v etc in electronic circuits and systems. While A.C. (alternating current) voltage sources are available for domestic house and industrial power and lighting as well as power transmission. The mains voltage supply in the United Kingdom is currently 230 volts a.c. and 110 volts a.c. in the USA. General electronic circuits operate on low voltage DC battery supplies of between 1.5V and 24V d.c. The circuit symbol for a constant voltage source usually given as a battery symbol with a positive, + and negative, - sign indicating the direction of the polarity. The circuit symbol for an alternating voltage source is a circle with a sine wave inside. Voltage Symbols

A simple relationship can be made between a tank of water and a voltage supply. The higher the water tank above the outlet the greater the pressure of the water as more energy is released, the higher the voltage the greater the potential energy as more electrons are released. Voltage is always measured as the difference between any two points in a circuit and the voltage between these two points is generally referred to as the "Voltage drop". Any voltage source whether DC or AC likes an open or semi-open circuit condition but hates any short circuit condition as this can destroy it. Electrical Current is the movement or flow of electrical charge and is measured in Amperes, symbol i, for intensity). It is the continuous and uniform flow (called a drift) of electrons (the negative particles of an atom) around a circuit that are being "pushed" by the voltage source. In reality, electrons flow from the negative (-ve) terminal to the positive (+ve) terminal of the supply and for ease of circuit understanding conventional current flow assumes that the current flows from the positive to the negative terminal. Generally in circuit diagrams the flow of current through the circuit usually has an arrow associated with the symbol, I, or lowercase i to indicate the actual direction of the current flow. However, this arrow usually indicates the direction of conventional current flow and not necessarily the direction of the actual flow. Conventional Current Flow Conventionally this is the flow of positive charge around a circuit. The diagram at the left shows the movement of the positive charge (holes) which flows from the positive terminal of the battery, through the circuit and returns to the negative terminal of the battery. This was the convention chosen during the discovery of electricity in which the direction of electric current was thought to flow in a circuit. In circuit diagrams, the arrows shown on symbols for components such as diodes and transistors point in the direction of conventional current flow. Conventional Current Flow is the opposite in direction to the flow of electrons. Electron Flow The flow of electrons around the circuit is opposite to the direction of the conventional current flow. The current flowing in a circuit is composed of electrons that flow from the negative pole of the battery (the cathode) and return to the positive pole

(the anode). This is because the charge on an electron is negative by definition and so is attracted to the positive terminal. The flow of electrons is called Electron Current Flow. Therefore, electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive. Both conventional current flow and electron flow are used by many textbooks. In fact, it makes no difference which way the current is flowing around the circuit as long as the direction is used consistently. The direction of current flow does not affect what the current does within the circuit. Generally it is much easier to understand the conventional current flow - positive to negative. In electronic circuits, a current source is a circuit element that provides a specified amount of current for example, 1A, 5A 10 Amps etc, with the circuit symbol for a constant current source given as a circle with an arrow inside indicating its direction. Current is measured in Amps and an amp or ampere is defined as the number of electrons or charge (Q in Coulombs) passing a certain point in the circuit in one second, (t in Seconds). Current is generally expressed in Amps with prefixes used to denote micro amps (A = 10-6A) or milli amps (mA = 10-3A). Electrical current can be either positive or negative. Current that flows in a single direction is called Direct Current, or D.C. and current that alternates back and forth through the circuit is known as Alternating Current, or A.C.. Whether AC or DC current only flows through a circuit when a voltage source is connected to it with its "flow" being limited to both the resistance of the circuit and the voltage source pushing it. Also, as AC currents (and voltages) are periodic and vary with time the "effective" or "RMS", (Root Mean Squared) value given as Irms produces the same average power loss equivalent to a DC current Iaverage . Current sources are the opposite to voltage sources in that they like short or closed circuit conditions but hate open circuit conditions as no current will flow. Using the tank of water relationship, current is the equivalent of the flow of water through the pipe with the flow being the same throughout the pipe. The faster the flow of water the greater the current. Any current source whether DC or AC likes a short or semi-short circuit condition but hates any open circuit condition as this prevents it from flowing. The Resistance of a circuit is its ability to resist or prevent the flow of current (electron flow) through it making it necessary to apply a bigger voltage to the circuit to cause the current to flow again. Resistance is measured in Ohms, Greek symbol ( , Omega ) with prefixes used to denote Kiloohms (k = 103) and Mega-ohms (M = 106). Resistance cannot be negative only positive. Resistor Symbols

The amount of resistance determines whether the circuit is a "good conductor" - low resistance, or a "bad conductor" - high resistance. Low resistance, for example 1 or less implies that the circuit is a good conductor made from materials such as copper, aluminium or carbon while a high resistance, 1M or more implies the circuit is a bad conductor made from insulating materials such as glass, porcelain or plastic. A "semiconductor" on the other hand such as silicon or germanium, is a material whose resistance is half way between that of a good conductor and a good insulator. Semiconductors are used to make Diodes and Transistors etc. Again, using the water relationship, resistance is the diameter or the length of the pipe the water flows through. The smaller the diameter of the pipe the larger the resistance to the flow of water, and therefore the larger the resistance. However, it is not just the diameter or the cross-sectional area of the wire that affects the resistance of the material to the flow of current. Also a factor is the length of the wire, the longer the wire the higher the resistance, the shorter the wire the lower the resistance. Another factor is the kind of material used as a wire, conductors have lower resistance than the insulators. Temperature can also affect the resistance. The higher the temperature the higher the resistance the lower the temperature the lower the resistance. Unit of Quantity Symbol Abbreviation Measure Voltage V or E Volt V Current I Amperes A Resistance R Ohms B. Ohms Law Ohms Law states that current is proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance. Ohm's Law shows the relationship between the voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R). It can be written in three ways: V=I R I V = R R = V I

or

or

where :

V = voltage in volts (V)

or :

V = voltage in volts (V) I = current in milliamps

I = current in amps (A) R = resistance in ohms ( )

(mA) R = resistance in kilohms (k )

For most electronic circuits the amp is too large and the ohm is too small, so we often measure current in milliamps (mA) and resistance in kilohms (k ). 1 mA = 0.001 A and 1 k = 1000 . The Ohm's Law equations work if you use V, A and , or if you use V, mA and k . You must not mix these sets of units in the equations so you may need to convert between mA and A or k and . C. Series and Parallel Connection Components of an electrical circuit or electronic circuit can be connected in many different ways. The two simplest of these are called series and parallel and occur very frequently. Components connected in series are connected along a single path, so the same current flows through all of the components. Components connected in parallel are connected so the same voltage is applied to each component. A circuit composed solely of components connected in series is known as a series circuit; likewise, one connected completely in parallel is known as a parallel circuit. In a series circuit , the current through each of the components is the same, and the voltage across the components is the sum of the voltages across each component. In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each of the components is the same, and the total current is the sum of the currents through each component. D. Ammeter and Voltmeter In terms of external connections Ammeter (used to measure current) is connected in series of the circuit (through which the current flow need to be measured) and voltmeter (used to measure voltage) is connected in parallel to points in circuit (across which voltage needs to be measured). E. Circuit Symbols Refer to your copies F. Effects of Electrical Current on Human Body Refer to your copies G. Household Electrical Consumption Refer to your copies CHAPTER VI. MAGNETISM A. History of Magnetism 600 BC - Lodestone The magnetic properties of natural ferric ferrite (Fe3O4) stones (lodestones) were described by Greek philosophers.

1600 - Static Electricity (De Magnete) In the 16th century, William Gilbert(1544-1603), the Court Physician to Queen Elizabeth I, Gilbert also studied magnetism and in 1600 wrote "De magnete" which gave the first rational explanation to the mysterious ability of the compass needle to point north-south: the Earth itself was magnetic. "De Magnete" opened the era of modern physics and astronomy and started a century marked by the great achievements of Galileo, Kepler, Newton and others. Gilbert recorded three ways to magnetize a steel needle: by touch with a loadstone; by cold drawing in a North-South direction; and by exposure for a long time to the Earth's magnetic field while in a North-South orientation. 1730 - Compound Magnet Servigton Savery produces the first compound magnet by binding together a number of artificial magnets with a common pole piece at each end. 1740 - First Commercial Magnet Gowen Knight produces the first artificial magnets for sale to scientific investigators and terrestrial navigators. 1750 - First Book on Magnet Manufacture John Mitchell publishes the first book on making steel magnets. 1820 - Electromagnetism, Current In 1820, a physicist Hans Christian Oersted, learned that a current flowing through a wire would move a compass needle placed beside it. This showed that an electric current produced a magnetic field. Andre Marie Ampere, a French mathematician who devoted himself to the study of electricity and magnetism, was the first to explain the electro-dynamic theory. He showed that two parallel wires, carrying current, attracted each other if the currents flowed in the same direction and opposed each other if the currents flowed in opposite directions. He formulated in mathematical terms, the laws that govern the interaction of currents with magnetic fields in a circuit and as a result of this the unit of electric current, the amp, was derived from his name. An electric charge in motion is called electric current. The strength of a current is the amount of charge passing a given point per second, or I = Q/t, where Q coulombs of charge passing in t seconds. The unit for measuring current is the ampere or amp, where 1 amp = 1 coulomb/sec. Because it is the source of magnetism as well, current is the link between electricity and magnetism. 1855 - Electromagnetic Induction Michael Faraday (1791-1867) an Englishman, made one of the most significant discoveries in the history of electricity: Electromagnetic induction. His pioneering work dealt with how electric currents work. Many inventions would come from his experiments, but they would come fifty to one hundred years later. Failures never discouraged Faraday. He would say; "the failures are just as important as the successes." He felt failures also teach. The farad, the unit of capacitance is named in the honor of Michael Faraday. Faraday was greatly interested in the invention of the electromagnet, but his brilliant mind took earlier experiments still further. If electricity could produce magnetism, why couldn't magnetism produce electricity. In 1831, Faraday found the solution. Electricity could be produced through magnetism by motion. He discovered that when a magnet was moved inside a coil of copper wire, a tiny electric current flows through the wire. H.C. Oersted, in

1820, demonstrated that electric currents produce a magnetic field. Faraday noted this and in 1821, he experimented on the theory that, if electric currents in a wire can produce magnetic fields, then magnetic fields should produce electricity. By 1831, he was able to prove this and through his experiment, was able to explain, that these magnetic fields were lines of force. These lines of force would cause a current to flow in a coil of wire, when the coil is rotated between the poles of a magnet. This action then shows that the coils of wire being cut by lines of magnetic force, in some strange way, produces electricity. These experiments, convincingly demonstrated the discovery of electromagnetic induction in the production of electric current, by a change in magnetic intensity. 1860: James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), a Scottish physicist and mathematician, puts the theory of electromagnetism on mathematical basis. 1873: Maxwell publishes "Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism" in which he summarizes and synthesizes the discoveries of Coloumb, Oersted, Ampere, Faraday, et. al. in four mathematical equations. Maxwell's Equations are used today as the basis of electromagnetic theory. Maxwell makes a prediction about the connections of magnetism and electricity leading directly to the prediction of electromagnetic waves. 1885: Heinrich Hertz shows Maxwell was correct and generates and detects electromagnetic waves. 1895: Guglielmo Marconi puts the discovery to practical use by sending messages over long distances by means of radio signals. i.e. the "Wireless". B. Magnetic Behavior and Properties Magnetism is the force of attraction or repulsion in a material. Certain materials such as iron, steel, nickel, or magnetite exhibit this force while most other materials do not. A magnet is any piece of iron, steel, or magnetite that has the property of attracting iron or steel. Magnets have two poles, called the north (N) and south (S) poles. Two magnets will be attacted by their opposite poles, and each will repel the like pole of the other magnet. Magnets can be of the following form, U magnets, horseshoe magnets, bar magnets, and circular magnets. Magnets which are controlled by electricity are known as electromagnets. Magnetite, also known as lodestone, is a naturally occurring rock that is a magnet. This natural magnet was first discovered in a region known as Magnesia, Greece and was named after the area in which it was discovered. Magnetism may be naturally present in a material or the material may be artificially magnetized by various methods. Magnets may be permanent or temporary. After being magnetized, a permanent magnet will retain the properties of magnetism indefinitely. A temporary magnet is a magnet made of soft iron, that is usually easy to magnetize; however, temporary magnets lose most of their magnetic properties when the magnetizing cause is discontinued. Permanent magnets are usually more difficult to magnetize, but they remain magnetized. Materials which can be magnetized are called ferromagnetic materials. C. Magnetic Domain A magnetic domain is region in which the magnetic fields of atoms are grouped together and aligned. In the experiment below, the magnetic domains

are indicated by the arrows in the metal material. You can think of magnetic domains as miniature magnets within a material. In an unmagnetized object, like the initial piece of metal in our experiment, all the magnetic domains are pointing in different directions. But, when the metal became magnetized, which is what happens when it is rubbed with a strong magnet, all like magnetic poles lined up and pointed in the same direction. The metal became a magnet. It would quickly become unmagnetized when its magnetic domains returned to a random order. The metal in our experiment is a soft ferromagnetic material, which means that it is easily magnetized but may not retain its magnetism very long. D. Magnetic Lines of Force (Flux) and Field The lines that we have mapped out around the magnet, called the magnetic lines of force (Flux), indicate the region in which the force of the magnet can be detected. This region is called the magnetic field. If an iron object is near a magnet, but is not within the magnetic field, the object will not be attracted to the magnet. When the object enters the magnetic field, the force of the magnet acts, and the object is attracted. The pattern of these lines of force tells us something about the characteristics of the forces caused by the magnet. The magnetic lines of force, or flux, leave the North Pole and enter the South Pole. E. Ferromagnetic Materials A permanent magnet is more difficult to magnetize but will retain the properties of magnetism indefinitely. A temporary magnet is generally made of soft iron and will remain magnetized only as long as the magnetizing cause is present. From previous experiments you saw how the difference in magnetized and unmagnetized material depends on the motion and arrangement of the material's molecules. Bringing a ferromagnetic object, like a nail, into the magnetic field of a strong magnet can cause the molecules of the iron material to line up and the nail to become a temporary magnet. As long as it is in the magnetic field of the bar magnet, the nail acts like a magnet and picks up other ferromagnetic materials. In this case it is the paper clip. Then, the paper clip becomes a magnet and can pick up another paper clip, and so forth. F. Electromagnets In this experiment you used electricity to make a temporary magnet, called an electromagnet. As long as the electric current was on, the iron crane was a magnet and could pick up ferromagnetic objects. When the electricity was turned off, the magnetizing cause was no longer present, so the object was not attracted to the iron crane. So, let's see how electricity is able to make a magnet. G. Electricity and Magnetism Electromagnetism is one of the four fundamental interactions of nature. The other three are the strong interaction, the weak interaction and gravitation. Electromagnetism is the force that causes the interaction between electrically charged particles; the areas in which this happens are called electromagnetic fields.

Electromagnetism is responsible for practically all the phenomena encountered in daily life, with the exception of gravity. Ordinary matter takes its form as a result of intermolecular forces between individual molecules in matter. Electromagnetism is also the force which holds electrons and protons together inside atoms, which are the building blocks of molecules. Electromagnetism manifests as both electric fields and magnetic fields. Both fields are simply different aspects of electromagnetism, and hence are intrinsically related. Thus, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field; conversely a changing magnetic field generates an electric field. This effect is called electromagnetic induction, and is the basis of operation for electrical generators, induction motors, and transformers. Electric fields are the cause of several common phenomena, such as electric potential (such as the voltage of a battery) and electric current (such as the flow of electricity through a flashlight). Magnetic fields are the cause of the force associated with magnets.