RSR RUNGTA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,

BHILAI

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Subject Notes Subject Name: CN

Course/Semester: BTech 5th

UNIT-1

Switching techniques

In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The
switching technique will decide the best route for data transmission.

Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one

communication.

Classification Of Switching Techniques

Circuit Switching

o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path

between sender and receiver.

o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then

the dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.

o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone

works.

o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes

place.

o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data,
voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends
back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path.
After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.

o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice

transmission.

o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

o Circuit establishment

o Data transfer

o Circuit Disconnect
Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Space Division Switches:

o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single

transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate
set of crosspoints.

o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A

crossbar switch is a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be
enabled or disabled by a control unit.

o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example,

Xilinx crossbar switch using FPGAs.

o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking
switches.

Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:

o Crossbar Switch

o Multistage Switch

Crossbar Switch

The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The
crossbar switch has n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.
Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:

The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased.

Therefore, it becomes very expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is to
use a multistage switch.

Multistage Switch

o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller
units and then interconnecting them.

o It reduces the number of crosspoints.

o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.

Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is

dedicated.

o It has fixed bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of
data transmission.

o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during

which no data can be transmitted.

o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is

required for each connection.

o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is

transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
 o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be
transferred even if the channel is free.

Message Switching

o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is

transferred as a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at
which it is stored and forwarded.

o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated

path between the sender and receiver.

o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching

provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed through the
intermediate nodes based on the information available in the message.

o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide
the most efficient routes.

o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the
next node. This type of network is known as store and forward network.

o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve
the efficiency of using available bandwidth.

o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored

in the nodes.

o Message priority can be used to manage the network.

o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied.
Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable

them to store the messages until the message is forwarded.

o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility
provided by the message switching technique.

Packet Switching

o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent

in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.

o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are
given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.

o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source

address, destination address and sequence number.
 o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.

o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend
the message.

o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment

message will be sent.

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram,

is considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information
about the destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet
to the correct destination.

o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.

o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.

o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.

 o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.

o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established

before the messages are sent.

o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection
between sender and receiver.

o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:

o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1
and 2 are the nodes.

o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection
between the sender and receiver.

o When a route is established, data will be transferred.

o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver

that the message has been received.
 o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the
termination.

Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach

Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach

Node takes routing decisions to Node does not take any routing decision.
forward the packets.

Congestion cannot occur as all the Congestion can occur when the node is busy, and
packets travel in different directions. it does not allow other packets to pass through.

It is more flexible as all the packets are It is not very flexible.

treated as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not

require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized
to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is
a cost-effective technique.

o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures
that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.

o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any

established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same
communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available
bandwidth very efficiently.
Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications

that require low delay and high-quality services.

o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and
requires high implementation cost.

o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of

lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are
nor recovered.

What is Multiplexing?

Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams
over a single medium. The process of combining the data streams is known as
multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.

Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that

combines n input lines to generate a single output line. Multiplexing follows many-
to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line.

Demultiplexing is achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX)

available at the receiving end. DEMUX separates a signal into its component
signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that demultiplexing
follows the one-to-many approach.

Why Multiplexing?

o The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to receiver.
The medium can only have one signal at a time.

o If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be
divided in such a way that each signal is given some portion of the available
 bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of medium
is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.

o When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of

collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.

o Transmission services are very expensive.

History of Multiplexing

o Multiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications in which

several telephone calls are carried through a single wire.

o Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is now widely

used in communication.

o George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier multiplexing in

1910.

Concept of Multiplexing

o The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer
combines the signals to form a composite signal.
 o The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer
separates a signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective
destinations.

Advantages of Multiplexing:

o More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.

o The bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Multiplexing Techniques

Multiplexing techniques can be classified as:

Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)

o It is an analog technique.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available
bandwidth of a single transmission medium is subdivided into several
channels.

o In the above diagram, a single transmission medium is subdivided into

several frequency channels, and each frequency channel is given to different
devices. Device 1 has a frequency channel of range from 1 to 5.

o The input signals are translated into frequency bands by using modulation
techniques, and they are combined by a multiplexer to form a composite
signal.

o The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into
different frequency channels and allocate them to different devices.

o Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into
frequency bands and then combined to form a composite signal.

o The carriers which are used for modulating the signals are known as sub-
carriers. They are represented as f1,f2..fn.

o FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.

Advantages Of FDM:

o FDM is used for analog signals.

o FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.

o A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.

o It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages Of FDM:

o FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.

o It suffers the problem of crosstalk.

o A Large number of modulators are required.

o It requires a high bandwidth channel.

Applications Of FDM:

o FDM is commonly used in TV networks.

 o It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different
frequencies, and they are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The
multiplexed signal is transmitted in the air.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

o Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical

signals are transmitted through the fibre optic cable.

o WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.

o It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.

o It is an analog multiplexing technique.

o Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of
light with the help of multiplexer.

o At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to

their respective destinations.

o Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.

 o Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical
signals to form a composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted
through a fibre optical cable.

o Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.

Time Division Multiplexing

o It is a digital technique.

o In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the

same time with different frequency, but in case of Time Division
Multiplexing technique, all signals operate at the same frequency with
different time.

o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the

channel is distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is
allocated with different time interval known as a Time slot at which data is
to be transmitted by the sender.

o A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.

o In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted

simultaneously rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
 o In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a
cycle of time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated
to each user.

o It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to
multiplex digital signals.

There are two types of TDM:

o Synchronous TDM

o Asynchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM

o A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to

every device.

o In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of

the fact that the device contains the data or not.

o If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.

o In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are
organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for a
particular time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.

o The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN

multiplexing, and SONET multiplexing.

o If there are n devices, then there are n slots.

Concept Of Synchronous TDM

In the above figure, the Synchronous TDM technique is implemented. Each device
is allocated with some time slot. The time slots are transmitted irrespective of
whether the sender has data to send or not.

Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:

o The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty slots are also
transmitted which is having no data. In the above figure, the first frame is
completely filled, but in the last two frames, some slots are empty.
Therefore, we can say that the capacity of the channel is not utilized
efficiently.
 o The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than the total speed
of the input lines. An alternative approach to the Synchronous TDM is
Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing.

Asynchronous TDM

o An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.

o An asynchronous TDM is a technique in which time slots are not fixed as in

the case of Synchronous TDM. Time slots are allocated to only those
devices which have the data to send. Therefore, we can say that
Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor transmits only the data from
active workstations.

o An asynchronous TDM technique dynamically allocates the time slots to the

devices.

o In Asynchronous TDM, total speed of the input lines can be greater than the
capacity of the channel.

o Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams

and creates a frame that contains only data with no empty slots.

o In Asynchronous TDM, each slot contains an address part that identifies the
source of the data.
 o The difference between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is that
many slots in Synchronous TDM are unutilized, but in Asynchronous TDM,
slots are fully utilized. This leads to the smaller transmission time and
efficient utilization of the capacity of the channel.

o In Synchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are n time
slots. In Asynchronous TDM, if there are n sending devices, then there are m
time slots where m is less than n (m<n).

o The number of slots in a frame depends on the statistical analysis of the

number of input lines.

Concept Of Asynchronous TDM

In the above diagram, there are 4 devices, but only two devices are sending the
data, i.e., A and C. Therefore, the data of A and C are only transmitted through the
transmission line.

Frame of above diagram can be represented as:

The above figure shows that the data part contains the address to determine the
source of the data.

Demultiplexing –
Delivering received segments at the receiver side to the correct app layer
processes is called demultiplexing.

Multiplexing

Multiplexing is the process of collecting the data from multiple application

processes of the sender, enveloping that data with headers and sending them as a
whole to the intended receiver.

 In Multiplexing at the Transport Layer, the data is collected from various

application processes. These segments contain the source port number,
destination port number, header files, and data.
 These segments are passed to the Network Layer which adds the source and
destination IP address to get the datagram.

Demultiplexing

Delivering the received segments at the receiver side to the correct app layer
processes is called demultiplexing.
  The destination host receives the IP datagrams; each datagram has a source
IP address and a destination IP address.
 Each datagram carries 1 transport layer segment.
 Each segment has the source and destination port number.
 The destination host uses the IP addresses and port numbers to direct the
segment to the appropriate socket.

Multiplexing and demultiplexing are just concepts that describe the process of the
transmission of data generated by different applications simultaneously. When the
data arrives at the Transport layer, each data segment is independently processed
and sent to its appropriate application in the destination machine.
The main objective of multiplexing and demultiplexing is to allow us to use a
multitude of applications simultaneously.

 The above figure shows that the source computer is using Google, Outlook,
and Chat applications at the same time.
 All the data is forwarded to a destination computer.
 Each application has a segment put on a wire to be transmitted. It signifies
that all applications are running simultaneously.
 Without multiplexing/demultiplexing exists, a user can use only one
application at a time because only the segments of that application are put
on the wire and transmitted. For clarification, see the figure below −
In the above figure, the Application layer has generated data, and then passed it
down to the Transport layer to be segmented.

 After segmenting the data, port numbers are given to each segment to be
ready for transmission.
 Then the segments are put on a wire to travel across the network to the
destination. This process is called "multiplexing".
 When the transmitted segments reach the Transport layer of the destination,
they are automatically sent up to their appropriate applications. This
process is called "demultiplexing".

OSI Model
 o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application
in another computer.

o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.

o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural
model for the inter-computer communications.

o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks.
Each layer is assigned a particular task.

o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be

performed independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

 o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.

o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related
issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer
is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact
with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above
another layer.

o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The
data link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and
software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is
closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for
placing the information on the physical medium.

7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven
layers are given below:

1. Physical Layer

2. Data-Link Layer

3. Network Layer

4. Transport Layer

5. Session Layer

6. Presentation Layer

7. Application Layer
1) Physical layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits
from one node to another node.

o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.

o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.

 o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.

o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex,

half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.

o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.

o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.

2) Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.

 o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.

o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that

resides on a local network.

o It contains two sub-layers:

o Logical Link Control Layer

o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network

layer of the receiver that is receiving.

o It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the

header.

o It also provides flow control.

o Media Access Control Layer

o A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link

Control layer and the network's physical layer.

o It is used for transferring the packets over the network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to
the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware
destination and source address.
 o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
address mentioned in the header.

o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer.
It is the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both
the sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station
such as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving
station, with lower processing speed.

o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC

(Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer
which is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If
any error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for
the retransmission of the corrupted frames.

o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to
determine which device has control over the link at a given time.

3) Network Layer
 o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices
on the network.

o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based
on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.

o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.

o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.

o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the

network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
 o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.

o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it

determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.

o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer
and converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is
achieved by internet protocol (IP).

4) Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the
order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.

o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data

completely.
 o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.

o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-

point connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over

the internet.

o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.

o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol
divides the data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment
travels over the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in
different orders at the destination. The transmission control protocol
reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.

o User Datagram Protocol

o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.

o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not

send any acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender
does not wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a
protocol unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously
due to this reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not
only from one computer to another computer but also from one process to
another process. The transport layer adds the header that contains the
address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility
of the network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another
computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the
message to the correct process.

o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the

message from the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments,
and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that uniquely
identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the destination,
then the transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence
numbers.

o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-

oriented service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats
each segment as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes
to reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the
packets. In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single
route.

o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
 o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control.
Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The
sender transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without
any error.

5) Session Layer

o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.

o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the

interaction between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog
between two processes or we can say that it allows the communication
between two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
 o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting
the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission
of data, then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This
process is known as Synchronization and recovery.

6) Presentation Layer

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of

the information exchanged between the two systems.

o It acts as a data translator for a network.

o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.

o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

 o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the
form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use
different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the
interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data
from sender-dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.

o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a

process of converting the sender-transmitted information into another form
and sends the resulting message over the network.

o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it

reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.

7) Application Layer
 o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes
to access network service.

o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.

o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application

layer functions.

o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer

allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files
from a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.

o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email

forwarding and storage.

o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources

and is used to provide that global information about various objects.

TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols. It
was developed by the DoD (Department of Defence) in the 1960s. It is named
after the two main protocols that are used in the model, namely, TCP and IP. TCP
stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol.
The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are −
  Host-to- Network Layer −It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the
physical transmission of data. TCP/IP does not specifically define any
protocol here but supports all the standard protocols.
 Internet Layer −It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data
over the network. The main protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP)
and it is supported by the protocols ICMP, IGMP, RARP, and ARP.
 Transport Layer − It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of
data. The protocols defined here are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
 Application Layer − This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of
host programs with the transport layer services. This layer includes all
high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.
The following diagram shows the layers and the protocols in each of the layers −

Network Models
Networking engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, firmware,
chip level engineering, hardware, and electric pulses. To ease network engineering,
the whole networking concept is divided into multiple layers. Each layer is
involved in some particular task and is independent of all other layers. But as a
whole, almost all networking tasks depend on all of these layers. Layers share data
between them and they depend on each other only to take input and send output.

Layered Tasks

In layered architecture of Network Model, one whole network process is divided

into small tasks. Each small task is then assigned to a particular layer which works
dedicatedly to process the task only. Every layer does only specific work.
In layered communication system, one layer of a host deals with the task done by
or to be done by its peer layer at the same level on the remote host. The task is
either initiated by layer at the lowest level or at the top most level. If the task is
initiated by the-top most layer, it is passed on to the layer below it for further
processing. The lower layer does the same thing, it processes the task and passes
on to lower layer. If the task is initiated by lower most layer, then the reverse path
is taken.
Every layer clubs together all procedures, protocols, and methods which it requires
to execute its piece of task. All layers identify their counterparts by means of
encapsulation header and tail.

OSI Model

Open System Interconnect is an open standard for all communication systems. OSI
model is established by International Standard Organization (ISO). This model has
seven layers:

 Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing interface to the

application user. This layer encompasses protocols which directly interact
with the user.
 Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the native format of
remote host should be presented in the native format of host.
 Session Layer: This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts. For
example, once user/password authentication is done, the remote host
maintains this session for a while and does not ask for authentication again
in that time span.
 Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery between
hosts.
 Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and
uniquely addressing hosts in a network.
 Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing data
from and onto the line. Link errors are detected at this layer.
  Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling wiring, power
output, pulse rate etc.

Internet Model

Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite, also known as Internet suite. This defines
Internet Model which contains four layered architecture. OSI Model is general
communication model but Internet Model is what the internet uses for all its
communication.The internet is independent of its underlying network architecture
so is its Model. This model has the following layers:

 Application Layer: This layer defines the protocol which enables user to
interact with the network.For example, FTP, HTTP etc.
 Transport Layer: This layer defines how data should flow between hosts.
Major protocol at this layer is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This
layer ensures data delivered between hosts is in-order and is responsible
for end-to-end delivery.
 Internet Layer: Internet Protocol (IP) works on this layer. This layer
facilitates host addressing and recognition. This layer defines routing.
 Link Layer: This layer provides mechanism of sending and receiving actual
data.Unlike its OSI Model counterpart, this layer is independent of
underlying network architecture and hardware.

Types of Network Topology

What is Network Topology?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical
topology.

Types of Network Topology

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.
There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology,
Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.

1) Bus Topology

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are
connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
 o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or
directly connected to the backbone cable.

o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message
over the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the
message whether it has been addressed or not.

o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard
networks.

o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other

topologies.

o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the

message is broadcast to all the stations.

o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access).

CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data
integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative
ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes send the messages
simultaneously.

o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to

detect the collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop
transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision".

o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to

avoid the collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or
not. If busy, then the sender waits until the media becomes idle. This
 technique effectively reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not
work on "recovery after the collision".

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable
without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is
low.

o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in
bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.

o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the

installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware
components are easily available.

o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other
nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot
of cabling.

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to

determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.

o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then

the signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
 o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow
down the network.

o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues.

Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.

2) Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.

o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.

o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.

o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point.

o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.

 o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.

o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is

passed from one node to another node.

o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to

computer until it reaches the destination.

o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.

o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination
address matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it
sends the acknowledgment to the sender.

o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network

without bringing the network down.

o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network

operation and monitoring are available.

o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore,

the installation cost is very low.

o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is

not dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to

determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.

o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall
network.

o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow

down the network.

o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of

nodes. Adding new devices increases the communication delay.

3) Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is

connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
 o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known as clients.

o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.

o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star

topology.

o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star

topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to
inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are
connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator
has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.

o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily

implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are
automatically accommodated.

o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own
cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.

o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are

cost-effective.

o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to

the open ports on the hub.
 o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses
inexpensive coaxial cable.

o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet

100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all
the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.

o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant

amount of routing is required.

4) Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star

topology.

o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are

connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.
 o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other
nodes are the descendants of the root node.

o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission.
Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to

provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances
without being attenuated.

o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network.
Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.

o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into

segments known as star networks which can be easily managed and
maintained.

o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.

o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire
network.

o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes

difficult to troubleshoot the problem.

o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
 o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main
bus cable will damage the overall network.

o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes

difficult to reconfigure.

5) Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are

interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.

o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.

o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a
central point of communication.

o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.

o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where

communication failures are a critical concern.

o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.

 o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected

to all the computers available in the network.

o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain
computers are connected to those computers with which they communicate
frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown
will not affect the communication between connected computers.

Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the

communication between other devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such

as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.

o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to
maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the
communication link failure goes undetected.

o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the
efficiency of the network.

6) Hybrid Topology
 o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid
topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to

transfer the data.

o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as

Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will
not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in
one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank,
connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the
functioning of the rest of the network.

o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices
without affecting the functionality of the existing network.

o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to

the requirements of the organization.

o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a

way that the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the
network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design
of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the
Hybrid network.

o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as
these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.

o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid

network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path

between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data
is sent from one place to another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into
the following types:

1. Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.

Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by
using physical links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.
Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They
are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This
type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:
⇢ Least expensive
⇢ Easy to install
⇢ High-speed capacity
Disadvantages:
⇢ Susceptible to external interference
⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
Applications:
Used in telephone connections and LAN networks
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a
foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet
and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:
⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
⇢ Eliminates crosstalk
⇢ Comparatively faster
Disadvantages:
⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
⇢ More expensive
⇢ Bulky
Applications:
The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in extremely cold
climates, where the additional layer of outer covering makes it perfect for
withstanding such temperatures or for shielding the interior components.
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or
Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection
cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband
mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split
into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use
Coaxial cables.

Advantages:
  High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
Applications:
Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used for cable
television signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network
connections (like Ethernet), and feedlines that connect radio transmitters and
receivers to their antennas.
(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –
It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called
the cladding. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength
Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and
bidirectional mode.

Advantages:
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile
Applications:
Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used for cable
television signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network
connections (like Ethernet), and feedlines that connect radio transmitters and
receivers to their antennas.
(iv) Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium
invented by Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in
the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of the planar transmission line. It uses a
conducting material to transmit high-frequency waves it is also called a
waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched between two layers of the
ground plane which are usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.
(v) Microstripline
In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground plane by a layer of
dielectric.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical
medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
(i) Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM
and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to
be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is
directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz –
300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution.

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems.
Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse,
keyboard, printer, etc.
 Network Devices

Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines and
other electronic devices to a network are called network devices. These devices
transfer data in a fast, secure and correct way over same or different networks.
Network devices may be inter-network or intra-network. Some devices are
installed on the device, like NIC card or RJ45 connector, whereas some are part of
the network, like router, switch, etc. Let us explore some of these devices in
greater detail.

Modem

Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over telephone
or cable lines. The data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line
or cable wire can transmit only analog data.

The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice
versa. Modem is a combination of two devices − modulator and demodulator.
The modulator converts digital data into analog data when the data is being sent
by the computer. The demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data
when it is being received by the computer.

Types of Modem

Modem can be categorized in several ways like direction in which it can transmit
data, type of connection to the transmission line, transmission mode, etc.
Depending on direction of data transmission, modem can be of these types −
 Simplex − A simplex modem can transfer data in only one direction, from
digital device to network (modulator) or network to digital device
(demodulator).
 Half duplex − A half-duplex modem has the capacity to transfer data in
both the directions but only one at a time.
 Full duplex − A full duplex modem can transmit data in both the directions
simultaneously.

RJ45 Connector

RJ45 is the acronym for Registered Jack 45. RJ45 connector is an 8-pin jack
used by devices to physically connect to Ethernet based local area networks
(LANs). Ethernet is a technology that defines protocols for establishing a LAN.
The cable used for Ethernet LANs are twisted pair ones and have RJ45 connector
pins at both ends. These pins go into the corresponding socket on devices and
connect the device to the network.

Ethernet Card

Ethernet card, also known as network interface card (NIC), is a hardware

component used by computers to connect to Ethernet LAN and communicate with
other devices on the LAN. The earliest Ethernet cards were external to the system
and needed to be installed manually. In modern computer systems, it is an internal
hardware component. The NIC has RJ45 socket where network cable is physically
plugged in.
Ethernet card speeds may vary depending upon the protocols it supports. Old
Ethernet cards had maximum speed of 10 Mbps. However, modern cards support
fast Ethernets up to a speed of 100 Mbps. Some cards even have capacity of 1
Gbps.

Router

A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits data from one LAN to
another if both networks support the same set of protocols. So a router is typically
connected to at least two LANs and the internet service provider (ISP). It
receives its data in the form of packets, which are data frames with
their destination address added. Router also strengthens the signals before
transmitting them. That is why it is also called repeater.
Routing Table

A router reads its routing table to decide the best available route the packet can
take to reach its destination quickly and accurately. The routing table may be of
these two types −
 Static− In a static routing table the routes are fed manually. So it is suitable
only for very small networks that have maximum two to three routers.
 Dynamic − In a dynamic routing table, the router communicates with other
routers through protocols to determine which routes are free. This is suited
for larger networks where manual feeding may not be feasible due to large
number of routers.

Switch

Switch is a network device that connects other devices to Ethernet networks

through twisted pair cables. It uses packet switching technique to receive,
store and forward data packets on the network. The switch maintains a list of
network addresses of all the devices connected to it.
On receiving a packet, it checks the destination address and transmits the packet to
the correct port. Before forwarding, the packets are checked for collision and other
network errors. The data is transmitted in full duplex mode

Data transmission speed in switches can be double that of other network devices
like hubs used for networking. This is because switch shares its maximum speed
with all the devices connected to it. This helps in maintaining network speed even
during high traffic. In fact, higher data speeds are achieved on networks through
use of multiple switches.

Gateway

Gateway is a network device used to connect two or more dissimilar networks. In

networking parlance, networks that use different protocols are dissimilar
networks. A gateway usually is a computer with multiple NICs connected to
different networks. A gateway can also be configured completely using software.
As networks connect to a different network through gateways, these gateways are
usually hosts or end points of the network.
Gateway uses packet switching technique to transmit data from one network to
another. In this way it is similar to a router, the only difference being router can
transmit data only over networks that use same protocols.

Wi-Fi Card

Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi technology is used to

achieve wireless connection to any network. Wi-Fi card is a card used to connect
any device to the local network wirelessly. The physical area of the network which
provides internet access through Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi hotspot. Hotspots can be
set up at home, office or any public space. Hotspots themselves are connected to
the network through wires.
A Wi-Fi card is used to add capabilities like teleconferencing,
downloading digital camera images, video chat, etc. to old devices. Modern
devices come with their in-built wireless network adapter.