III.

FUNCTIONS OF COMPLEX VARIABLES

Complex numbers (reminder)

Differential calculus and analyticity
Conformal mappings

In the theory of alternating currents, the application of quantities such as the complex impedance
involves functions having complex numbers as independent variables. There are many other areas in
engineering where this is the case; for example, the motion of fluids, the transfer of heat or the
processing of signals.

Complex numbers
We discuss about complex numbers and their geometric representation in the complex plane
Equations with no real number solution lead to the introduction of complex numbers.
 A complex number z is an ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers x and y, written z = (x, y).
x is called the real part (Re z) and y the imaginary part of z (Im z)
 (0, 1) is called the imaginary unit and is denoted by 𝑖 with the property 𝑖 2 = −1
 Complex numbers are represented as 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 is called the complex conjugate of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
 Note that real numbers are complex numbers
 Additions and subtractions are performed component wise
 Multiplications follow the distributive property of numbers
 Divisions are carried out by multiplying numerator and denominator by the complex
conjugate of the denominator.

Use a Cartesian coordinate system to represent complex numbers. The xy-plane in which the
complex numbers are represented is called the complex plane.
The horizontal x-axis is called the real axis, and the vertical y-axis is the imaginary axis.
 Properties:
1 1
𝑅𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥 = (𝑧 + 𝑧̅) and 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 = 𝑦 = (𝑧 − 𝑧̅)
2 2𝑖

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅

𝑧 ̅̅̅
𝑧
(𝑧1 ± 𝑧2 ) = 𝑧̅1 ± 𝑧̅2 (𝑧1 𝑧2 ) = 𝑧̅1 𝑧̅2 ( 1) = 1
𝑧2 ̅̅̅
𝑧2

Polar form
Using the polar coordinates 𝑟. 𝜃 defined by 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 and 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃,
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 takes the so-called polar form 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
r is called the absolute value or modulus of z and is denoted by |𝑧|. Hence
|𝑧| = 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = √𝑧𝑧̅
|𝑧| is the distance of the point z from the origin.
|𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | is the distance between 𝑧1 and 𝑧2
𝑦
𝜃 is called the argument of z and is denoted by 𝐚𝐫𝐠 𝒛. Note that tan 𝜃 =
𝑥
Geometrically, 𝜃 is the directed angle from the positive x-axis to Oz.
All angles are measured in radians and are positive in the counterclockwise sense.
For 𝑧 = 0 the angle is undefined.

Inequalities such as 𝑎 < 𝑏 make sense for real numbers, but not in complex numbers
Triangle inequality:
|𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |
By induction, we obtain
|𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝑧𝑛 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 | + ⋯ + |𝑧𝑛 |

1
 Differential calculus and analyticity
Complex analysis is concerned with complex functions that are differentiable in some domain. The
concepts of limit and derivative in complex are similar to that in calculus.

An open circular disk |𝑧 − 𝑎| < 𝜌 is called a neighborhood of a.

A function f defined on S is a rule that assigns to every 𝑧 in S a complex number w, called the value
of f at 𝑧 . It is written as 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑤
𝑧 varies in S and is called a complex variable.

Eg. 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 + 2 is a complex function defined for all 𝑧; that is, its domain S is the whole
complex plane. The set of all values of a function f is called the range of f.

As w is complex, for 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 , we may write

𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥. 𝑦)
This shows that a complex function f (z) is equivalent to a pair of real functions 𝑢 and 𝑣 , each
depending on the two real variables x and y. The function 𝑢 is the real part and 𝑣 is the imaginary part
of 𝑓(𝑧)
Eg. Consider the mapping 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 + 3𝑧
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦. Then 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 + 3(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
= 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑖𝑦 + 3𝑥 + 3𝑖𝑦
= 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 + +(2𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦)𝑖
2 2
Then 𝑢 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3𝑥 and 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦
For 𝑧 = 1 + 3𝑖,
𝑢(1 + 3𝑖) = 1 − 9 + 3 = −5 and 𝑣(1 + 3𝑖) = 6 + 9 = 15
Therefore, 𝑓(1 + 3𝑖) = −5 + 15𝑖; that is,
𝑓 maps the point 𝑧 = 1 + 3𝑖 to the point 𝑤 = −5 + 15𝑖

A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to have the limit 𝒍 as 𝑧 approaches a point 𝑧0 , written as

lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑙 if 𝑓 is defined in a neighborhood of 𝑧0 (except perhaps at 𝑧0 itself) and if the values
𝑧→𝑧0
of 𝑓 are close to 𝑙 for all 𝑧 close to 𝑧0 . In precise terms, if for every positive real number 𝜖 we can
find a positive real number 𝛿 such that for all 𝑧 ≠ 𝑧0 in the disc |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝛿, we have
|𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑙| < 𝜖
Formally, the definition is similar to that in calculus, but there is a difference. In the real case, 𝑥
approaches 𝑥0 along the real line, but here,𝑧 approaches 𝑧0 from any direction in the complex plane.

A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be continuous at 𝑧0 if

𝑓(𝑧0 ) is defined and
lim 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 )
𝑧→𝑧0

Eg 1.

2
Eg 2. Consider the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧̅ or 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
Write ∆𝑧 as ∆𝑥 + 𝑖∆𝑦. Then
𝑓(𝑧) − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) 𝑧̅ − 𝑧̅0 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 − (𝑥0 − 𝑖𝑦0 ) (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) − (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑖
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = lim = lim = lim = lim
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − (𝑥0 + 𝑖𝑦0 ) 𝑧→𝑧0 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )𝑖

If we approach 𝑧0 in the direction parallel to the real axis, 𝑦 = 𝑦0 and the limit is 1. But If we
approach parallel to the imaginary axis, 𝑥 = 𝑥0 and the limit is -1. Which means the limit doesn’t
exist. This shows that 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧̅ is not differentiable at any 𝑧

Rules in real calculus also hold for the complex case:

Analyticity
A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be analytic in a domain D if , at all points of D,
𝑓(𝑧) is defined and
is differentiable
A function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to be analytic at a point 𝑧0 if it is analytic in the neighborhood of 𝑧0

Eg. A polynomial function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧 𝑛−1 + … + 𝑎1 𝑧 + 𝑎0 , where 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … , 𝑎0 are

complex constants, is analytic
The polynomial 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 is analytic. For this function,
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 and 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑦
Observe that 𝑢𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 3 is the same as 𝑣𝑦
Also, 𝑢𝑦 = −2𝑦 is the same as −𝑣𝑥
This is true for any analytic functions

A criterion (a test) for the analyticity of a complex function 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥. 𝑦) is
𝒖𝒙 = 𝒗𝒚 and 𝒖𝒚 = −𝒗𝒙 everywhere in D

Eg 1. The non analyticity of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 in Eg2 above can be easily confirmed using this test.
Here 𝑢 = 𝑥 and 𝑣 = −𝑦
Eg 2. Is the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦) analytic?

It is analytic at any point

1
Eg 3. Consider the function 𝑓(𝑧) =
𝑧
1
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = . To find the real and imaginary components 𝑢 and 𝑣, multiply numerator and
𝑥+𝑖𝑦
𝑥−𝑖𝑦 𝑥 −𝑦
denominator by 𝑧̅ = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 and obtain or + 𝑖
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2

3
 𝑥 −𝑦
Thus 𝑢 = and 𝑣 =
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
𝑦 2 −𝑥 2 −2𝑦
We find that 𝑢𝑥 = (𝑥 2 = 𝑣𝑦 and 𝑢𝑦 = (𝑥 2 = −𝑣𝑥
+𝑦 2 )2 +𝑦 2 )2

The criteria for analyticity is satisfied everywhere except for 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 0, i.e. 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 0

1
(equivalently 𝑧 = 0). At all other points, 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = − 2 .
𝑧
This function is analytic everywhere except at the single point z = 0.

At points where f ′(z) exist, we may obtain the derivative by

f ′(z) = 𝒖𝒙 + 𝒊𝒗𝒙 or f ′(z) = 𝒗𝒚 − 𝒊𝒗𝒚

Some Important analytic functions:

The complex exponential function:
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 It is also written as 𝑓(𝑧) = exp 𝑧
Using the Euler’s equation 𝒆𝒊𝜽 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 , the exponential function in terms of the real
functions is
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦
Note that (𝑒 𝑧 )′ = 𝑢𝑥 + 𝑖𝑣𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑧
Trigonometric functions:
By adding and subtracting the equations

We obtain

This suggests the following definition for complex variables

Formulas for derivatives follow from the exponential functions

Hyperbolic functions:

As in calculus,

Final note: a surprising fact about real functions and complex functions is that complex analytic
functions have derivatives of all orders. This differs completely from real calculus. Even if a real
function is once differentiable we cannot conclude that it is twice differentiable nor that any of its
higher derivatives exist. This makes the behavior of complex analytic functions simpler than real
functions in this aspect.

Conformal Mappings
Conformal mapping has widespread uses in solving problems in fluid flow and electromagnetics
Let us discuss about mappings first
We cannot plot the values of x, y and f (z) on one set of axes, as we were able to do for real functions
y = f (x). We therefore represent the values of w = f (z) = u + iv on a second plane. The plane
containing the independent variable z is called the z plane and the plane containing the dependent
variable w is called the w plane. Thus the complex function w = f (z) may be regarded as a mapping
or transformation of points P within a region in the z plane (called the domain) to corresponding
image points P′ within a region in the w plane (called the range).

4
We represent points on the z plane as z = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 or z = (𝑥, 𝑦) and on w plane as w = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 or
w = (𝑢, 𝑣)
Eg 1. For a straight line 𝑙 in the z plane given y = 2x + 4, find its image in the w plane under the
mapping f (z) = 2z + 6
Sol. Let the image of a point z = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 be w = u + iv. We have to find an equation that
relates u and v
f (z) = 2z + 6 ⇒ u + iv = 2(x + iy) + 6 = (2x + 6) + i2y
Equating real and imaginary parts then gives
u = 2x + 6 and v = 2y
which, on solving for x and y, leads to
1 1
x = (u − 6) and y = v
2 2
A point (𝑥, 𝑦) on 𝑙 satisfies y = 2x + 4,
1 1
Thus v = 2 × (u − 6) + 4
2 2
or v = 2u − 4
This last equation shows that the image of the straight line y = 2x + 4 is a straight line v = 2u – 4.
The mapping is a glide

General steps to find image of a curve under the mapping 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦):
- In terms of 𝑥 and 𝑦, write the expressions for 𝑢 and 𝑣
- If the curve in the Z plane is defined by a relation y=g(x), then any point z on the curve is in
the form (x,g(x)) or x+ig(x). Thus use the equation of w to write u and v in terms of x (if x is
constant, in terms of y)
- Solve for x ( or y) to find a relation between u and v. This relation defines the image curve
For some simple mappings the above steps may not be important. A direct substitution may produce
the required result.
1
Eg 2. Find the image of |𝑧|=1 under the mapping 𝑇(𝑧) = 𝑧
2
Note that |𝑧|=1 is a circle centered at the origin, with radius 1 and the mapping 𝑇 is a dilation
1
Sol. 𝑤 = 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑧 = 2𝑤. Then by substituting in |𝑧|=1, obtain
2
1
|2𝑤| = 1 or |𝑤| =
2
1
This represents a circle centered at the origin with radius
2
Eg 3. Consider the mapping 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2
Let us see the images of a horizontal line 𝑙1 given by 𝑦 = 1 and a vertical line 𝑙2 given by 𝑥 = 2.
The two lines intersect at 𝑧0 = 2 + 𝑖 and form a 900 angle.
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + (2𝑥𝑦)𝑖
The intersection point 𝑧0 is mapped to 𝑤0 = 3 + 4𝑖 or 𝑤0 = (3,4)
A point on 𝑙1 can be written as 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖. Then its image is
𝑤 = (𝑥 2 − 1) + (2𝑥)𝑖
To see curve of the image of 𝑙1 in the W plane, we have to find
a relation between 𝑢 and 𝑣.
As 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 1 and 𝑣 = 2𝑥, by solving for 𝑥, obtain the relation
𝑣 2 = 4𝑢 + 4. It is an equation of a parabola along the 𝑢 axis
Similarly, a point on 𝑙2 is 𝑧 = 2 + 𝑦𝑖 and 𝑢 = 4 − 𝑦 2 and 𝑣 = 4𝑦
By eliminating 𝑦 obtain 𝑣 2 = −16𝑢 + 64

5
Ex. Under the mapping in Eg3, show that
a) a horizontal line 𝑦 = 𝑏, in general, is mapped to the curve 𝑣 2 = 4𝑏 2 𝑢 + 4𝑏 4 .
b) A vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎, is mapped to the curve 𝑣 2 = −4𝑎2 𝑢 + 4𝑎4 .

Q. What is the angle between the image curves of 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 at the image point 3+4i of the
intersection? The required angle is the angle between the gradients at that point

☛ The angle 𝜃 (0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋) between two intersecting curves is defined to be the angle between
their oriented tangents at the intersection point. In other words, the angle between two curves at z0 is
the angle between the gradient vectors of the curves at z0
𝑑𝑓
☛ Gradient of a function 𝑓(𝑥) at a point 𝑥 = 𝑥0 is evaluated at 𝑥0 . It represents the slope of a
𝑑𝑥
tangent line at 𝑥0 . Gradient is denoted by ∇

For the curve 𝑣 2 = 4𝑢 + 4 in the above example,

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 2 2 1
2𝑣 = 4 or ∇= = . Therefore, the gradient at the intersection point 𝑤0 = (3,4) is which is
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑣 4 2
For the curve 𝑣 2 = −16𝑢 + 64,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 −8
2𝑣 = −16 or ∇= = . The gradient at 𝑤0 is −2
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑣
The product of the gradients at 𝑤0 is −1. This shows that the angle between the curves at their
point of intersection is also 900 .
Since the angle between the lines and the angle between the two curves is the same, we say the angle
is preserved.

A mapping w = f (z) that preserves angles is called conformal.

Under such a mapping, the angle between two intersecting curves in the z plane is the same as the
angle between the corresponding intersecting curves in the w plane. The sense of the angle is also
preserved. That is, if θ is the angle between curves 1 and 2 taken in the anticlockwise sense in the z
plane then θ is also the angle between the image of curve 1 and the image of curve 2 in the w plane,
and it too is taken in the anticlockwise sense.
Therefore, a conformal mapping preserves angles between oriented curves in magnitude as well as in
sense.

Conformal map preserves both angles and shape of infinitesimal small figures but not necessarily
their size. More formally, a map w = f(z) is called conformal at z0 if it preserves oriented angles
between curves through z0, as well as their orientation, i.e. direction.

☛ Conformality of Mapping by Analytic Functions

The mapping by an analytic function f is conformal, except at critical points, that is, points at
which the derivative is zero.

6
Eg 4. Linear mappings 𝑤 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏, (𝑎 ≠ 0) are conformal everywhere. Because
𝑑𝑤
= 𝑎 and is not zero at any point
𝑑𝑧
Eg 5. 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 is conformal at any point because it is analytic and 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = 𝑒 𝑧 ≠ 0 for each 𝑧
Eg 6. Consider 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 again
𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑖
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 and 𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑓
= 2𝑧 = 2𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑖 is 0 at z = 0 only. It is conformal everywhere except possibly at the
𝑑𝑧
origin z = 0.
Let us take the first quadrant, i.e. the quarter plane bounded by the positive 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes. In this
half plane, 𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0.
The above equations, of 𝑢 and 𝑣, show that the function maps a quarter plane to a half plane(𝑣 ≥ 0)
Therefore, it doubles the angle between the coordinate axes at the origin! Thus it not conformal at
z = 0. Amazingly, the map preserves angles everywhere else!

Assignment: Show that the mapping 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧̅ preserves magnitude of angles but not orientation.
Hence it is not conformal