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BASIC GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCH: An Introductory Approach for All

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 BASIC GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCH

An Introductory Approach for All Disciplines

Syed Muhammad Sajjad Kabir

Assistant Professor
Department of Psychology
Jagannath University, Dhaka - 1100

Ex-Chairman, Department of Psychology, University of Chittagong, Chittagong - 4331

Publisher : Mohammad Javed Rahim
Book Zone Publication
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Chawkbazar-4203, Chittagong.
Mobile : 01711-169897, 01558-047391
[email protected]

Copyright : Md. Javed Rahim (Book Zone Publication)

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Contact info
Syed Muhammad Sajjad Kabir Mohammad. Javed Rahim
Assistant Professor Book Zone
Department of Psychology 29/B, (1st Floor), Gulzer Tower
Jagannath University, Chawkbazar-4203,
Dhaka-1100, Bangladesh. Chittagong, Bangladesh.
Mobile: +88 01720 534744, 01761 491036 Mobile :+88 01711 169897, 01558 047391
[email protected] [email protected]

ISBN : 978-984-33-9565-8
First Edition : July 2016
Price : 400 (Four Hundred) taka only.

Basic Guidelines for Research; by Syed Muhammad Sajjad Kabir, Published by Book Zone
Publication, First Edition: July 2016. Price: 400 Taka only.
DEDICATED TO MY BELOVED MOTHER, INAMORATA
AND HEARTEN STUDENTS
 CONTENTS
Page No.
Preface viii-ix
Acknowledgment x
Chapter - 1: Introduction to Research 1 - 23
1.1 Meaning of Research 2
1.2 Objectives /Purposes of Research 3
1.3 Scientific Base of Research 5
1.4 Criteria of A Good Research 5
1.5 Classification of Research 6
1.6 Significance of Research 10
1.7 Scope of Research 11
1.8 Steps in Conducting A Research 15
1.9 Phases of Research 16
1.10 Research Method/Technique Versus Methodology 22
Chapter - 2: Problem Formulation and Objective Determination 24 - 36
2.1 Concept of Research Problem 25
2.2 Needs to Formulate Research Problem 27
2.3 Criteria in the Selection of Research Problem 27
2.4 Sources of Research Problem 28
2.5 Stages in the Selection of Research Problem 30
2.6 Formulation of Problem Statement 32
2.7 Writing of A Research Question 33
2.8 Identification of Research Objectives 34
2.9 Operational Definition of Research Problem 35
2.10 Assumptions about the Problem 36
Chapter - 3: Literature Review 37 - 50
3.1 Concept of Literature Review 38
3.2 Purposes of Literature Review 38
3.3 Sources of Literature 39
3.4 Organization of Literature Review 41
3.5 Literature Search Engine 41
3.6 Literature Management Software 46
Chapter - 4: Formulating and Testing Hypothesis 51 - 71
4.1 Definition of Hypothesis 52
4.2 Assumption, Postulate and Hypothesis 53
4.3 Nature of Hypothesis 54
4.4 Functions/ Roles of Hypothesis 55
4.5 Importance of Hypothesis 56
 4.6 Characteristics of A Good Hypothesis 57
4.7 Origins/ Sources of Hypothesis 58
4.8 Types of Research Hypothesis 60
4.9 Uses of Hypotheses in Educational Research 62
4.10 Formulating Hypothesis 63
4.10.1 Level of Significance 63
4.10.2 Critical Region 63
4.10.3 Confidence Interval 63
4.10.4 Critical Values 63
4.10.5 Standard Deviation 63
4.10.6 Standard Error 64
4.10.7 Degree of Freedom 64
4.10.8 One-tailed and Two-tailed Tests 64
4.10.9 Directional and Non-directional Tests 65
4.11 Testing the Hypothesis 66
4.12 Statistical Errors in Hypothesis 68
4.13 Statistical Power of Research 69
4.14 Limitation of the Tests of Hypothesis 70
4.15 Criteria for Evaluating Hypothesis 70
Chapter - 5: Measurement Concept: Variable, Reliability, Validity and Norm 72 - 110
5.1 Measurement 73
5.1.1 Levels of Measurement 73
5.1.2 Scaling of Measurement: Thurstone Scaling; Likert Scaling; and 76
Guttman Scaling
5.2 Variable 85
5.2.1 Types of Variable 85
5.2.2 Mediator and Moderator Variables 89
5.2.3 Relationship among Variables 92
5.2.4 Controlling Extraneous Variables 93
5.3 Reliability 96
5.3.1 Types of Reliability 97
5.3.2 Factors Effecting the Reliability of A Research 105
5.4 Validity 105
5.4.1 Types of Validity 106
5.4.2 Factors Effecting the Validity of A Research 108
5.5 Norms 109
5.5.1 Types of Norm 110
Chapter - 6: Research Design 111 - 167
6.1 Concept of Research Design 112
6.2 Features of A Good Design 113
6.3 Need for Research Design 114
6.4 Important Concepts Related to Research Design 114
6.5 Different Types of Research Designs 117
6.5.1 Historical Research Design 118
6.5.2 Philosophical Research Design 119
6.5.3 Sequential Research Design 120
6.5.4 Case Study Design 121
6.5.5 Field Research Design 121
6.5.6 Ethnographic Research Design 122
6.5.7 Descriptive Research Design 124
6.5.8 Correlational or Prospective Research Design: Observational; Cohort; 124
Longitudinal; Cross-Sectional
6.5.9 Casual Research Design 130
6.5.10 Experimental Research Design: True Experimental; Double Blind; Independent 131
Measures Design; Repeated Measures Design; Matched Pairs Design
6.5.11 Two Matched Groups Design 141
6.5.12 Between Subjects Design 143
6.5.13 Factorial Design 144
6.5.14 Semi-Experimental Research Design: Quasi-Experimental; Identical Twins 149
Study
6.5.15 Latin Square Design 157
6.5.16 Exploratory Research Design 158
6.5.17 Reviewing Other Research: Literature Review; Systematic Reviews; Meta 159
Analysis
6.5.18 Mixed-Methods Research Design 162
6.6 Others Research Designs: Solomon Four Group Design; Multiple – Baseline 163
Design; A-B-A and A-B-A-B Designs; Bayesian Probability; Changing – Criterion Design

Chapter - 7: Sample and Sampling Designs 168 - 180

7.1 Concept of Sampling: Population, Sample, Sampling, Sampling Unit, 169
Sampling Frame, Sampling Survey, Statistic, Parameter, Target
Population, Sampled Population, Sampling With and Without
Replacement, Sample Design
7.2 Purpose of Sampling 170
7.3 Stages of Sampling Process 170
7.4 Types of Sampling 171
7.4.1 Probability Sampling 171
7.4.2 Non-probability Sampling 173
7.5 Sampling Error and Survey Bias 176
7.6 Determination of Sample Size 178
Chapter - 8: Preparing Questionnaire 181 - 200
8.1 Questionnaire in Research Methodology 182
8.2 Questionnaire and Schedule 182
8.3 Qualities of A Good Questionnaire 184
8.4 Types of Questions 186
8.5 Development of A Questionnaire 191
8.6 Preparing and Administering Questionnaire 196
8.7 Questionnaire Wording 197
Chapter - 9: Methods of Data Collection 201 - 275
9.1 Concept of Data Collection 202
9.2 Types of Data 202
9.3 Issues to be Considered for Data Collection 206
9.4 Methods of Primary Data Collection 208
9.4.1 Questionnaire Method 208
9.4.2 Interviews Method 211
9.4.3 Focus Group Discussions (FGD) 221
9.4.4 Participatory Rural Appraisal/Assessment (PRA) 226
9.4.5 Rapid Rural Appraisal/Assessment (RRA) 235
9.4.6 Observation Method 240
9.4.7 Survey Method 244
9.4.8 Case Study Method 253
9.4.9 Diaries Method 258
9.4.10 Principal Component Analysis (PCA) 262
9.4.11 Activity Sampling Technique 263
9.4.12 Memo Motion Study 265
9.4.13 Process Analysis 265
9.4.14 Link Analysis 268
9.4.15 Time and Motion Study 269
9.4.16 Experimental Method 271
9.4.17 Statistical Method 273
9.5 Methods of Secondary Data Collection 273
9.6 Methods of Legal Research 274
Chapter - 10: Analysis and Interpretation of Data 276 - 467
10.1 Analysis of Data 277
10.1.1 Data Analysis Basics: Editing, Coding, Data Entry, Data Mining 277
10.1.2 Data Analytical Procedure: Univariate, Bivariate, Tri-variate, 285
Multivariate
10.1.3 SWOT Analysis 290
10.2 Basic Statistics 294
10.2.1 Definition, Nature, Scope, Uses 294
10.2.2 Classification of Statistics 298
10.2.3 Abuses of Statistics 300
10.2.4 Probability 304
10.2.5 Moments: Skewness, Kurtosis 321
10.2.6 Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, Mode 324
10.2.7 Measures of Dispersion or Variation: Range, Quartile Deviation 333
(QD), Mean Deviation (MD), Variance, Standard Deviation (SD),
Relative Measures of Standard Deviation/Variation, Percentiles,
Deciles, Quartiles
10.2.8 Major Demographic Indicators: Sex Ratio, Crude Birth Rate, 348
Crude Death Rate, Infant Mortality Rate, Population Growth Rate,
Doubling Time, Total Fertility Rate
10.2.9 Statistical Relationship: Correlation, Regression 350
10.3 Hypothesis Testing 389
10.3.1 Parametric Test 389
10.3.2 Non-parametric Test 390
10.3.3 Parametric Test Vs. Non-parametric Test 391
10.4 Selecting Statistical Test 392
10.4.1 z-Test 394
10.4.2 t-Test 397
10.4.3 F-Test 406
10.4.4 ANOVA 410
10.4.5 Factor Analysis 427
10.4.6 ROC Curve Analysis 428
10.4.7 Meta Analysis 429
10.4.8 Chi-square (χ2) Test 430
10.4.9 Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel Test 440
10.4.10 McNemar’s Test 440
10.4.11 Mann Whitney U-Test 444
10.4.12 Sign Test 447
10.4.13 Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test 450
10.4.14 Kruskal-Wallis Test 453
10.4.15 Runs Test 456
10.4.16 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test 456
10.4.17 Cohen’s Kappa Test 457
10.4.18 Friedman Test 458
10.5 Interpretation of Data 458
10.6 Why Interpretation 459
10.7 Techniques of Interpretation 459
10.8 Doctrinal Legal Research 460
10.8.1 General Approach to Legal Research 460
10.8.2 Doing the Legal Research 462
Chapter - 11: Research Proposal 468 - 488
11.1 Define Research Proposal 469
11.2 Necessity to Write A Research Proposals 469
11.3 Types of Research Proposal 469
11.4 Techniques of Preparing Research Proposal 470
11.5 Considerations for Good Research Proposals 473
11.6 Assessment of Research Proposal 475
11.7 Techniques for Proposal Defense 478
11.8 Criteria for A Good Grant Proposal 479
11.9 Samples of Proposal 482
Chapter - 12: Data Presentation: Table and Figure Design 489 - 499
12.1 Definition of Tabulation 490
12.2 Purpose of the Tabulation 490
12.3 Steps in Tabulation 490
12.4 Basic Structure of Table 493
12.5 Consideration in Construction of a Table 494
12.6 Deciding to Use Figure 495
12.7 Types of Figure 496
12.8 Preparation of Figure 497
12.9 Creating Graphs 498
12.10 Figure Legends and Captions 498
12.11 Figure Checklist 499
Chapter - 13: Writing Research Report 500 - 518
13.1 Definition of Research Report 501
13.2 Types of Report 501
13.3 Components of a Research Report 502
13.4 Common Sections of a Research Report 508
13.5 APA Style Essentials 509
13.6 Citing and Referencing Sources 514
13.7 Footnotes 516
13.8 Suggestions for Writing Report 516
Chapter - 14: Ethical Approaches in Research 519 - 529
14.1 Define Research Ethics 520
14.2 Importance of Research Ethics 520
14.3 General Ethical Issues 520
14.4 Ethical Decision Making in Research 522
14.5 Ethical Standards for Human Research 523
14.6 Ethical Conduct in Care and Use of Animals 525
Chapter - 15: Evaluation of Development Project 530 - 535
15.1 Concept of Evaluation 531
15.2 Necessity of Evaluation 531
15.3 Formative and Summative Evaluation 531
15.4 Methods of Evaluation 531
15.5 Steps in Evaluation 533

Bibliography 536 - 545

Subject Index 546 - 557
 PREFACE
All educators including students, teachers, researchers, practitioners or consumers of research
from any disciplines even doctors, engineers or all other professionals can be benefited from this
book. I have prepared this book from my graduate & post graduate lecture notes, ten years of
teaching experiences in this fields, and different training programs (e.g. Research Methodology for
Researcher, BARD, Comilla; Research Methodology, Center for Advanced Research, University of
Dhaka; Research Concepts and Issues, ISS, Hague, Netherlands & North South University etc.). It
will provide the readers with a basic framework for understanding and evaluating research studies.
It will also provide knowledge of the various types of research designs used in research and the
procedures for conducting research studies. This book will provide an opportunity for readers to
establish or advance their understanding of research through critical exploration of research
language, ethics, and approaches. The book introduces the language of research, ethical principles
and challenges, and the elements of the research process within quantitative, qualitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Readers will use these theoretical underpinnings to begin to critically review
literature relevant to their field or interests and determine how research findings are useful in
informing their understanding of their environment.
This book has been written for beginners who are currently involved in research and are interested
to apply qualitative and quantitative methods in their area of work. Throughout the book, basic
philosophy of applying qualitative and quantitative perspectives along with pertinent issues of
qualitative and quantitative research methods and applicability of various instruments of gathering
qualitative and quantitative data in systematic, scientific and ethical ways are discussed. Upon
completion of this book, readers are expected to obtain a basic understanding of qualitative and
quantitative research methods by realizing its importance and relevance to the field of research. It
is anticipated that readers would learn to prepare a research concept note by using research
methods.

This book introduces students to a number of research methods useful for academic and
professional investigations of information practices, texts and technologies. By examining the
applications, strengths and major criticisms of methodologies drawn from both the qualitative and
quantitative traditions, this book permits an understanding of the various decisions and steps
involved in crafting (and executing) a research methodology, as well as a critically informed
assessment of published research. The book describes an overview of the different approaches,
considerations and challenges involved in research. In addition to reviewing core human research
methods such as interviews, observations, surveys and experiments, it will explore methods used in
critical analysis of texts and technologies. It will also discuss mixed method approaches, case
studies, participatory and user-centered research, as well as research involving minors. While this
book also touches upon statistics and their importance, it is not required a comprehensive
knowledge of the subject. It is concluded with a section on experiment results and the ways in
which experimental design and statistics can be used to ensure certain results. After completion of
this book, reader should understand why research methodology is important in scientific research,
be comfortable reading method and results sections of journal articles, and understand a range of
different research methods.
After completion of the book, the readers should be able to…
 Understand some basic concepts of research and its methodologies;
 Identify appropriate research topics;
 Select and define appropriate research problem and parameters;
 Effectively conduct literature review;
 Identify the types of methods best suited for investigating different types of problems and
questions;
 Select sampling methods and how representative samples are obtained;
 Identify the different research designs and their appropriate application to hypothesis testing;
 Describe quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods approaches to research;
 Explain the strengths and limitations of research designs used in different disciplines;
 Describe the principle of statistical significance;
 Effectively summarize and present data;
 Organize and conduct research in a more appropriate manner;
 Design a research proposal;
 Write a research report and thesis;
 Be aware of the ethical principles of research, ethical challenges and approval processes.

The book focuses on the logic, principles and practices of modern science and how it is applied to
understanding the nature of reality. Successful completion of this book will prepare the reader for
graduate work and advanced experimental concepts and also enable at a minimum to become an
informed consumer of science.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I am grateful to a number of people who have helped me in the writing of this book. I am indebted
to everyone concerned to this book from the beginning to the end. I would like to give my heartfelt
thanks to them. At first I would like to show my gratitude to the almighty Allah who has been with
me all the way and given me the scope to complete the book. Now I am immensely thankful to
Professor Dr. Mohammad Saleh Jahur, Department of Finance; Professor Dr. Mohammad Mosharraf
Hossain, Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences; Mr. Md. Moniruzzaman Bhuiyan,
Associate Professor, Department of Statistics; Dr. Imranul Hoque, Associate Professor, Dept of
Microbiology; Dr. Alamgir, Associate Professor, Department of Soil Science; and Dr. Md. Atiar
Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Chittagong
University in providing valuable comments on its contents and for everything they have done. I
would not have been able to complete the task without their help. I also express my whole hearted
indebtedness and gratitude to my respected colleagues from different departments of Chittagong
University namely, Professor Dr. Abdullah Al Faruque, Department of Law; Professor Sagib Kumar
Ghosh, Department of Marketing; Professor Dr. Mohammad Al-Forkan; Department of Genetic
Engineering and Biotechnology; Dr. Nasrin Chowdhury, Associate Professor; Dr. Shoffikul Islam,
Associate Professor; Md. Sher Mahmud, Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Science; Mr. A. H.
M. Rakibul Mawla, Associate Professor, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science; Mr.
Md. Jomalul Akbar Chowdhury, Associate Professor, Department of History; Dr. Alak Paul,
Associate Professor; Kazi Md. Barkat Ali, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography and
Environmental Studies; Mr. Golam Hossain Habib, Assistant Professor, Department of English; Mr.
N M Sajjadul Haque, Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology and Mr. Md. Aftab Uddin
(Jewel), Assistant Professor, Department of Management for their sincere help, constructive
suggestions, ideas, useful guidance and advice.
I would like to thank and express my gratitude to Professor Dr. Shamsuddin Elias, Department of
Psychology, National University; Professor Dr. Muhammad Kamal Uddin, Department of Psychology,
Dhaka University; Professor Dr. Kazi Saifuddin; Dr. Asoke Kumar Saha; Dr. Noor Muhammad,
Department of Psychology, Jagannath University and Mr. Syed Tanveer Rahman, Department of
Psychology, Dhaka University for their inspiration and constant support. I was greatly inspired by
my department colleagues from Chittagong University; Jagannath University; Dhaka University;
Rajshahi University and also Jahangirnagar University. I express my thanks to them for their help,
encouragement and cooperation during different stages of this book. For completion of the book, I
had to seek help and cooperation from many persons, authorities, students and teachers of private
and public universities. I am grateful to all of them. My students have taught me how to teach
research. This book is also an outcome of the feedback I have received from them over the years. I
thankfully acknowledge their contribution to this book. Specially I would like to thank one of my
favorite student Mr. Mohammad Reduanul Hoque for his unconditional help. I grateful acknowledge
the constant interest and inspiration of Md. Javed Rahim, proprietor of Book Zone and Omar Boi
Ghar publisher. I would like to take this opportunity to convey my immense love and gratitude to my
wife, A K M Shadika Jahan Shathi (Lecturer, National University, Gazipur) for her endless love,
encouragement, and inspiration without which I would find everything incomplete and barren. I have
tried my level best to make the book an essential part for all types of research endeavor. I
sincerely apology for any error or mistake that may remain in this book; I am responsible for these.
I will warmly accept any suggestion, comment or even correction from my beloved readers.
SMS Kabir

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