Basic Calculus Teachers Guide

Basic Calculus
Teacher’s Guide
This Teacher’s Guide was developed by the Commission

on Higher Education (CHED) in collaboration with content and
teaching experts from universities, colleges, basic education,
and other academic institutions and was donated to the
Department of Education (DepEd) for use in senior high school
in support of the implementation of the enhanced basic
education curriculum (K to 12).
We encourage teachers and other education stakeholders

to email their feedback, comments, and recommendations to the
Department of Education at [email protected].
We value your feedback and recommendations.
Department of Education
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All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced

. or transmitted in any form or by any means -
electronic or mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2017.
Basic Calculus
Teacher’s Guide
First Edition 2016
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Undersecretary: Dina S. Ocampo, PhD
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Oreste M. Ortega Jr., M. Sc. Louie John D. Vallejo, PhD
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Introduction
As the Commission supports DepEd’s implementation of Senior High School (SHS), it upholds the vision
and mission of the K to 12 program, stated in Section 2 of Republic Act 10533, or the Enhanced Basic
Education Act of 2013, that “every graduate of basic education be an empowered individual, through a
program rooted on...the competence to engage in work and be productive, the ability to coexist in fruitful
harmony with local and global communities, the capability to engage in creative and critical thinking,
and the capacity and willingness to transform others and oneself.”
To accomplish this, the Commission partnered with the Philippine Normal University (PNU), the
National Center for Teacher Education, to develop Teaching Guides for Courses of SHS. Together with
PNU, this Teaching Guide was studied and reviewed by education and pedagogy experts, and was
enhanced with appropriate methodologies and strategies.
Furthermore, the Commission believes that teachers are the most important partners in attaining this
goal. Incorporated in this Teaching Guide is a framework that will guide them in creating lessons and
assessment tools, support them in facilitating activities and questions, and assist them towards deeper
content areas and competencies. Thus, the introduction of the SHS for SHS Framework.
The SHS for SHS Framework

The SHS for SHS Framework, which stands for “Saysay-Husay-Sarili for Senior High School,” is at the
core of this book. The lessons, which combine high-quality content with flexible elements to
accommodate diversity of teachers and environments, promote these three fundamental concepts:
SAYSAY: MEANING HUSAY: MASTERY SARILI: OWNERSHIP

Why is this important? How will I deeply understand this? What can I do with this?
Through this Teaching Guide, Given that developing mastery When teachers empower
teachers will be able to goes beyond memorization, learners to take ownership of
facilitate an understanding of teachers should also aim for deep their learning, they develop
the value of the lessons, for understanding of the subject independence and self-
each learner to fully engage in matter where they lead learners direction, learning about both
the content on both the to analyze and synthesize the subject matter and
cognitive and affective levels. knowledge. themselves.
iii
All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means -
The Parts of the Teaching Guide Pedagogical Notes
This Teaching Guide is mapped and aligned to the The teacher should strive to keep a good balance
DepEd SHS Curriculum, designed to be highly between conceptual understanding and facility in
usable for teachers. It contains classroom activities skills and techniques. Teachers are advised to be
and pedagogical notes, and integrated with conscious of the content and performance
innovative pedagogies. All of these elements are standards and of the suggested time frame for
each lesson, but flexibility in the management of
presented in the following parts:
the lessons is possible. Interruptions in the class
1. INTRODUCTION
schedule, or students’ poor reception or difficulty
with a particular lesson, may require a teacher to
• Highlight key concepts and identify the
essential questions extend a particular presentation or discussion.
• Show the big picture Computations in some topics may be facilitated by

• Connect and/or review prerequisite the use of calculators. This is encouraged;
knowledge however, it is important that the student
understands the concepts and processes involved
• Clearly communicate learning
in the calculation. Exams for the Basic Calculus
competencies and objectives
course may be designed so that calculators are not
• Motivate through applications and necessary.
connections to real-life
Because senior high school is a transition period
2. INSTRUCTION/DELIVERY for students, the latter must also be prepared for
• Give a demonstration/lecture/simulation/ college-level academic rigor. Some topics in
hands-on activity
calculus require much more rigor and precision
• Show step-by-step solutions to sample than topics encountered in previous mathematics
problems
courses, and treatment of the material may be
• Use multimedia and other creative tools different from teaching more elementary courses.
• Give applications of the theory The teacher is urged to be patient and careful in
• Connect to a real-life problem if applicable presenting and developing the topics. To avoid too
much technical discussion, some ideas can be
3. PRACTICE
introduced intuitively and informally, without
• Discuss worked-out examples
sacrificing rigor and correctness.
• Provide easy-medium-hard questions
The teacher is encouraged to study the guide very
• Give time for hands-on unguided classroom
well, work through the examples, and solve
work and discovery
exercises, well in advance of the lesson. The
• Use formative assessment to give feedback development of calculus is one of humankind’s
4. ENRICHMENT greatest achievements. With patience, motivation
• Provide additional examples and and discipline, teaching and learning calculus
applications effectively can be realized by anyone. The teaching
guide aims to be a valuable resource in this
• Introduce extensions or generalisations of
objective.
concepts
• Engage in reflection questions
• Encourage analysis through higher order
thinking prompts
5. EVALUATION
• Supply a diverse question bank for written
work and exercises
• Provide alternative formats for student
work: written homework, journal, portfolio,
group/individual projects, student-directed
research project
ivreproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means -

All rights reserved. No part of this material may be
On DepEd Functional Skills and CHED’s College Readiness Standards
As Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) welcome the graduates of the Senior High School program, it is
of paramount importance to align Functional Skills set by DepEd with the College Readiness Standards
stated by CHED.
The DepEd articulated a set of 21st century skills that should be embedded in the SHS curriculum across
various subjects and tracks. These skills are desired outcomes that K to 12 graduates should possess in
order to proceed to either higher education, employment, entrepreneurship, or middle-level skills
development.
On the other hand, the Commission declared the College Readiness Standards that consist of the
combination of knowledge, skills, and reflective thinking necessary to participate and succeed - without
remediation - in entry-level undergraduate courses in college.
The alignment of both standards, shown below, is also presented in this Teaching Guide - prepares
Senior High School graduates to the revised college curriculum which will initially be implemented by
AY 2018-2019.
College Readiness Standards Foundational Skills DepEd Functional Skills
Produce all forms of texts (written, oral, visual, digital) based on:
1. Solid grounding on Philippine experience and culture;
2. An understanding of the self, community, and nation; Visual and information literacies
Media literacy
3. Application of critical and creative thinking and doing processes;
Critical thinking and problem solving skills
4. Competency in formulating ideas/arguments logically, scientifically,
Creativity
and creatively; and Initiative and self-direction
5. Clear appreciation of one’s responsibility as a citizen of a multicultural
Philippines and a diverse world;
Global awareness
Scientific and economic literacy
Systematically apply knowledge, understanding, theory, and skills Curiosity
for the development of the self, local, and global communities using Critical thinking and problem solving skills
prior learning, inquiry, and experimentation Risk taking
Flexibility and adaptability
Initiative and self-direction
Global awareness
Media literacy
Work comfortably with relevant technologies and develop
Technological literacy
adaptations and innovations for significant use in local and global
Creativity
communities; Flexibility and adaptability
Productivity and accountability
Global awareness
Multicultural literacy
Communicate with local and global communities with proficiency,
Collaboration and interpersonal skills
orally, in writing, and through new technologies of communication;
Social and cross-cultural skills
Leadership and responsibility
Media literacy
Interact meaningfully in a social setting and contribute to the Multicultural literacy
fulfilment of individual and shared goals, respecting the Global awareness
Collaboration and interpersonal skills
fundamental humanity of all persons and the diversity of groups
Social and cross-cultural skills
and communities Leadership and responsibility
Ethical, moral, and spiritual values
v
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
Correspondence*between*the*Learning*Competencies*and*the*Topics*in*this*Learning*Guide
Course*Title:"Basic"Calculus Semester:"Second"Semester
No.*of*Hours/Semester:"80"hrs/sem
Prerequisite:"Pre8Calculus
Subject Description: At the end of the course, the students must know how to determine the limit of a function, differentiate, and integrate algebraic,
exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions in one variable, and to formulate and solve problems involving continuity, extreme values, related rates,
population models, and areas of plane regions.
CONTENT PERFORMANCE TOPIC

CONTENT LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARDS STANDARDS NUMBER
Limits and The learners The learners shall be able The learners…
Continuity demonstrate an to...
STEM_BC11LC-IIIa-1 1.1
understanding of... 1. illustrate the limit of a function using a table of
formulate and solve values and the graph of the function
the basic concepts accurately real-life 2. distinguish between limx→cf(x)!and f(c) STEM_BC11LC-IIIa-2 1.2
of limit and problems involving 3. illustrate the limit laws STEM_BC11LC-IIIa-3 1.3
continuity of a continuity of functions 4. apply the limit laws in evaluating the limit of
function algebraic functions (polynomial, rational, and STEM_BC11LC-IIIa-4 1.4
radical)
5. compute the limits of exponential, logarithmic,and
trigonometric functions using tables of values and STEM_BC11LC-IIIb-1 2.1
graphs of the functions
6. evaluate limits involving the expressions (sint)/t ,
t STEM_BC11LC-IIIb-2 2.2
(1-cost)/t and (e - 1)/t using tables of values
7. illustrate continuity of a function at a number STEM_BC11LC-IIIc-1
8. determine whether a function is continuous at a 3.1
STEM_BC11LC-IIIc-2
number or not
9. illustrate continuity of a function on an interval STEM_BC11LC-IIIc-3
10. determine whether a function is continuous on an 3.2
STEM_BC11LC-IIIc-4
interval or not.
vi
!SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT

11. illustrate different types of discontinuity
STEM_BC11LC-IIId-1 4.1
(hole/removable, jump/essential, asymptotic/infinite)
12. illustrate the Intermediate Value and Extreme
STEM_BC11LC-IIId-2 4.2
Value Theorems
13. solves problems involving continuity of a function STEM_BC11LC-IIId-3 4.3
Derivatives basic concepts of 1. formulate and solve 1. illustrate the tangent line to the graph of a function
STEM_BC11D-IIIe-1 5.1
derivatives accurately situational at a given point
problems involving 2. applies the definition of the derivative of a function
extreme values at a given number
3. relate the derivative of a function to the slope of
the tangent line
4. determine the relationship between differentiability
STEM_BC11D -IIIf-1 6.1
and continuity of a function
5. derive the differentiation rules STEM_BC11D-IIIf-2
6. apply the differentiation rules in computing the
6.2
derivative of an algebraic, exponential, and STEM_BC11D-IIIf-3
trigonometric functions
7. solve optimization problems STEM_BC11D-IIIg-1 7.1
2. formulate and solve 8. compute higher-order derivatives of functions STEM_BC11D-IIIh-1 8.1
accurately situational 9. illustrate the Chain Rule of differentiation STEM_BC11D-IIIh-2
problems involving
8.2
10. solve problems using the Chain Rule STEM_BC11D-IIIh-i-1
related rates 11. illustrate implicit differentiation STEM_BC11D-IIIi-2
12. solve problems (including logarithmic, and inverse
9.1
trigonometric functions) using implicit STEM_BC11D-IIIi-j-1
differentiation
13. solve situational problems involving related rates STEM_BC11D-IIIj-2 10.1
vii
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT

Integration antiderivatives and 1. formulate and solve 1. illustrate an antiderivative of a function STEM_BC11I-IVa-1 11.1
Riemann integral accurately situational 2. compute the general antiderivative of
problems involving polynomial, radical, exponential, and trigonometric STEM_BC11I-IVa-b-1 11.2J11.4
population models functions
3. compute the antiderivative of a function using
substitution rule and table of integrals (includingthose
STEM_BC11I-IVb-c-1 12.1
whose antiderivatives involve logarithmic and inverse
trigonometric functions)
4. solve separable differential equations using
STEM_BC11I-IVd-1 13.1
antidifferentiation
5. solve situational problems involving exponential
growth and decay, bounded growth, and logistic growth STEM_BC11I-IVe-f-1 14.1
2. formulate and solve 6. approximate the area of a region under a curve

accurately real-life using Riemann sums: (a) left, (b) right, and (c) STEM_BC11I-IVg-1 15.1
problems involving areas midpoint
of plane regions 7. define the definite integral as the limit of the
STEM_BC11I-IVg-2 15.2
Riemann sums
8. illustrate the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus STEM_BC11I-IVh-1 16.1
9. compute the definite integral of a function using
STEM_BC11I-IVh-2 16.2
the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
10. illustrates the substitution rule STEM_BC11I-IVi-1
11. compute the definite integral of a function using 17.1
STEM_BC11I-IVi-2
the substitution rule
12. compute the area of a plane region using the
STEM_BC11I-IVi-j-1 18.1
definite integral
13. solve problems involving areas of plane regions STEM_BC11I-IVj-2 18.2
viii
Contents
1 Limits and Continuity 1
Lesson 1: The Limit of a Function: Theorems and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Topic 1.1: The Limit of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Topic 1.2: The Limit of a Function at c versus the Value of the Function at c . . 17
Topic 1.3: Illustration of Limit Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Topic 1.4: Limits of Polynomial, Rational, and Radical Functions . . . . . . . . . 28
Lesson 2: Limits of Some Transcendental Functions and Some Indeterminate Forms . . 38
Topic 2.1: Limits of Exponential, Logarithmic, and Trigonometric Functions . . . 39
Topic 2.2: Some Special Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Lesson 3: Continuity of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Topic 3.1: Continuity at a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Topic 3.2: Continuity on an Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Lesson 4: More on Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Topic 4.1: Different Types of Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Topic 4.2: The Intermediate Value and the Extreme Value Theorems . . . . . . . 75
Topic 4.3: Problems Involving Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2 Derivatives 89
Lesson 5: The Derivative as the Slope of the Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Topic 5.1: The Tangent Line to the Graph of a Function at a Point . . . . . . . . 91
Topic 5.2: The Equation of the Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Topic 5.3: The Definition of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Lesson 6: Rules of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Topic 6.1: Differentiability Implies Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Topic 6.2: The Differentiation Rules and Examples Involving Algebraic, Expo-
nential, and Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Lesson 7: Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Topic 7.1: Optimization using Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Lesson 8: Higher-Order Derivatives and the Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Topic 8.1: Higher-Order Derivatives of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Topic 8.2: The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Lesson 9: Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Topic 9.1: What is Implicit Differentiation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Lesson 10: Related Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Topic 10.1: Solutions to Problems Involving Related Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3 Integration 191
Lesson 11: Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Topic 11.1: Illustration of an Antiderivative of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Topic 11.2: Antiderivatives of Algebraic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Topic 11.3: Antiderivatives of Functions Yielding Exponential Functions and

Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Topic 11.4: Antiderivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Lesson 12: Techniques of Antidifferentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Topic 12.1: Antidifferentiation by Substitution and by Table of Integrals . . . . . 205
Lesson 13: Application of Antidifferentiation to Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . 217
Topic 13.1: Separable Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Lesson 14: Application of Differential Equations in Life Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Topic 14.1: Situational Problems Involving Growth and Decay Problems . . . . . 225
Lesson 15: Riemann Sums and the Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Topic 15.1: Approximation of Area using Riemann Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Topic 15.2: The Formal Definition of the Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Lesson 16: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Topic 16.1: Illustration of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . 269
Topic 16.2: Computation of Definite Integrals using the Fundamental Theorem

of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Lesson 17: Integration Technique: The Substitution Rule for Definite Integrals . . . . 280
Topic 17.1: Illustration of the Substitution Rule for Definite Integrals . . . . . . . 281
Lesson 18: Application of Definite Integrals in the Computation of Plane Areas . . . . 292
Topic 18.1: Areas of Plane Regions Using Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Topic 18.2: Application of Definite Integrals: Word Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Biographical Notes 3
Chapter 1
Limits and Continuity
LESSON 1: The Limit of a Function: Theorems and Examples
TIME FRAME: 4 hours
LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:
1. Illustrate the limit of a function using a table of values and the graph of the function;
2. Distinguish between lim f (x) and f (c);
x!c
3. Illustrate the limit theorems; and
4. Apply the limit theorems in evaluating the limit of algebraic functions (polynomial, ratio-
nal, and radical).
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Evaluation of limits using a table of values

2. Illustrating the limit of a function using the graph of the function
3. Distinguishing between lim f (x) and f (c) using a table of values
x!c
4. Distinguishing between lim f (x) and f (c) using the graph of y = f (x)
x!c
5. Enumeration of the eight basic limit theorems
6. Application of the eight basic limit theorems on simple examples
7. Limits of polynomial functions
8. Limits of rational functions
9. Limits of radical functions
10. Intuitive notions of infinite limits
2
TOPIC 1.1: The Limit of a Function
DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON
(A) ACTIVITY
In order to find out what the students’ idea of a limit is, ask them to bring cutouts of
news items, articles, or drawings which for them illustrate the idea of a limit. These may
be posted on a wall so that they may see each other’s homework, and then have each one
explain briefly why they think their particular cutout represents a limit.
(B) INTRODUCTION
Limits are the backbone of calculus, and calculus is called the Mathematics of Change.
The study of limits is necessary in studying change in great detail. The evaluation of a
particular limit is what underlies the formulation of the derivative and the integral of a
function.
For starters, imagine that you are going to watch a basketball game. When you choose
seats, you would want to be as close to the action as possible. You would want to be as
close to the players as possible and have the best view of the game, as if you were in the
basketball court yourself. Take note that you cannot actually be in the court and join the
players, but you will be close enough to describe clearly what is happening in the game.
This is how it is with limits of functions. We will consider functions of a single variable and
study the behavior of the function as its variable approaches a particular value (a constant).
The variable can only take values very, very close to the constant, but it cannot equal the
constant itself. However, the limit will be able to describe clearly what is happening to the
function near that constant.
(C) LESSON PROPER
Consider a function f of a single variable x. Consider a constant c which the variable x

will approach (c may or may not be in the domain of f ). The limit, to be denoted by L, is
the unique real value that f (x) will approach as x approaches c. In symbols, we write this
process as
lim f (x) = L.
x!c
This is read, ‘ ‘The limit of f (x) as x approaches c is L.”
3
LOOKING AT A TABLE OF VALUES
To illustrate, let us consider

lim (1 + 3x).
x!2
Here, f (x) = 1 + 3x and the constant c, which x will approach, is 2. To evaluate the given
limit, we will make use of a table to help us keep track of the effect that the approach of x
toward 2 will have on f (x). Of course, on the number line, x may approach 2 in two ways:
through values on its left and through values on its right. We first consider approaching 2
from its left or through values less than 2. Remember that the values to be chosen should
be close to 2.
x f (x)
1 4
1.4 5.2
1.7 6.1
1.9 6.7
1.95 6.85
1.997 6.991
1.9999 6.9997
1.9999999 6.9999997
Now we consider approaching 2 from its right or through values greater than but close to 2.
x f (x)
3 10
2.5 8.5
2.2 7.6
2.1 7.3
2.03 7.09
2.009 7.027
2.0005 7.0015
2.0000001 7.0000003
Observe that as the values of x get closer and closer to 2, the values of f (x) get closer and
closer to 7. This behavior can be shown no matter what set of values, or what direction, is
taken in approaching 2. In symbols,
lim (1 + 3x) = 7.
x!2
4
EXAMPLE 1: Investigate
lim (x2 + 1)
x! 1
by constructing tables of values. Here, c = 1 and f (x) = x2 + 1.
We start again by approaching 1 from the left.
x f (x)
1.5 3.25
1.2 2.44
1.01 2.0201
1.0001 2.00020001
Now approach 1 from the right.
x f (x)
0.5 1.25
0.8 1.64
0.99 1.9801
0.9999 1.99980001
The tables show that as x approaches 1, f (x) approaches 2. In symbols,
lim (x2 + 1) = 2.
x! 1
EXAMPLE 2: Investigate lim |x| through a table of values.

x!0
Approaching 0 from the left and from the right, we get the following tables:
x |x| x |x|
0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
0.00009 0.00009 0.00009 0.00009
0.00000001 0.00000001 0.00000001 0.00000001
Hence,
lim |x| = 0.
x!0
5
EXAMPLE 3: Investigate
x2 5x + 4
lim
x!1 x 1
x2 5x + 4
by constructing tables of values. Here, c = 1 and f (x) = .
x 1
Take note that 1 is not in the domain of f , but this is not a problem. In evaluating a limit,
remember that we only need to go very close to 1; we will not go to 1 itself.
We now approach 1 from the left.
x f (x)
1.5 2.5
1.17 2.83
1.003 2.997
1.0001 2.9999
Approach 1 from the right.
x f (x)
0.5 3.5
0.88 3.12
0.996 3.004
0.9999 3.0001
The tables show that as x approaches 1, f (x) approaches 3. In symbols,
x2 5x + 4
lim = 3.
x!1 x 1
EXAMPLE 4: Investigate through a table of values
lim f (x)
x!4
if
8
<x + 1 if x < 4
f (x) =
:(x 4)2 + 3 if x 4.
This looks a bit different, but the logic and procedure are exactly the same. We still
approach the constant 4 from the left and from the right, but note that we should evaluate
the appropriate corresponding functional expression. In this case, when x approaches 4
from the left, the values taken should be substituted in f (x) = x + 1. Indeed, this is the
part of the function which accepts values less than 4. So,
6
x f (x)
3.7 4.7
3.85 4.85
3.995 4.995
3.99999 4.99999
On the other hand, when x approaches 4 from the right, the values taken should be sub-
stituted in f (x) = (x 4)2 + 3. So,
x f (x)
4.3 3.09
4.1 3.01
4.001 3.000001
4.00001 3.0000000001
Observe that the values that f (x) approaches are not equal, namely, f (x) approaches 5
from the left while it approaches 3 from the right. In such a case, we say that the limit of
the given function does not exist (DNE). In symbols,
lim f (x) DNE.

x!4
Remark 1: We need to emphasize an important fact. We do not say that lim f (x)
x!4
“equals DNE”, nor do we write “ lim f (x) = DNE”, because “DNE” is not a value. In the
x!4
previous example, “DNE” indicated that the function moves in different directions as its
variable approaches c from the left and from the right. In other cases, the limit fails to
1
exist because it is undefined, such as for lim which leads to division of 1 by zero.
x!0 x
Remark 2: Have you noticed a pattern in the way we have been investigating a limit? We
have been specifying whether x will approach a value c from the left, through values less
than c, or from the right, through values greater than c. This direction may be specified
in the limit notation, lim f (x) by adding certain symbols.
x!c
• If x approaches c from the left, or through values less than c, then we write lim f (x).
x!c−
• If x approaches c from the right, or through values greater than c, then we write
lim f (x).
x!c+
Furthermore, we say
lim f (x) = L
x!c
if and only if
lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L.
x!c− x!c+
7
In other words, for a limit L to exist, the limits from the left and from the right must both
exist and be equal to L. Therefore,
lim f (x) DNE whenever lim f (x) 6= lim f (x).

x!c x!c− x!c+
These limits, lim f (x) and lim f (x), are also referred to as one-sided limits, since you
x!c− x!c+
only consider values on one side of c.
Thus, we may say:
• in our very first illustration that lim (1 + 3x) = 7 because lim (1 + 3x) = 7 and
x!2 x!2−
lim (1 + 3x) = 7.
x!2+
• in Example 1, lim (x2 + 1) = 2 since lim (x2 + 1) = 2 and lim (x2 + 1) = 2.
x! 1 x! 1− x! 1+
• in Example 2, lim |x| = 0 because lim |x| = 0 and lim |x| = 0.
x!0 x!0− x!0+
x2 5x + 4 x2 5x +4
• in Example 3, lim = 3 because lim = 3 and
x!1 x 1 x!1− x 1
x2
5x + 4
lim = 3.
x!1+ x 1
• in Example 4, lim f (x) DNE because lim f (x) 6= lim f (x).
x!4 x!4− x!4+
LOOKING AT THE GRAPH OF y = f (x)
If one knows the graph of f (x), it will be easier to determine its limits as x approaches
given values of c.
Consider again f (x) = 1 + 3x. Its y = 1 + 3x

8
graph is the straight line with slope
3 and intercepts (0, 1) and ( 1/3, 0). 7
(2, 7)
Look at the graph in the vicinity of
6
x = 2.
5
You can easily see the points (from
the table of values in page 4) 4
(1, 4), (1.4, 5.2), (1.7, 6.1), and so on,
approaching the level where y = 7. 3
The same can be seen from the right

2
(from the table of values in page 4).
Hence, the graph clearly confirms that
1
lim (1 + 3x) = 7.
x!2
1 0 1 2 3 4 x
8
Let us look at the examples again, one by one.
Recall Example 1 where f (x) = x2 + 1. Its graph is given by
y
8
7 y = x2 + 1
6
3
( 1, 2) 2
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 x
It can be seen from the graph that as values of x approach 1, the values of f (x) approach
2.
Recall Example 2 where f (x) = |x|.
y
y = |x|
(0, 0) x
It is clear that lim |x| = 0, that is, the two sides of the graph both move downward to the
x!0
origin (0, 0) as x approaches 0.
x2 5x + 4
Recall Example 3 where f (x) = .
x 1
9
y
x2 5x + 4
y=
0 x 1
1 2 3 4 x
3
(1, 3)
4
x2
5x + 4 (x 4)(x 1)
Take note that f (x) = = = x 4, provided x 6= 1. Hence, the
x 1 x 1
graph of f (x) is also the graph of y = x 1, excluding the point where x = 1.
Recall Example 4 where

8
<x + 1 if x < 4
f (x) =
:(x 4)2 + 3 if x 4.
y
y = f (x)
7
6
(4, 5)
5
3
(4, 3)
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
Again, we can see from the graph that f (x) has no limit as x approaches 4. The two
separate parts of the function move toward different y-levels (y = 5 from the left, y = 3
from the right) in the vicinity of c = 4.
10
So, in general, if we have the graph of a function, such as below, determining limits can be
done much faster and easier by inspection.
y
6
4
(3, 4)
3
(0, 3)
2
(3, 2)
1
( 2, 1) (3, 0)
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
For instance, it can be seen from the graph of y = f (x) that:
a. lim f (x) = 1.
x! 2
b. lim f (x) = 3. Here, it does not matter that f (0) does not exist (that is, it is undefined,
x!0
or x = 0 is not in the domain of f ). Always remember that what matters is the behavior
of the function close to c = 0 and not precisely at c = 0. In fact, even if f (0) were
defined and equal to any other constant (not equal to 3), like 100 or 5000, this would
still have no bearing on the limit. In cases like this, lim f (x) = 3 prevails regardless of
x!0
the value of f (0), if any.
c. lim f (x) DNE. As can be seen in the figure, the two parts of the graph near c = 3 do
x!3
not move toward a common y-level as x approaches c = 3.
(D) EXERCISES (Students may use calculators when applicable.)
Exercises marked with a star (?) are challenging problems or may require a longer solution.
1. Complete the following tables of values to investigate lim (x2 2x + 4).

x!1
11
x f (x) x f (x)
0.5 1.6
0.7 1.35
0.95 1.05
0.995 1.005
0.9995 1.0005
0.99995 1.00005
x 1
2. Complete the following tables of values to investigate lim .
x!0 x+1
x f (x) x f (x)
1 1
0.8 0.75
0.35 0.45
0.1 0.2
0.09 0.09
0.0003 0.0003
0.000001 0.000001
3. Construct a table of values to investigate the following limits:

8
10 <1/x if x  1
a. lim
x!3 x 2 f. lim f (x) if f (x) =
x!0 :x2 2 if x > 1
10
b. lim
x!7 x 2 8
2x + 1
<1/x if x  1
c. lim g. lim f (x) if f (x) =
x!2 x 3 x! 1 :x 2 2 if x > 1
x2 + 6 8
d. lim > x+3 if x < 1
x!0 x2 + 2
>
>
<
h. lim f (x) if f (x) = 2x if x = 1
1 x!1
e. lim
>
> p
: 5x 1 if x > 1
>
x!1 x + 1
12
4. Consider the function f (x) whose graph is shown below.
y
6
Determine the following:
5
a. lim f (x)
4 x! 3
3 b. lim f (x)
x! 1
2
c. lim f (x)
x!1
1
d. lim f (x)
x!3
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
1 e. lim f (x)
x!5
2
y
6 What can be said about the limit of
f (x)
5
4 a. at c = 1, 2, 3, and 4?
3
b. at integer values of c?
2
c. at c = 0.4, 2. 3, 4.7, and 5.5?
1
d. at non-integer values of c?
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
13
y
6
4
Determine the following:
3
a. lim f (x)
2 x! 1.5
1 b. lim f (x)
x!0
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x c. lim f (x)
x!2
1
d. lim f (x)
x!4
2
Teaching Tip
Test how well the students have understood limit evaluation. It is hoped that
by now they have observed that for polynomial and rational functions f , if c is
in the domain of f , then to evaluate lim f (x) they just need to substitute the
x!c
value of c for every x in f (x).
However, this is not true for general functions. Ask the students if they can give
an example or point out an earlier example of a case where c is in the domain
of f , but lim f (x) 6= f (c).
x!c
7. Without a table of values and without graphing f (x), give the values of the following
limits and explain how you arrived at your evaluation.
a. lim (3x 5)
x! 1
9 x2
b. lim where c = 0, 1, 2
x!c x2 4x + 3
x2 9
?c. lim 2
x!3 x 4x + 3
14
1
?8. Consider the function f (x) = whose graph is shown below.
x
y
5
3
1
2 f (x) =
x
1
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
1
What can be said about lim f (x)? Does it exist or not? Why?
x!0
Answer: The limit does not exist. From the graph itself, as x-values approach 0, the
arrows move in opposite directions. If tables of values are constructed, one for x-values
approaching 0 through negative values and another through positive values, it is easy to
observe that the closer the x-values are to 0, the more negatively and positively large
the corresponding f (x)-values become.
?9. Consider the function f (x) whose graph is

y
shown below. What can be said about lim f (x)?
x!0
Does it exist or not? Why? 8
7
Answer: The limit does not exist. Although as 6
x-values approach 0, the arrows seem to move 5
in the same direction, they will not “stop” at a 4
limiting value. In the absence of such a definite 3
limiting value, we still say the limit does not 1
2 f (x) =
x2
exist. (We will revisit this function in the lesson 1
about infinite limits where we will discuss more
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
about its behavior near 0.)
15
?10. Sketch one possible graph of a function f (x) defined on R that satisfies all the listed
conditions.
a. lim f (x) = 1 e. f (2) = 0

x!0
b. lim f (x) DNE
x!1 f. f (4) = 5
c. lim f (x) = 0
x!2
d. f (1) = 2 g. lim f (x) = 5 for all c > 4.
x!c
Possible answer (there are many other possibilities):

y
6
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
16
TOPIC 1.2: The Limit of a Function at c versus the Value of the
Function at c
(A) INTRODUCTION
Critical to the study of limits is the understanding that the value of
lim f (x)
x!c
may be distinct from the value of the function at x = c, that is, f (c). As seen in previous
examples, the limit may be evaluated at values not included in the domain of f . Thus,
it must be clear to a student of calculus that the exclusion of a value from the domain of
a function does not prohibit the evaluation of the limit of that function at that excluded
value, provided of course that f is defined at the points near c. In fact, these cases are
actually the more interesting ones to investigate and evaluate.
Furthermore, the awareness of this distinction will help the student understand the concept
of continuity, which will be tackled in Lessons 3 and 4.
(B) LESSON PROPER
We will mostly recall our discussions and examples in Lesson 1.

Let us again consider
lim (1 + 3x).
x!2
Recall that its tables of values are:
x f (x) x f (x)
1 4 3 10
1.4 5.2 2.5 8.5
1.7 6.1 2.2 7.6
1.9 6.7 2.1 7.3
1.95 6.85 2.03 7.09
1.997 6.991 2.009 7.027
1.9999 6.9997 2.0005 7.0015
1.9999999 6.9999997 2.0000001 7.0000003
and we had concluded that lim (1 + 3x) = 7.

x!2
17
In comparison, f (2) = 7. So, in this example, lim f (x) and f (2) are equal. Notice that the
x!2
same holds for the next examples discussed:
lim f (x) f (c)

x!c
lim (x2 + 1) = 2 f ( 1) = 2
x! 1
lim |x| = 0 f (0) = 0
x!0
This, however, is not always the case. Let us consider the function
8
<|x| if x 6= 0
f (x) =
:2 if x = 0.
In contrast to the second example above, the entries are now unequal:
lim f (x) f (c)

x!c
lim |x| = 0 f (0) = 2
x!0
Does this in any way affect the existence of the limit? Not at all. This example shows that
lim f (x) and f (c) may be distinct.
x!c
Furthermore, consider the third example in Lesson 1 where

8
<x + 1 if x < 4
f (x) =
:(x 4)2 + 3 if x 4.
We have:
lim f (x) f (c)

x!c
lim f (x) DNE f (4) = 2
x!4
Once again we see that lim f (x) and f (c) are not the same.
x!c
18
A review of the graph given in Lesson 1 (redrawn below) will emphasize this fact.
4
(3, 4)
(0, 3)
3
(3, 2)
2
1
( 2, 1)
(3, 0)
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
We restate the conclusions, adding the respective values of f (c):
(a) lim f (x) = 1 and f ( 2) = 1.

x! 2
(b) lim f (x) = 3 and f (0) does not exist (or is undefined).
x!0
(c) lim f (x) DNE and f (3) also does not exist (or is undefined).
x!3
(C) EXERCISES
1. Consider the function f (x) whose graph is given below.
y 6
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
19
Based on the graph, fill in the table with the appropriate values.
c lim f (x) f (c)

x!c
2
1/2
0
1
3
4
2. For each given combination of values of lim f (x) and f (c), sketch the graph of a
x!c
possible function that illustrates the combination. For example, if lim f (x) = 2 and
x!1
f (1) = 3, then a possible graph of f (x) near x = 1 may be any of the two graphs
below.
y y
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
Do a similar rendition for each of the following combinations:
i. lim f (x) = 2 and f (1) = 2 iv. lim j(x) = 2 and j(1) is undefined
x!1 x!1
ii. lim g(x) = 1 and g(1) = 1 v. lim p(x) DNE and p(1) is undefined
x!1 x!1
iii. lim h(x) DNE and h(1) = 0
x!1
20
y
6
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
State whether lim f (x) and f (c) are equal or unequal at the given value of c. Also,
x!c
state whether lim f (x) or f (c) does not exist.
x!c
i. c = 3 v. c = 1 ix. c = 4
ii. c = 2 vi. c = 2 x. c = 6
iii. c = 0 vii. c = 2.3
iv. c = 0.5 viii. c = 3
21
TOPIC 1.3: Illustration of Limit Theorems
(A) INTRODUCTION
Lesson 1 showed us how limits can be determined through either a table of values or the
graph of a function. One might ask: Must one always construct a table or graph the
function to determine a limit? Filling in a table of values sometimes requires very tedious
calculations. Likewise, a graph may be difficult to sketch. However, these should not be
reasons for a student to fail to determine a limit.
In this lesson, we will learn how to compute the limit of a function using Limit Theorems.
Teaching Tip
It would be good to recall the parts of Lesson 1 where the students were asked to
give the value of a limit, without aid of a table or a graph. Those exercises were
intended to lead to the Limit Theorems. These theorems are a formalization of
what they had intuitively concluded then.
(B) LESSON PROPER
We are now ready to list down the basic theorems on limits. We will state eight theorems.
These will enable us to directly evaluate limits, without need for a table or a graph.
In the following statements, c is a constant, and f and g are functions which may or may
not have c in their domains.
1. The limit of a constant is itself. If k is any constant, then,
lim k = k.
x!c
For example,
i. lim 2 = 2
x!c
ii. lim 3.14 = 3.14
x!c
iii. lim 789 = 789
x!c
22
2. The limit of x as x approaches c is equal to c. This may be thought of as the substitution
law, because x is simply substituted by c.
lim x = c.
x!c
For example,
i. lim x = 9
x!9
ii. lim x = 0.005
x!0.005
iii. lim x = 10
x! 10
For the remaining theorems, we will assume that the limits of f and g both exist as x
approaches c and that they are L and M , respectively. In other words,
lim f (x) = L, and lim g(x) = M.

x!c x!c
3. The Constant Multiple Theorem: This says that the limit of a multiple of a function is
simply that multiple of the limit of the function.
lim k · f (x) = k · lim f (x) = k · L.

x!c x!c
For example, if lim f (x) = 4, then

x!c
i. lim 8 · f (x) = 8 · lim f (x) = 8 · 4 = 32.

x!c x!c
ii. lim 11 · f (x) = 11 · lim f (x) = 11 · 4 = 44.
x!c x!c
3 3 3
iii. lim · f (x) = · lim f (x) = · 4 = 6.
x!c 2 2 x!c 2
4. The Addition Theorem: This says that the limit of a sum of functions is the sum of the
limits of the individual functions. Subtraction is also included in this law, that is, the
limit of a difference of functions is the difference of their limits.
lim ( f (x) + g(x) ) = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = L + M.

x!c x!c x!c
lim ( f (x) g(x) ) = lim f (x) lim g(x) = L M.

x!c x!c x!c
For example, if lim f (x) = 4 and lim g(x) = 5 , then

x!c x!c
i. lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = 4 + ( 5) = 1.

x!c x!c x!c
ii. lim (f (x) g(x)) = lim f (x) lim g(x) = 4 ( 5) = 9.
x!c x!c x!c
23
5. The Multiplication Theorem: This is similar to the Addition Theorem, with multipli-
cation replacing addition as the operation involved. Thus, the limit of a product of
functions is equal to the product of their limits.
lim (f (x) · g(x)) = lim f (x) · lim g(x) = L · M.

x!c x!c x!c
Again, let lim f (x) = 4 and lim g(x) = 5. Then

x!c x!c
lim f (x) · g(x) = lim f (x) · lim g(x) = 4 · ( 5) = 20.

x!c x!c x!c
Remark 1: The Addition and Multiplication Theorems may be applied to sums, dif-
ferences, and products of more than two functions.
Remark 2: The Constant Multiple Theorem is a special case of the Multiplication

Theorem. Indeed, in the Multiplication Theorem, if the first function f (x) is replaced
by a constant k, the result is the Constant Multiple Theorem.
6. The Division Theorem: This says that the limit of a quotient of functions is equal to
the quotient of the limits of the individual functions, provided the denominator limit is
not equal to 0.
f (x) lim f (x)

x!c
lim =
x!c g(x) lim g(x)
x!c
L
= , provided M 6= 0.
M
For example,
i. If lim f (x) = 4 and lim g(x) = 5,
x!c x!c
f (x) lim f (x) 4 4

lim = x!c = = .
x!c g(x) lim g(x) 5 5
x!c
ii. If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 5,

x!c x!c
f (x) 0
lim = = 0.
x!c g(x) 5
24
f (x)
iii. If lim f (x) = 4 and lim g(x) = 0, it is not possible to evaluate lim , or we
x!c x!c x!c g(x)
may say that the limit DNE.
7. The Power Theorem: This theorem states that the limit of an integer power p of a
function is just that power of the limit of the function.
lim (f (x))p = (lim f (x))p = Lp .

x!c x!c
For example,
i. If lim f (x) = 4, then
x!c
lim (f (x))3 = (lim f (x))3 = 43 = 64.

x!c x!c
ii. If lim f (x) = 4, then

x!c
2 2 2 1 1
lim (f (x)) = (lim f (x)) =4 = = .
x!c x!c 42 16
8. The Radical/Root Theorem: This theorem states that if n is a positive integer, the limit
of the nth root of a function is just the nth root of the limit of the function, provided
the nth root of the limit is a real number. Thus, it is important to keep in mind that if
n is even, the limit of the function must be positive.
p q p
n
lim n
f (x) = n lim f (x) = L.
x!c x!c
For example,
i. If lim f (x) = 4, then
x!c
p q p
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = 4 = 2.
x!c x!c
p
ii. If lim f (x) = 4, then it is not possible to evaluate lim f (x) because then,
x!c x!c
q p
lim f (x) = 4,
x!c
and this is not a real number.
25
(C) EXERCISES
1. Complete the following table.

c lim 2016 lim x
x!c x!c
2
1/2
0
3.1416
10
p
3
2. Assume the following:

3
lim f (x) = , lim g(x) = 12, and lim h(x) = 3.
x!c 4 x!c x!c
Compute the following limits:
a. lim ( 4 · f (x)) g. lim (4 · f (x) + h(x))

x!c x!c
p
b. lim 12 · f (x) h. lim (8 · f (x) g(x) 2 · h(x))
x!c x!c
c. lim (g(x) h(x)) i. lim (f (x) · g(x) · h(x))
x!c x!c
d. lim (f (x) · g(x)) j. lim
p
g(x) · h(x)
x!c
x!c
g(x) + h(x)
e. lim g(x)
x!c f (x) k. lim
✓ ◆ x!c (h(x))2
f (x)
f. lim · g(x) g(x)
x!c h(x) l. lim · f (x)
x!c (h(x))2
3. Determine whether the statement is True or False. If it is false, explain what makes it
false, or provide a counterexample.
a. If lim f (x) and lim g(x) both exist, then lim (f (x) ± g(x)) always exists.
x!c x!c x!c
b. If lim f (x) and lim g(x) both exist, then lim (f (x) · g(x)) always exists.
x!c x!c x!c
f (x)
c. If lim f (x) and lim g(x) both exist, then lim always exists.
x!c x!c x!c g(x)
d. If lim f (x) exists and p is an integer, then lim (f (x))p , where p is an integer, always
x!c x!c
exists.
p
e. If lim f (x) exists and n is a natural number, then lim n f (x), always exists.
x!c x!c
?f. If lim (f (x) g(x)) = 0, then lim f (x) and lim g(x) are equal. Answer: False.
x!c x!c x!c
1
(Take f (x) = = g(x) and c = 0.)
x
f (x)
?g. If lim = 1, then lim f (x) and lim g(x) are equal. Answer: False. (Take
x!c g(x) x!c x!c
1
f (x) = = g(x) and c = 0.)
x
26
4. Assume the following:
lim f (x) = 1, lim g(x) = 1, and lim h(x) = 2.

x!c x!c x!c
Compute the following limits:

⇣ ⌘
a. lim (f (x) + g(x))
x!c
i. lim f (x) · g(x) · (h(x))2
x!c
b. lim (f (x) g(x) h(x)) 1
x!c
j. lim
c. lim (3 · g(x) + 5 · h(x)) x!c f (x)
x!c
p 1
d. lim f (x) k. lim
x!c x!c g(x)
p
e. lim g(x) 1
x!c l. lim
p x!c h(x)
f. lim 3 g(x)
x!c 1
g. lim (h(x))5 m. lim
x!c
x!c f (x) h(x)
g(x) f (x) 1
h. lim n. lim
x!c h(x) x!c f (x) + g(x)
5. Assume f (x) = x. Evaluate
a. lim f (x). f. lim ((f (x))2 f (x)).

x!4 x!4
1 g. lim ((f (x))3 + (f (x))2 + 2 · f (x)).
b. lim . x!4
x!4f (x) p
1 h. lim n 3 · (f (x))2 + 4 · f (x).
c. lim . x!4
x!4 (f (x))2
(f (x))2 f (x)
i. lim .
p
d. lim f (x). x!4 5 · f (x)
x!4
(f (x))2 4f (x)
p
e. lim 9 · f (x).
x!4 j. lim .
x!4 (f (x))2 + 4f (x)
27
TOPIC 1.4: Limits of Polynomial, Rational, and Radical Func-
tions
(A) INTROUCTION
In the previous lesson, we presented and illustrated the limit theorems. We start by recalling
these limit theorems.
Theorem 1. Let c, k, L and M be real numbers, and let f (x) and g(x) be functions defined
on some open interval containing c, except possibly at c.
1. If lim f (x) exists, then it is unique. That is, if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = M , then
x!c x!c x!c
L = M.
2. lim c = c.
x!c
3. lim x = c
x!c
4. Suppose lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M .
x!c x!c
i. (Constant Multiple) lim [k · g(x)] = k · M .
x!c
ii. (Addition) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = L ± M .
x!c
iii. (Multiplication) lim [f (x)g(x)] = LM .
x!c
f (x) L
iv. (Division) lim = , provided M 6= 0.
x!c g(x) M
v. (Power) lim [f (x)]p = Lp for p, a positive integer.
x!c
p p
n
vi. (Root/Radical) lim n f (x) = L for positive integers n, and provided that L > 0
x!c
when n is even.
Teaching Tip
It would be helpful for the students if these limit theorems remain written on the
board or on manila paper throughout the discussion of this lesson.
In this lesson, we will show how these limit theorems are used in evaluating algebraic func-
tions. Particularly, we will illustrate how to use them to evaluate the limits of polynomial,
rational and radical functions.
(B) LESSON PROPER
LIMITS OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
We start with evaluating the limits of polynomial functions.
28
EXAMPLE 1: Determine lim (2x + 1).
x!1
Solution. From the theorems above,
lim (2x + 1) = lim 2x + lim 1 (Addition)

x!1 x!1 x!1
✓ ◆
= 2 lim x + 1 (Constant Multiple)
x!1
✓ ◆
= 2(1) + 1 lim x = c
x!c
=2+1
= 3.
EXAMPLE 2: Determine lim (2x3 4x2 + 1).

x! 1
lim (2x3 4x2 + 1) = lim 2x3 lim 4x2 + lim 1 (Addition)

x! 1 x! 1 x! 1 x! 1
= 2 lim x3 4 lim x2 + 1 (Constant Multiple)
x! 1 x! 1
= 2( 1)3 4( 1)2 + 1 (Power)
= 2 4+1
= 5.
.
EXAMPLE 3: Evaluate lim (3x4 2x 1).

x!0
lim (3x4 2x 1) = lim 3x4 lim 2x lim 1 (Addition)

x!0 x!0 x!0 x!0
= 3 lim x4 2 lim x2 1 (Constant Multiple)
x!0 x!0
= 3(0)4 2(0) 1 (Power)
=0 0 1
= 1.
.
We will now apply the limit theorems in evaluating rational functions. In evaluating the
limits of such functions, recall from Theorem 1 the Division Rule, and all the rules stated
in Theorem 1 which have been useful in evaluating limits of polynomial functions, such as
the Addition and Product Rules.
29
1
EXAMPLE 4: Evaluate lim .
x!1 x
Solution. First, note that lim x = 1. Since the limit of the denominator is nonzero, we can
x!1
apply the Division Rule. Thus,
1 lim 1
x!1
lim = (Division)
x!1 x lim x
x!1
1
=
1
= 1.
.
x
x!2 x + 1
Solution. We start by checking the limit of the polynomial function in the denominator.
lim (x + 1) = lim x + lim 1 = 2 + 1 = 3.

x!2 x!2 x!2
Since the limit of the denominator is not zero, it follows that
x lim x 2
x!2
lim = = (Division)
x!2 x + 1 lim (x + 1) 3
x!2
.
(x 3)(x2 2)
EXAMPLE 6: Evaluate lim . First, note that
x!1 x2 + 1
lim (x2 + 1) = lim x2 + lim 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 6= 0.

x!1 x!1 x!1
Thus, using the theorem,
(x 3)(x2 2) lim (x 3)(x2 2)

x!1
lim = (Division)
x!1 x2 + 1 lim (x2 + 1)
x!1
lim (x 3) · lim (x2 2)
x!1 x!1
= (Multipication)
✓ 2 ◆✓ ◆
lim x lim 3 lim x2 lim 2
x!1 x!1 x!1 x!1
= (Addition)
2
(1 3)(12 2)
=
2
= 1.
30
Theorem 2. Let f be a polynomial of the form
f (x) = an xn + an 1x
n 1
+ an 2x
n 2
+ ... + a1 x + a0 .
If c is a real number, then

lim f (x) = f (c).
x!c
Proof. Let c be any real number. Remember that a polynomial is defined at any real
number. So,
f (c) = an cn + an 1 cn 1 + an 2 cn 2 + ... + a1 c + a0 .
Now apply the limit theorems in evaluating lim f (x):

x!c
lim f (x) = lim (an xn + an 1x

n 1
+ an 2x
n 2
+ ... + a1 x + a0 )
x!c x!c
= lim an xn + lim an 1x
n 1
+ lim an 2x
n 2
+ ... + lim a1 x + lim a0
x!c x!c x!c x!c x!c
n n 1 n 2
= an lim x + an 1 lim x + an 2 lim x + ... + a1 lim x + a0
x!c x!c x!c x!c
n n 1 n 2
= an c + a n 1c + an 2c + ... + a1 c + a0
= f (c).
Therefore, lim f (x) = f (c).

x!c
EXAMPLE 7: Evaluate lim (2x3 4x2 + 1).

x! 1
Solution. Note first that our function
f (x) = 2x3 4x2 + 1,
is a polynomial. Computing for the value of f at x = 1, we get
f ( 1) = 2( 1)3 4( 1)2 + 1 = 2( 1) 4(1) + 1 = 5.
Therefore, from Theorem 2,
lim (2x3 4x2 + 1) = f ( 1) = 5.

x! 1
Note that we get the same answer when we use limit theorems.
f (x)
Theorem 3. Let h be a rational function of the form h(x) = where f and g are
g(x)
polynomial functions. If c is a real number and g(c) 6= 0, then
f (x) f (c)
lim h(x) = lim = .
x!c x!c g(x) g(c)
31
Proof. From Theorem 2, lim g(x) = g(c), which is nonzero by assumption. Moreover,
x!c
lim f (x) = f (c). Therefore, by the Division Rule of Theorem 1,
x!c
f (x) lim f (x) f (c)

lim = x!c = .
x!c g(x) lim g(x) g(c)
x!c
1 5x
x!1 1 + 3x2 + 4x4
Solution. Since the denominator is not zero when evaluated at x = 1, we may apply
Theorem 3:
1 5x 1 5(1) 4 1
lim 2 4
= 2 4
= = .
x!1 1 + 3x + 4x 1 + 3(1) + 4(1) 8 2
.
We will now evaluate limits of radical functions using limit theorems.
p
EXAMPLE 9: Evaluate lim x.
x!1
Solution. Note that lim x = 1 > 0. Therefore, by the Radical/Root Rule,

x!1
p q p
lim x= lim x = 1 = 1.
x!1 x!1
.
p
EXAMPLE 10: Evaluate lim x + 4.
x!0
Solution. Note that lim (x + 4) = 4 > 0. Hence, by the Radical/Root Rule,

x!0
p q p
lim x+4= lim (x + 4) = 4 = 2.
x!0 x!0
.
p
3
EXAMPLE 11: Evaluate lim x2 + 3x 6.
x! 2
Solution. Since the index of the radical sign is odd, we do not have to worry that the limit
of the radicand is negative. Therefore, the Radical/Root Rule implies that
p r p p
x + 3x 6 = 3 lim (x2 + 3x 6) = 3 4 6 6 = 3 8 = 2.
3 2
lim
x! 2 x! 2
32
p
2x + 5
x!2 1 3x
Solution. First, note that lim (1 3x) = 5 6= 0. Moreover, lim (2x + 5) = 9 > 0. Thus,
x!2 x!2
using the Division and Radical Rules of Theorem 1, we obtain
p p q
p
lim 2x + 5 lim (2x + 5)
2x + 5 x!2 9 3
lim = x!2 = = = .
x!2 1 3x lim 1 3x 5 5 5
x!2
INTUITIVE NOTIONS OF INFINITE LIMITS

f (x)
We investigate the limit at a point c of a rational function of the form where f and g
g(x)
are polynomial functions with f (c) 6= 0 and g(c) = 0. Note that Theorem 3 does not cover
this because it assumes that the denominator is nonzero at c.
1 7
Now, consider the function f (x) = 2 .
x 6
Note that the function is not defined at 5
x = 0 but we can check the behavior of the 4
function as x approaches 0 intuitively. We 3
first consider approaching 0 from the left. 1
2 f (x) =
x2
1
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
x f (x)
0.9 1.2345679
0.5 4
0.1 100
0.01 10, 000
0.001 1, 000, 000
0.0001 100, 000, 000
Observe that as x approaches 0 from the left, the value of the function increases without
bound. When this happens, we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches 0 from the left
is positive infinity, that is,
lim f (x) = +1.
x!0−
33
x f (x)
0.9 1.2345679
0.5 4
0.1 100
0.01 10, 000
0.001 1, 000, 000
0.0001 100, 000, 000
Again, as x approaches 0 from the right, the value of the function increases without bound,
so, lim f (x) = +1.
x!0+
Since lim f (x) = +1 and lim f (x) = +1, we may conclude that lim f (x) = +1.
x!0− x!0+ x!0
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
x
1
1
1 2 f (x) =
Now, consider the function f (x) = . x2
x2 3
Note that the function is not defined at x = 4
0 but we can still check the behavior of the 5
function as x approaches 0 intuitively. We 6
first consider approaching 0 from the left. 7
8
x f (x)
0.9 1.2345679
0.5 4
0.1 100
0.01 10, 000
0.001 1, 000, 000
0.0001 100, 000, 000
This time, as x approaches 0 from the left, the value of the function decreases without
bound. So, we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches 0 from the left is negative infinity,
that is,
lim f (x) = 1.
x!0−
34
x f (x)
0.9 1.2345679
0.5 4
0.1 100
0.01 10, 000
0.001 1, 000, 000
0.0001 100, 000, 000
As x approaches 0 from the right, the value of the function also decreases without bound,
that is, lim f (x) = 1.
x!0+
Since lim f (x) = 1 and lim f (x) = 1, we are able to conclude that lim f (x) = 1.
x!0− x!0+ x!0
We now state the intuitive definition of infinite limits of functions:
The limit of f (x) as x approaches c is positive infinity, denoted by,
lim f (x) = +1
x!c
if the value of f (x) increases without bound whenever the values of x get closer and closer
to c. The limit of f (x) as x approaches c is negative infinity, denoted by,
lim f (x) = 1
x!c
if the value of f (x) decreases without bound whenever the values of x get closer and closer
to c.
1 y
Let us consider f (x) = . The graph on
x 5
the right suggests that
4
1
3f (x) =
lim f (x) = 1 x
x!0− 2
1
while
lim f (x) = +1. 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
x!0+ 1
Because the one-sided limits are not the 2

3
same, we say that
4
5
lim f (x) DNE.
x!0
Remark 1: Remember that 1 is NOT a number. It holds no specific value. So, lim f (x) =
x!c
+1 or lim f (x) = 1 describes the behavior of the function near x = c, but it does not
x!c
exist as a real number.
35
Remark 2: Whenever lim f (x) = ±1 or lim f (x) = ±1, we normally see the dashed
x!c+ x!c−
vertical line x = c. This is to indicate that the graph of y = f (x) is asymptotic to x = c,
meaning, the graphs of y = f (x) and x = c are very close to each other near c. In this case,
we call x = c a vertical asymptote of the graph of y = f (x).
Teaching Tip
Computing infinite limits is not a learning objective of this course, however, we will
be needing this notion for the discussion on infinite essential discontinuity, which
will be presented in Topic 4.1. It is enough that the student determines that the
limit at the point c is +1 or 1 from the behavior of the graph, or the trend of
the y-coordinates in a table of values.
(C) EXERCISES
I. Evaluate the following limits.

p
1. lim (1 + 3
w)(2 w2 + 3w3 ) 4 3y 2 y 3
w!1 5. lim
y! 2 6 y y2
t2 1 x 3 7x2 + 14x 8
2. lim 6. lim
t! 2 t2 + 3t 1 2
p 2x 3x 4
x! 1
✓ 2
◆3
2z + z 2
x +3 2
3. lim 7. lim
z!2 z2 + 4 2
p x + 1
x! 1
p
x2 x 2 2x 6 x
4. lim 8. lim
x!0 x3 6x2 7x + 1 x!2 4 + x2
II. Complete the following tables.

x 5 x x 5 x
x x
x 3 x2 6x + 9 x 3 x2 6x + 9
2.5 3.5
2.8 3.2
2.9 3.1
2.99 3.01
2.999 3.001
2.9999 3.0001
From the table, determine the following limits.
x 5 x
1. lim 4. lim
x!3− x 3 x!3− x2 6x + 9
x 5 x
2. lim 5. lim
x!3+ x 3 x!3+ x2 6x + 9
x 5 x
3. lim 6. lim
x!3 x 3 x!3 x2 6x + 9
36
III. Recall the graph of y = csc x. From the behavior of the graph of the cosecant function,
determine if the following limits evaluate to +1 or to 1.
1. lim csc x 3. lim csc x

x!0− x!⇡ −
2. lim csc x 4. lim csc x
x!0+ x!⇡ +
IV. Recall the graph of y = tan x.

1. Find the value of c 2 (0, ⇡) such that lim tan x = +1.
x!c−
2. Find the value of d 2 (⇡, 2⇡) such that lim tan x = 1.
x!d+
37
LESSON 2: Limits of Some Transcendental Functions and Some
Indeterminate Forms
TIME FRAME: 4 hours
1. Compute the limits of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions using tables
of values and graphs of the functions;
sin t 1 cos t et 1
2. Evaluate the limits of expressions involving , , and using tables of
t t t
values; and
“ 0”
3. Evaluate the limits of expressions resulting in the indeterminate form .
0
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Exponential functions
2. Logarithmic functions
3. Trigonometric functions
sin t
4. Evaluating lim
t!0 t
1 cos t
5. Evaluating lim
t!0 t
et 1
6. Evaluating lim
t!0 t
“ 0”
7. Indeterminate form
0
38
TOPIC 2.1: Limits of Exponential, Logarithmic, and Trigonomet-
ric Functions
(A) INTRODUCTION
Real-world situations can be expressed in terms of functional relationships. These func-
tional relationships are called mathematical models. In applications of calculus, it is quite
important that one can generate these mathematical models. They sometimes use functions
that you encountered in precalculus, like the exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric
functions. Hence, we start this lesson by recalling these functions and their corresponding
graphs.
(a) If b > 0, b 6= 1, the exponential function with base b is defined by
f (x) = bx , x 2 R.
(b) Let b > 0, b 6= 1. If by = x then y is called the logarithm of x to the base b, denoted
y = logb x.
Teaching Tip
Allow students to use their calculators.
(B) LESSON PROPER
EVALUATING LIMITS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
First, we consider the natural exponential function f (x) = ex , where e is called the Euler
number, and has value 2.718281....
EXAMPLE 1: Evaluate the lim ex .

x!0
Solution. We will construct the table of values for f (x) = ex . We start by approaching the
number 0 from the left or through the values less than but close to 0.
Teaching Tip
Some students may not be familiar with the natural number e on their scientific
calculators. Demonstrate to them how to properly input powers of e on their
calculators .
39
x f (x)
1 0.36787944117
0.5 0.60653065971
0.1 0.90483741803
0.01 0.99004983374
0.001 0.99900049983
0.0001 0.999900049983
0.00001 0.99999000005
Intuitively, from the table above, lim ex = 1. Now we consider approaching 0 from its
x!0−
right or through values greater than but close to 0.
x f (x)
1 2.71828182846
0.5 1.6487212707
0.1 1.10517091808
0.01 1.01005016708
0.001 1.00100050017
0.0001 1.000100005
0.00001 1.00001000005
From the table, as the values of x get closer and closer to 0, the values of f (x) get closer
and closer to 1. So, lim ex = 1. Combining the two one-sided limits allows us to conclude
x!0+
that
lim ex = 1.
x!0
We can use the graph of f (x) = ex to determine its limit as x approaches 0. The figure
below is the graph of f (x) = ex .
y
Looking at Figure 1.1, as the values of x approach 0, either

from the right or the left, the values of f (x) will get closer
and closer to 1. We also have the following:
(a) lim ex = e = 2.718...

x!1
y = ex
(b) lim ex = e2 = 7.389...
x!2
(c) lim ex = e 1
= 0.367...
x! 1 1
3 2 1 0 1 2 3 x
40
EVALUATING LIMITS OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
Now, consider the natural logarithmic function f (x) = ln x. Recall that ln x = loge x.
Moreover, it is the inverse of the natural exponential function y = ex .
EXAMPLE 2: Evaluate lim ln x.

x!1
Solution. We will construct the table of values for f (x) = ln x. We first approach the
number 1 from the left or through values less than but close to 1.
x f (x)
0.1 2.30258509299
0.5 0.69314718056
0.9 0.10536051565
0.99 0.01005033585
0.999 0.00100050033
0.9999 0.000100005
0.99999 0.00001000005
Intuitively, lim ln x = 0. Now we consider approaching 1 from its right or through values
x!1−
greater than but close to 1.
x f (x)
2 0.69314718056
1.5 0.4054651081
1.1 0.0953101798
1.01 0.00995033085
1.001 0.00099950033
1.0001 0.000099995
1.00001 0.00000999995
Intuitively, lim ln x = 0. As the values of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x)
x!1+
get closer and closer to 0. In symbols,
lim ln x = 0.
x!1
We now consider the common logarithmic function f (x) = log10 x. Recall that f (x) =
log10 x = log x.
41
EXAMPLE 3: Evaluate lim log x.
x!1
Solution. We will construct the table of values for f (x) = log x. We first approach the
x f (x)
0.1 1
0.5 0.30102999566
0.9 0.04575749056
0.99 0.0043648054
0.999 0.00043451177
0.9999 0.00004343161
0.99999 0.00000434296
x f (x)
2 0.30102999566
1.5 0.17609125905
1.1 0.04139268515
1.01 0.00432137378
1.001 0.00043407747
1.0001 0.00004342727
1.00001 0.00000434292
As the values of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to 0.
In symbols,
lim log x = 0.
x!1
Consider now the graphs of both the natural and common logarithmic functions. We can
use the following graphs to determine their limits as x approaches 1..
42
f (x) = ln x
f (x) = log x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
The figure helps verify our observations that lim ln x = 0 and lim log x = 0. Also, based
x!1 x!1
on the figure, we have
(a) lim ln x = 1 (d) lim log x = log 3 = 0.47...

x!e x!3
(b) lim log x = 1 (e) lim ln x = 1
x!10 x!0+
(c) lim ln x = ln 3 = 1.09... (f) lim log x = 1
x!3 x!0+
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
EXAMPLE 4: Evaluate lim sin x.

x!0
Solution. We will construct the table of values for f (x) = sin x. We first approach 0 from
the left or through the values less than but close to 0.
x f (x)
1 0.8414709848
0.5 0.4794255386
0.1 0.09983341664
0.01 0.00999983333
0.001 0.00099999983
0.0001 0.00009999999
0.00001 0.00000999999
43
x f (x)
1 0.8414709848
0.5 0.4794255386
0.1 0.09983341664
0.01 0.00999983333
0.001 0.00099999983
0.0001 0.00009999999
0.00001 0.00000999999
As the values of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to 0.
In symbols,
lim sin x = 0.
x!0
.
We can also find lim sin x by using the graph of the sine function. Consider the graph of
x!0
f (x) = sin x.
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡
2 2 2 2
1
The graph validates our observation in Example 4 that lim sin x = 0. Also, using the
x!0
graph, we have the following:
(a) limπ sin x = 1. (c) limπ sin x = 1.

x! 2 x! 2
(b) lim sin x = 0. (d) lim sin x = 0.

x!⇡ x! ⇡
Teaching Tip
Ask the students what they have observed about the limit of the functions above
and their functional value at a point. Lead them to the fact that if f is either
exponential, logarithmic or trigonometric, and if c is a real number which is in the
domain of f , then
lim f (x) = f (c).
x!c
This property is also shared by polynomials and rational functions, as discussed in

Topic 1.4.
44
(C) EXERCISES
I. Evaluate the following limits by constructing the table of values.
1. lim 3x 5. lim tan x

x!1 x!0
x
2. lim 5
x!2 ?6. lim cos x Answer: -1
3. lim log x x!⇡
x!4
4. lim cos x ?7. lim sin x Answer: 0
x!0 x!⇡
II. Given the graph below, evaluate the following limits:

y
y = bx
1. lim bx 2. lim bx 3. lim bx

x!0 x!1.2 x! 1
III. Given the graph of the cosine function f (x) = cos x, evaluate the following limits:
⇡ ⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡
2 2 2 2
1
1. lim cos x 2. lim cos x 3. limπ cos x

x!0 x!⇡ x! 2
45
TOPIC 2.2: Some Special Limits
(A) INTRODUCTION
sin t
We will determine the limits of three special functions; namely, f (t) = , g(t) =
t
1 cos t et 1
, and h(t) = . These functions will be vital to the computation of the
t t
derivatives of the sine, cosine, and natural exponential functions in Chapter 2.
(B) LESSON PROPER
THREE SPECIAL FUNCTIONS
sin t
We start by evaluating the function f (t) = .
t
sin t
t!0 t
sin t
Solution. We will construct the table of values for f (t) = . We first approach the
t
number 0 from the left or through values less than but close to 0.
t f (t)
1 0.84147099848
0.5 0.9588510772
0.1 0.9983341665
0.01 0.9999833334
0.001 0.9999998333
0.0001 0.99999999983
Now we consider approaching 0 from the right or through values greater than but close to 0.
t f (t)
1 0.8414709848
0.5 0.9588510772
0.1 0.9983341665
0.01 0.9999833334
0.001 0.9999998333
0.0001 0.9999999983
46
sin t sin t
Since lim and lim are both equal to 1, we conclude that
t!0− t t!0+ t
sin t
lim = 1.
t!0 t
sin t
The graph of f (t) = below confirms that the y-values approach 1 as t approaches 0.
t
sin t
1 y=
t
0.5
−8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8
1 cos t
Now, consider the function g(t) = .
t
1 cos t
t!0 t
1 cos t
Solution. We will construct the table of values for g(t) = . We first approach the
t
t g(t)
1 0.4596976941
0.5 0.2448348762
0.1 0.04995834722
0.01 0.0049999583
0.001 0.0004999999
0.0001 0.000005
t g(t)
1 0.4596976941
0.5 0.2448348762
0.1 0.04995834722
0.01 0.0049999583
0.001 0.0004999999
0.0001 0.000005
47
1 cos t 1 cos t
Since lim = 0 and lim = 0, we conclude that
t!0− t t!0+ t
1 cos t
lim = 0.
t!0 t
.
1 cos t
Below is the graph of g(t) = . We see that the y-values approach 0 as t tends to 0.
t
1
1 cos t
y=
t
0.5
−8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8
−0.5
et 1
We now consider the special function h(t) = .
t
et 1
t!0 t
et 1
Solution. We will construct the table of values for h(t) = . We first approach the
t
t h(t)
1 0.6321205588
0.5 0.7869386806
0.1 0.9516258196
0.01 0.9950166251
0.001 0.9995001666
0.0001 0.9999500016
t h(t)
1 1.718281828
0.5 1.297442541
0.1 1.051709181
0.01 1.005016708
0.001 1.000500167
0.0001 1.000050002
48
et 1 et 1
Since lim = 1 and lim = 1, we conclude that
x!0− t x!0+ t
et 1
lim = 1.
x!0 t
.
et 1
The graph of h(t) = below confirms that lim h(t) = 1.
t t!0
1.5
1
et 1
y=
t
0.5
−8 −6 −4 −2 0 2
“ 0”
INDETERMINATE FORM
0
There are functions whose limits cannot be determined immediately using the Limit The-
orems we have so far. In these cases, the functions must be manipulated so that the limit,
if it exists, can be calculated. We call such limit expressions indeterminate forms.
“ 0”
In this lesson, we will define a particular indeterminate form, , and discuss how to
0
evaluate a limit which will initially result in this form.
“ 0”
Definition of Indeterminate Form of Type
0
f (x)
If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then lim is called an indeterminate form
x!c x!c x!c g(x)
“ 0”
of type .
0
“ 0”
Remark 1: A limit that is indeterminate of type may exist. To find the actual
0
value, one should find an expression equivalent to the original. This is commonly done by
factoring or by rationalizing. Hopefully, the expression that will emerge after factoring or
rationalizing will have a computable limit.
x2 + 2x + 1
x! 1 x+1
Solution. The limit of both the numerator and the denominator as x approaches 1 is 0.
0
Thus, this limit as currently written is an indeterminate form of type . However, observe
0
that (x + 1) is a factor common to the numerator and the denominator, and
x2 + 2x + 1 (x + 1)2
= = x + 1, when x 6= 1.
x+1 x+1
49
Therefore,
x2 + 2x + 1
lim = lim (x + 1) = 0.
x! 1 x+1 x! 1
.
x2 1
EXAMPLE 5: Evaluate lim p .
x!1 x 1
p x2 1
Solution. Since lim x2 1 = 0 and lim x 1 = 0, then lim p is an indeterminate
x!1 x!1 x!1 x 1
“ 0”
form of type . To find the limit, observe that if x 6= 1, then
0
p p
x2 1 x+1 (x 1)(x + 1)( x + 1) p
p ·p = = (x + 1)( x + 1).
x 1 x+1 x 1
So, we have
x2 1 p
lim p = lim (x + 1)( x + 1) = 4.
x!1 x + 1 x!1
.
Teaching Tip
In solutions of evaluating limits, it is a common mistake among students to forget
to write the “lim" operator. They will write
x2 1 p
lim p = (x + 1)( x + 1) = 4,
x!1 x+1
instead of always writing the limit operator until such time that they are already
substituting the value x = 1. Of course, mathematically, the equation above does
p
not make sense since (x + 1)( x + 1) is not always equal to 4. Please stress the
importance of the “lim" operator.
Remark 2: We note here that the three limits discussed in Part 1 of this section,
sin t 1 cos t et 1
lim , lim , and lim ,
t!0 t t!0 t x!0 t
“ 0”
will result in upon direct substitution. However, they are not resolved by factoring or
0
rationalization, but by a method which you will learn in college calculus.
(C) EXERCISES
I. Evaluate the following limits by constructing their respective tables of values.
50
t 1cos(3t)
1. lim 4. lim
t!0 sin t t!0 3t
t sin t 1 cos t
2. lim t ?5. lim · Answer: 0
t!0 e 1 t!0 t t
sin(2t) 1 cos t
3. lim ?6. lim Answer: 0
t!0 2t t!0 sin t
II. Evaluate the following limits:

p
1. lim (1 + 3
w)(2 w2 + 3w3 ) x3 7x2 + 14x 8
w!1 6. lim
x!4
p x2 3x 4
t2 1 2
x +3 2
2. lim 7. lim
t! 1 t2+ 4t + 3 2
p x p1
x! 1
◆3
2z z 2
✓
3. lim 2x 6 x
z2 4 8. lim
z!2 x!2 4 x2
2
x2 x 2 x 256
4. lim ?9. lim p Answer: 256
x! 1 x3 6x2 7x x!16 4 x
p p
4 3y 2 y 3 9q 2 4 17 + 12q p
5. lim ?10. lim Answer: 3 5
y! 2 6 y 2y 2 q! 1 2
q + 3q + 2
51
LESSON 3: Continuity of Functions
TIME FRAME: 3-4 hours
1. Illustrate continuity of a function at a point;

2. Determine whether a function is continuous at a point or not;
3. Illustrate continuity of a function on an interval; and
4. Determine whether a function is continuous on an interval or not.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Continuity at a point
2. Determining whether a function is continuous or not at a point
3. Continuity on an interval
4. Determining whether a function is continuous or not on an interval
52
TOPIC 3.1: Continuity at a Point
(A) INTRODUCTION
As we have observed in our discussion of limits in Topic (1.2), there are functions whose
limits are not equal to the function value at x = c, meaning, lim f (x) 6= f (c).
x!c
lim f (x) is NOT NECESSARILY the same as f (c).

x!c
This leads us to the study of continuity of functions. In this section, we will be focusing
on the continuity of a function at a specific point.
Teaching Tip
Ask the students to describe, in their own words, the term continuous. Ask them
how the graph of a continuous function should look. Lead them towards the con-
clusion that a graph describes a continuous function if they can draw the entire
graph without lifting their pen, or pencil, from their sheet of paper.
(B) LESSON PROPER

LIMITS AND CONTINUITY AT A POINT
What does “continuity at a point” mean? Intuitively, this means that in drawing the graph
of a function, the point in question will be traversed. We start by graphically illustrating
what it means to be continuous at a point.
EXAMPLE 1: Consider the graph below.
4 f (x) = 3x − 1
0 1 2 3
−1
53
Is the function continuous at x = 1?
Solution. To check if the function is continuous at x = 1, use the given graph. Note that
one is able to trace the graph from the left side of the number x = 1 going to the right
side of x = 1, without lifting one’s pen. This is the case here. Hence, we can say that the
function is continuous at x = 1. .
EXAMPLE 2: Consider the graph of the function g(x) below.
3x2 − 4x + 1
4 g(x) =
x−1
3
0 1 2 3
−1
Solution. We follow the process in the previous example. Tracing the graph from the left of
x = 1 going to right of x = 1, one finds that s/he must lift her/his pen briefly upon reaching
x = 1, creating a hole in the graph. Thus, the function is discontinuous at x = 1. .
1
EXAMPLE 3: Consider the graph of the function h(x) = .
x
1
2 h(x) =
x
1
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
0
−1
−2
−3
54
Solution. If we trace the graph from the left of x = 0 going to right of x = 0, we have to
lift our pen since at the left of x = 0, the function values will go downward indefinitely,
while at the right of x = 0, the function values will go to upward indefinitely. In other
words,
1 1
lim = 1 and lim =1
x!0 x
− x!0 x
+
Thus, the function is discontinuous at x = 0. .

1
EXAMPLE 4: Consider again the graph of the function h(x) = . Is the function
x
continuous at x = 2?
1
Solution. If we trace the graph of the function h(x) = from the left of x = 2 to the right
x
of x = 2, you will not lift your pen. Therefore, the function h is continuous at x = 2. .
Suppose we are not given the graph of a function but just the function itself. How do we
determine if the function is continuous at a given number? In this case, we have to check
three conditions.
Three Conditions of Continuity

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at x = c if the following three conditions
are satisfied:
(i) f (c) exists;
(ii) lim f (x) exists; and

x!c
(iii) f (c) = lim f (x).

x!c
If at least one of these conditions is not met, f is said to be discontinuous at x = c.
EXAMPLE 5: Determine if f (x) = x3 + x2 2 is continuous or not at x = 1.
Solution. We have to check the three conditions for continuity of a function.

(a) If x = 1, then f (1) = 0.
(b) lim f (x) = lim (x3 + x2 2) = 13 + 12 2 = 0.
x!1 x!1
(c) f (1) = 0 = lim f (x).
x!1
Therefore, f is continuous at x = 1. .
55
x2 x 2
EXAMPLE 6: Determine if f (x) = is continuous or not at x = 0.
x 2
Solution. We have to check the three conditions for continuity of a function.
(a) If x = 0, then f (0) = 1.
x2 x 2 (x 2)(x + 1)
(b) lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 1.
x!0 x 2
x!0 x!0 x 2 x!0
(c) f (0) = 1 = lim f (x).
x!0
Therefore, f is continuous at x = 0. .
x2 x 2
EXAMPLE 7: Determine if f (x) = is continuous or not at x = 2.
x 2
Solution. Note that f is not defined at x = 2 since 2 is not in the domain of f . Hence,
the first condition in the definition of a continuous function is not satisfied. Therefore, f
is discontinuous at x = 2. .
EXAMPLE 8: Determine if
8
<x + 1 if x < 4,
f (x) =
:(x 4)2 + 3 if x 4
is continuous or not at x = 4. (This example was given in Topic 1.1.)
Solution. Note that f is defined at x = 4 since f (4) = 3. However, lim f (x) = 5 while
x!4−
lim f (x) = 3. Therefore lim f (x) DNE, and f is discontinuous at x = 4. .
x!4+ x!4−
Teaching Tip
p
The following seatwork is suggested at this point: Determine if f (x) = x 1 is
continuous or not at x = 4.
Solution. We check the three conditions:

p p
(a) f (4) = 4 1 = 3 > 0
p p p
(b) lim x 1 = 4 1 = 3
x!4
p p
(c) f (4) = 3 = lim x 1
x!4
Therefore, the function f is continuous at x = 4. .
56
(C) EXERCISES
I. Given the graph below, determine if the function H(x) is continuous at the following
values of x:
1. x = 2
2. x = 3
3. x = 0
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
0
−1
Heaviside function H(x)
II. Determine if the following functions are continuous at the given value of x.
1. f (x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1 at x = 2 x+1

5. h(x) = 2
at x = 1
x
p 1
2. f (x) = 9x2 1 at x = 1 6. g(x) = x 3 at x = 4
1 x
3. f (x) = at x = 2 7. g(x) = p at x = 8
x 2 4 x
p
x 1 4 x
4. h(x) = 2 at x = 1 8. g(x) = at x = 0
x 1 x
57
TOPIC 3.2: Continuity on an Interval
(A) INTRODUCTION
A function can be continuous on an interval. This simply means that it is continuous at

every point on the interval. Equivalently, if we are able to draw the entire graph of the
function on an interval without lifting our tracing pen, or without being interrupted by a
hole in the middle of the graph, then we can conclude that the the function is continuous
on that interval.
We begin our discussion with two concepts which are important in determining whether a
function is continuous at the endpoints of closed intervals.
One-Sided Continuity
(a) A function f is said to be continuous from the left at x = c if
f (c) = lim f (x).

x!c−
(b) A function f is said to be continuous from the right at x = c if
f (c) = lim f (x).

x!c+
Here are known facts on continuities of functions on intervals:

Continuity of Polynomial, Absolute Value, Rational and Square Root Functions
(a) Polynomial functions are continuous everywhere.
(b) The absolute value function f (x) = |x| is continuous everywhere.
(c) Rational functions are continuous on their respective domains.

p
(d) The square root function f (x) = x is continuous on [0, 1).
58
(B) LESSON PROPER
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY ON AN INTERVAL
We first look at graphs of functions to illustrate continuity on an interval.
EXAMPLE 1: Consider the graph of the function f given below.
−2 −1 1 2
0
−1
−2
Using the given graph, determine if the function f is continuous on the following intervals:
(a) ( 1, 1) (b) ( 1, 0) (c) (0, +1)
Solution. Remember that when we say “trace from the right side of x = c”, we are tracing
not from x = c on the x-axis, but from the point (c, f (c)) along the graph.
(a) We can trace the graph from the right side of x = 1 to the left side of x = 1 without
lifting the pen we are using. Hence, we can say that the function f is continuous on
the interval ( 1, 1).
(b) If we trace the graph from any negatively large number up to the left side of 0, we
will not lift our pen and so, f is continuous on ( 1, 0).
(c) For the interval (0, +1), we trace the graph from the right side of 0 to any large
number, and find that we will not lift our pen. Thus, the function f is continuous on
(0, +1).
59
Teaching Tip
Please point these out after solving the previous example:
(a) The function is actually continuous on [ 1, 1], [0, +1) and ( 1, 0] since the
function f is defined at the endpoints of the intervals: x = 1, x = 1, and
x = 0, and we are still able to trace the graph on these intervals without lifting
our tracing pen.
(b) The function f is therefore continuous on the interval ( 1, +1) since if we

trace the entire graph from left to right, we won’t be lifting our pen. This is
an example of a function which is continuous everywhere.
EXAMPLE 2: Consider the graph of the function h below.
−2 −1 1 2
0
−1
−2
Determine using the given graph if the function f is continuous on the following intervals:
a. ( 1, 1) b. [0.5, 2]
Solution. Because we are already given the graph of h, we characterize the continuity of h
by the possibility of tracing the graph without lifting the pen.
(a) If we trace the graph of the function h from the right side of x = 1 to the left side
of x = 1, we will be interrupted by a hole when we reach x = 0. We are forced to
lift our pen just before we reach x = 0 to indicate that h is not defined at x = 0 and
continue tracing again starting from the right of x = 0. Therefore, we are not able to
trace the graph of h on ( 1, 1) without lifting our pen. Thus, the function h is not
continuous on ( 1, 1).
(b) For the interval [0.5, 2], if we trace the graph from x = 0.5 to x = 2, we do not have
to lift the pen at all. Thus, the function h is continuous on [0.5, 2].
60
.
Now, if a function is given without its corresponding graph, we must find other means to
determine if the function is continuous or not on an interval. Here are definitions that will
help us:
A function f is said to be continuous...
(a) everywhere if f is continuous at every real number. In this case, we also say f
is continuous on R.
(b) on (a, b) if f is continuous at every point x in (a, b).
(c) on [a, b) if f is continuous on (a, b) and from the right at a.
(d) on (a, b] if f is continuous on (a, b) and from the left at b.
(e) on [a, b] if f is continuous on (a, b] and on [a, b).
(f) on (a, 1) if f is continuous at all x > a.
(g) on [a, 1) if f is continuous on (a, 1) and from the right at a.
(h) on ( 1, b) if f is continuous at all x < b.
(i) on ( 1, b] if f is continuous on ( 1, b) and from the left at b.
p
EXAMPLE 3: Determine the largest interval over which the function f (x) = x + 2 is
continuous.
p
Solution. Observe that the function f (x) = x + 2 has function values only if x + 2 0,
that is, if x 2 [ 2, +1). For all c 2 ( 2, +1),
p p
f (c) = c + 2 = lim x + 2.
x!c
Moreover, f is continuous from the right at 2 because

p
f ( 2) = 0 = lim x + 2.
x! 2+
p
Therefore, for all x 2 [ 2, +1), the function f (x) = x + 2 is continuous. .
61
x
EXAMPLE 4: Determine the largest interval over which h(x) = is continuous.
x2 1
x
Solution. Observe that the given rational function h(x) = is not defined at x = 1
x2 1
and x = 1. Hence, the domain of h is the set R \ { 1, 1}. As mentioned at the start
of this topic, a rational function is continuous on its domain. Hence, h is continuous over
R \ { 1, 1}. .
8
>
>
> x if x  0,
>
< 3 if 0 < x  1,
EXAMPLE 5: Consider the function g(x) =
>
>
> 3 x2 if 1 < x  4,
>
: x 3 if x > 4.
Is g continuous on (0, 1]? on (4, 1)?
Solution. Since g is a piecewise function, we just look at the ‘piece’ of the function corre-
sponding to the interval specified.
(a) On the interval (0, 1], g(x) takes the constant value 3. Also, for all c 2 (0, 1],
lim g(x) = 3 = g(c).

x!c
Thus, g is continuous on (0, 1].
(b) For all x > 4, the corresponding ‘piece’ of g is g(x) = x 3, a polynomial function.
Recall that a polynomial function is continuous everywhere in R. Hence, f (x) = x 3
is surely continuous for all x 2 (4, +1).
(C) EXERCISES
8
>
>
> x if x  0,
>
< 3 if 0 < x  1,
1. Is the function g(x) = continuous on [1, 4]? on ( 1, 0)?
> 3
>
> x2 if 1 < x  4,
>
: x 3 if x > 4,
?2. Do as indicated.
(
x+1 if x  m,
a. Find all values of m such that g(x) = is continuous everywhere.
x2 if x > m,
62
b. Find all values of a and b that make
8
> x + 2a
>
< if x < 2,
h(x) = 3ax + b if 2  x  1,
>
: 3x 2b if x > 1,
>
continuous everywhere.
63
LESSON 4: More on Continuity
TIME FRAME: 4 hours
1. Illustrate different types of discontinuity (hole/removable, jump/essential, asymptotic/infinite);

2. Illustrate the Intermediate Value and Extreme Value Theorems; and
3. Solve problems involving the continuity of a function.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Review of continuity at a point

2. Illustration of a hole/removable discontinuity at a point
3. Illustration of a jump essential discontinuity at a point
4. Illustration of an infinite essential discontinuity at a point
5. Illustration of a consequence of continuity given by the Intermediate Value Theorem
6. Illustration of a consequence of continuity given by the Extreme Value Theorem
7. Situations which involve principles of continuity
8. Solutions to problems involving properties/consequences of continuity
64
TOPIC 4.1: Different Types of Discontinuities
(A) INTRODUCTION
In Topic (1.2), it was emphasized that the value of lim f (x) may be distinct from the
x!c
value of the function itself at x = c. Recall that a limit may be evaluated at values which
are not in the domain of f (x).
In Topics (3.1) - (3.2), we learned that when lim f (x) and f (c) are equal, f (x) is said
x!c
to be continuous at c. Otherwise, it is said to be discontinuous at c. We will revisit the
instances when lim f (x) and f (c) have unequal or different values. These instances of
x!c
inequality and, therefore, discontinuity are very interesting to study. This section focuses
on these instances.
(B) LESSON PROPER
Consider the functions g(x), h(x) and j(x) where
8
2
< 3x
> 4x + 1
if x 6= 1,
g(x) = x 1
:1 if x = 1.
>
8
<x + 1 if x < 4,
h(x) =
:(x 4)2 + 3 if x 4.
and
1
j(x) = , x 6= 0.
x
We examine these for continuity at the respective values 1, 4, and 0.
(a) lim g(x) = 2 but g(1) = 1.

x!1
(b) lim h(x) DNE but h(4) = 3.

x!4
(c) lim j(x) DNE and f (0) DNE.

x!0
65
All of the functions are discontinuous at the given values. A closer study shows that they
actually exhibit different types of discontinuity.
REMOVABLE DISCONTINUITY
A function f (x) is said to have a removable discontinuity at x = c if

(a) lim f (x) exists; and
x!c
(b) either f (c) does not exist or f (c) 6= lim f (x).
x!c
It is said to be removable because the discontinuity may be removed by redefining f (c) so
that it will equal lim f (x). In other words, if lim f (x) = L, a removable discontinuity is
x!c x!c
remedied by the redefinition:
Let f (c) = L.
Recall g(x) above and how it is discontinuous at 1. In this case, g(1) exists. Its graph is as
follows:
4
y = g(x)
0 1 2 3
−1
The discontinuity of g at the point x = 1 is manifested by the hole in the graph of y = g(x) at
the point (1, 2). This is due to the fact that f (1) is equal to 1 and not 2, while lim g(x) = 2.
x!1
We now demonstrate how this kind of a discontinuiy may be removed:
Let g(1) = 2.
This is called a redefinition of g at x = 1. The redefinition results in a “transfer” of the

point (1, 1) to the hole at (1, 2). In effect, the hole is filled and the discontinuity is removed!
66
This is why the discontinuity is called a removable one. This is also why, sometimes, it is
called a hole discontinuity.
We go back to the graph of g(x) and see how redefining f (1) to be 2 removes the disconti-
nuity:
4
y = g(x)
redefined
3
0 1 2 3
−1
and revises the function to its continuous counterpart,

8
<g(x) if x 6= 1,
G(x) =
:2 if x = 1.
ESSENTIAL DISCONTINUITY
A function f (x) is said to have an essential discontinuity at x = c if lim f (x) DNE.

x!c
Case 1. If for a function f (x), lim f (x) DNE because the limits from the left and right of
x!c
x = c both exist but are not equal, that is,
lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = M, where L 6= M,

x!c− x!c+
then f is said to have a jump essential discontinuity at x = c.
67
Recall the function h(x) where
8
<x + 1 if x < 4,
h(x) =
:(x 4)2 + 3 if x 4.
Its graph is as follows:

y
y = h(x)
7
6
(4, 5)
5
3
(4, 3)
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
From Lesson 2, we know that lim h(x) DNE because

x!4
lim h(x) = 5 and lim h(x) = 3.

x!4− x!4+
The graph confirms that the discontinuity of h(x) at x = 4 is certainly not removable.
See, the discontinuity is not just a matter of having one point missing from the graph and
putting it in; if ever, it is a matter of having a part of the graph entirely out of place. If we
force to remove this kind of discontinuity, we need to connect the two parts by a vertical
line from (4, 5) to (4, 3). However, the resulting graph will fail the Vertical Line Test and
will not be a graph of a function anymore. Hence, this case has no remedy. From the
graph, it is clear why this essential discontinuity is also called a jump discontinuity.
Case 2. If a function f (x) is such that lim f (x) DNE because either
x!c
68
(i) lim f (x) = +1, or (iii) lim f (x) = +1, or
x!c− x!c+
(ii) lim f (x) = 1, or (iv) lim f (x) = 1,
x!c− x!c+
then f (x) is said to have an infinite discontinuity at x = c.
1
Recall j(x) = , x 6= 0, as mentioned earlier. Its graph is as follows:
x
y
3 1
j(x) =
x
2
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
We have seen from Topic 1.4 that

1 1
lim = 1 and lim = +1.
x!0− x x!0+ x
Because the limits are infinite, the limits from both the left and the right of x = 0 do
not exist, and the discontinuity cannot be removed. Also, the absence of a left-hand
(or right-hand) limit from which to “jump” to the other part of the graph means the
discontinuity is permanent. As the graph indicates, the two ends of the function that
approach x = 0 continuously move away from each other: one end goes upward without
bound, the other end goes downward without bound. This translates to an asymptotic
behavior as x-values approach 0; in fact, we say that x = 0 is a vertical asymptote of f (x).
Thus, this discontinuity is called an infinite essential discontinuity.
69
FLOWCHART. Here is a flowchart which can help evaluate whether a function is contin-
uous or not at a point c. Before using this, make sure that the function is defined on an
open interval containing c, except possibly at c.
Does lim f (x) exist?

x→c
Yes No
Is lim f (x) = f (c)? Do the one-sided limits

x→c
exist but are unequal?
Yes No No Yes
f is continuous at c. f has a removable f has an infinite f has a jump

discontinuity at c. essential discontinuity. essential discontinuity.
(C) EXERCISES

y
6
y = f (x)
5
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
Enumerate all discontinuities of f (x) and identify their types. If a discontinuity is

removable, state the redefiniton that will remove it. Hint: There are 6 discontinuities.
70
y
2. For each specified discontinuity, sketch the

4
graph of a possible function f (x) that illustrates
the discontinuity. For example, if it has a jump 3
discontinuity at x = 2, then a possible graph y = f (x)
of f is 2
4 3 2 1 x
Do a similar rendition for f for each of the following discontinuities:

a. lim f (x) = 1 and f (0) = 3
x!0
b. lim f (x) = 1 and f (1) DNE
x!1
c. lim f (x) = 2 and lim f (x) = 2
x!2− x!2+
d. lim f (x) = 1 and lim f (x) = +1
x!3− x!3+
e. lim f (x) = +1, lim f (x) = 0 and f ( 1) = 0
x! 1− x! 1+
f. lim f (x) = +1, lim f (x) = 0 and f ( 1) = 1
x! 1− x! 1+
g. There is a removable discontinuity at x = 1 and f (1) = 4
h. There is a jump discontinuity at x = 2 and f (2) = 3
i. There is an infinite discontinuity at x = 0
j. There is an infinite discontinuity at x = 0 and f (0) = 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
71
a. What kind of discontinuity is exhibited by the graph?
b. At what values of x does this type of discontinuity happen?
c. Can the discontinuities be removed? Why/Why not?
d. How many discontinuities do you see in the graph?
e. Based on the graph above, and assuming it is part of f (x) = [[x]], how many discon-
tinuities will the graph of f (x) = [[x]] have?
f. Assuming this is part of the graph of f (x) = [[x]], how would the discontinuities
change if instead you have f (x) = [[2x]] or f (x) = [[3x]] or f (x) = [[0.5x]]?
4. For each function whose graph is given below, identify the type(s) of discontinuity(ies)
exhibited. Remedy any removable discontinuity with an appropriate redefinition.
a. y = f (x)
y
4
3 2 1 1 2 3 x
b. y = g(x)
y
3
3 2 1 1 2 3 x
72
c. y = h(x)
y
3
3 2 1 1 2 3 x
d. y = j(x)
y
3
3 2 1 1 2 3 x
5. Determine the possible points of discontinuity of the following functions and the type of
discontinuity exhibited at that point. Remove any removable discontinuity. Sketch the
graph of f (x) to verify your answers.
1
8
2
a. f (x) = 2 <x
> 4
if x < 2,
x d. f (x) = x 2
x2 4 : 4
>
if x 2.
b. f (x) =
x 2
8
2 x 2
<x
> 4
if x 6= 2,
e. f (x) =
x2 4
c. f (x) = x 2 1
: 4
>
if x = 2. f. f (x) =
x2 9
73
g. f (x) = tan x i. f (x) = csc x
h. f (x) = cos x, x 6= 2k⇡, where k is an 1
integer. ?j. f (x) =
[[x]]
Answer to the starred exercise: First of all, f (x) will be discontinuous at values
where the denominator will equal 0. This means that x cannot take values in the interval
[0, 1). This will cause a big jump (or essential) discontinuity from where the graph stops
right before (-1,-1) to where it resumes at (1,1).
Moreover, there will again be jump discontinuities at the integer values of x.
y
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 x
74
TOPIC 4.2: The Intermediate Value and the Extreme Value The-
orems
(A) INTRODUCTION
After discussing continuity at length, we will now learn two important consequences brought
about by the continuity of a function over a closed interval. The first one is called the
Intermediate Value Theorem or the IVT. The second one is called the Extreme Value
Theorem or the EVT.
(B) LESSON PROPER
The Intermediate Value Theorem
The first theorem we will illustrate says that a function f (x) which is found to be continuous
over a closed interval [a, b] will take any value between f (a) and f (b).
Theorem 4 (Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)). If a function f (x) is continuous over a

closed interval [a, b], then for every value m between f (a) and f (b), there is a value c 2 [a, b]
such that f (c) = m.
y
y = f (x)
f (b)
P
m
f (a)
a c b x
75
Look at the graph as we consider values of m between f (a) and f (b). Imagine moving the
dotted line for m up and down between the dotted lines for f (a) and f (b). Correspond-
ingly, the dot P will move along the thickened curve between the two points, (a, f (a)) and
(b, f (b)).
We make the following observations:
• As the dark dot moves, so will the vertical dotted line over x = c move.
• In particular, the said line moves between the vertical dotted lines over x = a and
x = b.
• More in particular, for any value that we assign m in between f (a) and f (b), the
consequent position of the dark dot assigns a corresponding value of c between a and
b. This illustrates what the IVT says.
EXAMPLE 1: Consider the function f (x) = 2x 5.
y
Since it is a linear function, we know it is
continuous everywhere. Therefore, we can
5
be sure that it will be continuous over any
closed interval of our choice. y = 2x 5
3
Take the interval [1, 5]. The IVT says
that for any m intermediate to, or in
between, f (1) and f (5), we can find a
1
value intermediate to, or in between, 1 and 2
5. 0 1 11 4 5 x
4
Start with the fact that f (1) = 3 and

f (5) = 5. Then, choose an m 2 [ 3, 5], to
exhibit a corresponding c 2 [1, 5] such that 3
f (c) = m.
1 1
Choose m = . By IVT, there is a c 2 [1, 5] such that f (c) = . Therefore,
2 2
1 11 11
= f (c) = 2c 5 =) 2c = =) c= .
2 2 4
11
Indeed, 2 (1, 5).
4
76
We can try another m-value in ( 3, 5). Choose m = 3. By IVT, there is a c 2 [1, 5] such
that f (c) = 3. Therefore,
3 = f (c) = 2c 5 =) 2c = 8 =) c = 4.
Again, the answer, 4, is in [1, 5]. The claim of IVT is clearly seen in the graph of y = 2x 5.
EXAMPLE 2: Consider the simplest quadratic function

f (x) = x2 .
y
Being a polynomial function, it is continuous everywhere.
16
Thus, it is also continuous over any closed interval we
may specify.
We choose the interval [ 4, 2]. For any m in between y = x2

f ( 4) = 16 and f (2) = 4, there is a value c inside the
interval [ 4, 2] such that f (c) = m.
m=9
Suppose we choose m = 9 2 [4, 16]. By IVT, there exists
a number c 2 [ 4, 2] such that f (c) = 9. Hence,
9 = f (c) = c2 =) c = ±3.
However, we only choose c = 3 because the other

solution c = 3 is not in the specified interval [ 4, 2].
4 3 2 x
Note: In the previous example, if the interval that was
specified was [0,4], then the final answer would instead be
c = +3.
Remark 1: The value of c 2 [a, b] in the conclusion of the Intermediate Value Theorem is
not necessarily unique.
77
EXAMPLE 3: Consider the polyno-
mial function
11
f (x) = x3 4x2 + x + 7
over the interval [ 1.5, 4] Note that

7
f ( 1.5) = 6.875 and f (4) = 11.
We choose m = 1. By IVT, there ex-

ists c 2 [ 1.5, 4] such that f (c) = 1.
Thus,
y=1
1
3 2
f (c) = c 4c + c + 7 = 1
0 1 2 3 4 5
=) c3 4c2 + c + 6 = 0
−3 −2 −1
=) (c + 1)(c 2)(c 3) = 0
=) c = 1 or c = 2 or c = 3.
y = x3 4x2 + x + 7
We see that there are three values of
c 2 [ 1.5, 4] which satisfy the conclu- −6.875
sion of the Intermediate Value Theo-
rem.
The Extreme Value Theorem
The second theorem we will illustrate says that a function f (x) which is found to be con-
tinuous over a closed interval [a, b] is guaranteed to have extreme values in that interval.
An extreme value of f , or extremum, is either a minimum or a maximum value of the

function.
• A minimum value of f occurs at some x = c if f (c)  f (x) for all x 6= c in the interval.
• A maximum value of f occurs at some x = c if f (c) f (x) for all x 6= c in the interval.
Theorem 5 (Extreme Value Theorem (EVT)). If a function f (x) is continuous over a

closed interval [a, b], then f (x) is guaranteed to reach a maximum and a minimum on [a, b].
Note: In this section, we limit our illustration of extrema to graphical examples. More
detailed and computational examples will follow once derivatives have been discussed.
78
EXAMPLE 4: Consider the function y
4 2
f (x) = 2x + 4x over [ 1, 1]. 3
y= 2x4 + 4x2
From the graph, it is clear that on the interval, 2
f has
1
• The maximum value of 2, occurring at x =
±1; and 1
0
1 2 x
• The minimum value of 0, occurring at x = 1
0.
Remark 2: Similar to the IVT, the value c 2 [a, b] at which a minimum or a maximum
occurs is not necessarily unique.
Here are more examples exhibiting the guaranteed existence of extrema of functions con-
tinuous over a closed interval.
EXAMPLE 5: Consider Example 1. Observe that f (x) = 2x 5 on [1, 5] exhibits the

extrema at the endpoints:
• The minimum occurs at x = 1, giving the minimum value f (1) = 3; and
• The maximum occurs at x = 5, giving the maximum value f (5) = 5.
EXAMPLE 6: Consider Example 2. f (x) = x2 on [ 4, 2] exhibits an extremum at one

endpoint and another at a point inside the interval (or, an interior point):
• The minimum occurs at x = 0, giving the minimum value f (0) = 0; and
• The maximum occurs at x = 4, giving the maximum value f ( 4) = 16.
79
y
EXAMPLE 7: Consider f (x) = 2x4 8x2 .
y = 2x4 8x2
p
• On the interval [ 2, 2], the extrema oc-
cur at the endpoints.
– Endpoint x = 2 yields the maximum

value f ( 2) = 0.
p 2 2 x
– Endpoint x = 2 yields the mini-
p
mum value f ( 2) = 8.
• On the interval [ 2, 1], one extremum oc-

curs at an endpoint, another at an interior
point.
– Endpoint x = 2 yields the maximum

value f ( 2) = 0.
p
– Interior point x = 2 yields the
p p p
minimum value f ( 2) = 8. ( 2, 8) ( 2, 8)
• On the interval [ 1.5, 1], the extrema occur at interior points.

p p
– Interior point x = 2 yields the minimum value f ( 2) = 8.
– Interior point x = 0 yields the maximum value f (0) = 0.
• On the interval [ 2, 2], the extrema occur at both the endpoints and several interior
points.
– Endpoints x = ±2 and interior point x = 0 yield the maximum value 0.
p
– Interior points x = ± 2 yield the minimum value 8.
Remark 3: Keep in mind that the IVT and the EVT are existence theorems (“there is a
value c ...”), and their statements do not give a method for finding the values stated in their
respective conclusions. It may be difficult or impossible to find these values algebraically
especially if the function is complicated.
80
(C) EXERCISES
1. What value(s) of c, if any, will satisfy the IVT for the given function f and the given
value m, on the given interval [a, b]. If there is (are) none, provide an explanation.
a. f (x) = x2 1, m = 2, [ 1, 2] e. f (x) = x3 3x2 +3x 1, m = 1, [ 1, 2]

b. f (x) = x2 1, m = 2, [ 1, 1] f. f (x) = 4, m = 4, [ 2, 2]
c. f (x) = x3 + 2, m = 3, [0, 3] g. f (x) = x, m = 4, [ 2, 2]
d. f (x) = sin x, m = 1/2, [ ⇡, ⇡] h. f (x) = x2 , m = 4, [ 2, 2]
2. Sketch the graph of each f (x) in Item (a) to verify your answers.
3. Referring to your graphs in Item (b), where does each f (x) attain its minimum and
maximum values? Compute for the respective minimum and maximum values.
4. Determine whether the given function will have extrema (both a maximum and a mini-
mum) on the interval indicated. If not, provide an explanation.
a. f (x) = x2 1, ( 1, 2) e. f (x) = sin x, [ ⇡/2, ⇡/2]

b. f (x) = |x| , [0, 1] f. f (x) = x3 3x2 + 3x 1, ( 1, 1)
c. f (x) = |x| , (0, 1) g. f (x) = 1/x, [ 2, 2]
d. f (x) = sin x, ( ⇡, ⇡) h. f (x) = [[x]], [0, 1]
?5. The next items will show that the hypothesis of the Intermediate Value Theorem – that
f must be continuous on a closed and bounded interval – is indispensable.
a. Find an example of a function f defined on [0, 1] such that f (0) 6= f (1) and there
exists no c 2 [0, 1] such that
f (0) + f (1)
f (c) = .
2
(Hint: the function must be discontinuous on [0, 1].)
Possible answer: Piecewise function defined by f (x) = 1 on [0, 1) and f (1) = 0.
b. Find an example of a function f defined on [0, 1] but is only continuous on (0, 1) and
such that there exists no value of c 2 [0, 1] such that
f (0) + f (1)
f (c) =
2
Possible answer: Piecewise function defined by f (x) = 1 on [0, 1) and f (1) = 0.
81
?6. The next items will show that the hypothesis of the Extreme Value Theorem – that f
must be continuous on a closed and bounded interval – is indispensable.
a. Find an example of a function f defined on [0, 1] such that f does not attain its
absolute extrema on [0, 1]. (Hint: the function must be discontinuous on [0, 1].)
Possible answer: Piecewise function defined by f (x) = x on (0, 1) and f (0) =
1
f (1) = .
2
b. Find an example of a function f that is continuous on (0, 1) but does not attain its
absolute extrema on [0, 1]
Possible answer: Piecewise function defined by f (x) = x on (0, 1) and f (0) =
1
f (1) = .
2
7. Determine whether the statement is true or false. If you claim that it is false, provide a
counterexample.
a. If a function is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then it has a maximum and a
minimum on that interval. Answer: True
b. If a function is discontinuous on a closed interval, then it has no extreme value on
that interval. Answer: False, for example the piecewise function f (x) = 0 on [0, 1/2]
and f (x) = 1 on (1/2, 1] achieve its extrema but it is discontinuous on [0, 1].
c. If a function has a maximum and a minimum over a closed interval, then it is con-
tinuous on that interval. Answer: False, same counterexample as above
d. If a function has no extreme values on [a, b], then it is discontinuous on that interval.
Answer: True
e. If a function has either a maximum only or a minimum only over a closed interval,
then it is discontinuous on that interval. Answer: True
8. Determine whether the given function will have extrema (both a maximum and a mini-
a. f (x) = |x + 1| , [ 2, 3] e. f (x) = cos x, [0, 2⇡]

b. f (x) = |x + 1| + 3, ( 2, 2) f. f (x) = cos x, [0, 2⇡)
c. f (x) = [[x]], [1, 2) g. f (x) = x4 2x2 + 1, [ 1, 1]
d. f (x) = [[x]], [1, 2] h. f (x) = x4 2x2 + 1, ( 3/2, 3/2)
?9. Sketch a graph each of a random f over the interval [ 3, 3] showing, respectively,
a. f with more than 2 values c in the interval satisfying the IVT for m = 1/2.
b. f with only one value c in the interval satisfying the IVT for m = 1.
c. f with exactly three values c in the interval satisfying m = 0.
d. f with a unique maximum at x = 3 and a unique minimum at x = 3.
e. f with a unique minimum and a unique maximum at interior points of the interval.
82
f. f with two maxima, one at each endpoint, and a unique minimum at an interior
point.
g. f with two maxima, one at each endpoint, and two minima occurring at interior
points.
h. f with three maxima, one at each endpoint and another at an interior point, and a
unique minimum at an interior point.
i. f with three zeros, one at each endpoint and another at an interior point, a positive
maximum, and a negative minimum.
j. f with four maxima and a unique minimum, all occurring at interior points.
?10. State whether the given situation is possible or impossible. When applicable, support
your answer with a graph. Consider the interval to be [ a, a], a > 0, for all items and
that c 2 [ a, a]. Suppose also that each function f is continuous over [ a, a].
a. f ( a) < 0, f (a) > 0 and there is a c such that f (c) = 0.
b. f ( a) < 0, f (a) < 0 and there is a c such that f (c) = 0.
c. f ( a) > 0, f (a) > 0 and there is a c such that f (c) = 0.
d. f has exactly three values c such that f (c) = 0.
e. f has exactly three values c such that f (c) = 0, its minimum is negative, its maximum
is positive.
f. f has exactly three values c such that f (c) = 0, its minimum is positive, its maximum
is negative.
g. f has a unique positive maximum, a unique positive minimum, and a unique value c
such that f (c) = 0.
h. f has a unique positive maximum, a unique negative minimum, and a unique value
c such that f (c) = 0.
i. f has a unique positive maximum, a unique negative minimum, and two values c such
that f (c) = 0.
j. f has a unique positive maximum, a unique positive minimum, and five values c such
that f (c) = 0, two of which are c = ±a.
k. f has two positive maxima, two negative minima, and no value c such that f (c) = 0.
l. f has two positive maxima, one negative minimum, and a unique value c such that
f (c) = 0.
m. f has two positive maxima, one negative minimum found between the two maxima,
and a unique value c such that f (c) = 0.
n. f has two maxima, two minima, and no value c such that f (c) = 0.
o. f has two maxima, two minima, and a unique value c such that f (c) = 0.
83
?11. Determine whether the given function will have extrema (both a maximum and a mini-
p
8
a. f (x) = sin x, ( ⇡/2, ⇡/2) <2 x if x < 0,
e. f (x) = p [ 3, 3]
:2 x if x 0,
b. f (x) = sin x, [ ⇡/2, ⇡/2) 8
<(x 2)2 + 2 if x < 1,
f. f (x) = [ 3, 3]
1 :(x 2)2 1 if x 1,
c. f (x) = , [2, 4]
x 1
g. f (x) = x4 + 2x2 1, [ 1, 1]
✓ ◆
1 3 3
d. f (x) = , [ 4, 4] h. f (x) = x4 + 2x2 1, ,
x 1 2 2
84
TOPIC 4.3: Problems Involving Continuity
This is an OPTIONAL topic. It is intended for the enrichment of the students, to

enhance their understanding of continuity and the properties it makes possible, such
as stated in the Intermediate Value Theorem.
(A) INTRODUCTION
Continuity is a very powerful property for a function to possess. Before we even move
on to its possibilities with respect to differentiation and integration, let us take a look at
some types of problems which may be solved if one has knowledge of the continuity of the
function(s) involved.
(B) LESSON PROPER
For every problem that will be presented, we will provide a solution that makes use of
continuity and takes advantage of its consequences, such as the Intermediate Value Theorem
(IVT).
APPROXIMATING ROOTS (Method of Bisection)
Finding the roots of polynomials is easy if they are special products and thus easy to fac-
tor. Sometimes, with a little added effort, roots can be found through synthetic division.
However, for most polynomials, roots, can at best, just be approximated.
Since polynomials are continuous everywhere, the IVT is applicable and very useful in ap-
proximating roots which are otherwise difficult to find. In what follows, we will always
choose a closed interval [a, b] such that f (a) and f (b) differ in sign, meaning, f (a) > 0 and
f (b) < 0, or f (a) < 0 and f (b) > 0.
In invoking the IVT, we take m = 0. This is clearly an intermediate value of f (a) and f (b)
since f (a) and f (b) differ in sign. The conclusion of the IVT now guarantees the existence
of c 2 [a, b] such that f (c) = 0. This is tantamount to looking for the roots of polynomial
f (x).
EXAMPLE 1: Consider f (x) = x3 x + 1. Its roots cannot be found using factoring and
synthetic division. We apply the IVT.
85
• Choose any initial pair of numbers, say 3 and 3.
• Evaluate f at these values.
f ( 3) = 23 < 0 and f (3) = 25 > 0.
Since f ( 3) and f (3) differ in sign, a root must lie between 3 and 3.
• To approach the root, we trim the interval.
– Try [0, 3]. However, f (0) = 1 > 0 like f (3) so no conclusion can be made about
a root existing in [0, 3].
– Try [ 3, 0]. In this case, f (0) and f ( 3) differ in sign so we improve the search
space for the root from [ 3, 3] to [ 3, 0].
• We trim further.
– f ( 1) = 1 > 0 so the root is in [ 3, 1].
– f ( 2) = 5 < 0 so the root is in [ 2, 1].
3 7 3
– f( 2) = 8 < 0 so the root is in [ 2, 1].
5 19 3 5
– f( 4) = 64 > 0 so the root is in [ 2, 4 ].
• Further trimming and application of the IVT will yield the approximate root x =
53
40 = 1.325. This gives f (x) ⇡ 0.0012.
The just-concluded procedure gave one root, a negative one. There are two more possible
real roots.
FINDING INTERVALS FOR ROOTS
When finding an exact root of a polynomial, or even an approximate root, proves too
tedious, some problem-solvers are content with finding a small interval containing that
root.
EXAMPLE 2: Consider again f (x) = x3 x + 1. If we just need an interval of length 1,

we can already stop at [ 2, 1]. If we need an interval of length 1/2, we can already stop
at [ 32 , 1]. If we want an interval of length 1/4, we stop at [ 32 , 54 ].
EXAMPLE 3: Consider f (x) = x3 x2 + 4. Find three distinct intervals of length 1, or

less, containing a root of f (x).
When approximating, we may choose as sharp an estimate as we want. The same goes for
an interval. While some problem-solvers will make do with an interval of length 1, some
may want a finer interval, say, of length 1/4. We should not forget that this type of search
is possible because we are dealing with polynomials, and the continuity of polynomials
everywhere allows us repeated use of the IVT.
86
SOME CONSEQUENCES OF THE IVT
Some interesting applications arise out of the logic used in the IVT.
EXAMPLE 4: We already know from our first lessons on polynomials that the degree of a
polynomial is an indicator of the number of roots it has. Furthermore, did you know that
a polynomial of odd degree has at least one real root?
Recall that a polynomial takes the form,
f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn 1
+ ... + an 1x + an
where a0 , a1 , ..., an are real numbers and n is an odd integer.
Take for example a0 = 1. So,
f (x) = xn + a1 xn 1
+ ... + an 1x + an .
Imagine x taking bigger and bigger values, like ten thousand or a million. For such values,
the first term will far outweigh the total of all the other terms. See, if x is positive, for big n
the value of f (x) will be positive. If x is negative, for big n the value of f (x) will be negative.
We now invoke the IVT. Remember, n is odd.

• Let a be a large-enough negative number. Then, f (a) < 0.
• Let b be a large-enough positive number. Then, f (b) > 0.
By the IVT, there is a number c 2 (a, b) such that f (c) = 0. In other words, f (x) does
have a real root!
Teaching Tip
Ask the class why the claim may not hold for polynomials of even degree.
Answer: It is possible that the graphs of polynomials of even degree only stay
above the x-axis, or only below the x-axis. For example, the graph of f (x) = x2 + 1
stays only above the x-axis and therefore does not intersect x-axis, that is, f (x)
has no roots.
87
CHAPTER 1 EXAM
I. Complete the following tables of values to investigate lim (2x + 1).

x!1
x f (x) x f (x)
0.5 1.6
0.7 1.35
0.95 1.05
0.995 1.005
0.9995 1.0005
II. Using the tables of values above, determine the following:
1. lim (2x + 1) 2. lim (2x + 1) 3. lim (2x + 1)

x!1− x!1+ x!1
III. Evaluate the following using Limit Theorems.
x2 4x + 3 3t 2 sin t + (et 1)
1. lim 2. lim
x!1 x2 1 t!0 t
IV. Let f be the function defined below.

8 2
x + 3x Discuss the continuity of f at
< x+3 , if x  0, x 6= 3
>
>
x = 3, x = 0 and x = 1. If
>
f (x) =
x + 1, if 0<x<1 discontinuous, give the type
p
>
>
>
: x, if x 1. of discontinuity.
V. Consider the graph of y = f (x) below.
y At the following x-
coordinates, write whether
(A) f is continuous, (B) f
x=6
has a removable discontinu-
y = f (x) ity, (C) f has an essential
jump discontinuity, or (D)
(3, 4)
(0, 3) f has an essential infinite
(3, 2) discontinuity.
1. x = 2 3. x = 3
( 2, 1)
(3, 0)
x 2. x = 0 4. x = 6
88
Chapter 2
Derivatives
LESSON 5: The Derivative as the Slope of the Tangent Line
TIME FRAME: 4 hours
1. Illustrate the tangent line to the graph of a function at a given point;

2. Apply the definition of the derivative of a function at a given number; and
3. Relate the derivative of a function to the slope of the tangent line.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Tangent and secant lines to a circle

2. Tangent line to the graph of an arbitrary function
3. Cases where the tangent line does not exist
4. The slope of the tangent line of an arbitrary function
5. The equation of the tangent line
6. The definition and evaluation of the derivative
90
TOPIC 5.1: The Tangent Line to the Graph of a Function at a
Point
(A) INTRODUCTION
You may start by writing the word “TANGENT LINE” on the board and asking the class
what they know about a tangent line or where they first heard the word “tangent”.
Possible answers:
(a) line which touches the graph at only one point
(b) line touching a circle at one point
(c) trigonometric function tangent (and cotangent)
(d) (from some dictionaries) touching but not intersecting (cutting through)
(e) right beside
(f) limiting position of a secant line
(g) tangent comes from the Latin word tángere meaning “to touch” (cf. Noli me Tángere)
Teaching Tip
Accept all of these and acknowledge that all of these are correct in almost all cases
but remark that these coud not be very precise in general. In fact, the formal
definition of a tangent line is stated using limits. You may list down the following
contentions/elaborations to the list above:
Point-by-point deliberations of the above list.

(a) Which of the following is a tangent line?
P `
`
P
at least two points of intersection only one point of intersection
(b) Correct; but what if the graph is not a circle?

(c) In fact, the tangent and contangent of an angle are measures of line segments which
are tangent to a circle (see enrichment).
91
(d) Touching and intersecting are very similar concepts in mathematics. The distinction
may arise from the interpretation that a line touching a curve stays entirely on one
side (below or above) of the curve, while intersecting means that the tangent line
“cuts through” the curve (the tangent line is above the curve to the left of the point
of tangency while it is below the curve to the right of the point of tangency, or vice
versa).
tangent line “touches” the graph tangent line “cuts through” the graph
Is the line on the second graph a tangent line or not?
(e) English usage: adjacent with no space in between
Teacher: Also, ask them what they think is the tangent line to a line.
P `
What is the tangent line to ` at P ?
Answer: The tangent line to a line is itself. See Example 3 below.
(B) ACTIVITY
TANGENT LINES TO CIRCLES
• Recall from geometry class that a tangent line to a circle centered at O is a line
intersecting the circle at exactly one point. It is found by constructing the line, through
a point A on the circle, that is perpendicular to the segment (radius) OA.
• A secant line to a circle is a line intersecting the circle at two points.
Remark 1: The difficulty in defining the concept of the tangent line is due to an axiom
in Euclidean geometry that states that a line is uniquely determined by two distinct
points.
Thus, the definition of a tangent line is more delicate because it is determined by only one
point, and infinitely many lines pass through a point.
Draw the unit circle and mark several points (including (0, ±1) and (±1, 0)) on it. Ask the
class how they would draw tangent lines at these points. Elicit from them the following
facts about the tangent lines to the circle at different points:
92
(a) At (±1, 0), the tangent lines are vertical;
(b) At (0, ±1), the tangent lines are horizontal;
(c) At points in the first and third quadrants, the tangent lines are slanting to the left;
and
(d) At points in the second and fourth quadrants, the tangent lines are slanting to the
right.
(C) LESSON PROPER
HOW TO DRAW TANGENT LINES TO CURVES AT A POINT
The definition of a tangent line is not very easy to explain without involving limits. Students
can imagine that locally, the curve looks like an arc of a circle. Hence, they can draw the
tangent line to the curve as they would to a circle.
93
y
y = f (x)
f (c)
x
c
One more way to see this is to choose the line through a point that locally looks most like
the curve. Among all the lines through a point (c, f (c)), the one which best approximates
the curve y = f (x) near the point (c, f (c)) is the tangent line to the curve at that point.
y
y = f (x)
tangent line
f (c)
x
c
Among all lines passing through (c, f (c)), the tangent line is the closest to the curve locally.
Another way of qualitatively understanding the tangent line is to visualize the curve as a
roller coaster (see [7], p. 103). The tangent line to the curve at a point is parallel to the
line of sight of the passengers looking straight ahead and sitting erect in one of the wagons
of the roller coaster.
94
y
y
tangent line tangent line
line of sight
P (c, f (c))
x
x
c c
95
EXAMPLE 1: Ask the class what they think are the tangent lines at the “peaks” and
“troughs” of a smooth curve.
Notice that on the unit circle, these points correspond to the points (0, 1) and (0, 1), so
whenever the graph is smooth (meaning, there are no sharp corners), the tangent lines at
the “peaks” and “troughs” are always horizontal.
Boardwork
1
y=2 2 (x 3)3
EXAMPLE 2: The following is the graph A

of y = 2 12 (x 3)3 . Ask the class to
draw the tangent lines at each of the given
B
points A, B, and C.
C
THE TANGENT LINE DEFINED MORE FORMALLY
Q
The precise definition of a tangent line relies
on the notion of a secant line. Let C be y = f (x)
the graph of a continuous function y = f (x) P
and let P be a point on C. A secant line to
y = f (x) through P is any line connecting
P and another point Q on C. In the figure
on the right, the line P Q is a secant line of
y = f (x) through P .
We now construct the tangent line to y = f (x) at P .
96
Choose a point Q on the right side of P , and
connect the two points to construct the secant Q2 Q1 Q
line P Q. y = f (x)
P
Choose another point Q1 in between P and Q.
Connect the two points P and Q1 to construct
the secant line P Q1 .
Choose another point Q2 in between P and Q1 .

Construct the secant line P Q2 .
Consider also the case when Q is to the left of P and perform the same process. Intuitively,
we can define the tangent line through P to be the limiting position of the secant lines P Q
as the point Q (whether to the left or right of P ) approaches P .
`
Q
y = f (x)
If the sequence of secant lines to the graph of
P
y = f (x) through P approaches one limiting
position (in consideration of points Q to the left
and from the right of P ), then we define this line
to be the tangent line to y = f (x) at P .
We summarize below the definitions of the secant line through a point, and the tangent
line at a point of the graph of y = f (x).
Definition
Let C be the graph of a continuous function y = f (x) and let P be a point on C.
1. A secant line to y = f (x) through P is any line connecting P and another
point Q on C.
2. The tangent line to y = f (x) at P is the limiting position of all secant lines
P Q as Q ! P .
Remark 2: Notice the use of the articles a and the in the definition above. It should
be emphasized that if a tangent line exists, then it must be unique, much the same as in
limits.
EXAMPLE 3: The tangent line to another line at any point is the line itself. (This debunks
the idea that a tangent line touches the graph at only one point!) Indeed, let ` be a line
97
and let P be on `. Observe that no matter what point Q on ` we take, the secant line P Q
is ` itself. Hence, the limiting position of a line ` is ` itself.
P `
The tangent line to ` at any point P is itself!
EXAMPLE 4: Our definition of the tangent line allows for

a vertical tangent line. We have seen this on the unit circle p
y= 3
x
at points (1, 0) and ( 1, 0). A vertical tangent line may also
p
exist even for continuous functions. Draw the curve y = 3 x
P
and mark the point P (0, 0). Allow the class to determine the
tangent line to the graph at P using the formal definition.
Consider the two cases: when Q is to the right of P and when `
Q is to the left of P .
CURVES THAT DO NOT HAVE TANGENT LINES
It is possible that the tangent line to a graph of a function at a point P (x0 , f (x0 )) does not
exist. There are only two cases when this happens:
1. The case when the function is not continuous at x0 : It is clear from the definition of
the tangent line that the function must be continuous.
2. The case when the function has a sharp corner/cusp at P : This case produces different
limiting positions of the secant lines P Q depending on whether Q is to the left or to
the right of P .
Remark 3: The word “sharp corner” is more commonly used for joints where only lines
are involved. For example, the absolute value function y = |x| has a sharp corner at
the origin. In contrast, the term “cusp” is often used when at least one graph involved
represents a nonlinear function. See the graphs below.
corner at P cusp at P
In the above examples, each has a sharp corner/cusp at P . Choosing Q to be points

to the left of P produces a different limiting position than from choosing Q to the
right of P . Since the two limiting positions do not coincide, then the tangent line at
P does not exist. (This is the same thing that happens when the limit from the left
of c differs from the limit from the right of c, where we then conclude that the limit
does not exist.)
98
Teaching Tip: Suggestions for learning assessment
1. Assess learning on this topic by drawing graphs on the board, marking points
and asking volunteers to draw the tangent line at each point. Make sure
that you mark all stationary points (where the tangent line is horizontal) and
inflection points (where the tangent line “cuts through” the graph).
2. To assess the students’ understanding of the formal definition, get a straight

edge and try to animate on the board what happens as the secant lines ap-
proach the tangent line. Of course, the pivot must be on the point where
the tangent line is wanted. This can also be done using a string that is fixed
at the point where we want the tangent line to be. Let the class try this as
boardwork. Consider points which are to the left and to the right of the fixed
point.
3. Notice that the formal definition of the tangent line involves a limit of a se-
quence of lines. This poses a problem because the limits that have been dis-
cussed before are for functions which involve numbers, and not for geometric
objects. Ask the class what number is associated with a line so that instead of
looking for a limiting position, we would be looking for a limit of an algebraic
expression. Answer: slope of a line
ENRICHMENT
1. Show using similar triangles that tan ✓ and cot ✓ are the
respective measures of line segments AR and BQ, which Q
B
are tangent to the unit circle. (Hint: It should be clear, S
P
beforehand, that |AO| = |OB| = 1, cos ✓ = |OC| = |SP |
and sin ✓ = |P C| = |SO|.) ✓
O C A
2. We have seen that for a smooth graph, the tangent lines at the stationary points are
always horizontal. Ask the class if the converse is true, that is, if the tangent line at a
point P is horizontal, does it follow that P is a local extremum point? Answer: No, see
point B in Example 2.
99
TOPIC 5.2: The Equation of the Tangent Line
(A) INTRODUCTION
In the previous lesson, we defined the tangent line at a point P as the limiting position of
the secant lines P Q, where Q is another point on the curve, as Q approaches P . There is
a slight problem with this definition because we have no means of computing the limit of
lines. Hence, we need to work on the numbers that characterize the lines.
Teaching Tip
Ask the class what things determine lines; in particular, what is the minimum that
you should know so that you can draw one and only one line. Expect correct answers
such as two points, slope and y-intercept, the two intercepts, a point and the slope.
Give prominence to the last of the list, emphasizing that there are infinitely many
lines passing thru a point; there are infinitely many (parallel) lines with the same
slope, but there is only one line passing through a point with a given slope.
• Recall the slope of a line passing through two points (x0 , y0 ) and (x, y).
Recall: Slope of a Line

A line ` passing through distinct points (x0 , y0 ) and (x, y) has slope
y y0
m` = .
x x0
EXAMPLE 1: Given A(1, 3), B(3, 2), and C( 1, 0), what are the slopes of the
lines AB, AC and BC?
Solution. The slope of AB is

2 ( 3) 1
mAB = = .
3 1 2
The slope of AC is
0 ( 3) 3
mAC = = .
1 1 2
The slope of BC is
0 ( 2) 2 1
mBC = = = .
1 3 4 2
.
• Recall the point-slope form of the equation of the line with slope m and passing
through the point P (x0 , y0 ).
100
Recall: Point-Slope Form
The line passing through (x0 , y0 ) with slope m has the equation
y y0 = m(x x0 ).
EXAMPLE 2: From Example 1 above, since mAB = 12 , then using A(1, 3) as our
point, then the point-slope form of the equation of AB is
1 1
y ( 3) = (x 1) or y + 3 = (x 1).
2 2
Teaching Tip
Ask the class what would happen if we had chosen B(3, 2) as our point
instead of A. Answer: We would get an equivalent equation.
(B) LESSON PROPER
THE EQUATION OF THE TANGENT LINE
Given a function y = f (x), how do we find the equation of the tangent line at a point
P (x0 , y0 )?
Consider the graph of a function y = f (x) whose graph is given below. Let P (x0 , y0 ) be a
point on the graph of y = f (x). Our objective is to find the equation of the tangent line
(T L) to the graph at the point P (x0 , y0 ).
TL
Q
y
y = f (x)
y0 P
x0 x
• Find any point Q(x, y) on the curve.

• Get the slope of this secant line P Q.
y y0
mP Q = .
x x0
101
• Observe that letting Q approach P is equivalent to letting x approach x0 .
Teaching Tip
Illustrate this by choosing points x1 and x2 in between x and x0 and projecting
it vertically to the corresponding points Q1 and Q2 on the graph. The class
should be able to see this equivalence.
We use the formal definition of the tangent line:

• Since the tangent line is the limiting position of the secant lines as Q approaches P ,
it follows that the slope of the tangent line (T L) at the point P is the limit of the
slopes of the secant lines P Q as x approaches x0 . In symbols,
y y0 f (x) f (x0 )
mT L = lim = lim .
x!x0 x x0 x!x0 x x0
• Finally, since the tangent line passes through P (x0 , y0 ), then its equation is given by
y y0 = mT L (x x0 ).
Teaching Tip
It is up to you if you want your students to put this into standard (slope-
intercept) form. This is of course not an objective but it helps for easy checking
of final answers.
SUMMARY AND EXAMPLES
Equation of the Tangent Line

To find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of y = f (x) at the point
P (x0 , y0 ), follow this 2-step process:
• Get the slope of the tangent line by computing
y y0 f (x) f (x0 )
m = lim or m = lim .
x!x0 x x0 x!x0 x x0
• Substitute this value of m and the coordinates of the known point P (x0 , y0 )
into the point-slope form to get
y y0 = m(x x0 ).
102
EXAMPLE 3: Find the equation of the tangent
line to y = x2 at x = 1.
Solution. To get the equation of the line, we need

the point P (x0 , y0 ) and the slope m. We are only
given x0 = 2. However, the y-coordinate of x0 is
easy to find by substituting x0 = 2 into y = x2 . This
gives us y0 = 4. Hence, P has the coordinates (2, 4). y = x2
Now, we look for the slope:
y y0 x2 4 P
lim = lim = 4.
x!x0 x x0 x!2 x 2
Finally, the equation of the tangent line with slope
2
m = 4 and passing through P (2, 4) is
y 4 = 4(x 2) or y = 4x 4.
Teaching Tip
If you want to make your own examples, make sure that P is a point on the curve.
For example, it does not make sense to find the equation of the tangent line to
y = x2 at the point P (2, 3) since P is not on the parabola (3 6= 22 ). You could
modify this to P (2, 4) or better yet, for later examples, you can just ask for the
tangent line at a specific x-coordinate.
p
EXAMPLE 4: Find the slope-intercept form of the tangent line to f (x) = x at x = 4.
p
y= x
P
p p
Solution. Again, we find the y-coordinate of x0 = 4: y0 = f (x0 ) = x0 = 4 = 2. Hence,
P has coordinates (4, 2). Now, we look for the slope of the tangent line. Notice that we
103
have to rationalize the numerator to evaluate the limit.
p p
f (x) f (x0 ) x 2 x+2
m = lim = lim ·p
x!x0 x x0 x!4 x 4 x+2
x 4
= lim p
x!4 (x 4)( x + 2)
1 1
= lim p = .
x!4 x+2 4
Finally, with point P (4, 2) and slope m = 41 , the equation of the tangent line is
1 x
y 2 = (x 4) or y= + 1.
4 4
.
The next example shows that our process of finding the tangent line works even for hori-
zontal lines.
EXAMPLE 5: Show that the tangent line to y = 3x2 12x + 1 at the point (2, 11) is
horizontal.
Solution. Recall that a horizontal line has zero slope. Now, computing for the slope, we
get:
y y0 (3x2 12x + 1) ( 11)

m = lim = lim
x!x0 x x0 x!2 x 2
3(x2 4x + 4)
= lim
x!2 x 2
= lim (3(x 2)) = 0.
x!2
Since the slope of the tangent line is 0, it must be horizontal. Its equation is
y ( 11) = 0(x 2) or y= 11.
EXAMPLE 6: Verify that the tangent line to the line y = 2x + 3 at (1, 5) is the line
itself.
Solution. We first compute for the slope of the tangent line. Note that x0 = 1 and y0 = 5.
y y0 (2x + 3) 5 2x 2
m = lim = lim = lim = 2.
x!x0 x x0 x!1 x 1 x!1 x 1
Therefore, substituting this into the point-slope form with P (1, 5) and m = 2, we get
y 5 = 2(x 1) i.e., y = 2x + 3.
This is the same equation as that of the given line. .
104
(C) EXERCISES
Find the standard (slope-intercept form) equation of the tangent line to the following
functions at the specified points:
1. f (x) = 3x2 12x + 1 at the point (0, 1) Answer: y = 12x + 1
2. f (x) = 2x2 4x + 5 at the point ( 1, 11) Answer: y = 8x 9
p x
3. f (x) = x + 9 at the point where x = 0 Answer: y = + 3
6
p
?4. f (x) = 25 x2 at the point where x = 4 Answer: y = 3 + 25
4x
3
p 5x 1
?5. f (x) = x2 + x at the point where x = 1 Answer: y = 2 2
Teaching Tip
It is not productive to dwell on finding the slope of the tangent line to very com-
plicated functions. A more efficient way of finding this will be given in the next
sections when we discuss derivatives.
(D) ENRICHMENT
This section explores the equation of vertical tangent lines. In the last topic, we remarked
that vertical tangent lines may exist. However, we know that the slope of a vertical line
does not exist or is undefined. How do we reconcile these seemingly contradicting ideas?
p
For example, consider the vertical tangent line to the y= 3x
p
graph of y = 3 x at P (0, 0). If we compute its slope,
we have P
p
y y0 3
x 0 1
m = lim = lim = lim p .
x!x0 x x0 x!0 x 0 x!0 3
x2 `
✓ ◆
1
Observe that the last expression is undefined if we substitute x with 0. Hence, the
0
slope of this tangent line is undefined.
Therefore, our computation for the slope of the tangent line to this curve is actually con-
sistent with our idea of the slope of a vertical line. The next question to ask is: Does
this tangent line have an equation? The answer is yes. Recall that a vertical line passing
through the point (x0 , y0 ) possesses the equation x = x0 .
105
Equation of Vertical Tangent Lines
Let f be a function that is continuous at x0 . Assuming that the tangent line to the
graph of y = f (x) at the point P (x0 , y0 ) is vertical, then its equation is
x = x0 .
106
TOPIC 5.3: The Definition of the Derivative
(A) INTRODUCTION
The expression
f (x) f (x0 )
lim
x!x0 x x0
computes more than just the slope of the tangent line. The fraction in the limit also
gives us the relative change of the function on the time or space interval [x0 , x]. Thus,
we may interpret this limit as the instantaneous rate of change of f with respect to x.
(See Enrichment) It is therefore fitting to make an abstraction out of this. Afterwards, we
can regard this as a tool that can be used in finding the slope of the tangent line, or in
finding the instantaneous rate of change. In what follows, we define this expression as the
derivative of f (x) at x0 .
(B) LESSON PROPER
We present the formal definition of the derivative.
Definition of the Derivative

Let f be a function defined on an open interval I ✓ R, and let x0 2 I. The derivative
of f at x0 is defined to be
f (x) f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
x!x0 x x0
if this limit exists. That is, the derivative of f at x0 is the slope of the tangent line
at (x0 , f (x0 )), if it exists.
Notations: If y = f (x), the derivative of f is commonly denoted by
d d dy
f 0 (x), Dx [f (x)], [f (x)], [y], .
dx dx dx
Remark 1: Note that the limit definition of the derivative is inherently indeterminate!
0
Hence, the usual techniques for evaluating limits which are indeterminate of type are
0
applied, e.g., factoring, rationalization, or using one of the following established
limits:
sin x 1 cos x ex 1
(i) lim =1 (ii) lim =0 (iii) lim = 1.
x!0 x x!0 x x!0 x
107
EXAMPLE 1: Compute f 0 (1) for each of the following functions:
1. f (x) = 3x 1 2x
3. f (x) =
x+1
p
2. f (x) = 2x2 + 4 4. f (x) = x + 8
Solution. Here, x0 is fixed to be equal to 1. Using the definition above,

f (x) f (1)
f 0 (1) = lim .
x!1 x 1
Remember that what we are computing, f 0 (1), is just the slope of the tangent line to
y = f (x) at x = 1.
1. Note that f (1) = 2, so by factoring

(3x
1) 2
f 0 (1) = lim
x!1 x 1
3(x 1)
= lim
x!1 x 1
= lim 3
x!1
= 3.
2. Here, f (1) = 6 so again, by factoring,
(2x2 + 4) 6
f 0 (1) = lim
x!1 x 1
2(x + 1)(x 1)
= lim
x!1 x 1
= lim 2(x + 1)
x!1
= 4.
3. We see that f (1) = 1. So, from the definition,

2x
x+1 1
f 0 (1) = lim .
x!1 x 1
We multiply both the numerator and the denominator by x + 1 to simplify the complex
fraction:
2x
x+1 x+1 1
f 0 (1) = lim ·
x!1 x 1 x+1
2x (x + 1)
= lim
x!1 (x 1)(x + 1)
x 1
= lim
x!1 (x 1)(x + 1)
1 1
= lim = .
x!1 x + 1 2
108
4. Note that f (1) = 3. Therefore, by rationalizing the numerator (meaning, multiplying
p
by x + 8 + 3),
p p
0 x+8 3 x+8+3
f (1) = lim ·p
x!1 x 1 x+8+3
(x + 8) 9
= lim p
x!1 (x 1)( x + 8 + 3)
1
= lim p
x!1 x+8+3
1
= .
6
.
AN EQUIVALENT DEFINITION OF THE DERIVATIVE
Recall that we have defined the derivative of a function f at x0 as follows:

f (x) f (x0 )
lim .
x x0
x!x0
There is another definition of the derivative which is derived by using the substitution
x = x0 + ∆x (2.1)
into the above limit definition of the derivative.
Observe that ∆x measures the displacement as we move from x to x0 . Thus, in the figure
below, the point to the right of x0 becomes x0 + ∆x, if ∆x > 0. It should be clear
algebraically from (2.1), and from the figure, that letting x approach x0 is equivalent
to letting ∆x approach 0. Applying the substitution, we now have
f (x0 + ∆x) f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim .
∆x!0 (x0 + ∆x) x0
TL
Q
f (x0 + ∆x)
y = f (x)
P
f (x0 )
x0 x0 + ∆x
∆x
109
We present this fact formally below:
Alternative Definition of the Derivative

Let f be a function defined on an open interval I ✓ R, and let x 2 I. The derivative
of f at x is defined to be
f (x + ∆x) f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim (2.2)
∆x!0 ∆x
if this limit exists.
Teaching Tip
Confusion may arise when students think of ∆x as ∆ ⇥ x or ∆ as an operator that
affects x. Here, ∆x should be treated like any other variable. This is why many
textbooks use h instead of ∆x. In this case, equation (2.2) becomes
f (x + h) f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim .
h!0 h
Usually, this is the definition used to obtain the general expression of the derivative
of a function at any point x 2 I.
Remark 2: Please remind the students that f (x0 + h) is basically a composition of two
functions. Therefore, it is determined by replacing all instances of x in the definition of f
by x0 + h. For example, if
f (x) = x2 + 3x and g(x) = cos(3x) ex ,
then
f (x0 + h) = (x0 + h)2 + 3(x0 + h) and g(x0 + h) = cos(3(x0 + h)) ex0 +h .
EXAMPLE 2: Let f (x) = sin x, g(x) = cos x, and s(x) = ex . Find f 0 (2⇡), g 0 (⇡), and
s0 (3).
Solution. We use the alternative definition of the derivative.

(a) Here, we substitute x0 = 2⇡.
f (2⇡ + h) f (2⇡)
f 0 (2⇡) = lim
h!0 h
sin(2⇡ + h) 0
= lim .
h!0 h
110
Using the sum identity of the sine function: sin(↵ + ) = sin ↵ cos + cos ↵ sin , and
noting that sin(2⇡) = 0 and cos(2⇡) = 1, we get
sin(2⇡) cos h + cos(2⇡) sin h

f 0 (2⇡) = lim
h!0 h
sin h
= lim
h!0 h
= 1. (Why?)
(b)
g(⇡ + h) g(⇡)
g 0 (⇡) = lim
h!0 h
cos(⇡ + h) ( 1)
= lim .
h!0 h
Using the sum identity of the cosine function: cos(↵ + ) = cos ↵ cos sin ↵ sin ,
and noting that cos ⇡ = 1 and sin ⇡ = 0, we get
cos ⇡ cos h sin ⇡ sin h + 1
g 0 (⇡) = lim
h!0 h
cos h + 1
= lim
h!0 h
= 0. (Why?)
(c)
s(3 + h) s(3)
s0 (3) = lim
h!0 h
e3+h e3
= lim .
h!0 h
Using the exponent laws, e3+h = e3 eh . Moreover, since e3 is just a constant, we can
factor it out of the limit operator. So,
e3 eh e3
s0 (3) = lim
h!0 h
e h 1
= e3 lim
h!0 h
= e3 . (Why?)
111
Seatwork: Let f (x) = 2x2 + 3x 1. Use the definition of the derivative to find f 0 ( 1).
Solution. Note that f ( 1) = 2. Thus,
f (x) f ( 1)
f 0 ( 1) = lim
x! 1 x ( 1)
2x2 + 3x 1 + 2
= lim
x! 1 x+1
(2x + 1)(x + 1)
= lim
x! 1 x+1
= lim (2x + 1) = 1.
x! 1
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY OF A PARTICLE IN RECTILINEAR MOTION
The derivative of a function is also interpreted as the instantaneous rate of change. We

discuss here a particular quantity which is important in physics – the instantaneous ve-
locity of a moving particle. The general setting of the difference between the average and
instantaneous rates of change will be presented in the Enrichment section.
Suppose that an object or a particle starts from a fixed point A and moves along a straight
line towards a point B. Suppose also that its position along line AB at time t is s. Then
the motion of the particle is completely described by the position function
s = s(t), t 0
and since the particle moves along a line, it is said to be in rectilinear motion.
EXAMPLE 3: Suppose that a particle moves along a line with position function s(t) =
2t2 + 3t + 1 where s is in meters and t is in seconds.
a. What is its initial position?
b. Where is it located after t = 2 seconds?
c. At what time is the particle at position s = 6?
Solution. .
a. The initial position corresponds to the particle’s location when t = 0. Thus,
s(0) = 2(0)2 + 3(0) + 1.
This means that the particle can be found 1 meter to the right of the origin.
b. After 2 seconds, it can now be found at position s(2) = 2(2)2 + 3(2) + 1 = 15 meters.
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c. We equate s(t) = 2t2 + 3t + 1 = 6. So,
5
2t2 + 3t 5 = 0 () (2t + 5)(t 1) = 0 () t = or t = 1.
2
Since time cannot be negative, we choose t = 1 second.
.
t=0 t=1 t=2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Now, we ask: What is the particle’s velocity at the instant when time t = 1?
Recall that the formula for the average velocity of a particle is

displacement s(tfinal ) s(tinitial )
average velocity = = .
time elapsed tfinal tinitial
This poses a problem because at the instant when t = 1, there is no elapsed time. We
remedy this by computing the velocity at short time intervals with an endpoint at t = 1.
For example, on the time interval [1, 2], the velocity of the particle is
s(2) s(1) 15 6
v= = = 9 m/s.
2 1 2 1
We compute the particle’s velocity on shorter intervals:
Time Interval Average Velocity Time Interval Average Velocity

[1, 1.5] 8 [0.5, 1] 6
[1, 1.1] 7.2 [0.9, 1] 6.8
[1, 1.01] 7.02 [0.99, 1] 6.98
[1, 1.001] 7.002 [0.999, 1] 6.998
We see from the tables above that the velocities of the particle on short intervals ending
or starting at t = 1 approach 7 m/s as the lengths of the time intervals approach 0. This
limit
s(t) s(1)
lim
t!1 t 1
is what we refer to as the instantaneous velocity of the particle at t = 1. However, the
limit expression above is precisely the definition of the derivative of s at t = 1, and the
instantaneous velocity is actually the slope of the tangent line at the point t = t0 if the
function in consideration is the position function. We make the connection below.
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Instantaneous velocity
Let s(t) denote the position of a particle that moves along a straight line at each
time t 0. The instantaneous velocity of the particle at time t = t0 is
s(t) s(t0 )
s0 (t0 ) = lim ,
t!t0 t t0
if this limit exists.
EXAMPLE 4: A ball is shot straight up from a building.

Its height (in meters) from the ground at any time t (in
seconds) is given by s(t) = 40 + 35t 5t2 . Find
a. the height of the building.

Ball’s Path
b. the time when the ball hits the ground.
c. the average velocity on the interval [1, 2].
d. the instantaneous velocity at t = 1 and 2. Building
e. the instantaneous velocity at any time t0 .
Solution. .
a. The height of the building is the initial position of the ball. So, the building is s(0) = 40
meters tall.
b. The ball is on the ground when the height s of the ball from the ground is zero. Thus
we solve the time t when s(t) = 0:
30 + 40t 5t2 = 0 () 5(8 t)(1 + t) = 0 () t = 8 or t = 1.
Since time is positive, we choose t = 8 seconds.

s(2) s(1) 90 70
c. The average velocity of the ball on [1, 2] is = = 20 m/s.
2 1 2 1
d. Then instantaneous velocity at time t = 1 is
s(t) s(1) (40 + 35t 5t2 ) 70 5(t 6)(t 1)

lim = lim = lim = 25 m/s.
t!1 t 1 t!1 t 1 t!1 t 1
At time t = 2,
s(t) s(2) (40 + 35t 5t2 ) 90 5(t 5)(t 2)

lim = lim = lim = 15 m/s.
t!2 t 2 t!2 t 2 t!2 t 2
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e. The instantaneous velocity function at any time t0 is
s(t) s(t0 ) (40 + 35t 5t2 ) (40 + 35t0 5t20 )

lim = lim
t!t0 t t0 t!1 t t0
5(t t0 )(7 (t + t0 ))
= lim
t!1 t t0
= (35 10t0 ) m/s.
Remark 3: Note that in (e) of the previous example, if we set t0 = 4, then the instan-
taneous velocity is 5 m/s. The negative sign gives the direction of the velocity (since it
is a vector quantity), and means that the ball is moving towards the negative direction of
the line, in this case, moving downwards. If the sign of the velocity is positive, then the
particle is moving towards the positive direction (that is, in the direction from the origin
towards the positive numbers) of the s-axis.
(C) EXERCISES
1. For each of the following functions, find the indicated derivative using the definition.
a. f (x) = x2 4x + 1; f 0 (2) Answer: 0
b. f (x) = x3 + 2; f 0( 2) Answer: 12
c. f (x) = 2x4 + 3x3 2x + 7; f 0 (0) Answer: 2
p
d. f (x) = 2x + 7; f 0 (1) Answer: 1/3
p
e. f (x) = 1 + x2 + 3x + 6; f 0 (2) Answer: 7/8
x
f. f (x) = ; f 0 ( 3) Answer: 4
x+4
x2 + 3
g. f (x) = ; f 0 ( 1) Answer: 14/9
4p x2
x+3
h. f (x) = ; f 0 (1) Answer: 11/36
x p4
3 5x 9
i. f (x) = ; f 0 (2) Answer: 23/18
2x 1
j. f (x) = 2 sin(⇡x); f 0 ( 3) Answer: 2⇡
k. f (x) = x2 cos x; f 0 (0) Answer: 0
l. f (x) = ex+1 ; f 0 ( 1) Answer: 1
p
?m. f (x) = 3 x 1; f 0 (9) Answer: 1/12
p
?n. f (x) = 3 7x + 6; f 0 (3) Answer: 7/27
?o. f (x) = tan(3x); f 0 (⇡/4) Answer: 6
?p. f (x) = 2 cos x 3 sin(2x); f 0 (⇡/6) Answer: 4
2
p
?q. f (x) = 1 3 sin x; f 0 (⇡/3) Answer: 3 3/2
115
?r. f (x) = xex ; f 0 (1) Answer: 2e
x
?s. f (x) = ; f 0 (1/2) Answer: 1/2
1 + sin(⇡x)
x + cos(3⇡x)
?t. f (x) = ; f 0 (1) Answer: 1
x2
2. A billiard ball is hit and travels in a straight line. If s centimeters is the distance of
the ball from its initial position at t seconds, then s = 100t2 + 100t. If the ball hits
the cushion at 39 cm from its initial position, at what velocity does it hit the cushion
at that particular instant? (Hint: Determine first the time when s = 39 and find the
instantaneous velocity at this time.)
3. A particle is moving along a straight line and its position at any time t 0 (in seconds)
is given by s(t) = t3 6t2 + 9t meters.
a. Find the average velocity of the particle on the time interval [0, 2]?
b. Find the velocity of the particle at the instant when t = 2?
4. A stone is thrown vertically upward from the top of a building. If the equation of the
motion of the stone is s = 5t2 + 30t + 200, where s is the directed distance from the
ground in meters and t is in seconds,
a. what is the height of the building?
b. what is the average velocity on the time interval [1, 3]?
c. what is the instantaneous velocity at time t = 1?
d. at what time will the stone hit the ground?
e. what is the instantaneous velocity of the stone upon impact?
(D) ENRICHMENT
In this section, we discuss average and instantaneous rate of change.
AVERAGE RATE OF CHANGE
There are several instances where the rate of change of a certain quantity is of interest.
(a) A statistician may be interested in how the population of a certain city changes with
time.
(b) A civil engineer may want to know how the length of metal bars changes with tem-
perature.
(c) A company manager can study how the production cost of a certain product increases
as the number of manufactured products also increases.
(d) A chemist may be interested in how the volume of a certain compound changes with
increased pressure.
116
To compute the average rate of change of a quantity y with respect to another quantity x,
we need first to establish a function f that describes the relationship of x and y. Suppose
that this relationship is given by y = f (x). Now, fix x0 in the domain of f . Then, the
average rate of change of f over the interval [x0 , x] is
∆f f (x) f (x0 )
= .
∆x x x0
EXAMPLE 5: Suppose the cost (in pesos) of manufacturing x liters of a certain solution
is given by C(x) = 20 + 5x 2x2 + x3 . Compute the average rate of change of the cost y
of producing x liters over (i) [1, 4], (ii) [1, 2], (iii) [1, 1.5].
Solution. To solve this, we need the values of C(1), C(1.5), C(2), and C(4). Computing,
we get C(1) = 20 + 5(1) 2(1)2 + 13 = P24. Similarly, C(1.5) = P26.375, C(2) = P30, and
C(4) = P72.
C(4) C(1) 72 24 48
(i) = = = P16/liter
4 1 4 1 3
C(2) C(1) 30 24 6
(ii) = = = P6/liter
2 1 2 1 1
C(1.5) C(1) 26.375 24 2.375
(iii) = = = P4.75/liter
1.5 1 1.5 1 0.5
.
Further Discussion: Try to ask the class how these values are interpreted. So, for
instance, the values above mean that you need P24 to produce the first liter. Treating
this as our baseline, we see that we need C(4) C(1) = P48 to produce three more
liters, while C(2) C(1) = P6 more to produce one more liter. However, you need only
C(1.5) C(1) = P2.375 to produce half a liter more.
Teaching Tip
Ask the class why there are cases wherein the production cost of the jth product
is different from that of the kth product. In the above example, the first product
costs P24 while the second one costs only P6 given that the first liter is already
produced.
A possible answer to this is that most of the time, the cost of producing the first
product is significantly higher because it involves the overhead costs of running the
manufacturing process. This is also the reason why products that are manufactured
in bulk are cheaper compared to those that are “made-to-order.”
Hence, on the average, given that the company has already manufactured one liter, the
production of the next three liters will cost P16/liter while it only costs P4.75/liter for the
next half-liter. You can then ask the class how much the cost per liter is if the company
117
wants to produce only a small amount after the first liter.
This table gives the average rate of change of the cost over [1, a] where a is a number very
close to 1.
C(a) C(1)
a a 1
1.3 4.39
1.2 4.24
1.1 4.11
1.01 4.0101
We see that the average rate of change over [1, a] approaches 4 as a approaches 1. We say
that this limit is the instantaneous rate of change of the cost function at x = 1.
Average and Instantaneous Rate of Change

Suppose f is a function and y = f (x).
(a) The average rate of change of y with respect to x on [x0 , x] is
∆f f (x) f (x0 )
= .
∆x x x0
(b) The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x = x0 is
∆f f (x) f (x0 )
lim = lim = f 0 (x0 ).
∆x!0 ∆x x!x0 x x0
The instantaneous rate of change is what we will define to be the derivative of y with
respect to x.
EXAMPLE 6: Verify that the instantaneous rate of change of the cost function above at
x = 1 is equal to P4/liter.
Solution. Recall that the instantaneous rate of change of a function C at x = 1 is precisely

the derivative of C at x = 1. Since C(1) = 24, then
C(x) C(1) (20 + 5x 2x2 + x3 ) 24
C 0 (1) = lim = lim .
x!1 x 1 x!1 x 1
(20 + 5x 2x2 + x3 ) 24
Using synthetic or long division, we see that = x2 x + 4.
x 1
Therefore, it follows that
C 0 (1) = lim (x2 x + 4) = 4.
x!1
.
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LESSON 6: Rules of Differentiation
TIME FRAME: 3 hours
1. Determine the relationship between differentiability and continuity;

2. Derive the differentiation rules; and
3. Apply the differentiation rules in computing the derivatives of algebraic, exponential, and
trigonometric functions.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Definitions on continuity and differentiability

2. Relationship between differentiability and continuity
3. Sample exercises on the relationship between differentiability and continuity
4. Derivation of the different differentiation rules
5. Examples on the different differentiation rules
6. Applications
119
TOPIC 6.1: Differentiability Implies Continuity
(A) INTRODUCTION
The difference between continuity and differentiability is a critical issue. Most, but not all,
of the functions we encounter in calculus will be differentiable over their entire domain.
Before we can confidently apply the rules regarding derivatives, we need to be able to
recognize the exceptions to the rule.
Recall the following definitions:
Definition 1 (Continuity at a Number). A function f is continuous at a number c if

all of the following conditions are satisfied:
(i) f (c) is defined;

(ii) lim f (x) exists; and
x!c
(iii) lim f (x) = f (c).
x!c
If at least one of the these conditions is not satisfied, the function is said to be discontin-
uous at c.
Definition 2 (Continuity on R). A function f is said to be continuous everywhere if f

is continuous at every real number.
Definition 3. A function f is differentiable at the number c if
f (c + h) f (c)
f 0 (c) = lim
h!0 h
exists.
(B) LESSON PROPER

We now present several examples of determining whether a function is continuous or dif-
ferentiable at a number.
120
EXAMPLE 1:
1. The piecewise function defined by
8
2
< x + 2x 3
>
if x 6= 1,
f (x) = x 1
:4 if x = 1,
>
is continuous at c = 1. This is because f (1) = 4,
(x 1)(x + 3)
lim f (x) = lim = 4,
x!1 x!1 x 1
and f (1) = lim f (x).

x!1
2. The function defined by 8
< x2 if x < 2,
f (x) =
:3 x if x 2.
is not continuous at c = 2 since lim f (x) = 4 6= 1 = lim f (x), hence the lim f (x)
x!2− x!2+ x!2
does not exist.
p
3. Consider the function f (x) = 3
x. By definition, its derivative is
f (x + h) f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h!0 h
p p p p p
3
3
x + h 3 x 3 (x + h)2 + 3 (x + h)(x) + x2
= lim ·p p
h 3
p
h!0 3
(x + h)2 + 3 (x + h)(x) + x2
(x + h) x
= lim p
h!0 h( (x + h) + 3 (x + h)(x) + 3 x2 )
p p
3 2
1
= lim p p
h!0 3 (x + h)2 + 3 (x + h)(x) + 3 x2
p
1
= p 3
.
3 x2
1 1
Since f 0 (1) = p = , then f is differentiable at x = 1. On the other hand, f 0 (0)
3 2
3 1 3
does not exist. Hence f is not differentiable at x = 0.
4. The function defined by (
5x if x < 1
f (x) =
2x + 3 if x 1
is continuous at x = 1 but is not differentiable at x = 1. Indeed, f (1) = 2(1) + 3 = 5.

Now,
• If x < 1, then f (x) = 5x and so lim 5x = 5.
x!1−
• If x > 1, then f (x) = 2x + 3 and so lim (2x + 3) = 5.
x!1+
121
Since the one-sided limits exist and are equal to each other, the limit exists and equals
5. So,
lim f (x) = 5 = f (1).
x!1
This shows that f is continuous at x = 1. On the other hand, computing for the
derivative,
5(x + h) (5x)
• For x < 1, f (x) = 5x and lim = 5.
h!0− h
(2(x + h) + 3) (2x + 3)
• For x > 1, f (x) = 2x + 3 and lim = 2.
h!0+ h
Since the one-sided limits at x = 1 do not coincide, the limit at x = 1 does not exist.
Since this limit is the definition of the derivative at x = 1, we conclude that f is not
differentiable at x = 1.
5. Another classic example of a function that is continuous at a point but not differentiable
at that point is the absolute value function f (x) = |x| at x = 0. Clearly, f (0) = 0 =
lim |x|. However, if we look at the limit definition of the derivative,
x!0
f (0 + h) f (0) |0 + h| |0| |h|

lim = lim = lim .
h!0 h h!0 h h!0 h
Note that the absolute value function is defined differently to the left and right of 0 so
we need to compute one-sided limits. Note that if h approaches 0 from the left, then it
approaches 0 through negative values. Since h < 0 =) |h| = h, it follows that
|h| h
lim = lim = lim 1 = 1.
h!0− h h!0− h h!0−
Similarly, if h approaches 0 from the right, then h approaches 0 through positive values.
Since h > 0 =) |h| = h, we obtain
|h| h
lim = lim = lim 1 = 1.
h!0+ h h!0+ h h!0+
Hence, the derivative does not exist at x = 0 since the one-sided limits do not coincide.
The previous two examples prove that continuity does not necessarily imply differentiability.
That is, there are functions which are continuous at a point, but is not differentiable at
that point. The next theorem however says that the converse is always TRUE.
Theorem 6. If a function f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.
Proof. That function f is differentiable at a implies that f 0 (a) exists. To prove that f is
continuous at a, we must show that
lim f (x) = f (a),

x!a
122
or equivalently,
lim f (a + h) = f (a).
h!0
If h 6= 0, then
f (a + h) = f (a) + f (a + h) f (a)
f (a + h) f (a)
= f (a) + · h.
h
Taking the limit as h ! 0, we get

f (a + h) f (a)
lim f (a + h) = lim f (a) + lim ·h
h!0 h!0 h!0 h
= f (a) + f 0 (a) · 0
= f (a).
Remark 1:
(a) If f is continuous at x = a, it does not mean that f is differentiable at x = a.
(b) If f is not continuous at x = a, then f is not differentiable at x = a.
(c) If f is not differentiable at x = a, it does not mean that f is not continuous at x = a.
(d) A function f is not differentiable at x = a if one of the following is true:
i. f is not continuous at x = a.
ii. the graph of f has a vertical tangent line at x = a.
iii. the graph of f has a corner or cusp at x = a.
Teaching Tip
A lot of students erroneously deduce that the verb for “getting the derivative” is
“to derive”. Please correct this. The right verb is “to differentiate”. Moreover, the
process of getting the derivative is “differentiation” — not “derivation”.
(C) EXERCISES:
1. Suppose f is a function such that f 0 (5) is undefined. Which of the following statements
is always true?
a. f must be continuous at x = 5.
b. f is definitely not continuous at x = 5.
123
c. There is not enough information to determine whether or not f is continuous at
x = 5. Answer: (a) False. Counterexample: any function that is not continuous at
5; (b) False. Counterexample f (x) = |x 5|; (c) True.
2. Which of the following statements is/are always true?
I. A function that is continuous at x = a is differentiable at x = a.
II. A function that is differentiable at x = a is continuous at x = a.
III. A function that is NOT continuous at x = a is NOT differentiable at x = a.
IV. A function that is NOT differentiable at x = a is NOT continuous at x = a.
a. none of them c. I and IV e. II and III

b. I and III d. II and IV f. all of them
Answer: only (e) is always true

3. Suppose that f is a function that is continuous at x = 3. Which of the following
statements are true?
a. f must be differentiable at x = 3. Answer: False, e.g. f (x) = |x + 3|.
b. f is definitely not differentiable at x = 3. Answer: False, e.g. f (x) = x.
4. Consider the function defined by
(
x2 if x < 3,
f (x) =
6x 9 if x 3.
For each statement below, write True if the statement is correct and False, otherwise.
At x = 3, the function is
a. undefined. Answer: False
b. differentiable but not continuous. Answer: False
c. continuous but not differentiable. Answer: False
d. both continuous and differentiable. Answer: True
e. neither continuous nor differentiable. Answer: False
5. Determine the values of x for which the function is continuous.
x+5 3x + 1 p
a. f (x) = c. f (x) = e. f (x) = x 3
x2 5x + 4 2x2 8x r
x 4x x 2
b. f (x) = d. f (x) = 2 f. f (x) =
4 x2 x 9 x+3
p
6. Determine the largest subset of R where f (x) = 25 x2 is continuous.
7. Is the function defined by g(x) = x2 sin x + 5 continuous at x = ⇡?
8. Is the function defined by f (x) = |x 1| differentiable at x = 1?
124
9. Is the function defined by
(
x3 3 if x  2,
f (x) =
x2 + 1 if x > 2.
continuous at x = 2? differentiable at x = 2?
p
10. Consider the function defined by f (x) = x. Is f differentiable at x = 1? at x = 0? at
x = 1?
125
TOPIC 6.2: The Differentiation Rules and Examples Involving
Algebraic, Exponential, and Trigonometric Functions
(A) INTRODUCTION
How do we find derivatives?
The procedure for finding the exact derivative directly from a formula of the function
without having to use graphical methods is called differential calculus. In practice, we use
some rules that tell us how to find the derivative of almost any function. In this lesson, we
will introduce these rules.
You may start by asking the students to compute the derivatives of the following functions
using the limit definition (formal definition):
(a) f (x) = 3x2 + 4 4x2 + 3

(b) g(x) =
x 1
Give them a few minutes to solve.
After a few minutes, (using their answers) tell the students that computing the derivative
of a given function from the definition is usually time consuming. Thus, this lesson will
help them compute the derivative of a given function more easily.
(B) LESSON PROPER
We first recall the definition of the derivative of a function.
The derivative of the function f the function f 0 whose value at a number x in the domain
of f is given by
f (x + h) f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim (2.3)
h!0 h
if the limit exists.
For example, let us compute the derivative of the first function of the seatwork above:
f (x) = 3x2 + 4. Let us first compute the numerator of the quotient in (2.3):
f (x + h) f (x) = (3(x + h)2 + 4) (3x2 + 4)

= (3x2 + 6xh + 3h2 + 4) (3x2 + 4)
= 6xh + 3h2
= h(6x + 3h).
126
Therefore,
f (x + h) f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h!0 h
3(x + h)2 + 4 (3x2 + 4)
= lim
h!0 h
h(6x + 3h)
= lim
h!0 h
= lim (6x + 3h)
h!0
= 6x.
We see that computing the derivative using the definition of even a simple polynomial is a
lengthy process. What follows next are rules that will enable us to find derivatives easily.
We call them DIFFERENTIATION RULES.
Teaching Tip
You may prove some of the rules and let the class derive the other rules.
DIFFERENTIATING CONSTANT FUNCTIONS
The graph of a constant function is a horizontal line and a horizontal line has zero slope.
The derivative measures the slope of the tangent, and so the derivative is zero.
RULE 1: The Constant Rule
If f (x) = c where c is a constant, then f 0 (x) = 0. The derivative of a constant is equal to

zero.
Proof:
f (x + h) f (x) c c
f 0 (x) = lim = lim = lim 0 = 0.
h!0 h h!0 h h!0
EXAMPLE 1:
(a) If f (x) = 10, then f 0 (x) = 0.
p
(b) If h(x) = 3, then h0 (x) = 0.
(c) If g(x) = 5⇡, then g 0 (x) = 0.
DIFFERENTIATING POWER FUNCTIONS
A function of the form f (x) = xk , where k is a real number, is called a power function.
Below are some examples of power functions.
127
p
(a) f (x) = x (d) p(x) = 4
x
(b) g(x) = x2 (e) `(x) = x 5
p
(c) h(x) = x (f) s(x) = 1/x8
The definition of the derivative discussed in the previous lesson can be used to find the
derivatives of many power functions. For example, it can be shown that
If f (x) = x2 , then f 0 (x) = 2x.

If f (x) = x3 , then f 0 (x) = 3x2 .
If f (x) = x4 , then f 0 (x) = 4x3 .
If f (x) = x5 , then f 0 (x) = 5x4 .
If f (x) = x6 , then f 0 (x) = 6x5 .
Notice the pattern in these derivatives. In each case, the new power of f becomes the
coefficient in f 0 and the power of f 0 is one less than the original power of f . In general, we
have the following rule:
RULE 2: The Power Rule
If f (x) = xn where n 2 N, then f 0 (x) = nxn 1.
Teaching Tip
At the least, prove the case when n = 1 and n = 2.
Proof. (The cases n = 1 and n = 2) Using the limit definition,
f (x + h) f (x) (x + h) x
f (x) = x =) f 0 (x) = lim = lim = lim 1 = 1 = 1x1 1
.
h!0 h h!0 h h!0
On the other hand, if f (x) = x2 , then
f (x + h) f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h!0 h
(x + h) 2 x2
= lim
h!0 h
h(2x + h)
= lim = 2x = 2x2 1
.
h!0 h
If you wish to demonstrate the general case, the proof is stated below.
For the function f (x) = xn , in computing f (x + h) = (x + h)n , we need to invoke the

Binomial Theorem:
n(n 1) n 2 2 n!
(x + h)n = xn + nxn 1 h + x h +··· + xn r hr + · · · + nxhn 1 + hn .
2! r!(n r)!
128
Note that in the binomial expansion,
(i) there are n + 1 terms;
✓ ◆
n n!
(ii) the coefficient of the rth term is the binomial coefficient = ; and
r r!(n r)!
(iii) the sum of the exponent of x and the exponent of h is always equal to n.
Proof. (The general case)
f (x + h) f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h!0 h
(x + h)n xn
= lim
h!0
⇣ h ⌘
n!
xn + nxn 1h + +··· + r!(n r)! x
n r hr + · · · + nxhn 1 + hn xn
= lim
h!0
 h
n(n 1) n n!
= lim nxn 1
+ x 2
h + ··· + xn r r 1
h + · · · + hn 1
h!0 2! r!(n r)!
= nxn 1
Remark 1: Observe that the statement of the power rule restricts the exponent to be a
natural number (since the Binomial Theorem is invoked). However, this formula holds true
even for exponents r 2 R:
f (x) = xr =) f 0 (x) = rxr 1

for all r 2 R.
For example, if f (x) = x ⇡, then f 0 (x) = ( ⇡)x( ⇡ 1) .
EXAMPLE 2:
1. If f (x) = x3 , then f 0 (x) = 3x3 1 = 3x2 .

1
2. Find g 0 (x) where g(x) = 2 .
x
Solution. In some cases, the laws of exponents must be used to rewrite an expression
1
before applying the power rule. Thus, we first write g(x) = 2 = x 2 before we apply
x
the Power Rule. We have:
2 1 3 2
g 0 (x) = ( 2)x = 2x or .
x3
.
129
p 1
3. If h(x) = x, then we can write h(x) = x 2 . So we have,
1 1 1
h0 (x) = x2
2
1 1 1
= x 2 or p
2 2 x
Teaching Tip
This rule is very basic and should be mastered. You can give some more examples
until the students are confidently able to apply the power rule.
DIFFERENTIATING A CONSTANT TIMES A FUNCTION
RULE 3: The Constant Multiple Rule
If f (x) = k h(x) where k is a constant, then f 0 (x) = k h0 (x).
Teaching Tip
Rule 3 states that the derivative of a constant times a differentiable function is the
constant times the derivative of the function. Its proof is a direct consequence of
the constant multiple theorem for limits.
EXAMPLE 3:
Find the derivatives of the following functions.
3 1p
p
(a) f (x) = 5x 4 (b) g(x) = 3 x
3
(c) h(x) = 3x
Solution. We use Rule 3 in conjunction with Rule 2.

3 3 15 1
(a) f 0 (x) = 5 · x 4 1 = x 4 .
4 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 2
(b) g(x) = x 3 =) g 0 (x) = · x 3 1 = x 3 .
3 p p 3 3 9
(c) h0 (x) = 3x1 1 = 3.
.
DIFFERENTIATING SUMS AND DIFFERENCES OF FUNCTIONS
RULE 4: The Sum Rule
If f (x) = g(x) + h(x) where g and h are differentiable functions, then f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) + h0 (x).
130
Teaching Tip
Rule 4 states that the derivative of the sum of two differentiable functions is the
sum of the derivatives of the functions. Its proof relies on the Addition Theorem
for limits.
EXAMPLE 4: Refer to Example 3 above and ask the students to perform the following:
(a) Differentiate the following:
(i) f (x) + g(x) (ii) g(x) + h(x) (iii) f (x) + h(x)
(b) Use Rules 3 and 4 to differentiate the following: (Hint: f (x) g(x) = f (x)+( 1)g(x).)
(i) f (x) g(x) (ii) g(x) h(x) (iii) f (x) h(x)
Solution. .
(a) Copying the derivatives in the solution of Example (3), and substituting them into
the formula of the Sum Rule, we obtain
15 1 1 2 1 2 p 15 1 p
(i) x 4 + x 3 . (ii) x 3 +( 3). (iii) x 4 +( 3).
4 9 9 4
(b) Using Rules 3 and 4, we deduce that the derivative of f (x) g(x) is equal to the
difference of their derivatives: f 0 (x) g 0 (x). Therefore we obtain
15 1 1 2 1 2 p 15 1 p
(i) x 4 x 3 . (ii) x 3 ( 3). (iii) x 4 ( 3).
4 9 9 4
Remark 2:
(a) The Sum Rule can also be extended to a sum of a finite number of functions. If
f (x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x) + · · · + fn (x)
where f1 , f2 , . . . , fn are differentiable functions, then
f 0 (x) = f10 (x) + f20 (x) + · · · + fn0 (x).
(b) The same is true for the difference of a finite number of functions. That is,
f 0 (x) = f10 (x) f20 (x) ··· fn0 (x).
131
DIFFERENTIATING PRODUCTS OF FUNCTIONS
RULE 5: The Product Rule
If f and g are differentiable functions, then

Dx [f (x) g(x)] = f (x) g 0 (x) + g(x) f 0 (x).
Rule 5 states that the derivative of the product of two differentiable functions is the first
function times the derivative of the second function plus the second function times the
derivative of the first function.
The derivative of the product is NOT the product of their derivatives! Indeed, if f (x) = x
and g(x) = x2 , then
Dx [f (x) · g(x)] = Dx [x · x2 ] = Dx (x3 ) = 3x2 .
However,
Dx [f (x)] · Dx [g(x)] = Dx (x) · Dx (x2 ) = 1 · 2x = 2x.
Clearly, 3x2 6= 2x, and therefore
Dx [f (x) · g(x)] 6= Dx [f (x)] · Dx [g(x)].
Teaching Tip
Presentation of this proof is optional, but is encouraged to be given to advanced
classes.
Proof. Suppose f and g are both differentiable functions and let H(x) = f (x) g(x). Then
H(x + h) H(x) f (x + h)g(x + h) f (x)g(x)
H 0 (x) = lim = lim
h!0 h h!0 h
Adding and subtracting f (x + h)g(x) in the numerator (the mathematical trick of adding 0
in a useful manner ) will help simplify this limit. That is,
f (x + h)g(x + h) f (x + h)g(x) + f (x + h)g(x) f (x)g(x)

H 0 (x) = lim
h!0 h
f (x + h)[g(x + h) g(x)] + g(x)[f (x + h) f (x)]
= lim
h!0
 h
f (x + h)[g(x + h) g(x)] g(x)[f (x + h) f (x)]
= lim +
h!0 h h
 
f (x + h)[g(x + h) g(x)] g(x)[f (x + h) f (x)]
= lim + lim
h!0 h h!0 h
g(x + h) g(x) f (x + h) f (x)
= lim f (x + h) · lim + lim g(x) · lim
h!0 h!0 h h!0 h!0 h
= f (x)g 0 (x) + f 0 (x)g(x)
132
EXAMPLE 5:
(a) Find f 0 (x) if f (x) = (3x2 4)(x2 3x)
Solution.
f 0 (x) = (3x2 4)Dx (x2 3x) + (x2 3x)Dx (3x2 4)

= (3x2 4)(2x 3) + (x2 3x)(6x)
= 6x3 9x2 8x + 12 + 6x3 18x2
= 12x3 27x2 8x + 12.
Remark 3: In the above example, we could have also multiplied the two factors and
get
f (x) = 3x4 9x3 4x2 + 12x.
Then, by the Rules 2,3 and 4, the derivative of f is
f 0 (x) = 12x2 27x2 8x + 12
which is consistent with the one derived from using the product rule.
p
(b) Find f 0 (x) if f (x) = x (6x3 + 2x 4).
Solution. Using product rule,
f 0 (x) = x1/2 Dx (6x3 + 2x 4) + Dx (x1/2 ) (6x3 + 2x 4)

1
= x1/2 (18x2 + 2) + x 1/2 (6x3 + 2x 4)
2
= 18x5/2 + 2x1/2 + 3x5/2 + x1/2 2x 1/2
= 21x5/2 + 3x1/2 2x 1/2

.
DIFFERENTIATING QUOTIENTS OF TWO FUNCTIONS
x2 + 2
What is the derivative of ? More generally, we would like to have a formula to
x 3
f (x)
compute the derivative of if we already know f 0 (x) and g 0 (x).
g(x)
133
Teaching Tip
The derivation/proof below is optional but is encouraged to be presented to ad-
vanced classes.
We derive the Quotient Rule using the Product Rule.
f (x) 1
Notice that can be written as a product of two functions: f (x) · . Hence, we can
g(x) g(x)
1 0

compute the derivative if we know f 0 (x) and . Now,
g(x)
 1 1
1 g(x+h) g(x)
Dx = lim
g(x) h!0 h

g(x) g(x + h) 1
= lim ·
h!0 g(x + h)g(x) h

g(x + h) g(x) 1
= lim ·
h!0 h g(x + h)g(x)
1
= g 0 (x) ·
[g(x)]2
Thus, using the product rule
 
f (x) 1
Dx = Dx f (x) ·
g(x) g(x)
1 0
 
1
= f (x) + f 0 (x)
g(x) g(x)
 0
g 0 (x) f (x)
= f (x) · 2
+
[g(x)] g(x)
0 0
g (x)f (x) + f (x)g(x)
= .
[g(x)]2
Putting everything together, we have the following rule:
RULE 6: The Quotient Rule
Let f (x) and g(x) be two differentiable functions with g(x) 6= 0. Then

f (x) g(x)f 0 (x) f (x)g 0 (x)
Dx = .
g(x) [g(x)]2
The rule above states that the derivative of the quotient of two functions is the fraction
having as its denominator the square of the original denominator, and as its numerator
the denominator times the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the
derivative of the denominator.
134
Teaching Tip
• Remind again the students that the derivative of a quotient is NOT equal to
the quotient of their derivatives, that is,

f (x) Dx [f (x)]
Dx 6= .
g(x) Dx [g(x)]
• Since subtraction is not commutative, it matters which function you first copy
and which one you first differentiate. A very common mnemonic for the quo-
tient rule is 
high low D(high) high D(low)
Dx = .
low low squared
EXAMPLE 6:
3x + 5
(a) Let h(x) = . Compute h0 (x).
x2 + 4
3x + 5
Solution. If h(x) = , then f (x) = 3x + 5 and g(x) = x2 + 4 and therefore
x2 + 4
f 0 (x) = 3 and g 0 (x) = 2x. Thus,
g(x)f 0 (x) f (x)g 0 (x)

h(x) =
[g(x)]2
(x2 + 4)(3) (3x + 5)(2x)
=
(x2 + 4)2
3x2 + 12 6x2 10x
=
(x2 + 4)2
12 10x 3x2
= .
(x2 + 4)2
.
2x4 + 7x2 4
(b) Find g 0 (x) if g(x) = .
3x5 + x4 x + 1
Solution.
(3x5 + x4 x + 1) Dx (2x4 + 7x2 4) (2x4 + 7x2 4) Dx (3x5 + x4 x + 1)
g 0 (x) =
(3x5 + x4 x + 1)2
(3x5 + x4 x + 1)(8x3 + 14x) (2x4 + 7x2 4)(15x4 + 4x3 1)
= .
(3x5 + x4 x + 1)2
.
135
DIFFERENTIATING TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
This time we will look at the derivatives of the trigonometric functions:
sin x, cos x, tan x, sec x, csc x, cot x.
You may start this topic by recalling/reviewing the trigonometric functions involving some
identities, that is,
sin x cos x 1 1
tan x = , cot x = , sec x = , csc x =
cos x sin x cos x sin x
and some important limits previously discussed such as,
sin t cos t 1
lim =1 and lim = 0.
t!0 t t!0 t
RULE 7: Derivatives of trigonometric functions
(a) Dx (sin x) = cos x (d) Dx (cot x) = csc2 x

(b) Dx (cos x) = sin x (e) Dx (sec x) = sec x tan x
(c) Dx (tan x) = sec2 x (f) Dx (csc x) = csc x cot x
The proof of (a) will be presented below. Statement (b) can be proven similarly.
Proof. Expanding sin(x + h) using the trigonometric sum identity, we obtain
sin(x + h) sin x
Dx (sin x) = lim
h!0 h
(sin x cos h + cos x sin h) sin x
= lim
h!0
 h
sin h 1 cos h
= lim cos x · + ( sin x) ·
h!0 h h
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
sin h 1 cos h
= cos x · lim sin x · lim
h!0 h h!0 h
= (cos x)(1) (sin x)(0)
= cos x.
136
Statements (c) - (f) can be proved using Statements (a) and (b) and the Quotient Rule.
We only present the proof of (c) below.
Proof. Using Quotient Rule and Statements (a) and (b) above, we have

sin x cos x Dx (sin x) sin x Dx (cos x)
Dx (tan x) = Dx =
cos x (cos x)2
cos x(cos x) (sin x)( sin x)
=
cos2 x
2 2
cos x + sin x
= .
cos2 x
1
Using the identity cos2 x + sin2 x = 1, we get Dx (tan x) = = sec2 x.
cos2 x
EXAMPLE 7: Differentiate the following functions:
(a) f (x) = sec x + 3 csc x (b) g(x) = x2 sin x 3x cos x + 5 sin x
Solution. Applying the formulas above, we get

(a) If f (x) = sec x + 3 csc x, then
f 0 (x) = sec x tan x + 3( csc x cot x) = sec x tan x 3 csc x cot x.
(b) If g(x) = x2 sin x 3x cos x + 5 sin x, then
g 0 (x) = [(x2 )(cos x) + (sin x)(2x)] 3[(x)( sin x) + (cos x(1)] + 5(cos)x)]
= x2 cos x + 2x sin x + 3x sin x 3 cos x + 5 cos x
= x2 cos x + 5x sin x + 2 cos x.
Remark 4:
(a) Whenever Rule 7 is applied to problems where the trigonometric functions are viewed
as functions of angles, the unit measure must be in radians.
(b) Every trigonometric function is differentiable on its domain. In particular, the sine
and cosine functions are everywhere differentiable.
DIFFERENTIATING AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
RULE 8: Derivative of an exponential function
If f (x) = ex , then f 0 (x) = ex .
137
Proof. (Optional ) Using the definition of the derivative,
f (x + h) f (x) ex+h ex
f 0 (x) = lim = lim .
h!0 h h!0 h
eh 1
Using a law of exponent, ex+h = ex · eh . Therefore, since lim = 1,
h!0 h
ex (eh 1) eh 1
f 0 (x) = lim = ex · lim = ex .
h!0 h h!0 h
EXAMPLE 8:
(a) Find f 0 (x) if f (x) = 3ex .
Solution. Applying Rules 3 and 7, we have
f 0 (x) = 3Dx [ex ] = 3ex .
(b) Find g 0 (x) if g(x) = 4x2 ex + 5xex 10ex .
Solution. Applying Rule 5 to the first two terms and Rule 3 to the third term, we
have
g 0 (x) = [( 4x2 )(ex ) + (ex )( 8x)] + [(5x)(ex ) + (ex )(5) 10 · ex ]

= 4x2 ex 3xex 5ex .
(c) Find h0 (x) if h(x) = ex sin x 3ex cos x.
Solution. We apply the Product Rule to each term.
h0 (x) = [(ex )(cos x) + (sin x)(ex )] 3 · [(ex )( sin x) + (cos x)(ex )]

= ex cos x + ex sin x + 3ex sin x 3ex cos x
= ex (4 sin x 2 cos x).
138
dy 17
(d) Find where y = x e p .
dx e x + 2x 3 x
Solution. Using Quotient Rule (also Product Rule when differentiating xe ex ), we

obtain
p 3
dy (ex xe + 2x (17)([(ex )(exe 1 ) + (xe )(ex )] + 2
3 x)(0) p
2 x
)
= p
dx (ex xe + 2x 3 x)2
17ex+1 xe 1 17ex xe 34 + 251 p
x
= p .
(ex xe + 2x 3 x)2
Remark 5: Since the domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers, and
d x
[e ] = ex , it follows that the exponential function is differentiable everywhere.
dx
(C) EXERCISES
1. Let f (x) = mx+b, the line with slope m and y-intercept b. Use the rules of differentiation
to show that f 0 (x) = m. This again proves that the derivative of a line is just the slope
of the line.
2. Find the derivatives of the following functions. Locate the derivative in the table below
and encircle the answer. Keep working until you have five encircled answers in a line
horizontally, vertically or diagonally. (BINGO!)
a. y = x2 x+1 i. f (x) = 5x3 3x5

1
b. f (x) = j. y = (2x + 3)2
2x + 1
c. y = (3x 1)(2x + 5) 1
k. f (x) = (x + )2
d. g(x) = x3 3x2 + 2 x
2x + 5 l. y = x2 (x3 1)
e. y =
3x 2 2x
m. f (x) = 2
f. y = (2x2 + 2)(x2 + 3) 3x + 1
x2 + 1 x
g. f (x) = 2 n. y = 2
x 1 x +1
h. y = x3 4x2 3x o. f (x) = (x 2)(x + 3)
139
1 19
2x 2x 3 2x + 2x 1 (2x3 + 2)
x2 3x 2
4x
2
12x 7 4x (x + 1) 2 3(x2 + 3x)2
(x 1)2
2 6x2
5x4 2x 6x3 8x + 12 8x3 + 16x
(3x2 + 1)2
2x 19
15(x2 x4 ) 3x2 6x 3x2 8x 3
(1 x2 )2 (3x 2)2◆
1 x2
✓
2 1
12x + 13 2x + 1 2 x+
(2x + 1)2 (x2 + 1)2 x
3. Use the Rules of Differentiation to differentiate the following functions:
a. f (x) = 2x3 + 6x d. h(x) = (3x + 4)2

b. g(x) = 7x4 3x2
2
c. y(x) = 4x3 18x2 + 6x e. h(x) = 9x2/3 + p
4
x
4. Find the derivative of each of the following functions:
a. f (u) = (4u + 5)(7u3 2u) 17 1

e. f (a) = 3
+ 2 11a
4 2a 8a
b. h(t) = 2 f. f (r) = (r2 + 2r 3)(3r + 4)
t3
1 3b 4
c. f (z) = 6z 3 g. g(b) = · (2b + 5)
2z b+5
3s s3 3v 2 4v + 1
d. g(s) = 2 h. h(v) =
s +1 (3v 2 2v + 1)(7v 3 v 2 + 3v 5)
dy
5. Find and simplify the result, if possible.
dx
p 1 1
a. y = x p e. y = x
x e +2
b. y = x2 + ⇡ 2 + x⇡ f. y = ex + xe + ee
c. y = x2 sec x g. y = x2 sin x cos x
sin x 1 8
d. y = h. y = tan x cot x
cos x x
6. Find the derivative of f (x) = x2 3x. Use the result to find the slope of the tangent
line to the curve f (x) = x2 3x at the point where x = 2.
1 1
7. If y = , find y 0 and use this result to find the points on the curve y = where the
x x
tangent line has the slope 4.
8. Find all points on the graph of y = (x + 3)2 at which the tangent line is parallel to the
line with equation y 4x + 2 = 0.
140
LESSON 7: Optimization
TIME FRAME: 3 hours lecture + 1 hour exercises
LEARNING OUTCOME: At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to solve opti-
mization problems.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Mathematical modeling
2. Critical and extreme points
3. Fermat’s theorem and the extreme value theorem
4. Word Problems
141
TOPIC 7.1: Optimization using Calculus
(A) INTRODUCTION
This topic presents one of the most important applications of calculus – optimization.
We first review mathematical modelling. Next, we define the notions of a critical point and
an extremum of a function f . Then, we proceed with the discussion of the two important
theorems – Fermat’s and the Extreme Value Theorem. Finally, we discuss the step-by-step
solutions of word problems involving optimization.
(B) ACTIVITY
• Discuss with the class the importance of optimization in every decision process. Ask
them how they maximize or minimize something when they go to school, shopping,
church, etc: For example, they look at the greatest advantage and the least disadvan-
tage when they choose:
– Routes they take (minimize time travel, traffic congestion)
– What to wear (maximize appearance/personality)
– What food to eat at the canteen (minimize costs, maximize hunger satisfaction),
etc.
• You could also expound on the adage “Everything in moderation.” Ask which quanti-
ties they know become bad if they are increased or decreased too much. For example:
– Sleep/rest (fatigue/weakness vs. conditions linked to depression/anxiety, obesity
and heart problems, etc.: The rule of thumb is 8 hours.)
– Study hours (delinquent/failure in course vs. lacking time to do other aspects of
life e.g., family time/social life: The rule of thumb is 1 3 hours every night after
class)
– Food intake (being underweight vs. overweight with optimal values specified by
RDA (recommended dietary allowance)), etc.
• Now, wrap up the discussion by reinforcing the idea that logical decisions in real life
are made by optimizing some quantities (objectives) that depend on things you can
control (variables). Of course, in real life, there are several objectives and variables
involved. In this section, we will only be concerned with problems with one objective
that depends on controlling only one variable.
142
• You may also want to let them recall that they have done optimization before using
parabolas. (Refer to the figures that follow.) The idea was that in a parabola opening
upwards, minimization is possible and the minimum is attained at the vertex (analo-
gous idea for parabolas opening downwards). This method, however, is very limited
because the objective function must be a quadratic function.
max occurs here
min occurs here
(C) LESSON PROPER
REVIEW OF MATHEMATICAL MODELING (This part can be skipped and integrated

in problem solving proper)
Before we start with problem solving, we recall key concepts in mathematical modeling
(It was your first topic in General Mathematics). Functions are used to describe physical
phenomena. For example:
• The number of people y in a certain area that is infected by an epidemic after some
time t;
• The concentration c of a drug in a person’s bloodstream t hours after it was taken;
• The mice population y as the snake population x changes, etc.
We model physical phenomena to help us predict what will happen in the future. We do
this by finding or constructing a function that exhibits the behavior that has already been
observed. In the first example above, we want to find the function y(t). For example, if
y(t) = 1000 · 2 t , then we know that initially, there are y(0) = 1000 affected patients. After
one hour, there are y(1) = 1000 · 2 1 = 500 affected patients.
Observe that the independent variable here is time t and that the quantity y depends on t.
Since y is dependent on t, it now becomes possible to optimize the value of y by controlling
at which time t you will measure y.
We now look at some examples.
EXAMPLE 1: For each of the following, determine the dependent quantity Q and the
independent quantity x on which it depends. Then, find the function Q(x) that accurately
models the given scenario.
143
(a) The product P of a given number x and the number which is one unit bigger.
. Answer: P (x) = x(x + 1) = x2 + x
(b) The volume V of a sphere of a given radius r . Answer: V (r) = 4/3 ⇡r3
(c) The volume V of a right circular cone with radius 3cm and a given height h
. Answer: V (h) = 3⇡h
(d) The length ` of a rectangle with width 2cm and a given area A
. Answer: `(A) = A/2
(e) The total manufacturing cost C of producing x pencils if there is an overhead cost of
P100 and producing one pencil costs P2
. Answer: C(x) = 100 + 2x
(f) The volume of the resulting open-top box when identical squares with side x are cut
off from the four corners of a 3 meter by 5 meter aluminum sheet and the sides are
then turned up . Answer: V (x) = x(3 2x)(5 2x).
CRITICAL POINTS AND POINTS WHERE EXTREMA OCCUR
Here, we define several concepts. We will see later that extreme points occur at critical
points.
Definition
Let f be a function that is continuous on an open interval I containing x0 .
• We say that x0 is a critical point of f if f 0 (x0 ) = 0 or f 0 (x0 ) does not exist

(that is, f has a corner or a cusp at (x0 , f (x0 ))).
• We say that the maximum occurs at x0 if the value f (x0 ) is the largest among
all other functional values on I, that is,
f (x0 ) f (x) for all x 2 I.
• We say that the minimum of f occurs at x0 if the value f (x0 ) is the smallest
among all the other functional values on I, that is,
f (x0 )  f (x) for all x 2 I.
• We say that an extremum of f occurs at x0 if either the maximum or the

minimum occurs at x0 .
144
Teaching Tip
Sometimes, there is an abuse of terminology when we say x0 is an extremum or an
extreme point of f . The proper terms are the following:
• An extremum of f occurs at x0 .
• f has an extremum at x = x0 .
• (x0 , f (x0 )) is an extreme point of f .
• f (x0 ) is an extreme value of f .

You are encouraged to use the above terms but are gently reminded to avoid penal-
izing the students for being imprecise (e.g., saying “x0 is an extremum of f ” instead
of “f has an extremum at x0 ”).
Also, note that extremum points may not be unique, as illustrated by the sine curve:
Here, there are infinitely many points where the maximum and minimum occur.
EXAMPLE 2: Find all critical points of the given function f .

(a) f (x) = 3x2 3x + 4
(b) f (x) = x3 9x2 + 15x 20
(c) f (x) = x3 x2 x 10
(d) f (x) = x 3x1/3
(e) f (x) = x5/4 + 10x1/4
Solution. We differentiate f and find all values of x such that f 0 (x) becomes zero or
undefined.
(a) Note that f is differentiable everywhere, so critical points will only occur when f 0 is
zero. Differentiating, we get f 0 (x) = 6x 3. Therefore, f 0 (x) = 0 , 6x 3 = 0 ,
x = 1/2. So x = 1/2 is a critical point.
(b) f 0 (x) = 3x2 18x + 15 = 3(x2 6x + 5) = 3(x 5)(x 1). Hence the critical points
are 1 and 5.
(c) f 0 (x) = 3x2 2x 1 = (3x + 1)(x 1). So, the critical points are 1/3 and 1.
2/3 x2/3 1
(d) f 0 (x) = 1 x = . Observe that f 0 is zero when the numerator is zero,
x2/3
or when x = 1. Moreover, f 0 is undefined when the denominator is zero, i.e., when
x = 0. So, the critical points are 0 and 1.
145
5 10 5(x + 2)
(e) f 0 (x) = x1/4 + x 3/4 = . Note that the domain of f is [0, 1); therefore
4 4 4x3/4
2 cannot be a critical point. The only critical point is 0.
FERMAT’S THEOREM AND THE EXTREME VALUE THEOREM
We now discuss the theory behind optimization using calculus. The first gives a relationship
between the critical points and extremum points. The second is a guarantee that a problem
has extreme points. We will illustrate the theorems by graphs.
Theorem 7 (Fermat’s Theorem). Let f be continuous on an open interval I containing

x0 . If f has an extremum at x0 , then x0 must be a critical point of f .
To illustrate this, recall that the derivative of f at x0 is the slope of the tangent line of f
at x0 .
Teaching Tip
Draw several graphs of smooth curves and let the class deduce that the extreme
points are where there is a horizontal tangent line (the slope of the tangent line is 0).
Then, cross-reference this to the definition of a critical point when f is differentiable
(f 0 (x0 ) = 0).
Also, there are points where f may not be differentiable. So, we also have to check
those points where f 0 does not exist. This is still part of the definition of a critical
point.
Theorem 8 (Extreme Value Theorem). Let f be a function which is continuous on a closed

and bounded interval [a, b]. Then the extreme values (maximum and minimum) of f always
exist, and they occur either at the endpoints or at the critical points of f .
146
Teaching Tip
It is important to stress the assumptions of the Extreme Value Theorem. The
function f must be continuous on an interval that is closed and bounded. To
illustrate this, consider
• The parabola f (x) = x2 defined on R. It indeed has a minimum point at the
origin, but it does not have a maximum (since the values go to infinity as x
approaches ±1. The conclusion of the Extreme Value Theorem fails because
even if f is continuous, the interval on which it is defined is not bounded.
• The function f (x) = |x| if x 2 [ 1, 0)[(0, 1] and 1 if x = 0. Even if f is defined

on the closed and bounded interval [ 1, 1], the function is not continuous
there. So, the conclusion fails. As we see from the graph, f has a maximum
occurring at x = 1, 0, 1 but does not possess a minimum because the value 0
is not attained.
EXAMPLE 3: Find the extrema of the given functions on the interval [ 1, 1]. (These
functions are the same as in the previous exercise.)
(a) f (x) = 3x2 3x + 4
(b) f (x) = x3 9x2 + 15x 20
(c) f (x) = x3 x2 x 10
(d) f (x) = x 3x1/3
Solution. We remember that we have solved all critical points of f in the previous exercise.
However, we will only consider those critical points on the interval [ 1, 1]. Moreover, by
the Extreme Value Theorem, we also have to consider the endpoints. So, what remains to
be done is the following:
• Get the functional values of all these critical points inside [ 1, 1];
• Get the functional values at the endpoints; and
• Compare the values. The highest one is the maximum value while the lowest one is
the minimum value.
(a) There’s only one critical point, x = 1/2, and the endpoints are x = ±1. We present
the functional values in a table.
x 1 1/2 1
f (x) 10 13/4 4
147
Clearly, the maximum of f occurs at x = 1 and has value 10. The minimum of f
occurs at x = 1/2 and has value 13/4.
(b) The critical points of f are 1 and 5, but since we limited our domain to [ 1, 1], we
are only interested with x = 1. Below is the table of functional values at this critical
point, as well as those at the endpoints.
x 1 1
f (x) 45 13
Therefore, the maximum value 13 occurs at x = 1 while the minimum value 45

occurs at x = 1.
(c) Considering the critical points and the endpoints, we consider the functional values
at 1/3, 1 and 1:
x 1 1/3 1
f (x) 11 25/27 11
Thus, the maximum point is ( 1/3, 25/27) while the minimum points are (1, 11)
and ( 1, 11).
(d) f (0) = 0, f (1) = 2 and f ( 1) = 2. So, the maximum point is ( 1, 2) while the
minimum point is (1, 2).
OPTIMIZATION: APPLICATION OF EXTREMA TO WORD PROBLEMS
Many real-life situations require us to find a value that best suits our needs. If we are given
several options for the value of a variable x, how do we choose the “best value?” Such a
problem is classified as an optimization problem. We now apply our previous discussion
to finding extremum values of a function to solve some optimization problems.
148
Suggested Steps in Solving Optimization Problems
1. If possible, draw a diagram of the problem.
2. Assign variables to all unknown quantities involved.
3. Specify the objective function. This function must be continuous.
i. Identify the quantity, say q, to be maximized or minimized.

ii. Formulate an equation involving q and other quantities. Express q in terms
of a single variable, say x. If necessary, use the information given and rela-
tionships between quantities to eliminate some variables.
iii. The objective function is
maximize q = f (x)
or minimize q = f (x).
4. Determine the domain or constraints of q from the physical restrictions of the

problem. The domain must be a closed and bounded interval.
5. Use appropriate theorems involving extrema to solve the problem. Make sure
to give the exact answer (with appropriate units) to the question.
EXAMPLE 4: Find the number in the interval [ 2, 2] so that the difference of the number
from its square is maximized.
Solution. Let x be the desired number. We want to maximize
f (x) = x2 x
where x 2 [ 2, 2]. Note that f is continuous on [ 2, 2] and thus, we can apply the Extreme
Value Theorem.
We first find the critical numbers of f in the interval ( 2, 2). We have
f 0 (x) = 2x 1,
1
which means that we only have one critical number in ( 2, 2): x = .
2
Then we compare the function value at the critical number and the endpoints. We see that
✓ ◆
1 1
f ( 2) = 6, f (2) = 2, f = .
2 4
From this, we conclude that f attains a maximum on [ 2, 2] at the left endpoint x = 2.

Hence, the number we are looking for is 2. .
149
EXAMPLE 5: The range R (distance of launch site to point of impact) of a projectile
that is launched at an angle ✓ 2 [0 , 90 ] from the horizontal, and with a fixed initial speed
of v0 is given by
v2
R(✓) = 0 sin 2✓,
g
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Show that this range is maximized when ✓ = 45 .
v0
✓
Range R
Solution. Let R(✓) denote the range of the projectile that is launched at an angle ✓,
measured from the horizontal. We need to maximize
v02
R(✓) = sin 2✓
g
where ✓ 2 [0, ⇡/2]. Note that R is continuous on [0, ⇡/2] and therefore the Extreme Value
Theorem is applicable.
We now differentiate R to find the critical numbers on [0, ⇡/2]:

v02
R0 (✓) = 2 cos 2✓ = 0 () 2✓ = ⇡/2.
g
Hence ✓ = ⇡/4 = 45 is a critical number.
Finally, we compare the functional values:

v02
f (0) = 0, f (⇡/4) = , f (⇡/2) = 0.
g
Thus, we conclude that f attains its maximum at ✓ = ⇡/4, with value v02 /g. .
EXAMPLE 6:
s s
A rectangular box is to be made from a piece of
s s
cardboard 24 cm long and 9 cm wide by cutting
9 cm
out identical squares from the four corners and
turning up the sides. Find the volume of the s s
largest rectangular box that can be formed. s s
24 cm
150
Solution. Let s be the length of the side of the squares to be cut out, and imagine the
“flaps” being turned up to form the box. The length, width and height of the box would
then be 24 2s, 9 2s, and s, respectively. Therefore, the volume of the box is
V (s) = (24 2s)(9 2s)s = 2(108s 33s2 + 2s3 ).
We wish to maximize V (s) but note that s should be nonnegative and should not be more
than half the width of the cardboard. That is, s 2 [0, 4.5]. (The case s = 0 or s = 4.5
does not produce any box because one of the dimensions would become zero; but to make
the interval closed and bounded, we can think of those cases as degenerate boxes with zero
volume). Since V is just a polynomial, it is continuous on the closed and bounded interval
[0, 4.5]. Thus, the Extreme Value Theorem applies. Now
V 0 (s) = 216 132s + 12s2 = 4(54 33s + 3s2 ) = 4(3s 6)(s 9)
and hence the only critical number of V in (0, 4.5) is 2 (s = 9 is outside the interval).
We now compare the functional values at the endpoints and at the critical points:
s 0 2 4.5
V (s) 0 200 0
Therefore, from the table, we see that V attains its maximum at s = 2, and the maximum
volume is equal to V (2) = 200 cm3 . .
EXAMPLE 7: Determine the dimensions of the right circular cylinder of greatest volume
that can be inscribed in a right circular cone of radius 6 cm and height 9 cm.
r
6 in
9 in
Solution. Let h and r respectively denote the height and radius of the cylinder. The volume
of the cylinder is ⇡r2 h.
Looking at the central cross-section of the cylinder and the cone, we can see similar triangles,
and so
6 9
= . (2.4)
6 r h
151
We can now write our objective function as
3 3 ⇣ r⌘
V (r) = 9⇡r2 ⇡r = 3⇡r2 3 ,
2 2
and it is to be maximized. Clearly, r 2 [0, 6]. Since V is continuous on [0, 6], the Extreme
Value Theorem is applicable.
Now,
9 2 ⇣ r⌘
V 0 (r) = 18⇡r ⇡r = 9⇡r 2
2 2
and hence, our only critical number is 4 on (0, 6). We now compare the functional values
at the endpoints and at the critical points:
r 0 4 6
V (r) 0 48⇡ 0
We see that the volume is maximized when r = 4, with value V (4) = 48⇡. To find the
dimensions, we solve for h from (2.4).
If r = 4,
6 9
= =) h = 3.
6 2 h
Therefore, the largest circular cylinder that can be inscribed in the given cone has dimen-
sions r = 4 cm and height h = 3 cm. .
Teaching Tip
The next example is optional because in finding the derivative of the function, you
usually use a technique – Chain Rule – that is yet to be discussed. One way to
remedy this is to use the definition to find the derivative. This will need a few more
steps which your time frame may not allow.
EXAMPLE 8: Angelo, who is in a rowboat 2 kilometers from a straight shoreline wishes

to go back to his house, which is on the shoreline and 6 kilometers from the point on the
shoreline nearest Angelo. If he can row at 6 kph and run at 10 kph, how should he proceed
in order to get to his house in the least amount of time?
Starting Point
2 km
Angelo’s house c P
shoreline
6 km
152
Solution. Let c be the distance between the house and the point P on the shore from which
Angelo will start to run. Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we see that the distance he will
p
travel by boat is 4 + (6 c)2 .
p
distance 4 + (6 c)2 c
Note that speed= time . Thus, he will sail for hours and run for
6 10
hours. We wish to minimize
p
4 + (6 c)2 c
T (c) = + .
6 10
We can assume that c 2 [0, 6]. We now differentiate T . Observe that our previously
discussed rules of differentiation are not applicable to this function because we have not
yet discussed how to differentiate compositions of functions. We use the definition of the
derivative instead.
T (x) T (c)
T 0 (c) = lim
x!c x c ! !
p p
4 + (6 x)2 x 4 + (6 c)2 c
+ +
6 10 6 10
= lim
x!c x c !
p p
1 x c 1 4 + (6 x)2 4 + (6 c)2
= lim + lim .
10 x!c x c 6 x!c x c
We now rationalize the expression in the first limit by multiplying the numerator and
p p
denominator by 4 + (6 x)2 + 4 + (6 c)2 . This yields:
1 1 (4 + (6 x)2 ) (4 + (6 c)2 )
T 0 (c) = + lim p p
10 6 x!c (x c)( 4 + (6 x)2 + 4 + (6 c)2
1 1 12(x c) + (x c)(x + c)
= + lim p p
10 6 x!c (x c)( 4 + (6 x)2 + 4 + (6 c)2 )
1 1 12 + x + c
= + lim p p
10 6 x!c 4 + (6 x)2 + 4 + (6 c)2
1 1 12 + 2c
= + · p .
10 6 2 4 + (6 c)2
Solving for the critical numbers of f on (0, 6), we solve

p
0 1 1 12 + 2c 3 4 + (6 c)2 30 + 5c
T (c) = + · p = p = 0,
10 6 2 4 + (6 c)2 30 4 + (6 c)2
9
and we get c = .
2
153
Comparing function values at the endpoints and the critical number,
p ✓ ◆
40 9 13 14
T (0) = , T = , T (6) = ,
6 2 15 15
we see that the minimum of T is attained at c = 29 . Thus, Angelo must row up to the point
P on the shore 29 kilometers from his house and 32 kilometers from the point on the shore
nearest him. Then he must run straight to his house. .
(D) EXERCISES
1. Find the extrema of the following function on the given interval, if there are any, and
determine the values of x at which the extrema occur.
x
a. f (x) = on [ 1, 4] [ 1, 10]
x2 + 2
p g. f (x) = 2 cos x on [ 32⇡ , ⇡3 ]
b. f (x) = x 4 x2 on [ 1, 2] p
h. f (x) = 4 x2 on [ 2, 2]
f (x) = 2 sec x tan x on 0, ⇡4
⇥ ⇤
c.
4
1 i. f (x) = on [2, 5]
d. f (x) = on [ 2, 3] (x 1)2
x sin x
e. f (x) = 4x3 3x2 6x + 3 on ?j. f (x) = p on [0, 2⇡]
cos x 2
[0, 10] ?k. f (x) = x2 + cos(x2 ) on
p p
f. f (x) = 4x3 3x2 6x + 3 on [ ⇡, ⇡]
2. Answer the following optimization problems systematically:

a. A closed box with a square base is to have a volume of 2000 cm3 . The material for
the top and bottom of the box costs P30 per square centimeter and the material
for the sides cost P15 per square centimeter. Find the dimensions of the box so
that the total cost of material is the least possible and all its dimensions do not
exceed 20 cm.
b. An open box is to be made from a 16 cm by 30 cm piece of cardboard by cutting
out squares of equal size from the four corners and bending up the sides. How
long should the sides of the squares be to obtain a box with the largest volume?
c. An offshore oil well located at a point W that is 5 km from the closest point A on
a straight shoreline. Oil is to be piped from W to a shore point B that is 8 km
from A by piping it on a straight line underwater from W to some shore point P
between A and B and then on to B via pipe along the shoreline. If the cost of
laying pipe is P10,000,000/km underwater and P5,000,000/km over land, where
should the point P be located to minimize the cost of laying the pipe?
d. Find the radius and height of the right circular cylinder of largest volume that
can be inscribed in a right circular cone with radius 4 cm and height 3 cm.
e. Find the dimensions of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in the right
triangle with sides 3, 4 and 5 if (a) two sides of the rectangle are on the legs of
the triangle, and if (b) a side of the rectangle is on the hypotenuse of the triangle.
154
f. Find the area of the largest rectangle having two vertices on the x-axis and two
vertices above the x-axis and on the parabola with equation y = 9 x2 .
g. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x3 3x2 + 5x, 0  x  3
that has the least slope.
h. A closed cylindrical can is to hold 1 cubic meter of liquid. Assuming there is
no waste or overlap, how should we choose the height and radius to minimize
the amount of material needed to manufacture the can? (Assume that both
dimensions do not exceed 1 meter.)
SOLUTION TO STARRED EXERCISES
p
(cos x 2) cos x sin x( sin x) p
0
1.j. f (x) = p = 0 , cos2 x + sin2 x 2 cos x = 0. Since
(cos x 2)2 p
cos2 x + sin2 x = 1, we see that f 0 (x) = 0 whenever cos x = 2/2, meaning, when
x = ⇡/4 or x = 7⇡/4. Along with the endpoints, we check their functional values:
p
x f (x) = sin x/(cos x 2)
p
⇡/4 2/2
7⇡/4 1/3
0 0
2⇡ 0
p
Therefore, f attains its maximum 2/2 at x = ⇡/4 and its minimum 1/3 at x =
7⇡/4.
1.k. f 0 (x) = 2x 2x sin(x2 ) = 0 , 2x(1 sin(x2 )) = 0 , x = 0 or x2 = ⇡/2. Hence, the
p
critical points of f are x = 0 and x = ± ⇡/2. Along with the endpoints, we now
check the functional values.
x f (x) = x2 + cos(x2 )
0 1
p
± ⇡/2 ⇡/2
p
± ⇡ ⇡ 1
p
Hence, the maximum (⇡ 1) occurs at x = ± ⇡ and the minimum 1 occurs at x = 0.
155
LESSON 8: Higher-Order Derivatives and the Chain Rule
TIME FRAME: 4 hours
1. Compute higher-order derivatives of functions;

2. Illustrate the Chain Rule of differentiation; and
3. Solve problems using the Chain Rule.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Definition of higher order derivatives

2. Examples on computing higher order derivatives
3. The Chain Rule
4. Examples and problems
156
TOPIC 8.1: Higher-Order Derivatives of Functions
(A) INTRODUCTION
Consider the polynomial function f (x) = x4 + 3x3 4x + 2. Its derivative,
f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 9x2 4,
is again differentiable. Therefore, we may still differentiate f 0 to get
(f 0 )0 (x) = f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 18x.
This is again another differentiable function. We call f 00 and its subsequent derivatives
the higher-order derivatives of f . Like f 0 , which we interpret as the slope of the tangent
line, the function f 00 will have an interpretation on the graph of f (This will be a lesson in
college). It also has an important interpretation in physics if f denotes the displacement
of a particle. For now, this lesson will reinforce our skills in differentiating functions.
(B) LESSON PROPER
dy
Consider the function y = f (x). The derivative y 0 , f 0 (x), Dx y or is called the first
dx
derivative of f with respect to x. The derivative of the first derivative is called the second
derivative of f with respect to x and is denoted by any of the following symbols:
d2 y
y 00 , f 00 (x) , Dx2 y ,
dx2
The third derivative of f with respect to x is the derivative of the second derivative and
is denoted by any of the following symbols:
d3 y
y 000 , f 000 (x) , Dx3 y ,
dx3
In general, the nth derivative of f with respect to x is the derivative of the (n 1)st
derivative and is denoted by any of the following symbols:
dn y
y (n) , f (n) (x) , Dxn y ,
dxn
Formally, we have the following definition.
Definition 4. The nth derivative of the function f is defined recursively by

f (x + ∆x) f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim for n = 1, and
∆x!0 ∆x
157
f (n 1) (x
+ ∆x) f (n 1) (x)
f (n) (x) = lim for n > 1,
∆x!0 ∆x
provided that these limits exist. Thus, the nth derivative of f is just the derivative of the
(n 1)st derivative of f .
Remark 1:
(a) The function f can be written as f (0) (x).
(b) In the notation f (n) (x), n is called the order of the derivative.
EXAMPLE 1:
1. Find the fourth derivative of the function f (x) = x5 3x4 + 2x3 x2 + 4x 10.
Solution. We differentiate the function repeatedly and obtain
f 0 (x) = 5x4 12x3 + 6x2 2x + 4

f 00 (x) = 20x3 36x2 + 12x 2
f 000 (x) = 60x2 72x + 12
(4)
f (x) = 120x 72.
2. Find the first and second derivatives of the function defined by
y = (3x2 4)(x2 3x).
Solution. Using the Product Rule, we compute the first derivative:
y 0 = (3x2 4)Dx (x2 3x) + (x2 3x)Dx (3x2 4)

= (3x2 4)(2x 3) + (x2 3x)(6x)
= 6x3 9x2 8x + 12 + 6x3 18x2
= 12x3 27x2 8x + 12.
Similarly, we obtain the second derivative:
y 00 = Dx (12x3 27x2 8x + 12)

= 36x2 54x 8.
158
3x + 5 d2 y
3. Let y = . Find .
x2 + 4 dx2
Solution. Using the Quotient Rule twice, we have
dy (x2 + 4)Dx (3x + 5) (3x + 5)Dx (x2 + 4)

=
dx (x2 + 4)2
2
(x + 4)(3) (3x + 5)(2x)
=
(x2 + 4)2
3x2 + 12 6x2 10x
=
(x2 + 4)2
12 10x 3x2
= ,
(x2 + 4)2
and
d2 y d 12 10x 3x2
✓ ◆
=
dx2 dx (x2 + 4)2
d 12 10x 3x2
✓ ◆
=
dx x4 + 8x2 + 16
d d 4
(x4 + 8x2 + 16) (12 10x 3x2 ) (12 10x 3x2 ) (x + 8x2 + 16)
= dx dx
(x4 + 8x2 + 16)2
(x4 + 8x2 + 16)( 10 6x) (12 10x 3x2 )(4x3 + 16x)
=
(x4 + 8x2 + 16)2
6x5 + 30x4 48x3 + 80x2 288x 160
= .
(x4 + 8x2 + 16)2
.
4. Find the third derivative of the function defined by g(x) = 4x2 ex + 5xex 10ex .
Solution. We differentiate repeatedly (applying the Product Rule) and obtain
g (1) (x) = [( 4x2 )(ex ) + (ex )( 8x)] + [(5x)(ex ) + (ex )(5) 10 · ex ]

= 4x2 ex 3xex 5ex
= ex ( 4x2 3x 5).
g (2) (x) = (ex )( 8x 3) + ( 4x2 3x 5)(ex )

= ex ( 4x2 11x 8).
g (3) (x) = (ex )( 8x 11) + ( 4x2 11x 8)(ex )

= ex ( 4x2 19x 19).
159
.
5. If f (x) = ex sin x 3ex cos x, find f (5) (x).
Solution. We differentiate repeatedly (applying the Product Rule) and obtain
f (1) (x) = [(ex )(cos x) + (sin x)(ex )] 3 · [(ex )( sin x) + (cos x)(ex )]
= ex cos x + ex sin x + 3ex sin x 3ex cos x
= ex (4 sin x 2 cos x).
f (2) (x) = ex [4(cos x) 2( sin x)] + (4 sin x 2 cos x)(ex )

= ex (2 cos x + 6 sin x).
f (3) (x) = ex [2( sin x) + 6(cos x)] + (2 cos x + 6 sin x)(ex )

= ex (8 cos x + 4 sin x).
f (4) (x) = ex [8( sin x) + 4(cos x)] + (8 cos x + 4 sin x)(ex )

= ex (12 cos x 4 sin x).
f (5) (x) = ex [12( sin x) 4(cos x)] + (12 cos x 4 sin x)(ex )
= ex (8 cos x 16 sin x).
(C) EXERCISES
1. Find y 0 , y 00 , y 000 , and y 0000 for the following expressions:

1
a. y = x4 d. y = x 3
7
b. y = x e. y = x3.2
22
c. y = x 7 f. y = x 3.5
2. Find the first and second derivatives of the following:

p t
a. y = x x e. k(t) = p
1 t2
t
b. f (u) = 3 p
pu s3 s
f. h(s) = p
c. f (t) = 3 t 3
s
1
d. g(x) = 2 p
x x
160
3. If f (x) = 6x5 5x4 + 3x3 7x2 + 9x 14, then find f (n) (x) for all n 2 N.
⇣⇡ ⌘ ⇣⇡ ⌘ ⇣⇡ ⌘
4. Find f 0 , f 00 , and f 000 , given f (x) = sin x.
6 6 6
5. If g(x) = sin x, then find g (n) (x) for all n 2 N.
p
6. Find f (5) (x) if f (x) = 3 3x + 2.
?7. Find Dx55 (cos x) and Dx56 (cos x).
Answer: Dx55 (cos x) = sin x and Dx56 (cos x) = cos x
?8. Find f (n) (x) for all n 2 N where f (x) = e x. (Hint: Write f (x) as a quotient.)
Answer: f (n) (x) = e x if n is odd while f (n) (x) = e x when n is even.
?9. Let p(x) be a polynomial of degree n with leading coefficient 1. What is p(k) (x) if (a)
k = n; and if (b) k > n.
Answer: (a) n!; (b) 0
161
TOPIC 8.2: The Chain Rule
(A) INTRODUCTION
Consider the following functions:
(a) f (x) = (3x2 2x + 4)2

(b) y = sin 2x
Teaching Tip
Ask the students to find the derivatives f 0 (x) and y 0 of the functions above, before
continuing with your lecture.
Expect some students to use the Power Rule (even when it is not applicable):
Dx [(3x2 2x + 4)2 ] = 2(3x2 2x + 4). (This is incorrect!)
Some may expand the expression first to get
f (x) = 9x4 + 4x2 + 16 12x3 + 24x2 16x = 9x4 12x3 + 28x2 16x + 16
before differentiating:
f 0 (x) = 36x3 36x2 + 56x 16. (This is correct!)
Some may even use product rule and first write the function
f (x) = (3x2 2x + 4)2 = (3x2 2x + 4)(3x2 2x + 4).
Hence,
f 0 (x) = (3x2 2x + 4)Dx (3x2 2x + 4) + (3x2 2x + 4)Dx (3x2 2x + 4)

= 2 · (3x2 2x + 4)(6x 2)
= (36x3 24x2 + 48x) (12x2 8x + 16)
= 36x3 36x2 + 56x 16. (This is correct!)
Ask them if the last two (correct) methods will be doable if
f (x) = (3x2 2x + 4)200 .
162
On the other hand, for the function y = sin 2x, some of them may have used a trigonometric
identity to first rewrite y into
y = sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x.
In this case
y 0 = 2[(sin x)( sin x) + (cos x)(cos x)]

= 2(cos2 x sin2 x)
= 2 cos(2x).
In this lesson, students will learn a rule that will allow them to differentiate a given
function without having to perform any preliminary multiplication, or apply any special
formula.
(B) LESSON PROPER
The Chain Rule below provides for a formula for the derivative of a composition of functions.
Theorem 9 (Chain Rule). Let f be a function differentiable at c and let g be a function

differentiable at f (c). Then the composition g f is differentiable at c and
Dx (g f )(c) = g 0 (f (c)) · f 0 (c).
Remark 1: Another way to state the Chain Rule is the following: If y is a differentiable
function of u defined by y = f (u) and u is a differentiable function of x defined by u = g(x),
then y is a differentiable function of x, and the derivative of y with respect to x is given by
dy dy du
= · .
dx du dx
In words, the derivative of a composition of functions is the derivative of the outer function
evaluated at the inner function, times the derivative of the inner function.
EXAMPLE 1:
(a) Recall our first illustration f (x) = (3x2 2x + 4)2 . Find f 0 (x) using the Chain Rule.
Solution. We can rewrite y = f (x) = (3x2 2x + 4)2 as y = f (u) = u2 where

u = 3x2 2x + 4, a differentiable function of x. Using the Chain Rule, we have
dy du
f 0 (x) = y 0 = ·
du dx
= (2u)(6x 2)
2
= 2(3x 2x + 4)(6x 2)
3 2
= 36x 36x + 56x 16.
163
(b) For the second illustration, we have y = sin(2x). Find y 0 using the Chain Rule.
Solution. We can rewrite y = sin(2x) as y = f (u) where f (u) = sin u and u = 2x.
Hence,
dy du
y0 = ·
du dx
= cos u · 2
= 2 cos(2x).
.
dz 4
(c) Find if z = 2 , where a is a real number.
dy (a y 2 )2
4
Solution. Notice that we can write z = as z = 4(a2 y2) 2. Applying
(a2 y 2 )2
the Chain Rule, we have
dz d 2
= 4· 2(a2 y2) 2 1
· (a y2)
dy dy
= 8(a2 y2) 3
· 2y
2 2 3
= 16y(a y )
16y
= .
(a2 y 2 )3
.
Now, suppose we want to find the derivative of a power function of x. That is, we are
interested in Dx [f (x)n ]. To derive a formula for this, we let y = un where u is a differentiable
function of x given by u = f (x). Then by the Chain Rule,
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
= nun 1 · f 0 (x)
= n[f (x)]n 1
· f 0 (x)
Thus, Dx [f (x)]n = n[f (x)]n 1 · f 0 (x). This is called the GENERALIZED POWER RULE.
EXAMPLE 2:
(a) What is the derivative of y = (3x2 + 4x 5)5 ?
164
Solution.
Dx [(3x2 + 4x 5)5 ] = 5 · (3x2 + 4x 5)5 1

· Dx (3x2 + 4x 5)
= 5(3x2 + 4x 5)4 (6x + 4).
.
dy p
(b) Find where y = 3x3 + 4x + 1.
dx
Solution.
dy 1 1
= (3x3 + 4x + 1) 2 1 Dx (3x3 + 4x + 1)
dx 2
1 1
= (3x3 4x + 1) 2 (9x2 + 4)
2
9x2 + 4
= p .
2 3x3 4x + 1
.
dy
(c) Find where y = (sin 3x)2 .
dx
Solution.
dy d
= 2 · (sin 3x)2 1
(sin 3x)
·
dx dx
d
= 2(sin 3x) · cos 3x · (3x)
dx
= 2(sin 3x)(cos 3x) · 3
= 6 sin 3x cos 3x.
(d) Differentiate (3x2 5)3 .
Solution.
d(3x2 5)3
= 3(3x2 5)3 1
· Dx (3x2 5)
dx
= 3(3x2 5)2 · 6x
= 18x(3x2 5)2 .
165
dy
(e) Consider the functions y = 3u2 + 4u and u = x2 + 5. Find .
dx
dy dy du dy du
Solution. By the Chain Rule, we have = · where = 6u + 4 and = 2x.
dx du dx du dx
Thus,
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
= (6u + 4)(2x)
h i
= 6(x2 + 5) + 4 (2x)
= (6x2 + 34)(2x)
= 12x3 + 68x.
(C) EXERCISES
dy
1. Use the Chain Rule to find in terms of x.
dx
1
a. y = (u 2)3 and u =
p 2x + 1
b. y = u and u = 5x2 3
1 1
c. y = and u =
u+1 x+1
dy
2. Solve for and simplify the result.
dx
a. y = (3x 2)5 (2x2 + 5)6
5x 1 3
✓ ◆
b. y =
2x + 3
p
c. y = x 4 x2
3. Find the derivatives of the following functions as specified:
a. y = sin x2 , y 00 d. g(x) = (x2 + 1)17 , g (2) (x)

p 3.2
b. h(z) = (9z + 4) 2 ,
3
h(3) (z) e. y = (t3 t) , y 00
1 2 d2 y
c. f (x) = sin(cos x), f 00 (x) f. y = x 3 (1 x) 3 ,
dx2
4. Find the first and second derivatives of the following:
a. y = ecos x d. g(x) = 3xe3x

b. f (x) = (ax + b)7 e. y = ex e x
5
c. h(t) = cot3 (et ) f. s =
3 + et
dy p
5. Find if y = sin( x3 + 1).
dx
166
⇣⇡ ⌘ ⇣⇡ ⌘
⇡
6. Find h0 , h00 3 , and h000 , given h(x) = sin x cos 3x.
3 3
7. If f (x) = 6x5 5x4 + 3x3 7x2 + 9x 14, then find f (n) (x) for all x 2 N.
For problems (8) and (9), please refer to the table below:
x f (x) g(x) f 0 (x) g 0 (x) (f g)(x) (f g)0 (x)

2 2 1 1 1
1 1 2 0 2
0 2 1 2 1
1 0 2 1 2
2 1 0 1 1
8. Use the table of values to determine (f g)(x) and (f g)0 (x) at x = 1 and x = 2.
9. Use the table of values to determine (f g)(x) and (f g)0 (x) at x = 2, 1 and 0.
10. Show that z 00 + 4z 0 + 8z = 0 if z = e 2x (sin 2x + cos 2x).
11. If f (x) = x4 and g(x) = x3 , then f 0 (x) = 4x3 and g 0 (x) = 3x2 . The Chain Rule
4
multiplies derivatives to get 12x5 . But f (g(x)) = x3 = x12 and its derivative is NOT
12x5 . Where is the flaw?
167
LESSON 9: Implicit Differentiation
TIME FRAME: 2 hours
1. Illustrate implicit differentiation;

2. Apply the derivatives of the natural logarithmic and inverse tangent functions; and
3. Use implicit differentiation to solve problems.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. What is implicit differentiation?

2. The derivative of the natural logarithmic and inverse tangent functions
3. Solving problems using implicit differentiation
4. Enrichment: Derivatives of other transcendental functions
168
TOPIC 9.1: What is Implicit Differentiation?
(A) INTRODUCTION
The majority of differentiation problems in basic calculus involves functions y written ex-
plicitly as functions of the independent variable x. This means that we can write the
function in the form y = f (x). For such a function, we can find the derivative directly. For
example, if
y = 4x5 + cos(2x 7),
then the derivative of y with respect to x is
dy
= 20x4 2 sin(2x 7).
dx
However, some functions y are written implicitly as functions of x. This means that the
expression is not given directly in the form y = f (x). A familiar example of this is the
equation
x2 + y 2 = 5,
p
which represents a circle of radius 5 with its center at the origin (0, 0). We can think of
the circle as the union of the graphs of two functions, namely, the function represented
by the upper semi-circle and the function represented by the lower semi-circle. Suppose
thatwe wish to find the slope of the line tangent to the circle at the point ( 2, 1).
The solution is to find the the derivative at the point ( 2, 1). Since the equation of the
circle is not complicated, one way to do this is to write y explicitly in terms of x. Thus,
p
from x2 + y 2 = 5, we obtain y = ± 5 x2 . The positive square root represents the upper
semi-circle while the negative square root represents the bottom semi-circle. Since the
point ( 2, 1) is on the upper semi-circle, the slope of the tangent line is now obtained by
differentiating the function
p
y = 5 x2 = (5 x2 )1/2
and evaluating the derivative at x = 2. Thus, using the Chain Rule,
dy 1 x
= (5 x2 ) 1/2
( 2x) = p .
dx 2 5 x2
Therefore, the slope of the tangent line at the point ( 2, 1) is the value of the above
derivative evaluated at x = 2, namely
dy 2 2
=p = p = 2.
dx 5 ( 2) 2 1
169
In the above example, we obtained the required derivative because we were able to write
y explicitly in terms of the variable x. That is, we were able to transform the original
equation into an equation of the form y = f (x), with the variable y on one side of the
equation, and the other side consisting of an expression in terms of x.
However, there are many equations where it is difficult to express y in terms of x. Some
examples are:
(a) y 3 + 4y 2 + 3x2 + 10 = 0
(b) sin2 x = 4 cos3 (2y + 5)
(c) x + y 3 = ln(xy 4 )
In this lesson, we will learn another method to obtain derivatives. The method is called
implicit differentiation.
(B) LESSON PROPER
We have seen that functions are not always given in the form y = f (x) but in a more
complicated form that makes it difficult or impossible to express y explicitly in terms of
x. Such functions are called implicit functions, and y is said to be defined implicitly.
In this lesson, we explain how these can be differentiated using a method called implicit
differentiation.
Differentiating quantities involving only the variable x with respect to x is not a problem;
for instance, the derivative of x is just 1. But if a function y is defined implicitly, then we
need to apply the Chain Rule in getting its derivative. So, while the derivative of x2 is 2x,
the derivative of y 2 is
dy
2y .
dx
More generally, if we have the expression f (y), where y is a function of x, then
d d dy
(f (y)) = (f (y)) · .
dx dy dx
In order to master implicit differentiation, students need to review and master the appli-
cation of the Chain Rule.
Consider a simple expression such as y 2 = 4x. Its graph is a parabola with vertex at the
origin and opening to the right.
170
8
−4 −2 0 2 4 6 8
−2
−4
−6
−8
If we consider only the upper branch of the parabola, then y becomes a function of x. We
can obtain the derivative dy/dx by applying the Chain Rule. When differentiating terms
involving y, we are actually applying the Chain Rule, that is, we first differentiate with
respect to y, and then multiply by dy/dx. Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we
have
y2 = 4x,
d 2 d
=) (y ) = (4x)
dx dx
dy
=) 2y = 4.
dx
Solving for dy/dx, we obtain
dy 4 2
= = .
dx 2y y
Notice that the derivative contains y. This is typical in implicit differentiation.
Let us now use implicit differentiation to find the derivatives dy/dx in the following exam-
ples. Let us start with our original problem involving the circle.
EXAMPLE 1: Find the slope of the tangent line to the circle x2 + y 2 = 5 at the point
( 2, 1).
4
x2 + y 2 = 5
d 2 d
2 =) (x + y 2 ) = (5)
(-2,1)
dx dx
d 2 d 2
=) (x ) + (y ) = 0
2
dx dx
−6 −4 −2 0
dy
=) 2x + 2y = 0.
−2 dx
171
−4
Solution. Solving for dy/dx, we obtain
dy 2x x
= = .
dx 2y y
Substituting x = 2 and y = 1, we find that the slope is
dy
= 2.
dx
Notice that this is a faster and easier way to obtain the derivative. .
dy
EXAMPLE 2: Find for y 3 + 4y 2 + 3x2 y + 10 = 0.
dx
Solution. Differentiating both sides of the equation gives
d 3 d
(y + 4y 2 + 3x2 y + 10) = (0)
dx dx
d 3 d d d
=) (y ) + (4y 2 ) + (3x2 y) + (10) = 0
dx dx dx dx
dy dy dy
=) 3y 2 + 8y + 3x2 + 6xy + 0 = 0.
dx dx dx
We collect the terms involving dy/dx and rearrange to get
dy
(3y 2 + 8y + 3x2 ) + 6xy = 0.
dx
Thus,
dy 6xy
= 2 .
dx 3y + 8y + 3x2
Note that the derivative of the term 3x2 y is obtained by applying the Product Rule. We
consider 3x2 as one function and y as another function. .
Implicit differentiation can be applied to any kind of function, whether they are polynomial
functions, or functions that involve trigonometric and exponential, quantitites.
dy 4
EXAMPLE 3: Find for x + y 3 = exy .
dx
Solution. Differentiating both sides with respect to x gives
d d xy4
(x + y 3 ) = (e )
dx dx
dy 4 d
=) 1 + 3y 2 = exy (xy 4 )
dx dx
✓ ◆
2 dy xy 4 3 dy 4
=) 1 + 3y =e 4xy +y
dx dx
Collecting all terms with dy/dx gives
dy ⇣ 2 xy 4 3
⌘ 4
3y e 4xy = 1 + exy y 4
dx
4
dy 1 + exy y 4
=) = 2 .
dx 3y exy4 4xy 3
.
172
DERIVATIVES OF THE NATURAL LOGARITHMIC AND INVERSE TANGENT FUNC-
TIONS
The derivatives of some inverse functions can be found by implicit differentiation. Take,
for example, the natural logarithmic function
y = ln x.
Note that it is the inverse function of the exponential function. To find dy/dx, we first
rewrite this into
ey = x (2.5)
and then differentiate implicitly:
d y d
(e ) = (x)
dx dx
dy
=) ey =1
dx
dy 1
=) = y. (2.6)
dx e
y
However, from (2.5), e = x. Hence after substituting this to (2.6), we see that
dy 1
y = ln x = .
=)
dx x
Now, we do a similar process as above to find the derivative of the inverse tangent function.
Let’s consider
y = tan 1 x.
Applying the tangent function to both sides gives
tan y = x. (2.7)
Now, we apply implicit differentiation. So,

d d
(tan y) = (x)
dx dx
dy
=) sec2 y =1
dx
dy 1
=) = . (2.8)
dx sec2 y
Next, we have to find a way so that by the use of (2.7), we may be able to write (2.8) as a
function of x. The relationship between tan y and sec2 y is straightforward from one of the
trigonometric identitites:
sec2 y tan2 y = 1.
Therefore, from (2.7), sec2 y = 1 + tan2 y = 1 + x2 . Finally, substituting this into (2.8), we
get the following result:
1 dy 1
y = tan x = =) .
dx 1 + x2
We summarize these two derivatives with consideration to Chain Rule.
173
Derivatives of the Natural Logarithmic and Inverse Tangent Functions
Suppose u is a function of x. Then
d 1 du
• (ln u) = ·
dx u dx
d 1 u) 1 du
• (tan = 2
·
dx 1 + u dx
EXAMPLE 4: Find dy/dx.
(a) y = ln(7x2 3x + 1)
(b) y = tan 1 (2x 3 cos x)
(c) y = ln(4x + tan 1 (ln x))
Solution. .
dy 1
(a) = 2 · (14x 3)
dx 7x 3x + 1
dy 1
(b) = · (2 + 3 sin x)
dx 1 + (2x 3 cos x)2
✓ ◆
dy 1 1 1
(c) = · 4 + · .
dx 4x + tan 1 (ln x) 1 + (ln x)2 x
.
dy
EXAMPLE 5: Find for cos(y 2 3) = tan 1 (x3 ) + ln y.
dx
Solution. Differentiating both sides gives
d d
(cos(y 2 3)) = (tan 1 (x3 ) + ln y)
dx dx
dy 1 1 dy
=) sin(y 2 3) · 2y · = 3 2
· 3x2 + · .
dx 1 + (x ) y dx
Collecting terms with dy/dx:
3x2
✓ ◆
dy 2 1
2y sin(y 3) =
dx y 1 + x6
3x2
dy 1 + x6
=) = .
dx 1
2y sin(y 2 3)
y
.
dy 1y = 3x2 y
p
EXAMPLE 6: Find for tan ln(x y 2 ).
dx
174
Solution. Differentiating both sides with respect to x gives
d ⇣ ⌘ d ⇣ 2 ⌘
tan 1 y = 3x y (ln(x y 2 ))1/2
dx dx ✓ ◆
1 dy 2 dy 1⇣ 2
⌘ 1/2 1 dy
=) · = 3x + 6xy ln(x y ) 1 2y
1 + y 2 dx dx 2 x y2 dx
1 dy dy (ln(x y 2 )) 1/2 y(ln(x y 2 )) 1/2 dy
=) 2
· = 3x2 + 6xy + .
1 + y dx dx 2(x y 2 ) x y2 dx
We now isolate dy/dx:

!
dy 1 2 y(ln(x y 2 )) 1/2 (ln(x y 2 )) 1/2
3x = 6xy
dx 1 + y2 x y2 2(x y 2 )
(ln(x y 2 )) 1/2
6xy
dy 2(x y 2 )
=) = .
dx 1 y(ln(x y 2 )) 1/2
3x2
1 + y2 x y2
.
Seatwork: Find the derivative with respect to x of
1
tan (x2 ) ln(2x + 3) = 4 cos3 (2y + 5).
Note that the equation defines y implicitly as a function of x.
Solution.
d d ⇣ ⌘
(tan 1 (x2 ) ln(2x + 3)) = 4 cos3 (2y + 5)
dx dx
1 2 dy
=) 4
· 2x = 12 cos2 (2y + 5) · sin(2y + 5) · 2
1+x 2x + 3 dx
x 1
dy 1 + x4 2x + 3
=) = .
dx 12 cos2 (2y + 5) sin(2y + 5)
.
(C) EXERCISES.
dy
1. Find for the following:
dx
a. x3 + y 3 = 8
b. y sin y = xy
c. tan 1 (x + 3y) = x4
d. e2y + x3 = y
?e. ln(3xy) = x + x5
p p
2. Find the slope of the tangent line to x 3 y + y 3 x = 10 at (1,8).
175
3. Find the slope of the tangent line to x2 ey + y 2 ex = 2e at (1,1).
?4. Find the equation of the tangent line to x2 3xy + y 2 = 1 at (2,1).
?5. Consider xy 2
+ x2 y
= 6.
dy
a. Find .
dx
b. Find the slope of the tangent at the point (1,2).
c. Find the point where the tangent line is horizontal.
d. Find the point where the tangent line is vertical.
ANSWERS TO STARRED EXERCISES
1.e.
✓ ◆
1 dy
·3 x + y = 1 + 5x4
3xy dx
dy
3x · dx 3y
+ = 1 + 5x4
3xy 3xy
1 dy 1
· + = 1 + 5x4
y dx x
y(5x5 + x
✓ ◆
dy 4 1 1)
= y 1 + 5x =
dx x x
4. Implicitly differentiating x2 3xy + y 2 = 1 yields

✓ ◆
dy dy
2x 3 x· + y · 1 + 2y · = 0.
dx dx
Substituting (x, y) with (2, 1) gives
✓ ◆
dy dy
2(2) 3 2 · +1 +2· = 0.
dx dx
Solving this for dy/dx will give dy/dx = 1/4. Hence, the equation of the tangent line
1
is (y 1) = (x 2) or, in general form, x 4y + 2 = 0.
4
5. a. Differentiating implicitly,
✓ ◆
dy 2 2 dy
x · 2y +y +x · + 2xy = 0
dx dx
dy ⇣ ⌘
2xy + x2 = (y 2 + 2xy)
dx
dy y 2 + 2xy
=
dx 2xy + x2
b. We just substitute (x, y) = (1, 2) into the above equation:

dy 22 + 2(1)(2) 8
= = .
dx (x,y)=(1,2) 2(1)(2) + 12 5
176
c. The tangent line is horizontal when dy/dx = 0. Thus,
dy (y 2 + 2xy)
= =0
dx (2xy + x2 )
=) y 2 + 2xy = 0
=) y(y + 2x) = 0
=) y = 0 or y = 2x.
We now go back to the original equation: xy 2 +x2 y = 6. Note that if y = 0, we get

0 = 6, which is a contradiction. On the other hand, if y = 2x, then 4x3 2x3 = 6
p p p
or x = 3 3. So, the tangent line is horizontal at the point ( 3 3, 2 3 3).
d. Similarly, vertical tangent lines occur when the derivative dy/dx is undefined, i.e.
when x = 0 or x = 2y. Again x = 0 produces a contradiction while x = 2y
p p p
yields y = 3 3. So, vertical tangent lines occur at the point ( 2 3 3, 3 3).
(D) ENRICHMENT
DERIVATIVES OF OTHER TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS
We have so far learned the derivatives of the following transcendental functions:
d x d 1 d 1
(a) (e ) = ex (b) (ln x) = (c) (tan 1 x) =
dx dx x dx 1 + x2
We now explore the derivatives of bx , logb x, and other inverse trigonometric functions.
I. Let b > 0, b 6= 1. To find the derivative of y = bx , we first rewrite it in another form:
y = bx = eln b = ex ln b .
x
(2.9)
dy
Hence, using Chain Rule, = ex ln b · ln b. Therefore, using (2.9),
dx
dy
y = bx =) = bx · ln b.
dx
II. Let b > 0, b 6= 1. To find the derivative of
y = logb x, (2.10)
we may now use implicit differentiation. We first rewrite (2.10) into
by = x. (2.11)
Therefore,
d y d
(b ) = (x)
dx dx
dy
=) by · ln b =1
dx
dy 1
=) = y . (2.12)
dx b · ln b
177
Finally substituting (2.11) into (2.12) gives
dy 1
y = logb x =) = .
dx x ln b
III. We only show how to find the derivative of sin 1 x, and leave the analogous proofs
of the other derivatives to the teacher. Let x 2 [ 1, 1], and consider y = sin 1 x.
Applying the sine function to both sides of the equation gives
sin y = x. (2.13)
Implicitly differentiating (2.13), we obtain
d d
(sin y) = (x)
dx dx
dy
=) cos y =1
dx
dy 1
=) = . (2.14)
dx cos y
We now find a way to express cos y in terms of x using equation (2.13). However, we
know from trigonometry that
cos2 y + sin2 y = 1
q
=) cos y = ± 1 sin2 y.
Recall that in Precalculus, the range of y = sin 1 x has been restricted to
⇥ ⇡ ⇡⇤
2, 2
(the fourth and first quadrants). Therefore, cos y > 0 and so we only choose cos y =
p
+ 1 sin2 y. Finally, substituting this into (2.14) gives
dy 1 1
y = sin=p x .=)
dx 1 x2
We summarize these three derivatives of the other inverse trigonometric functions:
Summary of Derivatives of Transcendental Functions
Let u be a differentiable function of x.
d u du d 1 du
(a) (e ) = eu (f) (cos 1 (x)) = p
dx dx dx 1 x2 dx
d u du d 1 du
(b) (b ) = bu · ln b (g) (tan 1 (x)) =
dx dx dx 1 + x2 dx
d 1 du d 1 (x)) 1 du
(c) (ln u) = (h) (cot = 2
dx u dx dx 1 + x dx
d 1 du d 1 (x)) 1 du
(d) (logb u) = (i) (sec = p
dx u ln b dx dx x x2 1 dx
d 1 1 du d 1 (x)) 1 du
(e) (sin (x)) = p (j) (csc = p
dx 1 x2 dx dx x x2 1 dx
178
Teaching Tip
A curious student will realize that the derivative of a cofunction of a trigonometric
function is the negative of the derivative of the original trigonometric function. This
is because of the identities
⇡
• cos 1 x = sin 1 (x)
2
⇡
• cot 1 x = tan 1 (x)
2
⇡
• csc 1 x = sec 1 (x).
2
dy
EXAMPLE 7: Find for the following.
dx
(a) y = log2 x
(b) y = 5x
(c) 3y = sec 1x cos 1 (y 2 + 1)
dy 1
Solution. (a) =
dx x ln 2
dy
(b) = 5x · ln 5
dx
(c) We use implicit differentiation here.
!
dy 1 1 dy
3y ln 3 = p p · 2y
dx x x2 1 1 (y 2 + 1)2 dx
!
1 dy 1
3y ln 3 p · 2y = p
1 (y 2 + 1)2 dx x x2 1
1
p
dy x x2 1
= .
dx 1
3y ln 3 p · 2y
1 (y 2 + 1)2
.
179
LESSON 10: Related Rates
TIME FRAME: 2 hours lecture
LEARNING OUTCOME: At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to solve situa-
tional problems involving related rates.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Process of solving related rates problems

2. Word problems
180
TOPIC 10.1: Solutions to Problems Involving Related Rates
(A) INTRODUCTION
This section culminates the chapter on derivatives. The discussion on related rates con-
cerns quantities which change (increase/decrease) with time, and which are related by an
equation. Differentiating this equation with respect to time gives an equation of relation-
ship between the rates of change of the quantities involved. Therefore, if we know the
rates of change of all but one quantity, we are able to solve this using the aforementioned
relationship between the rates of change.
As motivation, imagine a water droplet falling into a still pond, producing ripples that
propagate away from the center. Ideally, the ripples are concentric circles which increase
in radius (and also in area) as time goes on. Thus, the radius and area of a single ripple
are changing at rates that are related to each other. This means that if we know how fast
the radius is changing, we should be able to determine how fast the area is changing at any
point in time, and vice versa.
We first need to recall that aside from being the slope of the tangent line to a function at
a point, the derivative is also interpreted as a rate of change. The sign of the derivative
indicates whether the function is increasing or decreasing.
3
Suppose the graph of a differentiable function is
increasing. This means that as x increases, the
2
y-value also increases. Hence, its graph would
typically start from the bottom left and increase 1
to the top right of the frame. Refer to the figure
on the right.
0 1 2 3
Observe that the tangent line to the graph at any point slants to the right and therefore, has
a positive slope. This, in fact, describes increasing differentiable functions: A differentiable
function is increasing on an interval if its derivative is positive on that interval.
2
Similarly, a differentiable function is decreasing
on an interval if and only if its derivative is neg- 1
ative on that interval.
0 1 2 3
181
Remark
Let x be a differentiable function which represents a quantity that changes with
time t, then
dx
• is the rate of change of x with respect to t;
dt
dx
• is positive if and only if x increases with time; and
dt
dx
• is negative if and only if x decreases with time.
dt
dx unit of measurement of x
The unit of measurement of is .
dt unit of measurement of t
(B) LESSON PROPER

A related rates problem concerns the relationship among the rates of change of several
variables with respect to time, given that each variable is also dependent on the others. In
particular, if y is dependent on x, then the rate of change of y with respect to t is dependent
dy dx
on the rate of change of x with respect to t, that is, is dependent on .
dt dt
To be systematic in our solutions, we present the following steps:
Suggestions in solving problems involving related rates:
1. If possible, provide an illustration for the problem that is valid for any time t.
2. Identify those quantities that change with respect to time, and represent them with
variables. (Avoid assigning variables to quantities which are constant, that is, which do
not change with respect to time. Label them right away with the values provided in the
problem.)
3. Write down any numerical facts known about the variables. Interpret each rate of
change as the derivative of a variable with respect to time. Remember that if a quantity
decreases over time, then its rate of change is negative.
4. Identify which rate of change is being asked, and under what particular conditions this
rate is being computed.
5. Write an equation showing the relationship of all the variables by an equation that is
valid for any time t.
6. Differentiate the equation in (5) implicitly with respect to t.
7. Substitute into the equation, obtained in (6), all values that are valid at the particular
time of interest. Sometimes, some quantities still need to be solved by substituting the
particular conditions written in (4) to the equation in (6). Then, solve for what is being
asked in the problem.
182
8. Write a conclusion that answers the question of the problem. Do not forget to include
the correct units of measurement.
EXAMPLE 1: A water droplet falls onto a still pond and creates concentric circular ripples
that propagate away from the center. Assuming that the area of a ripple is increasing at
the rate of 2⇡ cm2 /s, find the rate at which the radius is increasing at the instant when
the radius is 10 cm.
Solution. We solve this step-by-step using the above guidelines.

(1) Illustration
(2) Let r and A be the radius and area, respectively, of a circular ripple at any time t.
dA
(3) The given rate of change is = 2⇡.
dt
dr
(4) We are asked to find at the instant when r = 10.
dt
(5) The relationship between A and r is given by the formula for the area of a circle:
A = ⇡r2 .
(6) We now differentiate implicitly with respect to time. (Be mindful that all quantities
here depend on time, so we should always apply Chain Rule.)
dA dr
= ⇡(2r) .
dt dt
dA
(7) Substituting = 2⇡ and r = 10 gives
dt
dr
2⇡ = ⇡ · 2(10)
dt
dr 1
=) = .
dt 10
1
(8) Conclusion: The radius of a circular ripple is increasing at the rate of cm/s. .
10
EXAMPLE 2: A ladder 10 meters long is leaning against a wall. If the bottom of the
ladder is being pushed horizontally towards the wall at 2 m/s, how fast is the top of the
ladder moving when the bottom is 6 meters from the wall?
Solution. We first illustrate the problem.
183
wall
Let x be the distance between the bottom of the ladder and
ladder the wall. Let y be the distance between the top of the ladder
y
10 and the ground (as shown). Note that the length of the ladder
push
is not represented by a variable as it is constant.
x
dx
We are given that = 2. (Observe that this rate is negative since the quantity x
dt
decreases with time.)
dy
We want to find at the instant when x = 6.
dt
Observe that the wall, the ground and the ladder determine a right triangle. Hence, the
relationship between x and y is given by the the Pythagorean Theorem:
x2 + y 2 = 100. (2.15)
Differentiating both sides with respect to time t gives
dx dy
2x + 2y = 0. (2.16)
dt dt
Before we proceed to the next step, we ask ourselves if we already have everything we need.
So, dx/dt is given, dy/dt is the quantity required, x is given, BUT, we still do not have y.
This is easy to solve by substituting the given condition x = 6 into the equation in (2.15).
So,
p p
62 + y 2 = 100 =) y = 100 36 = 64 = 8.
Finally, we substitute all the given values into equation (2.16):
dy dy 24 3
2(6)( 2) + 2(8) =0 =) = = .
dt dt 16 2
Thus, the distance between the top of the ladder and the ground is increasing at the rate
of 1.5 m/s. Equivalently, we can also say that the top of the ladder is moving at the rate
of 1.5 m/s. .
EXAMPLE 3: An automobile traveling at the rate of 20 m/s is approaching an intersec-

tion. When the automobile is 100 meters from the intersection, a truck traveling at the
rate of 40 m/s crosses the intersection. The automobile and the truck are on perpendicular
roads. How fast is the distance between the truck and the automobile changing two seconds
after the truck leaves the intersection?
184
Solution. Let us assume that the automobile is travelling west while the truck is travelling
south as illustrated below.
Let x denote the distance of the automobile from the x automobile

intersection, y denote the distance of the truck from y
the intersection, and z denote the distance between z
the truck and the automobile. truck
dx
Then we have = 20 (the negative rate is due to the fact that x decreases with time)
dt
dy dz
and = 40. We want to find when t = 2.
dt dt
The equation relating x, y and z is given by the Pythagorean Theorem. We have
x2 + y 2 = z 2 . (2.17)
Differentiating both sides with respect to t,

d h 2 i d h 2i
x + y2 = z
dt dt
dx dy dz
=) 2x + 2y = 2z
dt dt dt
dx dy dz
=) x +y = z .
dt dt dt
Before substituting the given values, we still need to find the values of x, y and z when
t = 2. This is found by the distance-rate-time relationship:
distance = rate ⇥ time.
For the automobile, after 2 seconds, it has travelled a distance equal to (rate)(time) =
20(2) = 40 from the 100 ft mark. Therefore, x = 100 40 = 60. On the other hand, for the
truck, it has travelled y = (rate)(time) = 40(2) = 80. The value of z is found from (2.17):
p p p
z = x2 + y 2 = 602 + 802 = 102 (36 + 64) = 100.
Finally,
dz dz
=)
40( 20) + 80(40) = 100 = 20.
dt dt
Thus, the distance between the automobile and the truck is increasing at the rate of 20
meters per second. .
The next example is peculiar in the sense that in the (main) equation relating all variables,
some variables may be related to each other by an equation independent from the main
one. In this case, it is best to minimize the number of variables of the main equation by
incorporating the other equation into the main equation.
185
For instance, consider the area of a rectangle problem. We know that A = `w (main
equation). If we also know that ` = 2w, then our main equation equation can now be
rewritten as
A = (2w)w = 2w2 .
The need to write one variable in terms of another will be apparent when only one of them
has a given rate of change.
EXAMPLE 4: Water is pouring into an inverted cone at the rate of 8 cubic meters per
minute. If the height of the cone is 12 meters and the radius of its base is 6 meters, how
fast is the water level rising when the water is 4-meter deep?
Solution. We first illustrate the problem.

6
Let V be the volume of the water inside the cone at any
time t. Let h, r be the height and radius, respectively, of
the cone formed by the volume of water at any time t. r 12
dV dh
We are given = 8 and we wish to find when h = 4.
dt dt h
Now, the relationship between the three defined variables is given by the volume of the
cone:
⇡
V = r2 h.
3
Observe that the rate of change of r is neither given nor asked. This prompts us to find
a relationship between r and h. From the illustration, we see that by the proportionality
relations in similar triangles, we obtain
r 6
=
h 12
h
or r = . Thus,
2
✓ ◆2
⇡ ⇡ h ⇡
V = r2 h = h = h3 .
3 3 2 12
Differentiating both sides with respect to t,
d d ⇣ ⇡ 3⌘
(V ) = h
dt dt 12
dV ⇡ 2 dh
=) = h .
dt 4 dt
Thus, after substituting all given values, we obtain
⇡ 2 dh dh 32 2
8= (4) =) = = .
4 dt dt 16⇡ ⇡
186
2
Finally, we conclude that the water level inside the cone is rising at the rate of me-
⇡
ters/minute. .
(C) EXERCISES
1. Starting from the same point, Reden starts walking eastward at 60 cm/s while Neil
starts running towards the south at 80 cm/s. How fast is the distance between Reden
and Neil increasing after 2 seconds?
2. A woman standing on a cliff is watching a motor boat through a telescope as the boat
approaches the shoreline directly below her. If the telescope is 25 meters above the water
level and if the boat is approaching the cliff at 20 m/s, at what rate is the acute angle
made by the telescope with the vertical changing when the boat is 250 meters from the
shore?
3. A balloon, in the shape of a right circular cylinder, is being inflated in such a way that
the radius and height are both increasing at the rate of 3 cm/s and 8 cm/s, respectively.
What is the rate of change of its total surface area when its radius and height are 60 cm
and 140 cm, respectively?
4. If two resistors with resistance R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, the total resistance
1 1 1
R in ohms is given by = + . If R1 and R2 are increasing at 0.4 ohms/s and
R R1 R2
0.25 ohms/s, respectively, how fast is R changing when R1 = 600 ohms and R2 = 400
ohms?
5. A baseball diamond has the shape of a square with sides 90 ft long. A player 60 ft from
second base is running towards third base at a speed of 28 ft/min. At what rate is the
player’s distance from the home plate changing?
6. Shan, who is 2 meters tall, is approaching a post that holds a lamp 6 meters above the
ground. If he is walking at a speed of 1.5 m/s, how fast is the end of his shadow moving
(with respect to the lamp post) when he is 6 meters away from the base of the lamp
post?
?7. Water is being poured at the rate of 2⇡ m3 /min. into an inverted conical tank that is
12-meter deep with a radius of 6 meters at the top. If the water level is rising at the
rate of 61 m/min and there is a leak at the bottom of the tank, how fast is the water
leaking when the water is 6-meter deep?
(D) ENRICHMENT
1. A ladder 20-meter long is leaning against an embankment inclined 60 with the horizon-
tal. If the bottom of the ladder is being moved horizontally towards the embankment
at 1 m/s, how fast is the top of the ladder moving when the bottom is 4 meters from
the embankment?
187
2. A boat is pulled in by means of a winch on the dock 4 meters above the deck of the
boat. The winch pulls in rope at the rate of 1 m/s. Determine the speed of the boat
when there is 3 meters of rope out.
3. A ladder, inclined at 60 with the horizontal is leaning against a vertical wall. The foot
of the ladder is 3 m away from the foot of the wall. A boy climbs the ladder such that his
distance z m with respect to the foot of the ladder is given by z = 6t, where t is the time
in seconds. Find the rate at which his vertical distance from the ground changes with
respect to t. Find the rate at which his distance from the foot of the wall is changing
with respect to t when he is 3 m away from the foot of the ladder.
p
?4. A particle is moving along the curve y = x. As the particle passes through the point
(4,2), its x-coordinate changes at a rate of 3 cm/s. How fast is the distance of the
particle from the origin changing at this instant?
ANSWERS TO STARRED EXERCISES
(C) 7. Let V , h and r be the volume, height and radius respectively, of the water collected
in the cone at any point t. Then V = Vin Vout . Moreover, it is given that
dVin dh 1
= +2⇡, and =+ .
dt dt 6
1
Now, the formula for the volume of a cone is V = ⇡r2 h. We wish to express V in
3
terms of a single variable only. Since we have dh/dt in the given, it is better to express
r in terms of h.
Using similar triangles and the fact that the height and radius of the conical container
are 12 and 6 respectively, we have
r 6 h
= which means r= .
h 12 2
✓ ◆2
1 h ⇡h3
Substituting this expression r, we get V = ⇡h = . Differentiating with
3 2 12
respect to t (don’t forget to apply Chain Rule) gives
dV ⇡ dh ⇡h2 dh
= (3h2 ) = .
dt 12 dt 4 dt
Hence, at the instant when h = 6,
dV ⇡(6)2 1 3⇡
= · = .
dt 4 6 2
dV dVin dVout
Finally, = . This implies that
dt dt dt
dVout dVin dV 3⇡ ⇡ m3
= = 2⇡ = .
dt dt dt 2 2 min
188
(D) 4. Let h, x and y denote the distance from the origin, x-coordinate and y-coordinate
p
respectively, of a point P on the curve y = x at any time t. We are given that
dx dh
= +3 and we want to find at the instant when x = 4 and y = 2.
dt dt
Using the distance formula,
h = x2 + y 2 .
p
Since the curve has equation y = x, the formula above simplifies to
h = x2 + x.
Differentiating with respect to t gives

dh dx
= (2x + 1) .
dt dt
dx dh
Substituting x = 4 and = 3 gives = 9(3) = 27 cm/s.
dt dt
189
CHAPTER 2 EXAM
I. Write TRUE if the statement is true, otherwise, write FALSE.
(a) The sixth derivative of y = sin x is itself.

(b) The linear function y = mx + b, where m 6= 0, has no maximum value on any open
interval.
(c) If the function f is continuous at the real number x = a, then f is differentiable at
the real number x = a.
(d) If f (c) is an extremum, then f 0 (c) does not exist.
(e) A differentiable function f (x) is decreasing on (a, b) whenever f 0 (x) > 0 for all x 2
(a, b).
1
II. Use the definition of derivative to find f 0 (x) if f (x) = .
x
dy
III. Find of the following functions. (Do not simplify.)
dx
1
cos x 3. y = esin x
1. y = 3
p x
1 +
2. y = tan(x2 1) 4. y = ln(2x + 1)
IV. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve x2 + 5xy + y 2 + 3 = 0 at the point
(1, 1).
V. An open box is to be made from a 8 inches by 18 inches piece of cardboard by cutting

squares of equal size from the four corners and bending up the sides. How long should the
sides of the squares be to obtain a box with the largest volume?
VI. If f (x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x 1, then find f (n) (x) for all n 2 N.
VII. A ladder 8 meters long is leaning against a wall. If the bottom of the ladder is being pulled
horizontally away from the wall at 2 meters per second, how fast is the top of the ladder
moving when the bottom is 3 meters from the wall?
190
Chapter 3
Integration
LESSON 11: Integration
TIME FRAME: 5 hours
1. Illustrate the antiderivative of a function;

2. Compute the general antiderivative of polynomial functions;
3. Compute the general antiderivative of root functions;
4. Compute the general antiderivative of exponential functions; and,
5. Compute the general antiderivative of trigonometric functions.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Antiderivatives of functions
2. Antiderivatives of polynomial and root functions
3. Antiderivatives of integrals yielding exponential and logarithmic functions
4. Antiderivatives of trigonometric functions
192
TOPIC 11.1: Illustration of an Antiderivative of a Function
(A) ACTIVITY
Matching Type. Match the functions in Column A with their corresponding derivatives in
Column B.
Column A Column B
1. F (x) = x3 + 2x2 + x a. f (x) = 4x3 + 3x2

2. F (x) = x3 + x2 + x b. f (x) = 9x2 + 3
3. F (x) = x4 + 3x3 + 1 c. f (x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1
4. F (x) = x4 + x3 + 2 d. f (x) = 9x2 3
5. F (x) = x2 + 2x + 1 e. f (x) = 2x + 2
6. F (x) = x2 2x + 1 f. f (x) = 2x 2
7. F (x) = 3x3 + 3x + 1 g. f (x) = 3x2 + 4x + 1
8. F (x) = 3x3 3x + 1 h. f (x) = 4x3 + 9x2
(B) INTRODUCTION
In the previous discussions, we learned how to find the derivatives of different functions.
Now, we will introduce the inverse of differentiation. We shall call this process antidiffer-
entiation. A natural question then arises:
Given a function f , can we find a function F whose derivative is f ?
Definition 5. A function F is an antiderivative of the function f on an interval I if

F 0 (x) = f (x) for every value of x in I.
Teaching Tip
The teacher must go back to the activity and explain to the students that the func-
tions in Column A are indeed antiderivatives of the their corresponding derivatives
in Column B.
193
(C) LESSON PROPER
ANTIDERIVATIVES OR INDEFINITE INTEGRALS
We will now give examples of antiderivatives of functions.

EXAMPLE 1:
(a) An antiderivative of f (x) = 12x2 +2x is F (x) = 4x3 +x2 . As we can see, the derivative
of F is given by F 0 (x) = 12x2 + 2x = f (x).
(b) An antiderivative of g(x) = cos x is G(x) = sin x because G0 (x) = cos x = g(x).
Remark 1: The antiderivative F of a function f is not unique.
EXAMPLE 2:
(a) Other antiderivatives of f (x) = 12x2 + 2x are F1 (x) = 4x3 + x2 1 and F2 (x) =
4x3 + x2 + 1. In fact, any function of the form F (x) = 4x3 + x2 + C, where C 2 R is
an antiderivative of f (x). Observe that F 0 (x) = 12x2 + 2x + 0 = 12x2 + 2x = f (x).
(b) Other antiderivatives of g(x) = cos x are G1 (x) = sin x + ⇡ and G2 (x) = sin x 1. In
fact, any function G(x) = sin x + C, where C 2 R is an antiderivative of g(x).
Theorem 10. If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then every antiderivative of

f on I is given by F (x) + C, where C is an arbitrary constant.
Remark 2: Using the theorem above, we can conclude that if F1 and F2 are antiderivatives
of f , then F2 (x) = F1 (x) + C. That is, F1 and F2 differ only by a constant.
Terminologies and Notations:
• Antidifferentation is the process of finding the antiderivative.

Z
• The symbol , also called the integral sign, denotes the operation of antid-
ifferentiation.
• The function f is called the integrand .

Z
• If F is an antiderivative of f , we write f (x) dx = F (x) + C.
Z
• The symbols and dx go hand-in-hand and dx helps us identify the variable
of integration.
• The expression F (x)+C is called the general antiderivative of f . Meanwhile,

each antiderivative of f is called a particular antiderivative of f .
194
(D) EXERCISES
1. Determine the general antiderivatives of the following functions:

a. f (x) = 6x5 x4 + 2x2 3
b. f (x) = 3
c. g(x) = x3 3x2 3x 1
?d. h(x) = sin x + cos x sec2 x Answer: H(x) = cos x + sin x tan x + C
2. Matching type: Match the functions in Column A with their corresponding antideriva-
tives in Column B.
Column A Column B
a. F (x) = 3x3 x
a. f (x) = 3x2 + 2x + 1
b. F (x) = x3
+ x2 + x
b. f (x) = 9x2 1 1 3
c. F (x) = 2x2 x
c. f (x) = x2 2 3
1
d. f (x) = (x + 1)(x 1) d. F (x) = 2x2 + x3
3
1
e. f (x) = x(4 x) e. F (x) = x3 2x + 1
3
f. f (x) = x(x 4) 1
f. F (x) = x3 x + 1
3
195
TOPIC 11.2: Antiderivatives of Algebraic Functions
(A) INTRODUCTION
As previously discussed, the process of antidifferentiation is just the inverse process of find-
ing the derivatives of functions. We have shown in the previous lesson that a function can
have a family of antiderivatives.
We will look at antiderivatives of different types of functions. Particularly, we will find the
antiderivatives of polynomial functions, rational functions and radical functions.
(B) LESSON PROPER
Let us recall first the following differentiation formulas:

(a) Dx (x) = 1.
(b) Dx (xn ) = nxn 1, where n is any real number.
(c) Dx [a(f (x))] = aDx [f (x)].
(d) Dx [f (x) ± g(x)] = Dx [f (x)] ± Dx [g(x)].
The above formulas lead to the following theorem which are used in obtaining the an-
tiderivatives of functions. We apply them to integrate polynomials, rational functions and
radical functions.
Theorem 11. (Theorems on Antidiﬀerentiation)

Z
(a) dx = x + C.
(b) If n is any real number and n 6= 1, then
xn+1
Z
xn dx = + C.
n+1
(c) If a is any constant and f is a function, then

Z Z
af (x) dx = a f (x) dx.
(d) If f and g are functions defined on the same interval,

Z Z Z
[f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx.
196
Teaching Tip
1 p
• Remind the students that expressions of the form p and q xp are integrated
x
using the formula (b) of Theorem 11, since they can be rewritten into x p and
xp/q respectively.
• In
Z case a student asks, please reiterate in class that the case when n = 1 for
xn dx will be discussed later.
EXAMPLE 1: Determine the following antiderivatives:

Z Z
1. 3 dx 5. 12x2 + 2x dx
Z
2. x6 dx Z ⇣
p⌘
6. t 2t 3 t dt
1
Z
3. 6
dx
Z x
p x2 + 1
Z
4. 4 u du 7. dx
x2
Solution. We will use the Theorems on Antidifferentiation to determine the antiderivatives.

Z Z
1. Using (a) and (c) of the theorem, we have 3 dx = 3 dx = 3x + C.
x6+1 x7
Z
2. Using (b) of the theorem, we have x6 dx = +C = + C.
6+1 7
3. Using (b) of the theorem, we have
1 x 6+1 x 5 1
Z Z
6
dx = x dx = + C = +C = + C.
x6 6+1 5 5x5
4. Using (b) and (c) of the theorem, we have

1 3 3
p 4u 2 +1 4u 2 8u 2
Z Z
1
4 u du = 4 u du = 1
2 +C = 3 +C = + C.
2 +1 2
3
5. Using (b), (c) and (d) of the theorem, we have
12x3 2x2
Z ⇣ ⌘ Z Z
2 2
12x + 2x dx = 12 x dx + 2 x dx = + + C = 4x3 + x2 + C.
3 2
6. Using (b), (c) and (d), we have

5
p⌘ 2t3 6t 2
Z ⇣ Z ⇣ ⌘ Z Z
3 3
t 2t 3 t dt = 2t2 3t 2 dt = 2 t2 dt 3 t 2 dt = + C.
3 5
7. Using (a), (b) and (d), we have

Z 2 1
x +1 x 1
Z ⇣ ⌘
2
dx = 1+x dx = x + +C =x + C.
x2 1 x
197
.
Teaching Tip
• A common mistake in antidifferentiation is distributing the integral sign over
a product or a quotient. Please reiterate that
Z
f (x) dx
f (x)
Z Z Z Z
f (x)g(x) dx 6= f (x) dx · g(x) dx and dx 6= Z .
g(x)
g(x) dx
• In antidifferentiation, it is better to rewrite a product or a quotient into a sum

or difference. This technique was done in the last two items of the previous
example.
(C) EXERCISES
Z Z p
x2 dx
3
1. 10. x2 dx
Z Z p
2. (x3 + 2x2 ) dx 11.
4
x4 dx
Z ✓ ◆
3 4 2
Z p
3. x + 3x + 1 dx 5
4 12. x10 dx
Z
4. x 2 dx
Z
Z 13. (u2 + u + 1) du
5. (x 3 + x 2 + x 1 ) dx Z ✓ ◆
1 4
Z 14. v + v2 + v dv
4
6. x 100 dx
w3 + w2 + w
Z
15. dw
Z
7. (3x 2 + x + 2) dx w3
Z
Z p
8. 1, 000 dx 16. 4 y dy
p p p
Z Z
1
9. 3
x dx 17. t2 3
t+ t t 2 dt
198
TOPIC 11.3: Antiderivatives of Functions Yielding Exponential
Functions and Logarithmic Functions
(A) INTRODUCTION
We will introduce the antiderivatives of two important functions namely, the exponential
function
f (x) = ex
and the function yielding the logarithmic function
f (x) = ln x.
We will present first the basic formulas, then their examples once we have already dis-
cussed integration by substitution. The technique of integration by substitution will help
us integrate complicated functions yielding exponential and logarithmic functions.
(B) LESSON PROPER
In this lesson, we will present the basic formulas for integrating functions that yield expo-
nential and logarithmic functions. Let us first recall the following differentiation formulas:
(a) Dx (ex ) = ex .
(b) Dx (ax ) = ax ln a.
1
(c) Dx (ln x) = .
x
Because antidifferentiation is the inverse operation of differentiation, the following theorem
should be immediate.
Theorem 12. (Theorems on integrals yielding the exponential and logarithmic

functions)
Z
(a) ex dx = ex + C.
ax
Z
(b) ax dx =+ C. Here, a > 0 with a 6= 1.
ln a
1
Z Z
1
(c) x dx = dx = ln |x| + C.
x
199
These statements in the theorem make sense since, as we had discussed in differen-
tiation, the derivative of
F (x) = ex + C
is
f (x) = F 0 (x) = ex + 0 = ex .
Also, the derivative of

G(x) = ax
is
g(x) = G0 (x) = ax ln a.
p
For the next function, we first recall that |x| = x2 . So, using Chain Rule, the
derivative of
p
H(x) = ln |x| + C = ln x2 + C
is
1 1 1
h(x) = H 0 (x) = p p (2x + 0) = .
2
x 2 x 2 x
Note that we used y = ln |x| because it has a larger domain than y = ln x, as ln x is
defined only on positive real numbers.
EXAMPLE 1: Find the integrals of the following functions.

Z Z
(a) x x
(e + 2 ) dx (c) 3x+1 dx
2
Z Z
(b) x
3 dx (d) dx
x
Solution. We will use the theorem to determine the integrals.

(a) Using (a) and (b) of theorem, we have
2x
Z Z Z
(ex + 2x ) dx = (ex ) dx + (2x ) dx = ex + + C.
ln 2
(b) Using (b) of the theorem, we have
3x
Z
3x dx = + C.
ln 3
(c) Using (b) of the theorem, we have
3x
Z Z Z
x+1
3 dx = (3 )(3 ) dx = 3 (3x ) dx = 3
x 1
+ C.
ln 3
(d) Using (c) of the theorem, we get
2 1
Z Z
dx = 2 dx = 2 ln |x| + C.
x x
200
.
We will take more integrals yielding the exponential and logarithmic functions once
we discuss integration by substitution. For instance, we will try to see how we can
evaluate the following:
1
Z Z Z
(a) e3x dx (b) 24x dx (c) dx.
2x 1
(C) EXERCISES
Solve the following integrals:
Z Z
(1) 2ex dx (4) 5x+2 dx
2
Z Z
(2) (2ex + 4x ) dx (5) dx
x
Z Z
(3) 2(5x ) dx (6) 3x 1 dx
201
TOPIC 11.4: Antiderivatives of Trigonometric Functions
(A) INTRODUCTION
We already know how to differentiate the trigonometric functions. As we said, the process
of finding the antiderivatives of functions is the inverse of such a process. At this point, we
will find the antiderivatives of trigonometric functions.
(B) LESSON PROPER
Let us first recall the following differentiation formulas of the different trigonometric func-
tions:
(a) Dx (sin x) = cos x (d) Dx (sec x) = sec x tan x

(b) Dx (cos x) = sin x (e) Dx (cot x) = csc2 x
(c) Dx (tan x) = sec2 x (f) Dx (csc x) = cot x csc x.
We now present the formulas for the antiderivatives of trigonometric functions.
Theorem 13. (Antiderivatives of Trigonometric Functions)

Z Z
(a) sin x dx = cos x + C (d) csc2 x dx = cot x + C
Z Z
(b) cos x dx = sin x + C (e) sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
Z Z
(c) sec2 x dx = tan x + C (f ) csc x cot x dx = csc x + C
EXAMPLE 1: Determine the antiderivatives of the following: ‌

Z Z
(a) (cos x sin x) dx (c) tan2 v dv
sin x
Z Z
(b) cot2 x dx (d) dx
cos2 x
Solution. We will use the theorem on antiderivatives of trigonometric functions.

(a) Using (a) and (b) of the theorem, we have
Z Z Z
(cos x sin x) dx = cos x dx sin x dx
= sin x ( cos x) + C = sin x + cos x + C.
202
(b) Since we know that cot2 x = csc2 1, then
Z Z ⇣ ⌘ Z Z
2
cot x dx = csc x 1 dx = csc2 x
2
dx = cot2 x + C.
(c) Since tan2 v = sec2 v 1, we have

Z Z ⇣ ⌘ Z Z
2
tan v dv = sec v 1 dv = sec2 v dv
2
dv = tan v v + C.
sin x sin x 1
Z Z Z
(d) dx = dx = tan x sec x dx = sec x + C.
cos2 x cos x cos x
.
Z Z
Note that we have just presented sin x dx and cos x dx. One can then ask the
following:
Z Z
(a) tan x dx =? (c) sec x dx =?
Z Z
(b) cot x dx =? (d) csc x dx =?
We will derive these integrals once we discuss the technique of integration by sub-
stitution.
(C) EXERCISES
Evaluate the following integrals:
Z Z
1. tan2 x dx 6. (sin u + u) du
Z Z
2. cot2 x dx 7. (1 cos v) dv
cos x
Z
1
Z
3. 2 dx ?8. dy
Z sin x sec y tan y
cos x . Answer: cos y + C
4. dx
sin2 x 1
Z
Z  ?9. dx
sin x 2
sin x cos2 x
5. + x dx . Answer: cot x + tan x + C
cos2 x
203
LESSON 12: Techniques of Antidifferentiation
TIME FRAME: 7 hours
1. Compute the antiderivative of a function using the substitution rule; and

2. Compute the antiderivative of a function using a table of integrals (including those whose
antiderivatives involve logarithmic and inverse trigonometric functions).
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Antidifferentiation by substitution
2. Table of Integrals
204
TOPIC 12.1: Antidifferentiation by Substitution and by Table of
Integrals
(A) INTRODUCTION
Antidifferentiation is more challenging than differentiation. To find the derivative of a

given function, there are well-established rules that are always applicable to differentiable
functions. For antidifferentiation, the antiderivatives given in the previous lesson may not
suffice to integrate a given function.
A prerequisite is knowledge of the basic antidifferentiation formulas. Some formulas are

easily derived, but most of them need to be memorized.
No hard and fast rules can be given as to which method applies in a given situation.
In college, several techniques such as integration by parts, partial fractions, trigonometric
subtitution will be introduced. This lesson focuses on the most basic technique - antidiffer-
entiation by substitution - which is the inverse of the Chain Rule in differentiation.
There are occasions when it is possible to perform a difficult piece of integration by first
making a substitution. This has the effect of changing the variable and the integrand.
The ability to carry out integration by substitution is a skill that develops with practice
and experience, but sometimes a sensible substitution may not lead to an integral that can
be evaluated. We must then be prepared to try out alternative substitutions.
Z
Suppose we are given an integral of the form f (g(x))·g 0 (x) dx. We can transform this into
another form by changing the independent variable x to u using the substitution u = g(x).
du
In this case, = g 0 (x) dx. Therefore,
dx
Z Z
0
f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du.
This change of variable is one of the most important tools available to us. This technique is
called integration by substitution. It is often important to guess what will be the useful
substitution.
Usually, we make a substitution for a function whose derivative also occurs in the integrand.
205
(B) LESSON PROPER
Z
EXAMPLE 1: Evaluate (x + 4)5 dx.
Solution. Notice that the integrand is in the fifth power of the expression (x+4). To tackle
this problem, we make a substitution. We let u = x + 4. The point of doing this is to
change the integrand into a much simpler u5 . However, we must take care to substitute
appropriately for the term dx too.
du
Now, since u = x + 4 it follows that = 1 and so du = dx. So, substituting (x + 4) and
dx
dx, we have Z Z
(x + 4) dx = u5 du.
5
u6
The resulting integral can be evaluated immediately to give +C. Recalling that u = x+4,
6
we have
Z Z
5
(x + 4) dx = u5 du
u6
= +C
6
(x + 4)6
= + C.
6
.
An alternative way of finding the antiderivative above is to expand the expression in the
integrand and antidifferentiate the resulting polynomial (of degree 5) term by term. We
will NOT do this. Obviously, the solution above is simpler than the mentioned alternative.
Z
EXAMPLE 2: Evaluate (x5 + 2)9 5x4 dx.
Solution. If we let u = x5 + 2, then du = 5x4 dx, which is precisely the other factor in the
integrand. Thus, in terms of the variable u, this is essentially just a power rule integration.
That is,
Z Z
5 9 4
(x + 2) 5x dx = u9 du, where u = x5 + 2
u10
= +C
10
(x5 + 2)10
= + C.
10
.
206
Again, the alternative way is to expand out the expression in the integrand, and integrate
the resulting polynomial (of degree 49) term by term. Again, we would rather NOT do
this.
z2
Z
EXAMPLE 3: Evaluate p dz.
1 + z3
du
Solution. In this example, we let u = 1 + z 3 so that = 3z 2 . If u = 1 + z 3 , then we need
dz
to express z 2 dz in the integrand in terms of du or a constant multiple of du.
du 1
From = 3z 2 it follows that du = 3z 2 dz and z 2 dz = du. Thus,
dz 3
z2 1
Z Z
p dz = p · z 2 dz
1+z 3 1+z 3
1 1
Z
= p · du
u 3
1
Z
1
= u 2 du
3
1
!
1 u2
= 1 + C1
3 2
2 1 C1
= u2 +
3 3
2 1 C1
= (1 + z 3 ) 2 + C where C = .
3 3
.
Teaching Tip
To avoid unnecessary arithmetic on the constant of integration, we will henceforth
write C as a separate summand, and add it only after integrating.
x
Z
EXAMPLE 4: Evaluate p dx.
x2 1
1
Solution. Notice that if u = x2 1, then du = 2x dx. This implies that x dx = du, so we
2
have
x 1 1
Z Z
p dx = 1 · du
x2 1 2
Zu 2
1 1
= u 2 du
2
1
!
1 u2
= 1 +C
2 2
1
= (x2 1) 2 + C.
207
.
x3
Z
x3 + 5
Solution. Let u = x3 + 5. Then x3 = u 5 and du = 3x2 dx. Thus,
x3 u 5
Z Z
p dx = 1 dx
x3 + 5
✓u
2
◆
u 5
Z
= 1 1 dx
Z u2 u2
1 1
= (u 2 5u 2 ) dx
3 1
u2 5u 2
= 3 1 +C
2 2
2 3 1
= u 2 10u 2 + C
3
2 3 3 1
= (x + 5) 2 10(x3 + 5) 2 + C.
3
.
dx
Z
EXAMPLE 6: Evaluate p
3
.
x ln x
1
Solution. We substitute u = ln x so that du = dx, which occurs in the integrand. Thus,
x
dx 1
Z Z
p = p du
3
x ln x 3
u
Z
1
= u 3 du
2
u3
= 2 +C
3
3 2
= (ln x) 3 + C
2
.
We recall the theorem we stated in the previous lesson.
Theorem 14. (Theorems on integrals yielding the exponential and logarithmic

functions)
Z
1. ex dx = ex + C.
ax
Z
2. ax dx = + C. Here, a > 0 with a 6= 1.
ln a
1
Z Z
1
3. x dx = dx = ln |x| + C.
x
208
As we said before, we will have more integrals yielding the exponential and logarithmic
functions once we have discussed integration by substitution.
EXAMPLE 7: Evaluate the following integrals.

Z
(a) e3x dx
Z
(b) 24x dx
1
Z
(c) dx
2x 1
Solution. .
du
(a) We let u = 3x. Then du = 3dx. Hence, dx = . So,
3
du 1 1 1
Z Z Z
3x u
e dx = e = eu du = eu + C = e3x + C.
3 3 3 3
du
(b) Here, we let u = 4x and so du = 4dx. Thus, dx = . Hence, we have
4
du 1 1 2u 1 4x
Z Z Z
4x u
2 dx = 2 = 2u du = +C = 2 + C.
4 4 4 ln 2 4 ln 2
du
(c) Suppose we let u = 2x 1. Then du = 2dx. Hence, dx = . We have
2
1 1 du 1 1 1 1
Z Z Z
dx = = du = ln |u| + C = ln |2x 1| + C.
2x 1 u 2 2 u 2 2
.
Z
EXAMPLE 8: Evaluate cos(4x + 3) dx.
Solution. Observe that if we make the substitution u = 4x + 3, the integrand will contain
a much simpler form, cos u, which we can easily integrate. So, if u = 4x + 3, then du = 4 dx
1
and dx = du. So,
4
1
Z Z
cos(4x + 3) dx = cos u · du
4
1
Z
= cos u du
4
1
= sin u + C
4
1
= sin(4x + 3) + C.
4
.
209
Z
EXAMPLE 9: Evaluate the integral sin x cos x dx.
Solution. Note that if we let u = sin x, its derivative is du = cos x dx which is the other
factor in the integrand and our integral becomes
Z Z
sin x cos x dx = u du
u2
= + C1
2
sin2 x
= + C1 .
2
.
Alternative solution to the problem: If we let u = cos x, then du = sin x dx which is also
the other factor in the integrand. Even if the integral
cos2 x
Z
sin x cos x dx = + C2
2
looks different from the above answer, we can easily show that the two answers are indeed
equal with by using the trigonometric identity sin2 x+cos2 x = 1. In this case, C2 = C1 + 21 .
Z
EXAMPLE 10: Evaluate the integral esin x cos x dx.
Solution. We let u = sin x so that the other factor in the integrand cos x dx = du. Thus,
the integral becomes
Z Z
esin x cos x dx = eu du
= eu + C
= esin x + C.
Z Z
Recall that we had earlier presented the integrals sin x dx and cos x dx. Now that
we already know integration by substitution, we can now present the integrals of other
trigonometric functions: tan x, cot x, sec x, and csc x.
sin x
Z
First, let us use substitution technique to find tan x dx. Note that tan x = . Hence,
cos x
sin x
Z Z
tan x dx = dx.
cos x
210
Now, if we let u = cos x, then du = sin x dx. Hence, we have
sin x
Z Z
tan x dx = dx
cos x
1
Z
= ( du)
u
1
Z
= du
u
= ln |u| + C
= ln | cos x| + C.
Equivalently, ln | cos x| + C = ln | cos x| 1

= ln | sec x| + C.
Z
Similarly, we can use substitution technique to show cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C. Here, we
cos x
use cot x = and choose u = sin x.
sin x
Z
Let us now find sec x dx. The usual trick is to multiply the numerator and the denomi-
nator by sec x + tan x.
sec x + tan x 1
Z Z Z
sec x dx = (sec x) dx = (sec x tan x + sec2 x) dx.
sec x + tan x sec x + tan x
Now, if we let u = sec x + tan x, then du = sec x tan x + sec2 x. Thus, we have
1
Z Z
sec x dx = (sec x tan x + sec2 x) dx.
sec x + tan x
1
Z
= du
u
= ln |u| + C
= ln | sec x + tan x| + C.
Z
Similarly, we can show csc x dx = ln | csc x cot x| + C.
Hence, we have the following formulas:
Z
1. tan x dx = ln | cos x| + C = ln | sec u| + C.
Z
2. cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C.
Z
3. sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C.
Z
4. csc x dx = ln | csc x cot x| + C.
Teaching Tip
It would help the students if the formulas above are written either on a sheet of
manila paper or on the board while the following examples are discussed.
211
Z
EXAMPLE 11: Evaluate x4 sec(x5 ) dx.
du
Solution. We let u = x5 . Then du = 5x4 dx. Thus, x4 dx = . We have
5
du
Z Z
4 5
x sec(x ) dx = sec u
5
1
Z
= sec u du
5
1
= ln | sec u + tan u| + C
5
1
= ln | sec x5 + tan x5 | + C.
5
.
x
4 + cos
Z
4
EXAMPLE 12: Evaluate dx.
sin x4
Solution. Let u = x4 . Then du = 1

4 dx and so 4 du = dx. Thus, we have
4 + cos x4 4 + cos u
Z Z
dx = 4du
sin x4 sin u
⇥ 4 cos u ⇤
Z
= 4 + du
sin u sin u
Z 
= 4 4 csc u + cot u du
Z Z
= 4 cot u du + 16 csc u du
= 4 ln | sin u| + 16 ln | csc u cot u| + C
x x x
= 4 ln sin + 16 ln csc cot + C.
4 4 4
.
INTEGRALS OF INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS
We now present the formulas for integrals yielding the inverse circular functions.
du
Z
1. p = sin 1 u + C
1 u 2
du
Z
2. = tan 1 u + C
1 + u2
du
Z
3. p = sec 1 u + C
u u 2 1
If the constant 1 in these integrals is replaced by some other positive number, one can use
the following generalizations:
212
Let a > 0. Then
Z
dx ⇣x⌘
1
p = sin +C (3.1)
a2 x2 a
dx 1 ⇣x⌘
Z
1
2 2
= tan +C (3.2)
a +x a a
dx 1 ⇣x⌘
Z
p = sec 1 +C (3.3)
x x2 a2 a a
Teaching Tip
Again, it would help the students if the formulas above are written either on a sheet
of manila paper or on the board while the following examples are discussed.
1
Z
9 x2
Solution. From Formula (3.1) with a = 3, we write this into
Z
1
Z
1 ⇣x⌘
p dx = p dx = sin 1 + C.
9 x2 32 x 2 3
.
dx
Z
EXAMPLE 14:
9x2 + 36
Solution. Let u = 3x, du = 3 dx. Then from Formula (3.2),
dx 1 du
Z Z
2
= 2
9x + 36 3 u + 36
1 1 ⇣u⌘
= · tan 1 +C
3 6 ✓ 6◆
1 3x
= tan 1 +C
18 6
1 ⇣x⌘
= tan 1 + C.
18 2
.
213
dx
Z
EXAMPLE 15: Evaluate p .
x ln x (ln x)2 9
1
Solution. Let u = ln x, du = dx. Then from Formula (3.3),
x
dx du
Z Z
p = p
x ln x (ln x)2 9 u u2 9
1 ⇣u⌘
= sec 1 +C
3 ✓3 ◆
1 ln x
= sec 1 + C.
3 3
.
dx
Z
EXAMPLE 16: p .
9 + 8x x2
Solution. Observe that by completing the squares, and Formula (3.1),
dx dx
Z Z
p = p
9 + 8x x2 9 (x2 8x)
dx
Z
= p
9 (x2 8x + 16 16)
dx
Z
= p .
25 (x 4)2
Let u = x 4, du = dx. Then
dx du
Z Z
p = p
9 + 8x x2 25 u2
u
= sin 1 + C
5
✓ ◆
1 x 4
= sin + C.
5
.
18x + 3
Z
EXAMPLE 17: dx.
9x2 + 6x + 2
Solution. Let u = 9x2 + 6x + 2, du = (18x + 6) dx. Then
18x + 3 18x + 6 3
Z Z Z
2
dx = 2
dx 2
dx
9x + 6x + 2 9x + 6x + 2 9x + 6x + 2
du dx
Z Z
= 3 2
u 9x + 6x + 1 + 1
dx
Z
= ln |u| 3 .
(3x + 1)2 + 1
214
Let v = 3x + 1, dv = 3 dx. Then by Formula (3.2),
18x + 3 3 1
Z Z
2
dx = ln |u| 2
dv
9x + 6x + 2 3 v +1
= ln |u| tan 1 v + C
= ln |9x2 + 6x + 2| tan 1
(3x + 1) + C.
Teaching Tip
End the entire lesson by giving the students a table of all integral formulas intro-
duced.
(C) SUMMARY/TABLE OF INTEGRALS

Z Z
1. dx = x + C 11. csc2 x dx = cot x + C
xn+1
Z Z
2. xn dx = + C, if n 6= 1 12. sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
n+1 Z
Z Z
3. af (x) dx = a f (x) dx 13. csc x cot x dx = csc x + C
Z Z Z Z
4. [f (x)±g(x)] dx = f (x) dx± g(x) dx 14. tan x dx = ln | cos x| + C
Z Z
5. ex dx = ex + C 15. cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C
ax
Z Z
6. ax dx = +C 16. sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C
ln a Z
1
Z Z
7. x 1 dx = dx = ln |x| + C 17. csc x dx = ln | csc x cot x| + C
x
Z Z
dx ⇣x⌘
1
8. sin x dx = cos x + C 18. p = sin+C
a2 x2 a
dx 1 1 x +C
Z Z ⇣ ⌘
9. cos x dx = sin x + C 19. = tan
a2 + x2 a a
dx 1 ⇣x⌘
Z Z
10. sec2 x dx = tan x + C 20. p = sec 1 +C
x x2 a2 a a
(D) EXERCISES
I. Determine the antiderivatives of the following functions:
1. f (x) = (x + 1)100 x3
3. g(x) = p
1 x4
6x2 + 2
2. f (x) = (x2 + x)10 (2x + 1) 4. h(x) = p
x3 + x + 1
215
II. Evaluate the following integrals:
x2 x e3x
Z Z
1. dx 16. dx
1 + 3x2 2x3 Z e
x 5
cos x
Z
ex+e dx
x
2. dx 17.
1 + 2 sin x
x2 + 2
Z Z log (sin x)
3 2 + sec x
3. dx 18. dx
x+1 tan x
3x5 2x3 + 5x2 2 1
Z Z
4. dx 19. p dx
x3 + 1 2
Z 1 4x
log4 (x2 ) 1
Z
5. dx 20. p dx
x 2
Z x 25x 4
(log4 x)2 dx
Z
6. dx 21. p
x (1 + x ) 16 (tan 1 x)2
2
1 ex
Z Z
7. p dx 22. dx
x+ x 2x+2 + 2
Z Z e
8
8. (sec 4x cot 4x) dx 23. dx
x 2 6x + 25
Z
6
Z
9. sec x csc x dx 24. p dx
Z (2 x) x2 4x + 3
2x
Z
10. 6x ex dx 25. p dx
2
Z
1 Z 4x x
11. dx x
2e x
xp
1 26. 2+x+1
dx
√ x
5 x e5
x
1
Z Z
12. p dx 27. 2 + 25
dx
x 9x
1
Z Z
13. 7x tan(7x ) dx 28. p
2
dx
x 16x 9
3x [cos (3x ) sin (3x )] 1
Z Z
14. dx 29. dx
sin2 (3x ) e x+e x
1
Z
e4x
Z
15. dx 30. p dx
e4x + 1 (2x 3) 4x(x 3)
216
LESSON 13: Application of Antidifferentiation to Differential
Equations
TIME FRAME: 3 hours
LEARNING OUTCOME: At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to solve sepa-
rable differential equations using antidifferentiation.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Separable differential equations
217
TOPIC 13.1: Separable Differential Equations
(A) INTRODUCTION
Imagine you are behind a microscope in a biology laboratory and you are trying to count
the growing number of bacteria in a petri dish. You observe that at any point in time,
one-fourth of the population is reproduced. You may eventually give up on counting be-
cause the bacteria are multiplying very fast, but you can use your calculus skills to find the
population of bacteria at any given time.
Let y denote the population at any time t. According to your observation, the change in the
1
population at any time is y. Since the derivative quantifies change, the above observation
4
can be expressed mathematically as
dy 1
= y.
dt 4
This is an example of a differential equation, and our objective is to recover the population
y from the above equation using integration.
(B) LESSON PROPER
A differential equation (DE) is an equation that involves x, y and the derivatives of y.

The following are examples of differential equations:
dy dy x (c) y 00 + y = 0
(a) = 2x + 5 (b) =
dx dx y
The order of a differential equation pertains to the highest order of the derivative that
appears in the differential equation.
The first two examples above are first-order DEs because they involve only the first deriva-
tive, while the last example is a second-order DE because y 00 appears in the equation.
A solution to a differential equation is a function y = f (x) or a relation f (x, y) = 0 that

satisfies the equation.
218
Teaching Tip
In the answers below, we will always try to express y in terms of x. However,
recalling our discussion on implicit differentiation, it may be difficult or impossible
to express y explicitly in terms of x. Therefore, a solution to a differential equation
may as well be only a relation.
dy
For example, y = x2 + 5x + 1 is a solution to = 2x + 5 since
dx
d d 2
(y) = (x + 5x + 1) = 2x + 5.
dx dx
dy x
The relation x2 + y 2 = 1 is a solution to = because if we differentiate the relation
dx y
implicitly, we get
dy dy x
2x + 2y =0 =) = .
dx dx y
Finally, y = sin x solves the differential equation y 00 +y = 0 since y 0 = cos x and y 00 = sin x,
and therefore
y 00 + y = ( sin x) + sin x = 0.
Solving a differential equation means finding all possible solutions to the DE.
A differential equation is said to be separable if it can be expressed as
f (x) dx = g(y) dy,
where f and g are functions of x and y, respectively. Observe that we have separated the
variables in the sense that the left-hand side only involves x while the right-hand side is
purely in terms of y.
If it is possible to separate the variables, then we can find the solution of the differential
equation by simply integrating:
Z Z
f (x) dx = g(y) dy
and applying appropriate techniques of integration. Note that the left-hand side yields a
function of x, say F (x) + C1 , while the right-hand side yields a function of y, say G(y) + C2 .
We thus obtain
F (x) = G(y) + C (Here, C = C2 C1 )
which we can then express into a solution of the form y = H(x) + C, if possible.
We will now look at some examples of how to solve separable differential equations.
219
dy 1
EXAMPLE 1: Solve the differential equation = y.
dt 4
Solution. Observe that y = 0 is a solution to the differential equation. Suppose that y 6= 0.
We divide both sides of the equation by y to separate the variables:
dy 1
= dt.
y 4
Integrating the left-hand side with respect to y and integrating the right-hand side with
respect to t yield
dy 1 1
Z Z
= dt =) ln |y| = t + C.
y 4 4
Taking the exponential of both sides, we obtain
1 1
|y| = e 4 t+C = eC e 4 t .
1
Therefore, y = ±Ae 4 t , where A = eC is any positive constant. Therefore, along with
the solution y = 0 that we have found at the start, the solution to the given differential
1
equation is y = Ae 4 t where A is any real number. .
EXAMPLE 2: Solve the differential equation 2y dx 3x dy = 0.

dy
Solution. If y = 0, then = 0 which means that the function y = 0 is a solution to the
dx
dy
differential equation 2y 3x = 0. Assume that y 6= 0. Separating the variables, we get
dx
2y dx = 3x dy
2 3
dx = dy.
x y
Integrating both sides, we obtain
2 3
Z Z
dx = dy
x y
2 ln |x| = 3 ln |y| + C
ln |x|2 C = ln |y|3
C ln |x|2
|y|3 = e e =e C
|x|2 .
p
Therefore, the solutions are y = ± 3 A x2/3 where A = e C is any positive constant. Along
with the trivial solution y = 0, the set of solutions to the differential equation is y = Bx2/3
where B is any real number. Note: The absolute value bars are dropped since x2 is already
nonnegative. .
220
2
EXAMPLE 3: Solve the equation xy 3 dx + ex dy = 0.
Solution. First, we separate the variables. We have

2
xy 3 dx = ex dy
2 1
xe x dx = dy.
y3
Integrating both sides of the equation with respect to their variables, we have
Z Z
x2
xe dx = y 3 dy.
du
Meanwhile, if u = x2 , then du = 2x dx so that = x dx. Hence,
2
1 1 1
Z Z
x2 x2
xe dx = eu du = eu + C = e + C.
2 2 2
Therefore,
Z Z
x2 3
xe dx = y dy
1 y 2
x2
e = + C.
2 2
.
x2 1/2
If we solve for y in terms of x, we get y = ± A e , where A = 2C is any constant.
EXAMPLE 4: Solve the equation 3(y + 2) dx xy dy = 0.
Solution. Separating the variables of the differential equation gives us
3 (y + 2) dx = xy dy
3 y
dx = dy
x y+2
3 (y + 2) 2
dx = dy
x y+2
✓ ◆
3 2
dx = 1 dy.
x y+2
Now that we have separated the variables, we now integrate the equation term by term:
Z ✓ ◆
3 2
Z
dx = 1 dy
x y+2
3 ln |x| = y 2 ln |y + 2| + C.
221
Teaching Tip
The solution to the above example is impossible to express in the form y = H(x)+C.
So, we are contented with expressing this as a relation.
Note that in the previous examples, a constant of integration is always present. If there
are initial conditions, or if we know that the solution passes through a point, we can solve
this constant and get a particular solution to the differential equation.
EXAMPLE 5: Find the particular solutions of the following given their corresponding
initial conditions:
dy 1
(a) = y when y = 100 and t = 0
dt 4
(b) 2y dx 3x dy = 0 when x = 1 and y = 1
2
(c) xy 3 dx + ex dy = 0 when x = 0 and y = 1
(d) 3(y + 2) dx xy dy = 0 when x = 1 and y = 1
Solution. We will use the general solutions from the previous examples.
(a) The solution to Example 1 is y = A e1/4t . Using the conditions y = 100 and t = 0, we
1
get 100 = Ae0 . Hence, A = 100 and therefore the particular solution is y = 100e 4 t .
(b) The solution to Example 2 is y = B x2/3 . Substituting (x, y) = (1, 1) gives 1 =
p
B 12/3 = B. Hence, the particular solution is y = x2 .
3
1
(c) From the Example 3, the general solution is y = ± p . Substituting (x, y) =
A e x2
1
(1, 0) yields 1 = ± p . Since the square root of a real number is never negative,
A 1
p 1
A 1 = +1 and so A = 2. Finally, the particular solution is y = ± p .
2 e x2
(d) From Example 4, the general solution is 3 ln |x| = y 2 ln |y + 2| + C. Substituting the
given values (x, y) = (1, 1), we obtain 3 ln |1| = 1 2 ln | 1+2|+C. Simplifying this
gives C = 1. Hence, the particular solution is the relation 3 ln |x| = y 2 ln |y + 2| + 1.
.
(C) EXERCISES
1. Determine whether each of the following differential equations is separable or not, if it

is separable, rewrite the equation in the form g(y) dy = f (x) dx.
dy dy
a. + 4y = 8 d. x = (x y)2
dx dx
dy
b.
dy p
= 1 + x2 e. + 4y = x2
dx dx
dy
dy f. = sin(x + y)
c. = 3y 2 y 2 sin x dx
dx
222
dy dy 3y 2
g. + xy = 4x h. y = ex
dx dx
2. Find the general solution of the following differential equations.
dy x dy
a. = g. = x3 3x2 + x
dx y dx
dy dy x
b. = y(1 + ex ) h. =
dx dx 2y
dy
c. = 9x2 y
dx dy cos2 y
4 dy 1 i. =
d. = dx sin2 x
3
y dx x
dy 1 dy
e. = 3 j. cos y = sin x
dx xy dx
dy 2y dy
f. = k. xy = y2 + 9
dx x dx
3. Solve the following initial-value problems.
dy dy x3
a. = x2 y 3 and y(3) = 1 f. = 2 and y(2) = 3
dx dx y
dy p
b. = (1 + y 2 ) tan x and y(0) = 3 dy 3x
dx g. = and y(6) = 4
dy 2 dx y
c. =1+y and y(⇡) = 0
dx dy
dy x h. = cos(2x) and y(0) = 1
d. = and y( 3) = 2 dx
dx y
dy y+1 dy
e. = , x 6= 0 and y( 1) = 1 i. =4 y and y(0) = 2
dx x dx
4. Find all constant solutions, if possible, to each of the following differential equations.
dy dy
a. = xy 4x c. y = xy 2 9x
dx dx
dy dy
b. 6y = 3 d. = sin y
dx dx
dy x
5. Find all solutions to the differential equation = and a particular solution
dx y 3
satisfying y(0) = 1.
d2 y 3
6. Find the particular solution of the differential equation = determine by the
dx2 x4
1 dy
initial conditions y = and = 1 when x = 1.
2 dx
223
LESSON 14: Application of Differential Equations in Life Sciences
TIME FRAME: 8 hours
LEARNING OUTCOME: At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to solve situa-
tional problems involving: exponential growth and decay, bounded growth, and logistic growth.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Understanding which parts of a problem play roles in a differential or integral expression

2. Recognizing whether a situation is indicative of exponential, bounded, or logistic growth
3. Setting up a differential or integral given situations involving exponential, bounded, and
logistic growth
4. Solving these differential equations and integrals
224
TOPIC 14.1: Situational Problems Involving Growth and Decay
Problems
(A) INTRODUCTION
When studying a real-world problem, the ability to recognize the type of mathematical
situation it may adhere to is an advantage. It is an added advantage if the problem
describes certain patterns with already known solution approaches. Such is the case for
so-called exponential, bounded and logistic growth. The following discussion focuses on
situations falling under these categories, where growth (or decay) is expressed as a rate of
change. Hence, the solution is obtained via integration.
Teaching Tip
This is a good opportunity for the students to practice the use of the calculator.
Some computations will require rational powers of e and natural logarithms.
(B) LESSON PROPER
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH AND DECAY
The simplest growth model for a population depends only on the occurrence of births
and deaths. Births and deaths, in turn, depend on the current size of a population. In
particular, they are fractions or percentages of the population. Thus, if y = f (t) is the
size of a certain population at time t, and the birth and death rates are given by positive
constants b and d, respectively, the rate of change in the population at time t is given by
dy
= by dy .
dt
Before we continue, we will henceforth replace b d with the constant k.
dy
= ky .
dt
To depict rates of change, it follows that k may be positive or negative. If it is positive,
meaning b > d or there are more births than deaths, it denotes growth. If it is negative,
meaning b < d or there are more deaths than births, it denotes decay.
How does integration come into play?
Did you recognize the differential equation above as a separable one? If so, then you know
that solving it will yield y = f (t) or the size of the population at any time t. Indeed,
dy
= ky
dt
225
and so,
dy
= k dt.
y
Integrating both sides of the equation
dy
Z Z
= k dt,
y
we get
ln y = kt + C1 .
Thus,
eln y = ekt+C1 .
Therefore,
y = ekt · eC1 ,
and so it follows that

y = C · ekt ,
where C = eC1 .
The foregoing result explains why this pattern of growth is called exponential or unbounded
growth.
Teaching Tip
Point out immediately the several “automatic” assumptions in the solution, namely,
• Why is it possible to divide by y?
• Why is “ln y” in the third line and not “ln |y|”?
• Why does “ln y” in the third line not have any constant of integration?
Ask the students to figure out the reasons why these assumptions are allowed and
“automatic.”
We improve the resulting equation by solving for C. To find a particular solution, the value
of C must be determined. This can be done if the value of y is given at a particular time
t. For instance, if at t = 0, we know that y = y0 , then
y0 = C · ek·0
= C · e0
= C
This makes y = y0 ekt .
226
A sample graph will illustrate why exponential growth is also called unbounded growth.
Assume a certain population begins with 100 individuals with a growth rate k = 1. The
population at any time t > 0 is given by
y = 100et
whose graph is as follows:
y = 100et
100
EXAMPLE 1: Suppose that a colony of lice grows exponentially. After 1 day, 50 lice are
counted. After 3 days, 200 were counted. How many are there originally? What is the
exponential growth equation for the colony?
Solution. Recall the exponential growth equation and identify information given in the
problem that will help answer the question.
• y1 = 50 means that 50 = y0 ek·1 .
• y3 = 200 means that 200 = y0 ek·3 .
Note that these two equations will give us the values for the two unknowns, y0 and ek .
50 = y0 e k
200 = y0 e3k .
227
From the first equation, y0 = 50e k. Using this in the second equation,
k
200 = (50 e )e3k
200 = 50 e2k
4 = e2k
4 = (ek )2
or 2 = ek .
Substituting this in the first equation,
50 = y0 · 2
or y0 = 25.
We now have the answers to the two questions given. First, there were originally 25 lice in
the colony. Second, the exponential growth equation for the given word problem is
y = 25 · 2t .
Now, let us take a decay problem.
EXAMPLE 2: The rate of decay of radium is said to be proportional to the amount of

radium present. If the half-life of radium is 1690 years and there are 200 grams on hand
now, how much radium will be present in 845 years?
Solution. The exponential decay equation again starts off as y = Cekt .
Since there are 200 grams present at the start, the equation immediately evolves to
y = 200ekt .
A half-life of 1690 years means that the initial amount of 200 grams of radium will reduce
to half, or just 100 grams, in 100 years. Thus,
100 = 200ek·1690 .
This gives
✓ ◆1/1690
k 1
e = ,
2
and consequently,
✓ ◆t/1690
1
y = 200 .
2
228
To answer the problem,
✓ ◆845/1690
1
y = 200
2
✓ ◆1/2
1
= 200
2
✓ ◆
1
= 200 p
2
✓ ◆
1
⇡ 200
0.707
= 141.4.
Therefore, after 845 years, there will be approximately 141.4 grams of radium left. .
BOUNDED GROWTH
Thinking back, populations cannot really grow without bound. In many cases, the popu-
lation is limited by some resource, such as food or space. This limiting quantity or upper
bound is sometimes referred to as the carrying capacity, and researchers measure the differ-
ence between this limiting quantity and the actual population. If the carrying capacity is
given by a positive constant, K, the rate of change of y with respect to time t is proportional
to the difference (K y). That is,
dy
= k(K y) .
dt
This type of growth is called bounded growth.
dy
Now, = k(K y) implies that
dt
dy
= k dt.
(K y)
Integrating both sides of the equation, we get
ln |K y| = kt + C1
and so
kt+C1
|K y| = e .
Finally, we have
kt
|K y| = C · e .
Two cases emerge from the absolute value expression on the left: K y > 0 and K y < 0.
The former means that population is lower than the carrying capacity, while the latter has
229
the opposite meaning. It is more usual that the former happens, thus for the succeeding
computation we consider the former, i.e., y < K.
y<K =) |K y| = K y
kt
=) K y = C ·e
kt
=) y = K C ·e .
For future problem-solving, it is useful to note that C is equal to K y0 , where again y0

is the initial population, or the population at time t.
Teaching Tip
It would be good to ask the students to explore the consequence on the resulting
equation if y > K, and the possible scenarios when this may occur.
EXAMPLE 3: A certain pawikan breeding site is said to be able to sustain 5000 pawikans.
One thousand pawikans are brought there initially. After a year, this increased to 1100
pawikans. How many pawikans will there be after 5 years? Assume that pawikans follow
the limited growth model.
Solution. We recall the bounded growth equation and identify parts given in the word
problem.
• K = 5000.
• y0 = 1000. This means that C = 5000 1000 = 4000 and the equation becomes
kt
y = 5000 4000 · e .
The population after 1 year, y1 = 1100, means we can substitute y with 1100 and t with 1
to obtain e k .
k
1100 = 5000 4000 · e
k
4000 · e = 5000 1100
= 3900
k 3900
e =
4000
= 0.975.
With the values we have enumerated and solved, the bounded equation is now of the form
y = 5000 4000 · (0.975)t .
230
We can now find the required population, y5 .
y = 5000 4000 · (0.975)5

⇡ 5000 4000 · (0.881)
= 5000 3524
= 1476.
Therefore, there will be approximately 1476 pawikans in the breeding site. .
The next example illustrates a sort of “decay.” Remember we said earlier that there are
occasions when y > K? This is one instance.
Teaching Tip
At this point, it would be good to relate this to the remarks at the start of bounded
growth that sometimes y > K. Ideally, cooling would have been one of the scenarios
mentioned when you asked for cases that y > K. (See next example.)
EXAMPLE 4: Suppose that newly-baked cupcakes are taken out of the oven which is set
at 100 degrees. Room temperature is found to be 25 degrees, and in 15 minutes the cupcakes
are found to have a temperature of 50 degrees. Determine the approximate temperature of
the cupcakes after 30 minutes.
Solution. Newton’s Law of Cooling states that the rate of change of the temperature of
an object is equal to the difference between the object’s temperature and that of the
surrounding air. This gives the differential equation
dy
= k(y 25).
dt
Since the situation anticipates that the temperature of an object, y, will decrease towards
that of the surrounding air, ya . Thus, y is assumed to be greater than ya . Furthermore, to
denote the decrease, the constant of proportionality is written as k, with k > 0. t in this
problem is measured in minutes.
By separation of variables, this becomes

kt
y = 25 + Ce .
• y0 = 100, we get C = 75 and the equation becomes

kt
y = 25 + 75e .
231
• The 50-degree temperature after 15 minutes gives
✓ ◆1/15
k 1
e = ,
3
and the equation changes further to

✓ ◆t/15
1
y = 25 + 75 .
3
We can now proceed to approximate the temperature after 30 minutes:
✓ ◆30/15
1
y = 25 + 75
3
✓ ◆2
1
= 25 + 75
3
✓ ◆
1
= 25 + 75
9
⇡ 25 + 8.33
= 33.33.
Hence, after 30 minutes, the cupcakes’ temperature will be approximately 33 degrees. .
LOGISTIC GROWTH
Further studies say that it is more appropriate for the rate of change of a population to be
expressed as proportional to both the size of the population, y, and the difference between
a limiting quantity, K, and the size of the population. Hence,
dy
= ky(K y) .
dt
This is called logistic growth.
In preparation for integration, we write the above equation as

dy
= k dt,
y(K y)
where the left side of the equation may be written as

✓ ◆
1 1 1
+ .
K y K y
232
We solve this differential equation.
1
Z Z
dy = k dt
y(K y)
✓ ◆
1 1 1
Z Z
+ dy = k dt
K y K y
✓ ◆
1 1 1
Z Z
+ dy = k dt
K y K y
✓ ◆
1 1
Z Z
+ dy = K k dt
y K y
ln |y| ln |K y| = Kkt + C
y
ln = Kkt + C
K y
y
= eKkt+C
K y
y y
We follow the same assumption for bounded growth that y < K. Thus, = ,
K y K y
and
y
= eKkt+c .
K y
Finally, we isolate y.
y = (K y)eKkt+c
y + yeKkt+c = KeKkt+c
KeKkt+c
y =
1 + eKkt+c
K
=
e (Kkt+c) + 1
K c
= , where C = e
C · e Kkt + 1
Number of individuals
Carrying Capacity K
The logistic equation is thus,
K
y= Kkt
,
1+C ·e
where C and K are positive constants. Its graph
is shown on the right.
Time
233
Teaching Tip
In case the students ask,
✓ be ready to◆show them
1 1 1 1
• the solution to + = ;
K y K y y(K y)
• the interim steps in the isolation of y; and
• why C is guaranteed to be positive.
The last bullet may be a recitation question.
EXAMPLE 5: Ten Philippine eagles were introduced to a national park 10 years ago.
There are now 23 eagles in the park. The park can support a maximum of 100 eagles.
Assuming a logistic growth model, when will the eagle population reach 50?
Solution. To solve the problem, we first recognize how the given information will fit into
and improve our equation.
100
• Since K = 100, we have y = 100kt
1+C ·e
• Since y0 = 23, we can solve for C.
100
10 =
1 + C · e0
100
10 =
1+C
10 + 10C = 100
10C = 90
or C = 9.
Hence, the equation becomes
100
y= .
1 + 9 · e 100kt
The current population of 23 eagles is equal to the population after 10 years, or y10 = 23.
234
This piece of information allows us to solve for the exponential term.
100
23 =
1 + 9e 100k·10
100
23 =
1 + 9e 1000k
1000k 100
1 + 9e =
23
1000k 100
9e = 1
23
1000k 77
9e =
23
1000k 77
e =
23 · 9
1000k
or e ⇡ 0.37.
Instead of solving for k, it will suffice to find a substitute for e Kk =e 100k . Clearly, if
e 1000k ⇡ 0.37, then e 100k ⇡ (0.37)1/10 . So,
100
y = .
1 + 9 · (0.37)t/10
We are now ready to answer the question, “When will the eagle population reach 50?”
Given the most recent version of our logistic equation, we just substitute y with 50 and
solve for t, the time required to have 50 eagles in the population.
100
50 =
1 + 9 · (0.37)t/10
50(1 + 9 · (0.37)t/10 ) = 100
t/10
50 + 450 · (0.37) = 100
100 50
(0.37)t/10 =
450
1
(0.37)t/10 =
9
✓ ◆10
1
(0.37)t =
9
✓ ◆10
1
ln(0.37)t = ln
9
✓ ◆
1
t · ln(0.37) = 10 · ln
9
ln(1/9)
t = 10 ·
ln(0.37)
t ⇡ 10(2.2) = 22.
The eagle population in the said national park will reach 50 in approximately 22 years. .
235
(C) EXERCISES
(a) The population of Barangay Siksikan is increasing at a rate proportional to its current
population. In the year 2000, the population was 10,000. In 2003, it became 15,000.
What was its population in 2009? In approximately what year will its population be
100,000?
(b) Certain bacteria cells are being observed in an experiment. The population triples in
1 hour. If at the end of 3 hours, the population is 27,000, how many bacteria cells
were present at the start of the experiment? After how many hours, approximately,
will the number of cells reach 1 million?
(c) The half-life of a radioactive substance refers to the amount of time it will take for
the quantity to decay to half as much as it was originally. Substance Q has a half-life
of 20 years. If in 2015, 100g of Q was at hand, how much will be at hand in 2055?
How much will be at hand in 2060?
(d) Your parents bought a car in 2012 at the price of P1.2 million. The value of your car
will depreciate over the years due to use. Thus, in 2015 your car is valued at P900,000.
What will be your car's worth in 2018? In what year, approximately, will your car
just be worth P200,000?
(e) Marimar comes from an island-town of 2000 people. She goes to the mainland with
a friend and there they catch a highly contagious virus. A week after their return
to their island-town, 8 people are infected. How many will be affected after another
week? Their public health center decides that once 30
(f) As the biologist for a certain crocodile farm, you know that its carrying capacity is
20,000 crocodiles. You initially release 5000 crocodiles into the farm. After 6 weeks,
the crocodile population has increased to 7500. In how many weeks will the population
reach 10,000? In how many weeks will the population reach 20,000?
236
LESSON 15: Riemann Sums and the Definite Integral
TIME FRAME: 4 hours
1. Approximate the area of a region under a curve using Riemann sums: (a) left, (b) right,
and (c) midpoint; and
2. Define the definite integral as the limit of the Riemann sums.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Method of exhaustion
2. Riemann sums and Partition points
3. Left, right, and midpoint Riemann sums
4. Refinement
5. Irregular partition
6. Formal definition of a definite integral
7. Geometric interpretation of a definite integral
8. Computing definite integrals
9. Properties of the definite integral
10. The definite integral as a net signed area
11. Exercises and enrichment
237
TOPIC 15.1: Approximation of Area using Riemann Sums
(A) INTRODUCTION
We know that the derivative of a function represents the slope of the tangent line or its
instantaneous rate of change. We now ask, what does an antiderivative represent? To
answer this, we draw the following on the board:
x0 2
c
2 x0
x0 x0 x0 2
f (x) = c g(x) = x h(x) = 2 x
We can then ask some of our students to fill in the following table:
Function Antiderivative Area of shaded region

f (x) = c cx cx0
1 2 1
g(x) = x 2x 2 x0
· x0
h(x) = 2 x 2x 21 x2 1
2 (2 x0 + 2)(x0 )
We see a striking relationship between the area of the region below the graph of a function
and the antiderivative of the function. We now suspect that antidifferentiation has some-
thing to do with the computation of areas below curves. In this section, we first investigate
how to approximate the area of general regions.
(B) LESSON PROPER
Notice that geometry provides formulas for the area of a region bounded by straight lines,
like those above. However, it does not provide formulas to compute the area of a general
region. For example, it is quite impossible to compute for the area of the region below the
parabola y = x2 using geometry alone.
238
y
y = x2
Area?
x
1
Even the formula for the area of the circle A = ⇡r2 uses a limiting process. Before, since
people only knew how to find the area of polygons, they tried to cover the area of a circle by
inscribing n-gons until the error was very small. This is called the Method of Exhaustion.
The method of exhaustion is attributed to the ancient Greek mathematician Antiphon of

Athens (ca. 5th century BCE), who thought of inscribing a sequence of regular polygons,
each with double the number of sides than the previous one, to approximate the area of a
circle.
Our method for approximating the area of a region uses the same technique. However,
instead of inscribing regular n-gons, we use the simplest polygon – rectangles.
RIEMANN SUMS
Throughout this lesson, we will assume that function f is positive (that is, the graph is
above the x-axis), and continuous on the closed and bounded interval [a, b]. The goal of
this lesson is to approximate the area of the region R bounded by y = f (x), x = a, x = b,
and the x-axis.
239
y
y = f (x)
x
a b
We first partition [a, b] regularly, that is, into congruent subintervals. Similar to the method
of exhaustion, we fill R with rectangles of equal widths. The Riemann sum of f refers to
the number equal to the combined area of these rectangles. Notice that as the number
of rectangles increases, the Riemann sum approximation of the exact area of R becomes
better and better.
Of course, the Riemann sum depends on how we construct the rectangles and with how
many rectangles we fill the region. We will discuss three basic types of Riemann sums:
Left, Right, and Midpoint.
PARTITION POINTS
First, we discuss how to divide equally the interval [a, b] into n subintervals. To do this,
we compute the step size ∆x, the length of each subinterval:
b a
∆x = .
n
Next, we let x0 = a, and for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n, we set the ith

⇣ intermediate
⌘ point to be
b a
xi = a + i∆x. Clearly, the last point is xn = a + n∆x = a + n n = b. Please refer to
the following table:
x0 x1 x2 x3 ··· xi ··· xn 1 xn
a a + ∆x a + 2∆x a + 3∆x ··· a + i∆x ··· a + (n 1)∆x b
We call the collection of points Pn = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } a set of partition points of [a, b]. Note
that to divide an interval into n subintervals, we need n + 1 partition points.
Teaching Tip
The above process is the same as inserting n 1 arithmetic means between a and
b.
240
EXAMPLE 1: Find the step size ∆x and the partition points needed to divide the given
interval into the given number of subintervals.
Example: [0, 1]; 6 ) ∆x = 16 , P6 = 0, 16 , 31 , 21 , 23 , 65 , 1 .
• [0, 1]; 7 Answer: ∆x = 71 , P7 = {0, 71 , 27 , 73 , 47 , 75 , 67 , 1}

• [2, 5]; 6 Answer: ∆x = 12 , P6 = {2, 25 , 3, 72 , 4 92 , 5}
• [ 3, 4]; 4 Answer: ∆x = 74 , P4 = { 3, 5 1 9
4 , 2 , 4 , 4}
• [ 5, 1]; 5 Answer: ∆x = 45 , P5 = { 5, 21
5 ,
17
5 ,
13
5 ,
9
5, 1}
• [ 10, 3]; 8 Answer: ∆x = 78 , P8 = { 10, 73
8 ,
33
4 ,
59
8 ,
13
2 ,
45
8 ,
19
4 ,
31
8 , 3}
Assume that the interval [a, b] is already divided into n subintervals. We then cover the
region with rectangles whose bases correspond to a subinterval. The three types of Riemann
sum depend on the heights of the rectangles we are covering the region with.
LEFT RIEMANN SUM
The nth left Riemann sum Ln is the sum of the areas of the rectangles whose heights are
the functional values of the left endpoints of each subinterval.
For example, we consider the following illustration. We subdivide the interval into three
subintervals corresponding to three rectangles. Since we are considering left endpoints, the
height of the first rectangle is f (x0 ), the height of the second rectangle is f (x1 ), and the
height of the third rectangle is f (x2 ).
y = f (x)
x
x0 x1 x2 x3
" " "
Therefore, in this example, the 3rd left Riemann sum equals
L3 = f (x0 )(x1 x0 ) + f (x1 )(x2 x1 ) + f (x2 )(x3 x2 ) = (f (x0 ) + f (x1 ) + f (x2 )) ∆x.
241
In general, if [a, b] is subdivided into n intervals with partition points {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn }, then
the nth left Riemann sum equals
n
X
Ln = (f (x0 ) + f (x1 ) + . . . + f (xn 1 )) ∆x = f (xk 1 )∆x.
k=1
We define the right and midpoint Riemann sums in a similar manner.
RIGHT RIEMANN SUM
The nth right Riemann sum Rn is the sum of the areas of the rectangles whose heights are
the functional values of the right endpoints of each subinterval.
For example, we consider the following illustration. We subdivide the interval into three
subintervals corresponding to three rectangles. Since we are considering right endpoints,
the height of the first rectangle is f (x1 ), the height of the second rectangle is f (x2 ), and
the height of the third rectangle is f (x3 ).
y
y = f (x)
x
x0 x1 x2 x3
" " "
Therefore, in this example, the 3rd right Riemann sum equals
R3 = f (x1 )(x1 x0 ) + f (x2 )(x2 x1 ) + f (x3 )(x3 x2 ) = (f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + f (x3 )) ∆x.
the nth right Riemann sum equals
n
X
Rn = (f (x1 ) + f (x2 ) + . . . + f (xn )) ∆x = f (xk )∆x.
k=1
242
MIDPOINT RIEMANN SUM
The nth midpoint Riemann sum Mn is the sum of the areas of the rectangles whose heights
are the functional values of the midpoints of the endpoints of each subinterval. For the
sake of notation, we denote by mk the midpoint of two consecutive partition points xk 1
and xk ; that is,
xk 1 + xk
mk = .
2
We now consider the following illustration. We subdivide the interval into three subintervals
corresponding to three rectangles. Since we are considering midpoints of the endpoints, the
height of the first rectangle is f (m1 ), the height of the second rectangle is f (m2 ), and the
height of the third rectangle is f (m3 ).
y = f (x)
x
x0 m1 x1 m2 x2 m3 x3
" " "
Therefore, in this example, the 3rd midpoint Riemann sum equals
M3 = f (m1 )(x1 x0 ) + f (m2 )(x2 x1 ) + f (m3 )(x3 x2 ) = (f (m1 ) + f (m2 ) + f (m3 )) ∆x.
the nth midpoint Riemann sum equals
n
X
Ln = (f (m1 ) + f (m2 ) + . . . + f (mn )) ∆x = f (mk )∆x,
k=1
xk 1 + xk
where mk = .
2
Teaching Tip
Please allow the students to use a calculator to compute the Riemann sums.
243
EXAMPLE 2: Find the 4th left, right, and midpoint Riemann sums of the following
functions with respect to a regular partitioning of the given intervals.
(a) f (x) = x2 on [0, 1] (b) f (x) = sin x on [0, ⇡].
Solution. .
(a) First, note that ∆x = 1 4 0 = 41 . Hence, P4 = 0, 41 , 21 , 34 , 1 . We then compute the

midpoints of the partition points: 81 , 83 , 58 , 87 .
y y y
y = x2
x x x
1 1 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 1 5 3 7 1
4 2 4 4 2 4 8 4 8 2 8 4 8
The 4th left Riemann sum equals
✓ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆◆
1 1 3
L4 = f (0) + f +f +f · ∆x
4 2 4
✓ ◆
1 1 9 1
= 0+ + + · = 0.21875.
16 4 16 4
The 4th right Riemann sum equals

✓ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ◆
1 1 3
R4 = f +f +f + f (1) · ∆x
4 2 4
✓ ◆
1 1 9 1
= + + + 1 · = 0.46875.
16 4 16 4
Lastly, the 4th midpoint Riemann sum equals

✓ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆◆
1 3 5 7
M4 = f +f +f +f · ∆x
8 8 8 8
✓ ◆
1 9 25 49 1
= + + + · = 0.328125.
64 64 64 64 4
244
⇡
⇡ 0
(b) First, note that ∆x = . Hence, P4 = 0, ⇡4 , ⇡2 , 3⇡
= 4 , 1 . We then compute the
4 4
midpoints of the partition points: ⇡8 , 3⇡ 5⇡ 7⇡
8 , 8 , 8 .
y y y
y = sin x
x x x
⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ ⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 1 3⇡ 1 5⇡ 3 7⇡ 1
4 2 4 4 2 4 8 4 8 2 8 4 8
The 4th left Riemann sum equals

✓ ✓ ◆◆
⇣⇡ ⌘ ⇣⇡ ⌘ 3⇡
L4 = f (0) + f +f +f · ∆x
4 2 4
✓ ◆
⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ ⇡
= sin 0 + sin + sin + sin · = 1.896...
4 2 4 4
The 4th right Riemann sum equals

✓ ⇣ ⌘ ✓ ◆ ◆
⇡ ⇣⇡ ⌘ 3⇡
R4 = f +f +f + f (⇡) · ∆x
4 2 4
✓ ◆
⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ ⇡
= sin + sin + sin + sin ⇡ · = 1.896...
4 2 4 4
Finally, the 4th midpoint Riemann sum equals

✓ ⇣ ⌘ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆◆
⇡ 3⇡ 5⇡ 7⇡
M4 = f +f +f +f · ∆x
8 8 8 8
✓ ◆
⇡ 3⇡ 5⇡ 7⇡ ⇡
= sin + sin + sin + sin · = 2.052...
8 8 8 8 4
.
Teaching Tip
The discussions below are supplementary and may be skipped without affecting the
flow of your lecture. They can, however, strengthen the learning of the students,
and are encouraged to be taught if there is still sufficient time.
The following example shows that arbitrarily increasing the number of partition points does
not necessarily give a better approximation of the true area of the region.
245
EXAMPLE 3: Let f (x) = 1 |x 1| and consider the closed region R bounded by
y = f (x) and the x-axis on the interval [0, 2].
1 y
y=1 |x 1|
x
1 2
Show that relative to regular partitioning, the second left Riemann sum L2 is a better
approximation of the area of R than the third left Riemann sum L3 of f on [0, 2].
Solution. First, observe that the exact area of R is 21 (1)(2) = 1.

1 y 1 y
x x
1 2 2 4 2
3 3
Now, the step size and partition points, repectively, are ∆x = 1 and P2 = {0, 1, 2} for L2
and ∆x = 23 and P3 = {0, 23 , 34 , 2} for L3 . Using the formula for the left Riemann sum, we
have the following computations:
L2 = (f (0) + f (1)) · ∆x = (0 + 1) · 1 = 1
while
✓ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆◆ ✓ ◆
2 4 2 2 2 4 2 8
L3 = f (0) + f +f · ∆x = 0 + + · = · = .
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 9
Clearly, L2 is closer (in fact, equal) to the exact value of 1, than L3 .
We ask the students in the exercises to show that M2 and R2 are better approximations of
the area of R than M3 and R3 , respectively. .
Point of Discussion
Ask the class how they were convinced that increasing the number of partition
points (and thereby increasing the number of rectangles) would make the Riemann
approximation to the area of R better and better, if the previous example clearly
shows the opposite?
246
REFINEMENT
To deal with the question above, we define the concept of a refinement of a partition:
Definition 6. A partition Q of an interval I is a refinement of another partition P of I if

P ✓ Q, meaning, Q contains all partition points of P and more.
EXAMPLE 4: For the interval I = [0, 2], P3 = {0, 23 , 34 , 2} is not a refinement of P2 =

{0, 1, 2}. However, P4 = {0, 12 , 1, 32 , 2} is a refinement of P2 while P6 = {0, 31 , 32 , 1, 43 , 53 , 2}
is a refinement of P3 .
EXAMPLE 5: P2n is always a refinement of Pn . In fact P2n contains all partition points
of Pn and all the midpoints therein.
Theorem 15. Suppose Q is a refinement of P. Then, any (left, midpoint, right) Riemann
sum approximation of a region R relative to Q is equal to or is better than the same kind
of Riemann sum approximation relative to P.
It is not hard to convince ourselves of the validity of the above theorem. Consider the
diagrams below. The one on the left illustrates L3 while the right one illustrates L6 relative
to the regular partition of the given interval.
y y
y = f (x) y = f (x)
x x
x0 x1 x2 x3 x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
" " " " " " " " "
Remark 1: The theorem also conforms to the procedure in the classical method of ex-
haustion wherein they use the areas of inscribed regular n-gons to approximate the area of
a circle. The sequence of n-gons the Greeks considered was such that the next n-gon would
have twice the number of sides as the previous one.
Remark 2: A consequence of the theorem is that for any positive integer n, the sequence
Ln , L2n , L4n , L8n , L16n , . . .
247
is a monotone sequence converging to the exact area of the region. This means that if A is
the exact area of the region and Ln  A, then
Ln  L2n  L4n  L8n  L16n  . . .  A.
For instance, in Example 3, A = 1 and L3 = 98 . The above inequalities imply that L3 

L6  A. Indeed,
✓ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆◆
1 2 4 5
L6 = f (0) + f +f + f (1) + f +f · ∆x
3 3 3 3
✓ ◆
1 2 2 1 1
= 0+ + +1+ + · = 1.
3 3 3 3 3
IRREGULAR PARTITION
Sometimes, the partition of an interval is irregular, that is, the lengths of the subintervals
are not equal. This kind of partitioning is usually used when you want to obtain a refinement
of a partition (and thereby get a better approximation) without computing for a lot more
points.
For example, suppose that you think that a Riemann sum relative to the partition P =
{0, 32 , 43 , 2} is already close to the exact value, then you can simply insert one more point,
say 1, to get the partition P 0 = {0, 32 , 1, 43 , 2}. Since P 0 is a refinement of P, then a Riemann
sum relative to it should have a better value than that of P and you just have to compute
for one more functional value, f (1), rather than 3 more values.
To get Riemann sums relative to irregular partitions, the idea is the same, you just have
to be careful about the variable step sizes.
Consider an irregular partition P = {x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn } of an interval.In general, it may

not be the case that x1 x0 = x2 x1 . So, we define the step sizes ∆xk .
For each k 2 {1, 2, . . . , n}, define the kth step size ∆xk to be the length of the kth subin-
terval, i.e.
∆xk = xk xk 1.
With this notation, the left Riemann sum with respect to the partition P is
LP = f (x0 )∆x1 + f (x1 )∆x2 + . . . + f (xn 2 )∆xn 1 + f (xn 1 )∆xn

n
X
= f (xk 1 )∆xk .
k=1
248
y
y = f (x)
Now, suppose we are given y = f (x)
and a partition P = {x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 }.
Then the left Riemann sum with re-
spect to the partition P is
LP = f (x0 )∆x1 +f (x1 )∆x2 +f (x2 )∆x3 .
∆x1 ∆x2 ∆x3 x

x0 x1 x2 x3
" " "
Very similarly, the right Riemann sum is given by
RP = f (x1 )∆x1 + f (x2 )∆x2 + . . . + f (xn 1 )∆xn 1 + f (xn )∆xn
n
X
= f (xk )∆xk ,
k=1
and the midpoint Riemann sum is given by
MP = f (m1 )∆x1 + f (m2 )∆x2 + . . . + f (mn 1 )∆xn 1 + f (mn )∆xn
n
X
= f (mk )∆xk ,
k=1
xk 1 + xk
with the same convention that mk = , the midpoint of the kth interval.
2
EXAMPLE 6: Relative to the partition P = {0, 21 , 23 , 43 , 1}, find the left, right, and
midpoint Riemann sums of f (x) = x2 on the interval [0, 1].
Solution. Observe that P partitions [0, 1] into 4 irregular subintervals: [0, 12 ], [ 21 , 23 ], [ 32 , 34 ], [ 43 , 1].
The step sizes are ∆x1 = 12 , ∆x2 = 16 , ∆x3 = 12 1
, ∆x4 = 14 . This implies that the Riemann
sums are
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 2 3
LP = f (0)∆x1 + f ∆x2 + f ∆x3 + f ∆x4
2 3 4
1 1 1 4 1 9 1
=0· + · + · + · = 0.2193.
2
✓ ◆ 4 6 9✓ ◆ 12 16 4✓ ◆
1 2 3
RP = f ∆x1 + f ∆x2 + f ∆x3 + f (1) ∆x4
2 3 4
1 1 4 1 9 1 1
= · + · + · + 1 · = 0.4959.
4 ✓ 2 ◆ 9 6 16 ✓ ◆ 12 4 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 7 17 7
MP = f ∆x1 + f ∆x2 + f ∆x3 + f ∆x4
4 12 24 8
1 1 49 1 289 1 49 1
= · + · + · + · = 0.3212.
16 2 144 6 576 12 64 4
249
y y y
y = x2
x x x
1 2 3 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 1
2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4
.
(C) EXERCISES
Students may use calculators to compute for Riemann sums.
1. Let f (x) = x3 be defined on [0, 1]. Find the left Riemann sum relative to the regular
partitions P2 , P3 , P4 . From these three approximations, could you guess what is the
area of the region bounded by y = x3 and the x-axis on [0, 1]?
2. Let f (x) = 3x x2 be defined on [0, 2]. Find the right Riemann sum relative to the
regular partitions P2 , P3 , P4 . From these three approximations, could you guess what
is the area of the region bounded by y = 3x x2 and the x-axis on [0, 2]?
p
3. Let f (x) = x be defined on [0, 1]. Find the midpoint Riemann sum relative to the
regular partitions P2 , P3 , P4 . From these three approximations, could you guess what
p
is the area of the region bounded by y = x and the x-axis on [0, 1]?
1
4. Let f (x) = be defined on [0, 1]. Find the left, right, and midpoint Riemann sums
x+1
relative to the regular partitions P2 and P3 .
h ⇡i
5. Let f (x) = tan x be defined on 0, . Find the left, right, and midpoint Riemann sums
4
relative to the regular partitions P2 and P3 . (Do not forget to put your calculators to
radian measure mode.)
6. In Example 3, show that relative to regular partitioning, the second right and midpoint
Riemann sums R2 and M2 are better approximations of the area of R than the third
right and midpoint Riemann sums R3 and M3 of f (x) = 1 |x 1| on [0, 2].
p
?7. Define f (x) = 3x + x on the interval [0, 9]. Find the left and right Riemann sums
relative to the regular partition P3 . Next, find the left and right Riemann sums of f
relative to the partition Q1 = P3 [ {1} and Q2 = Q1 [ {4}. Explain the advantage of
using the partitions Q1 and Q2 instead of the regular partitions P4 and P5 .
?8. If the graph of y = f (x) is increasing, which kind of Riemann sum underestimates the
exact area of the region? Which overestimates it? What about if the graph is decreasing?
250
?9. Relative to the same partition, which among the left, right, and midpoint Riemann sums
provides the best approximation of the exact area of a region? (Without much loss of
generality, you can assume that the curve is monotone because if it is not monotone
on a subinterval, then a sufficient refinement of the partition on that subinterval would
result in monotone portions of the graph on each subinterval.)
Solution to starred exercises
7. We first collect the functional values that we will be needing.
p
x f (x) = 3x + x
0 0
1 4
3 10.73
4 14
6 20.45
9 30
Now, P3 = {0, 3, 6, 9}. So,
• L3 = 3(f (0) + f (3) + f (5)) = 93.54

• R3 = 3(f (3) + f (6) + f (9)) = 183.54
Now, Q1 = {0, 1, 3, 6, 9}. So,
• LQ1 = 1 · f (0) + 2 · f (1) + 3 · f (3) + 3 · f (6) = 101.54

• RQ1 = 1 · f (1) + 2 · f (3) + 3 · f (6) + 3 · f (9) = 176.81
From the given, Q2 = {0, 1, 3, 4, 6, 9}. So,
• 1 · f (0) + 2 · f (1) + 1 · f (3) + 2 · f (4) + 3 · f (6) = 108.08

• 1 · f (1) + 2 · f (3) + 1 · f (4) + 2 · f (6) + 3 · f (9) = 170.36
It is attractive to consider Q1 and Q2 because we are sure that we get better approximations
(as they are refinements of P3 ). Moreover, we already have values for f (3) and f (6) from
P3 . We just have to reuse them for the Riemann sums for Q1 and Q2 . In contrast, if
we had used P4 = {0, 9/4, 9/2, 27/4, 9}, we need to get the values of f (9/4), f (9/2) and
f (27/4) and we are still not assured that the corresponding Riemann sums are better than
those corresponding to P3 .
8. If the graph is increasing, the rectangles of the left Riemann sum are inscribed, hence,
it underestimates the true area of the region. On the other hand, the rectangles of the
rightRiemann sum are circumscribed by the region. Hence, they overestimate the area of
theregion. The opposite situation happens for decreasing graphs.
251
9. For a monotone curve (i.e., either increasing or decreasing), the midpoint Riemann sum
provides the best approximation to the area of the region. If you bisect these rectangles
in the middle, you will see that one is inscribed and the other is circumscribed. Therefore,
the underestimation of one is offset by the overestimation of the other.
252
TOPIC 15.2: The Formal Definition of the Definite Integral
(A) INTRODUCTION
We recall from the last lesson that Riemann sums of y = f (x) on [a, b] provide for approx-
imations of the exact area of the region bounded by y = f (x) and the x-axis. We have
also hinted from previous discussions that this approximation gets better and better as we
double the partition points.
In this lesson, we formally define the definite integral as the limit of these Riemann sums
when the number of partition points goes to infinity. We then associate this value with the
exact area of the region described above, if the limit exists.
(B) LESSON PROPER
Again, we work with a continuous positive function y = f (x) defined on a closed and
bounded interval [a, b]. The objective of this lesson is to find the area of the region R
bounded by y = f (x) from above, the x-axis from below, the line x = a from the left and
x = b from the right.
y
y = f (x)
x
a b
To avoid complications, we just consider the case where the partition on the interval is
regular. We recall that Pn = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn 1 , xn } (where x0 = a and xk = xk 1 + ∆x
with ∆x = b na ) partitions [a, b] into n congruent subintervals.
For each subinterval k = 1, 2, . . . , n, let x⇤k be any point in the kth subinterval [xk 1 , xk ].
Then, the Riemann sum, defined by this choice of points, relative to the partition P is
n
X
f (x⇤1 )∆x + f (x⇤2 )∆x + . . . + f (x⇤n ⇤
1 )∆x + f (xn )∆x = f (x⇤k )∆x.
k=1
253
The class should realize that
• If this is a left Riemann sum, then x⇤k = xk 1;
• If this is a right Riemann sum, then x⇤k = xk ; and finally,
• If this is a midpoint Riemann sum, then x⇤k = 21 (xk 1 + xk ).
In any case, we know that the above Riemann sum is only an approximation of the exact
area of R. To make this estimate exact, we let n approach infinity. This limit of the
Riemann sum is what we call the definite integral of f over [a, b]:
n
X Z b
lim f (x⇤k )∆x = f (x) dx,
n!1 a
k=1
if this limit exists. The value of this integral does not depend on the kind (left, right, or
midpoint) of Riemann sum being used.
Teaching Tip
To make this lesson easy to remember, you may relate the anecdote on why the
R
integral sign looks like an elongated s: This is because the integral sign is nothing
R
but a limit l of a sum s and is the symbol that you get by joining the letters l
and s.
As the definite integral is the limit of a Riemann sum, many authors also refer to
it as a Riemann integral.
b a
Remember that ∆x actually depends on n: ∆x = . So, this term cannot be taken
n
out from the limit operator. After taking the limit, this ∆x becomes our differential dx.
R
The integral sign and the differential dx act as delimiters, which indicate that everything
between them is the integrand - the upper boundary of the region whose area is what
this integral is equal to. The numbers a and b are called the lower and upper limits of
R
integration, respectively. Recall that the integral sign was earlier used to denote the
R
process of antidifferentiation. There is a reason why the same symbol ( ) is being used –
we shall see later that antiderivatives are intimately related to finding areas below curves.
254
Geometric Interpretation of the Definite Integral
Let f be a positive continuous function on [a, b]. Then the definite integral
Z b
f (x) dx
a
is the area of the region bounded by y = f (x), the x-axis, x = a, and x = b.
Consequently, the definite integral does not depend on the variable x. Changing
this variable only changes the name of the x-axis but not the area of the region.
Therefore,
Z b Z b Z b
f (x) dx = f (t) dt = f (u) du.
a a a
COMPUTING DEFINITE INTEGRALS BY APPEALING TO

GEOMETRIC FORMULAS
Using the geometric interpretation of the definite integral, we can always think of a definite
integral as an area of a region. If we’re lucky that the region has an area that is easy to
compute using elementary geometry, then we are able to solve the definite integral without
resorting to its definition.
EXAMPLE 1: Find the exact values of the following definite integrals:

Z 2 Z 3
1. 3 dx 3. (3x + 1) dx
1 1
Z 2
Z 1 p
2. (1 |x 1|) dx 4. 1 x2 dx
0 1
Solution. Using the above definition of the definite integral, we just draw the region and
find its area using elementary geometry.
1. The graph of y = 3 is a horizontal line.
y
3
y=3
Since the region is a rectangle, its area

equals L ⇥ W = 2 ⇥ 3 = 6. Therefore,
Z 3
3 dx = 6.
1
x
1 3
255
2. The graph of y = 1 |x 1| is as given.
1 y
The shaded region is a triangle with
y=1 |x 1|
base b = 2 and height h = 1. Its area
equals 12 bh = 1. Therefore,
Z 2
(1 |x 1|) dx = 1. x
0
1 2
3. The graph of y = 3x + 1 is a line slanting to the right.
y
10
The shaded region is a trapezoid with
bases b1 = 4 and b2 = 10 and height y = 3x + 1
h = 2. Its area equals 12 (b1 + b2 )h =
1
2 (4 + 10)2 = 14. Therefore,
Z 3
4
(3x + 1) dx = 14.
1
x
1 2 3
p
4. The graph of y = 1 x2 is a semicircle centered at the origin with radius 1.
p 1 y
The area of the shaded region is y = 1 x2
1
⇡(1)2 .
2
Therefore,
Z 1p
⇡
1 x2 dx = . x
1 2
1 1
.
Teaching Tip
The discussion below about limits at infinity of rational functions is optional. It is
not a learning competency, but it is an underlying concept in the formal definition
of a definite integral.
LIMITS AT INFINITY OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
3x + 1
Consider the rational function f (x) = . We describe the behavior of this function
x+3
for large values of x using a table of values:
256
3x+1
x f (x) = x+3
100 2.92233
1, 000 2.99202
10, 000 2.99920
100, 000 2.99992
Clearly, as x goes very large, the value of y approaches the value of 3. We say that the
3x + 1
limit of f (x) = as x approaches infinity is 3, and we write
x+3
3x + 1
lim = 3.
x!1 x+3
To compute limits at infinity of rational functions, it is very helpful to know the following
theorem:
1
Theorem 16. If p > 0, then lim = 0.
x!1 xp
1
We illustrate the theorem using the graph of y = .
xp
2
1
y=
xp
0 2 4 6 8
Observe that as x takes large values, the graph approaches the x-axis, or the y = 0 line.
This means that the values of y can take arbitrarily small values by making x very large.
1
This is what we mean by lim p = 0.
x!1 x
The technique in solving the limit at infinity of rational functions is to divide by the largest
power of x in the rational function and apply the above theorem.
EXAMPLE 2: Compute the limits of the following rational functions.
2x + 4 20x + 1
(a) lim (c) lim
x!1 5x + 1 x!1 3x3
5x + 1
4 x + x2 2
3x + 4
(b) lim (d) lim
x!1 3x2 2x + 7 x!1 8x 1
257
Solution. .
(a) The highest power of x here is x1 . So,
1 4
2x + 4 x 2+
lim · = x.
x!1 5x + 1 1 1
5+
x x
Using limit theorems and Theorem 16,
1
2x + 4 lim 2 + 4 lim 2+0 2
x!1 x
lim = x!1 = = .
x!1 5x + 1 1 5+0 5
lim 5 + lim
x!1 x!1 x
(b) The highest power of x here is x2 . So, by Theorem 16,

1 4 1
4 x + x2 2 2
+ +1 0 0+1 1
lim · x = lim x x = = .
x!1 3x 2 2x + 7 1 x!1 2 7 3 0+0 3
2
3 + 2
x x x
(c) The highest power of x here is x3 . Again, using Theorem 16,
1 20 1
20x + 1 3 2
+ 3 0+0
lim · x = lim x x = = 0.
x!1 3x3 5x + 1 1 x!1 5 1 3 0+0
3 +
x3 x2 x3
(d) The highest power of x here is x2 . So,
1 4
3x2 + 4 x2 3+
lim · = lim x2 .
x!1 8x 1 1 x!1 8 1
x 2 x x2
Notice that the numerator approaches 3 but the denominator approaches 0. Therefore,
the limit does not exist.
.
Limits at Infinity of Rational Functions

Suppose the degrees of the polynomials p(x) and q(x) are m and n, respectively.
p(x)
There are only three cases that could happen in solving for lim .
x!1 q(x)
p(x)
• If m = n, then lim exists. In fact, the limit is nonzero and equals the
q(x)
x!1
ratio of the leading coefficient of p(x) to the leading coefficient of q(x).
p(x)
• If m < n, then lim exists and is equal to 0.
x!1 q(x)
p(x)
• If m > n, then lim DNE.
x!1 q(x)
258
COMPUTING AREAS USING THE FORMAL DEFINITION OF
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL
The problem with the definition of the definite integral is that it contains a summation,
which needs to be evaluated completely before we can apply the limit. For simple sum-
mations like nk=1 k p , where p is a positive integer, formulas exist which can be verified
P
by the principle of mathematical induction. However, in general, formulas for complex

summations are scarce.
The next simple examples illustrate how a definite integral is computed by definition.
Z 3
EXAMPLE 3: Show that 3x + 1 dx = 14 using the definition of the definite integral
1
as a limit of a sum.
Solution. Let us first get the right (the choice of “right” here is arbitrary) Riemann sum of
f (x) = 3x + 1 relative to the regular partition Pn of [1, 3] into n subintervals. Note that
∆x = 3 n 1 = n2 . Since we are looking for the right Riemann sum, the partition points are
xk = x0 + k∆x = 1 + k n2 = 1 + 2k n . Thus, by the formula of the right Riemann sum, we
have
Xn Xn
Rn = f (xk )∆xk = (3xk + 1)∆xk .
k=1 k=1
Using the definitions of ∆x and xk above, we obtain

n ✓ ✓ ◆ ◆ n ✓ ◆ n ✓ ◆
X 2k 2 X 6k 2 X 8 12k
Rn = 3 1+ +1 = 4+ = + 2 .
n n n n n n
k=1 k=1 k=1
We apply properties of the summation: distributing the summation symbol over the sum,
factoring out those which are independent of the index k, and finally, applying the formulas,
n n
X X n(n + 1)
1=n and k= .
2
k=1 k=1
This implies
n n ✓ ◆
8X 12 X 8 12 n(n + 1) 1
Rn = 1+ 2 k = ·n+ 2 · =8+6 1+ .
n n n n 2 n
k=1 k=1
Finally, by definition
3 ✓ ✓ ◆◆
1
Z
3x + 1 dx = lim Rn = lim 8 + 6 1 + .
1 n!1 n!1 n
3
1
Z
Using Theorem 16, lim = 0. Therefore, it follows that 3x + 1 dx = 14, as desired. .
n!1 n 1
259
For the next example, we need the following formula for the sum of the first n perfect
squares:
n
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
k2 = . (3.4)
6
k=1
This can be proven by the principle of mathematical induction or by simplifying the tele-
Xn
scoping sum ((k + 1)3 k 3 ).
k=1
EXAMPLEZ 4: Use the definition of the definite integral as a limit of a Riemann sum to
1
1
show that x2 dx = .
0 3
Solution. For convenience, let us again use the right Riemann sum relative to the partition
Pn = {0, n1 , n2 , . . . , nn 1 , 1} of [0, 1]. Clearly, ∆x = n1 and xk = x0 + k∆x = 0 + k · n1 = nk .
By the formula of the right Riemann sum, we have
n n ✓ ◆2
X X k 1
Rn = f (xk )∆xk = .
n n
k=1 k=1
Simplifying, and using formula (3.4), we obtain
n
1 X 2 1 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 1 2n3 + 3n2 + n 1 1 1
Rn = 3
k = 3
· = 3
· = + + 2.
n n 6 n 6 3 2n 6n
k=1
Hence, the definite integral is just the limit of the above expression as n tends to infinity.
We use Theorem 16 to evaluate the limits of the last two terms in the expression. Therefore,
we have
Z 1 ✓ ◆
2 1 1 1 1
x dx = lim Rn = lim + + 2 = .
0 n!1 n!1 3 2n 6n 3
This illustrates the power of the definite inte- y = x2

gral in computing areas of non-polygonal re-
gions. Using the previous remark, the region
bounded above by y = x2 , below by the x-axis,
and at the sides by the vertical lines x = 0 and
1 Area= 31 .
x = 1, has an area equal to .
3
x
1
.
260
Teaching Tip
As previously discussed, the computation of definite integrals is, in general, very
cumbersome. We just have to wait a little more because a very powerful theorem
(Fundamental Theorem of Calculus) in the next section will relate this with the
antiderivative/indefinite integral. This connection will make the computation of
integrals so much easier than finding the limit of the sum. This will also explain
the connection of the antiderivative with areas, as presented in the motivation of the
lecture Riemann sums, and the reason why antiderivatives and the definite integral
R
share the same notation ( ).
PROPERTIES OF THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL
As a limit of a sum, the definite integral shares the common properties of the limit and of
the summation.
Theorem 17 (Linearity of the Definite Integral). Let f and g be positive continuous func-
tions on [a, b] and let c 2 R. Then
Z b Z b
(a) cf (x) dx = c f (x) dx
a a
Z b Z b Z b
(b) (f (x) ± g(x)) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
a a a
Teaching Tip
Although the limit is distributive over products and quotients, the summation is
not. Therefore, the integral is also NOT distributive over products nor over quo-
tients. This means
Z b Z b Z b
f (x)g(x) dx 6= f (x) dx · g(x) dx
a a a
and Rb
b f (x) dx
f (x)
Z
dx 6= R ab
g(x)
a a g(x) dx.
Z b Z b
EXAMPLE 5: Suppose we are given that f (x) dx = 2 and g(x) dx = 7. Find the
a a
exact value of the following:
Z b Z b
(a) 3f (x) dx (c) 2f (x) + g(x) dx
a a
Z b Z b
(b) f (x) g(x) dx (d) 3f (x) 2g(x) dx
a a
261
Solution. Using the properties of the integral,
Z b Z b
(a) 3f (x) dx = 3 f (x) dx = 3(2) = 6.
a a
Z b Z b Z b
(b) f (x) g(x) dx = f (x) dx g(x) dx = 2 7= 5.
a a a
Z b Z b Z b
(c) 2f (x) + g(x) dx = 2 f (x) + g(x) dx = 2(2) + 7 = 11.
a a a
Z b Z b Z b
(d) 3f (x) 2g(x) dx = 3 f (x) dx 2 g(x) dx = 3(2) 2(7) = 8.
a a a
Another important property of the definite integral is called additivity. Before we proceed,
we first define the following:
Definition 7. Let f be a continuous positive function on [a, b]. Then

Z a
(a) f (x) dx = 0, and
a
Z a Z b
(b) f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
b a
The first one is very intuitive if you visualize the definite integral as an area of a region.
Since the left and right boundaries are the same (x = a), then there is no region and the
area therefore is 0 . The second one gives meaning to a definite integral whenever the lower
limit of integration is bigger than the upper limit of integration. We will see later that this
is needed so the property of additivity will be consistent with our intuitive notion.
Theorem 18 (Additivity of the Definite Integral). Let f be a positive continuous function

on a closed and bounded interval I containing distinct numbers a, b and c. Then
Z b Z c Z c
f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx
a b a
no matter how a, b and c are ordered on the interval I.
262
y
In the case when a < b < c,

the theorem can be visu-
alized as follows: If we
y = f (x)
interpret the definite inte-
gral as the area under the
curve y = f (x), then the
theorem certainly makes
sense. However, the rigorous
proof of the theorem re-
quires advanced techniques Z b
Z c
in analysis and will not be f (x) dx f (x) dx
a b
presented here.
x
a b c
If we accept the claim as true for the case when a < b < c, we can confirm the validity of
the theorem in 5 more cases: a < c < b, b < a < c, b < c < a, c < a < b, c < b < a. We
shall only show this for the case b < c < a since the other cases are proven similarly.
Since b < c < a, then it is clear from the geometric interpretation of the definite integral
that Z c Z a Z a
f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
b c b
Using the second formula in the above definition,
Z a Z b Z a Z c
f (x) dx = f (x) dx and f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
b a c a
Substituting these into the above equation yields

Z c Z c Z b
f (x) dx f (x) dx = f (x) dx,
b a a
which when rearranged gives the desired result.

Z 2 Z 1 Z 2
EXAMPLE 6: Suppose that f (x) dx = I and f (x) dx = J. Find f (x) dx.
0 0 1
Solution. By additivity,
Z 2 Z 1 Z 2
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
0 0 1
Substituting the given values yields

Z 2
I= f (x) dx + J.
1
263
Z 2
This implies that f (x) dx = I J. .
1
Z b Z c Z b
EXAMPLE 7: Suppose we are given that f (x) dx = 3, f (x) = 10 and f (x) dx = 4.
Z a a d d
Find f (x) dx.

c
Solution. By additivity,
Z a Z d Z b Z a
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx + f (x) dx
c c d b
Z c Z b Z b
= f (x) dx + f (x) dx f (x) dx
d d a
= 10 + 4 3= 9.
THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL AS A NET SIGNED AREA
We always assumed that the function that we are considering is always positive. What
happens if the function has a negative part? How do we interpret this geometrically?
General Geometric Interpretation of a Definite Integral

Suppose that f is a continuous function on [a, b]. (Notice that we dropped the
assumption that f must be positive.) Then the definite integral
Z b
f (x) dx
a
is the net signed area of the region with boundaries y = f (x), x = a, x = b, and the
x-axis.
The net signed area equals the sum of all the areas above the x-axis minus the sum
of all the areas below the x-axis. In effect, we are associating positive areas for the
regions above the x-axis and negative areas for the regions below the x-axis.
For example, consider the follow-

ing graph of y = f (x) on [a, b].
If the areas of the shaded regions y = f (x)
are A, B and C, as shown, then
b C
A
Z
f (x) dx = A + C B. x
a a B b
264
EXAMPLE 8: Interpret the following integrals as signed areas to obtain its value.
Z 5 Z ⇡/2
(a) 2x 2 dx (b) sin x dx
0 ⇡/2
Solution. (a) The graph of y = 2x 2 is shown on the right.

y
8
From 0 to 1, the area of the trian-
gle (below the x-axis) is 21 (1)(2) = 1. y = 2x 2
From 1 to 5, the area of the triangle
1
(above the x-axis) is (4)(8) = 16.
2
Therefore, the net signed area equals
Z 5 x
2x 2 dx = 16 1 = 15. 1 5
0
-2
(b) The graph of y = sin x is shown on the right.

y
Observe that because y = sin x is sym- 1
metric with respect to the origin, the
region (below the x-axis) from ⇡/2
to 0 is congruent to the region (above
x
the x-axis) from 0 to ⇡/2. Therefore, ⇡ ⇡
2 2
the net signed area equals
Z ⇡/2
sin x dx = 0.
⇡/2
-1
.
(C) EXERCISES
Z a Z a
1. Explain why, for an even function f (x), we have f (x) dx = 2 f (x) dx.
a 0
Z a
2. Explain why, for an odd function f (x), we have f (x) dx = 0.
a
3. Evaluate the following integrals by considering the areas they represent.
Z 1 Z 1
3
a. x sin x dx c. x3 dx
1 1
Z 5p Z 4
b. 1 x dx d. x7 + x5 3x dx
5 4
265
Z ⇡/4
Z 4
e. tan x dx m. |x| dx
⇡/4 1
2
Z 4
x
Z
f. dx n. 1 |x| dx
2 2 + x2 cos x 0
Z 1
Z 5
g. 5 dx o. 2 |x 3| dx
2 1
Z b
Z 1
h. c dx p. |x 2| dx
a 3
Z 3 Z 2p
i. 2x dx q. 4 x2 dx
0 0
Z 5 Z 2p
j. 7 3x dx r. 1 (x 1)2 dx
Z2 3 Z
0
2 p
k. 3x + 2 dx s. 3 4 x2 dx
1 0
Z 1 Z 2 p
l. 1 x dx t. 2+ 2x x2 dx
4 1
Z 4 Z 7 Z 7
4. Suppose that f (x) dx = 4 and f (x) dx. What is the value of f (x) dx? Assume
1 4 1
Z 0 Z 1
further that f (x) dx = 3. What is the value of f (x) dx?
4 0
5. Define Z x
P (x) = f (x) dx.
0
Assuming that P (1) = 3, P (2) = 5, and P (3) = 6, determine the values of
Z 2 Z 3
(i) P (0)
(ii) f (x) dx (iii) f (x) dx
1 1
1 1
1
Z Z
2
6. Given that x dx = , evaluate 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 dx.
0 3 1
7. Use the definition of the definite integral as a limit of a Riemann sum to find the area
of the region bounded by y = x2 , y = 0, x = 1 and x = 2.
n
n2 (n + 1)2 X
?8. Prove by mathematical induction that for all n 2 N. Use thek3 =
4
k=1
Z 1
1
definition of the definite integral as a limit of a Riemann sum to show that x3 dx = .
0 4
Answer to starred exercise
8. We prove that
n
X n2 (n + 1)2
k3 = (3.5)
4
k=1
for all n 2 N. The base case is trivial. Suppose that m is a positive integer such that
266
m
X m2 (m + 1)2
k3 = . Then
4
k=1
m+1 m
X
3
X m2 (m + 1)2
k = k 3 + (m + 1)3 = + (m + 1)3
4
k=1 k=1
✓ 2
(m + 1)2 (m + 2)2
◆
2 m
= (m + 1) + (m + 1) = .
4 4
This proves the inductive step. Hence the formula (3.5) is true for all positive integers n.
Let us use the right Riemann sum relative to the partition Pn = {0, n1 , n2 , . . . , nn 1 , 1} of
[0, 1]. Clearly, ∆x = n1 , and xk = x0 + k∆x = 0 + k · n1 = nk . Now, by the formula of the
right Riemann sum, we have
n n ✓ ◆3
X X k 1
Rn = f (xk )∆xk = .
n n
k=1 k=1
Simplifying, and using the above formula (3.5), we obtain

n
1 X 3 1 n2 (n + 1)2 1 n4 + 2n3 + n2 1 1 1
Rn = 4
k = 4
· = 4
· = + + 2.
n n 4 n 4 4 2n 4n
k=1
Finally, the definite integral is just the limit of

the above expression as n tends to infinity. y = x3
Z 1
x3 dx = lim Rn
0 n!1
✓ ◆
1 1 1 1
= lim + + 2 = .
n!1 4 2n 4n 4
The region bounded above by y = x3 , below by

the x-axis, and at the sides by the vertical lines
1
x = 0 and x = 1, has area equal to .
4 Area= 41 .
x
1
267
LESSON 16: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
TIME FRAME: 2 hours
1. Illustrate the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus; and

2. Compute the definite integral of a function using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Statement of the theorem

2. Examples
3. Revisiting the Table of Integrals
4. Integrands with absolute values
268
TOPIC 16.1: Illustration of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
(A) INTRODUCTION
If you review the past lessons, you will see that the only similarity between definite and
R
indefinite integrals is their use of the notation “ ”. The indefinite integral is the inverse
process of differentiation while the definite integral is the process of finding the area of a
plane region by taking the limit of a sum. The only vague connection we have established
is the relationship between the antiderivative of a function and the area of the region below
its curve:
x0 2
c
2 x0
x0 x0 x0 2
f (x) = c g(x) = x h(x) = 2 x
Then,
Function Antiderivative Area of shaded region

f (x) = c cx cx0
1 2 1
g(x) = x 2x 2 x0· x0
h(x) = 2 x 2x 21 x2 1
2 (2 x0 + 2)(x0 )
The connection, in fact, lies in the powerful result which forms the basis of the theory
of Riemann integration – the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. It stresses the inverse
relationship between differentiation and integration. Very loosely, the theorem says that
the integral of the derivative of a function returns the same function.
(B) LESSON PROPER
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTOC)

Let f be a continuous function on [a, b] and let F be an antiderivative of f , that is,
F 0 (x) = f (x). Then
Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) F (a).
a
269
x3
EXAMPLE 1: Note that F (x) = is an antiderivative of f (x) = x2 (since F 0 (x) = f (x).)
3
Hence, by FTOC,
1 1
x3 1 1
Z
2
x dx = = F (1) F (0) = 0= ,
0 3 0 3 3
as we have seen before.
Vertical Bar Notation
We adopt the following notation:

b
F (x) = F (b) F (a).
a
For example,
2
2
(1 + x x ) = (1 + 2 22 ) (1 + 1 12 ) = ( 1) (1) = 2,
1
and p p
⇡/2
2 2 2
sin x = sin(⇡/2) sin(⇡/4) = 1 = .
⇡/4 2 2
Using the above notation, the FTOC now states: If F is an antiderivative of f , then
Z b b
f (x) dx = F (x) .
a a
The constant of integration that was necessary for indefinite integration will now just cancel
out:
b b
F (x) + C = F (b) + C F (a) + C = F (b) F (a) = F (x) .
a a
The next examples will validate that FTOC works by redoing the examples in the previous
section.
EXAMPLE 2: Without referring to the graphs of the integrands, find the exact values of
the following definite integrals:
Z 2 Z 3
1. 3 dx 3. (3x + 1) dx
1 1
Z 2
Z 1 p
2. (1 |x 1|) dx ?4. 1 x2 dx
0 1
270
Solution. We integrate using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
Z 2 2
1. 3 dx = 3x = 3(2 1) = 3.
1 1
2. The solution for this problem takes a few more steps because the absolute value function
is essentially a piecewise function. Recall that if E is any expression, then |E| = E if
E 0, while |E| = E if E < 0. With this in mind,
8
<1 (x 1) if x 1 0
1 |x 1| =
:1 [ (x 1)] if x 1 < 0
8
<2 x if x 1
=
:x if x < 1.
Therefore, by additivity,
Z 2 Z 2 Z 1
(1 |x 1|) dx = 2 x dx + x dx
0 1 0
◆ 2 ✓ 2◆ 1
x2
✓
x
= 2x +
2 2
✓ ◆ 1✓ ◆ 0 
4 1 1
= 4 2 + 0 = 1.
2 2 2
3
3
3x2
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
27 3
Z
3. (3x + 1) dx = +x = +3 +1 = 14.
1 2 2 2
1
4. (For very advanced learners) There is a technique of integration needed to integrate
p
1 x2 . This is called trigonometric substitution, and the student will learn this
in college. For now, we convince ourselves that
1⇣
Z p p ⌘
1 x2 dx = sin 1 x + x 1 x2 + C
2
by differentiating the right-hand side and observing that it yields the integrand of the
left-hand side. Hence, by FTOC,
1
1
1⇣ 1 ⇣⇡ 1⇣ ⇡
Z p p ⌘ ⌘ ⌘ ⇡
1
1 x2 dx = sin x+x 1 x2 = +0 0 = .
1 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
.
Because, FTOC evaluates the definite integral using antiderivatives and not by “net signed
area,” we don’t have to look at the graph and look at those regions below the x-axis, i.e.,
FTOC works even if the graph has a “negative part.”
271
EXAMPLE 3: Evaluate the following integrals using FTOC.
Z 5 Z ⇡/2
(a) (2x 2) dx (b) sin x dx
0 ⇡/2
Solution. .
Z 5 ✓ 2 ◆ 5
x
(a) (2x 2) dx = 2 2x = (25 10) (0 0) = 15.
0 2
0
Z ⇡/2 ⇡/2
(b) sin x dx = ( cos x) = (0 0) = 0.
⇡/2 ⇡/2
These answers are the same as when we appealed to the geometrical solution of the integral
in the previous section. .
272
TOPIC 16.2: Computation of Definite Integrals using the Funda-
mental Theorem of Calculus
(A) INTRODUCTION
In the previous section, we illustrated how the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus works.
If f is a continuous function on [a, b] and F is any antiderivative of f , then
Z b b
f (x) dx = F (b) = F (b) F (a),
a a
where f (x) = F 0 (x).
For this lesson, we start with a remark about the applicability of the FTOC and proceed
with answering some exercises, either individually or by group.
Remark 1: If the function is not continuous on its interval of integration, the FTOC will
not guarantee a correct answer. For example, we know that an antiderivative of f (x) = x 2
is F (x) = x 1 . So, if we apply the FTOC to f on [ 1, 1], we get
1
1
1 1
Z
dx = =( 1 (+1)) = 2.
1 x2 x
1
Z 1
2
This is absurd as the region described by x dx is given below:
1
y=x 2
x
1 1
Clearly, the area should be positive. The study of definite integrals of functions which are
discontinuous on an interval (which may not be closed nor bounded) is called improper
integration and will be studied in college.
273
(B) LESSON PROPER
Table of Integrals
Observe that for FTOC to work, the student must be able to produce an antiderivative for
the integrand. This is why the student must be comfortable with the first few lessons in
this chapter. A very common and indispensable formula is the Power Rule:
xn+1
Z
xn dx = + C, n 6= 1.
n+1
For other cases, we recall the table of integrals for reference.

Z Z
1. dx = x + C 11. csc2 x dx = cot x + C
xn+1
Z Z
2. xn dx = + C, if n 6= 1 12. sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
n+1 Z
Z Z
3. af (x) dx = a f (x) dx 13. csc x cot x dx = csc x + C
Z Z Z Z
4. f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx 14. tan x dx = ln | cos x| + C
Z Z
5. ex dx = ex + C. 15. cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C
ax
Z Z
6. x
a dx = + C. 16. sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C
ln a Z
1
Z Z
1 17. csc x dx = ln | csc x cot x| + C
7. x dx = dx = ln |x| + C.
x
Z Z
dx ⇣x⌘
8. sin x dx = cos x + C 18. p = sin 1 +C
a2 x2 a
dx 1 1 x +C
Z Z ⇣ ⌘
9. cos x dx = sin x + C 19. = tan
a2 + x2 a a
Z Z
dx 1 ⇣x⌘
10. sec2 x dx = tan x + C 20. p = sec 1 +C
x x2 a2 a a
EXAMPLE 1: Using FTOC, evaluate the following definite integrals:

Z 4p Z ⇡/4
1. x dx 3. cos x + tan x dx
1 0
2 1/2
x3 2x2 + 4x 2 dx
Z Z
2. dx 4. p
1 x 0 1 x2
Solution. .
Z 4 4
4
p x3/2 2 14
Z
1/2
1. x dx = x dx = = (8 1) = .
1 1 3/2 3 3
1
274
2. We first divide the numerator by the denominator to express the fraction as a sum.
Z 2 3 Z 2✓
2x2 + 4x 2
◆
x 2 2
dx = x 2x + 4 dx
1 x 1 x
✓ 3 ◆2
x 2
= x + 4x 2 ln |x|
3
✓ ◆ ✓ 1 ◆
8 1
= 4 + 8 2 ln 2 1+4 0
3 3
10
= 2 ln 2.
3
⇡/4 p
Z ⇡/4
2 p
3. cos x + tan x dx = (sin x + ln | sec x|) = + ln( 2)
0 0 2
Z 1/2 1/2
dx ⇡ ⇡
4. p = sin 1 x = sin 1 (1/2) sin 1 (0) = 0= .
0 1 x 2
0 6 6
.
INTEGRANDS WITH ABSOLUTE VALUES
Solving definite integrals with absolute values in the integrands has been discussed in pass-
ing in previous examples. We will now give a more in-depth discussion.
As has been said, for any continuous expression E, its absolute value can always be written
in piecewise form: 8
<E if E 0
|E| =
: E if E < 0.
Therefore, the first step in solving this kind of integral is to eliminate the absolute value bars.
This is done by dividing the interval of integration [a, b] into two subintervals according
to the piecewise version of the function. Hence, one integrand is either purely positive (or
zero) and the other is purely negative.
EXAMPLE 2: Evaluate the following definite integrals:

Z 2 Z 2
1. |x 3| dx 4. 4x + |2x 1| dx
1 0
Z 7 Z 2⇡/3
2. |x 3| dx 5. | cos x| dx
3 0
Z 4
Z 3
3. |x 3| dx 6. |x2 1| dx
1 2
Solution. For items 1-3, observe that by definition,

8 8
<x 3, if x 3 0 <x 3, if x 3,
|x 3| = =
: (x 3), if x 3 < 0, : x + 3, if x < 3.
275
1. Since x 3 is always negative on the interval of integration [ 1, 2], we replace |x 3|
with (x 3). Hence,
2
2 3
x2
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
4 1 15
Z Z
|x 3| dx = x + 3 dx = + 3x = +6 3 = .
1 1 2 2 2 2
1
2. Since x 3 is always nonnegative on [3, 7], we replace |x 3| with x 3. So,

7
7 7
x2
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
49 9
Z Z
|x 3| dx = x 3 dx = 3x = 21 9 = 8.
3 3 2 2 2
3
3. Since x 3 is neither purely positive nor purely negative on [1, 4], we need to divide this
interval into [1, 3] and [3, 4]. On the first, we replace |x 3| with x + 3, while on the
second, we replace |x 3| with x 3.
Z 4 Z 3 Z 4
|x 3| dx = x + 3 dx + x 3 dx
1 1 3
3 4
x2 x2
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
= + 3x + 3x
2 2
1 3
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
9 1 16 9
= +9 +3 + 12 9
2 2 2 2
 
9 5 8 9 5
= + + = .
2 2 2 2 2
4. We split the interval of integration into [0, 12 ] and [ 12 , 2] since

8
<2x 1 if 2x 1 0
|2x 1| =
: (2x 1) if 2x 1 < 0.
8
1
<4x + (2x 1) if x 2
Hence, 4x + |2x 1| =
1
:4x (2x 1) if x < 2.
Therefore,
1
Z 2 Z
2
Z 2
4x + |2x 1| dx = 2x + 1 dx + 6x 1 dx
1
0 0 2
1/2 2
= (x2 + x) + (3x2 x)
0 1/2
✓ ◆  ✓ ◆
1 1 3 1 21
= + (0 + 0) + (12 2) = .
4 2 4 2 2
276
5. The cosine function is nonnegative on [0, ⇡/2] and negative on [⇡/2, 2⇡/3]. See graph
below.
y y = cos x
x
⇡ 2⇡ ⇡
2 3
8 8
<cos x, if cos x 0, <cos x, if x 2 [0, ⇡/2],
Hence, | cos x| = =
: cos x, if cos x < 0 : cos x, if x 2 [⇡/2, 2⇡/3].
Therefore,
Z 2⇡/3 Z ⇡/2 Z 2⇡/3

| cos x| dx = cos x dx + cos x dx
0 0 ⇡/2
⇡/2 2⇡/3
= sin x + ( sin x)
0 ⇡/2
p
p 3
= (1 0) + [( 3/2) ( 1)] = 2 .
2
6. The quadratic function y = x2 1 is below the x-axis only when x 2 ( 1, 1). This
conclusion can be deduced by solving the inequality x2 1 < 0 or by referring to the
graph below.
y = x2 1
x
2 1 1 3
This implies that we have to divide [ 2, 3] into the three subintervals [ 2, 1], [ 1, 1],
and [1, 3]. On [ 1, 1], we replace |x2 1| with x2 + 1 while on the other subintervals,
277
we simply replace |x2 1| with x2 1. Hence,
Z 3 Z 1 Z 1 Z 3
2
|x 1| dx = x2 1 dx + 2
x + 1 dx + x2 1 dx
2 2 1 1
◆ 1 ✓ 3 ◆1 ◆3
x3
✓ ✓ 3
x x
= x + +x + x
3 3 3
2 1
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓1 ◆
1 8 1 1
= +1 +2 + +1 1
3 3 3 3
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
27 1
+ 3 1
3 3
28
= .
3
.
(C) EXERCISES
Evaluate the following definite integrals:

Z π
2
Z 0
1. sin x dx 7. |3x + 1 |dx
0 1
Z 4
Z 3
2. (1 + 3x x2 ) dx 8. (|3x 6| 1) dx
0 0
64 p Z 4
1+ 3x
Z
3. p dx ?9. |x2 4x + 3| dx
1
3
x 0
⇡
1
Z
π
1+ cos2 x ?10. sin x dx
Z
4
4. dx 0 2
0 cos2 x
2
1 2
✓ ◆
1
Z
Z ⇡ ⇣x⌘ ⇣x⌘
11. 1+ dx
?5. sin cos dx 1 x2 x
π 2 2 8
3
Z ⇡ Z ⇡ <x if x  0
tan x 12. f (x) dx if f (x) =
?6. dx
2π sec x tan x ⇡ :sin x if x > 0.
3
Solutions to starred exercises

5. Observe that by the identity
sin 2✓ = 2 sin ✓ cos ✓,
we can rewrite the integrand into sin(x/2) cos(x/2) = 21 sin x. Hence,

Z ⇡ Z ⇡
1
sin(x/2) cos(x/2) dx = sin x dx.
π π 2
3 3
1
Since 2 cos x is an antiderivative for the integrand, FTOC says that
Z ⇡ ⇡ ✓ ◆
1 1 1 1 3
sin x dx = cos x = 1 = .
π 2 2 π 2 2 4
3 3
278
6. We use trigonometric identities to rewrite the integrand.
tan x sec x + tan x sec x tan x + tan2 x
· =
sec x tan x sec x + tan x sec2 x tan2 x
= sec x tan x + tan2 x = sec x tan x + sec2 x 1.
Note that sec x + tan x x is an antiderivative of the integrand. Hence, by FTOC,

Z ⇡ ⇡
tan x
dx = (sec x + tan x x)
2π sec x tan x 2π
3 3
p p
= ( 1 0 ⇡) ( 2 3 (2⇡)/3) = 1 + 3 ⇡/3.
9. Since x2 4x + 3 = (x 1)(x 3), a table of signs will show that this expression is
negative when x 2 (1, 3) and nonnegative otherwise. Therefore, we have to split the
integral over three intervals: [0, 1], [1, 3] and [3, 4]. Using the definition of the absolute
value,
Z 4 Z 1 Z 3 Z 4
2 2 2
|x 4x + 3| dx = |x 4x + 3| dx + |x |x2 4x + 3| dx
4x + 3| dx +
0 0 1 3
Z 1 Z 3 Z 4
2 2
= (x 4x + 3) dx + (x 4x + 3) dx + (x2 4x + 3) dx
0 1 3
✓ 3 ◆ 4 ✓ 3 ◆ 3 ✓ 3 ◆ 4
x 2 x 2 x 2
= 2x + 3x 2x + 3x + 2x + 3x
3 0 3 1 3 3
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
4 4 4
= 0 0 + 0 = 4.
3 3 3

1 ⇡ 5⇡
10. On [0, ⇡], sin x 0,x2 , .Therefore,
2 6 6
Z ⇡ Z π Z 5π Z ⇡
1 6 1 6 1 1
sin x dx = sin x dx + sin x dx + sin x dx
0 2 0 2 π 2 5π 2
6 6
Z π ✓ ◆ Z 5π ✓ ◆ Z ⇡ ✓ ◆
6 1 6 1 1
= sin x dx + sin x dx + sin x dx
0 2 π 2 5π 2
6 6
π 5π
⇣ x⌘ 6 ⇣ x⌘ 6 ⇣ x⌘ ⇡
= cos x + + cos x + cos x +
2 0 2 π 2 5π
6 6
p ! ! p ! p !!
3 ⇡ 3 5⇡ 3 ⇡
= + 1 +
2 12 2 12 2 12
p !!
⇣ ⇡⌘ 3 5⇡
+ 1+ +
2 2 12
p ⇡
=2 3 2 .
6
279
LESSON 17: Integration Technique: The Substitution Rule for
Definite Integrals
TIME FRAME: 3 hours
1. Illustrate the substitution rule; and

2. Compute the definite integral of a function using the substitution rule
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Review of the substitution rule in solving indefinite integrals

2. Two ways of solving a definite integral through substitution
3. The Substitution Rule 1
1
for Definite Integrals (SRDI)
280
TOPIC 17.1: Illustration of the Substitution Rule for Definite
Integrals
(A) INTRODUCTION
As mentioned before, a variety of integrals, especially those whose integrands are not im-
mediately integrable, become easily solvable after we apply the substitution rule. In this
section, we illustrate how the substitution rule is still applicable in definite integration.
That is, if in a definite integral, the integrand is not integrable at first sight, one must
check whether a substitution is possible. Just like in the indefinite case, the goal is for the
substitution to eventually yield an integrable version of the integrand.
We take note this early, however, that not all initially nonintegrable integrands can be made
integrable by using substitution. Still, the substitution rule is a very handy and powerful
tool for a great variety of integrals, both definite and indefinite.
(B) LESSON PROPER
Rb
How do we evaluate definite integrals a f (x) dx where the substitution technique may be
applied?
Let us first recall how a substitution is done. Consider the indefinite integral
Z
(x 2)54 dx.
One option in solving this is by expanding f (x) = (x 2)54 , meaning, multiplying (x 2)

by itself 54 times. Fortunately, in Section 3, we were taught the substitution rule, which
allows us to solve the given integral without having to perform tedious multiplication at
all, that is, with y = x 2, we get
Z Z
54
(x 2) dx = y 54 dy
1 55
= y +C
55
1
= (x 2)55 + C.
55
Now, let us consider the definite integral
Z 3
(x 2)54 dx.
1
281
How do we evaluate this through substitution? There are two ways of approaching the
solution of a definite integral through substitution.
Method 1.
We first consider the definite integral as an indefinite integral and apply the substitution
technique. The answer (antiderivative of the function) is expressed in terms of the original
variable and the FTOC is applied using the limits of integration x = a and x = b.
Z 3
To illustrate, to integrate (x 2)54 dx, we first apply the substitution technique to the
1
indefinite integral using the substitution y = x 2 and express the antiderivative in terms
of x :
1
Z
(x 2)54 dx = (x 2)55 + C.
55
We apply the FTOC using the original limits of integration x = 1 and x = 3, so we have
3
1 3 1 1 2
Z
(x 2)54 dx = (x 2)55 + C = (1)55 ( 1)55 = .
1 55 1 55 55 55
Note that for definite integrals, we can omit the constant of integration C in the antideriva-
tive since this will cancel when we evaluate at the limits of integration.
Method 2.
In the second method, the substitution is applied directly to the definite integral and the
limits or bounds of integration are also changed according to the substitution applied. How
is this done? If the substitution y = g(x) is applied, then the limits of integration x = a
and x = b are changed to g(a) and g(b), respectively. The FTOC is then applied to the
definite integral where the integrand is a function of y and using the new limits of integra-
tion y = g(a) and y = g(b).
Z 3
To illustrate this method, let us consider the same definite integral (x 2)54 dx. Apply-
1
ing the substitution technique, we let y = (x 2) so dy = dx. For the limits of integration
in the given definite integral, these are changed in accordance to the substitution y = x 2
:
If x = 1, then y = 1 2= 1 and if x = 3 then y = 3 2 = 1.
282
We then apply the FTOC to the definite integrable involving the new variable y yielding:
Z 3 Z 1
(x 2)54 dx = y 54 dy
1 1
y 55 1
= +C
55 1
(1)55 ( 1)55 2
= = .
55 55 55
This alternative solution pays special attention to the bounds of integration in performing
a substitution. The two methods, of course, give the same result.
Why must special attention be given to the bounds of integration when performing a substi-
Rb
tution? The bounds a and b in the definite integral a f (x) dx refer to values of x. In the
final step of definite integration, the resulting expression is evaluated at x = a and at x = b.
If substitution is applied, there is a change in variable, hence, the limits of integration must
correspond correctly to the variable.
Let us summarize:
In applying the substitution technique of integration to the definite integral

Z b
f (x) dx,
a
the integrand “f (x) dx” is replaced by an expression in terms of y where y is a function of

x, say y = g(x) which implies dy = g 0 (x)dx. The antiderivative, say F (y) is thus expressed
as a function of y.
In the first method, the variable y is then expressed in terms of x , giving the antiderivative
F (g(x)) and this is evaluated with the original bounds x = a and x = b.
In the second method, we proceed with the substitution as above and the new bounds are
computed through the same equation used to perform the substitution. Thus, if y = g(x),
then the new bounds are
y = g(a) and y = g(b)
and the definite integral is now expressed as

Z b Z g(b)
f (g(x)) g 0 (x) dx = f (y) dy.
a g(a)
This is known as the Substitution

Z 2 Rule for Definite Integrals.
EXAMPLE 1: Compute (2x 1)3 dx.
0
283
1
Solution. Method 1. Let y = 2x 1. It follows that dy = 2 dx. Hence, dx = dy.
2
Evaluating the definite integral, we have
1
Z Z
3
(2x 1) dx = y 3 · dy
2
1 3
Z
= y dy
2
1
Z
= y 3 dy
2
1 y4
= · +C
2 4
1 4
= y +C
8
1
= (2x 1)4 + C.
8
So, by FTOC,
2
1 1 1
Z
(2x 1)3 dx = (2x 1)4 = (3)4 ( 1)4 = 10.
8 0 8 8
1
Method 2. Let y = 2x 1, and so dy = 2 dx. Hence, dx = dy. The bounds are then
2
transformed as follows:
If x = 0, then
y = 2(0) 1= 1.
If x = 2, then
y = 2(2) 1 = 3.
The substitution yields the transformed definite integral
Z 3
1
y 3 · dy.
1 2
Evaluating the above definite integral,
3 3
1 1 3
Z Z
3
y · dy = y dy
1 2 1 2
3
1
Z
= y 3 dy
2 1
1 1 43
= · y
2 4 1
1
= [(3)4 ( 1)4 ]
8
1
= (80)
8
= 10.
284
Z 1p
EXAMPLE 2: Compute 2 7x dx.
2
1
Solution. Let y = 2 7x. It follows that dy = 7 dx or dx = dy. For the transformed
7
bounds: If x = 2, then
y = 2 7( 2) = 16.
If x = 1, then
y=2 7( 1) = 9.
The substitution yields the transformed definite integral

Z 9 Z 9
p 1 1
y· dy = y 1/2 · dy
16 7 16 7
1 9 1/2
Z
= y dy
7 16
1 16 1/2
Z
= y dy.
7 9
Hence, we have
1p 16
1
Z Z
2 7x dx = y 1/2 dy
2 7 9
1 2 3/2 16
= · y
7 3 9
2
= [163/2 93/2 ]
21
2
= (64 27)
21
74
= .
21
.
Z 1 p
3
EXAMPLE 3: Evaluate 14 1 + 7x dx.
0
Solution. Let y = 1 + 7x. Then dy = 7 dx, and 14dx = 2 dy.

If x = 0, then y = 1. If x = 1, then y = 8.
Hence,
1 p 8 8
1 4/3 3 4/3 3 45
Z Z
14 3
1 + 7x dx = 2y 1/3 dy = y = (8 14/3 ) = (16 1) = .
0 1 4/3 1 4 4 4
.
285
2
9x2
Z
EXAMPLE 4: Evaluate dx.
0 (x3 + 1)3/2
Solution. Let y = x3 + 1. Then dy = 3x2 dx, and 9x2 dx = 3 dy.
If x = 0, then y = 1. If x = 2, then y = 9.
Hence,
Z 2 Z 9
9x2 3
3 3/2
dx = 3/2
dy
0 (x + 1) 1 y
Z 9
= 3y 3/2 dy
1
9
3 1/2
= y
1/2 1
= 6(9 1/2 1)
✓ ◆
1
= 6 1
3
= 4.
9 p
x
Z
EXAMPLE 5: Evaluate the integral 3 dx.
4 (30 x 2 )2
3 1
Solution. Notice that if we let y = 30 x 2 , then we have dy = 32 x 2 dx so that 23 dy =
p
x dx, which is the numerator of the integrand. Converting the limits of integration, we
have x = 4 implying y = 22 and x = 9 implying y = 3. Thus,
9 p 3✓ ◆✓ ◆
x 1 2
Z Z
dx = dy
4 (30 x 2 )2
3
22 y2 3
3
2
Z
2
= y dy
3 22
2 y 1 3
✓ ◆
=
3 1
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 22 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
2 1 2 1
=
3 3 3 22
✓ ◆
2 1 1
=
3 3 22
19
= .
99
.
Z π
4
EXAMPLE 6: Evaluate the integral sin3 2x cos 2x dx.
0
286
Solution. Let y = sin 2x. Differentiating both sides we have, dy = 2 cos 2x dx and
dy ⇡
cos 2x dx = . Now, when x = 0 it implies that y = sin 0 = 0 and when x =
2 4
⇡
implies y = sin = 1. Thus,
2
1 y4 1 1
Z π Z π Z 1 ✓ ◆
3 dy
4 4
3 3
sin 2x cos 2x dx = (sin 2x) cos 2x dx = y · = = .
0 0 0 2 2 4 0 8
.
Z 0
3
EXAMPLE 7: Evaluate x2 ex +1 dx.
1
Z
Solution. Recall that Dt (et ) = et , and therefore et dt = et + c. In other words, the
derivative and the antiderivative of the exponential are both the exponential itself.
1
Now, let y = x3 + 1. Then dy = 3x2 dx, so that x2 dx = dy.
3
If x = 1, then y = 0. If x = 0, then y = 1. Hence,
0 1 1
1 y 1 y 1 1 1 e 1
Z Z
3 +1
x2 ex dx = e dy = e = (e e0 ) = (e 1) = .
1 0 3 3 0 3 3 3
.
If we are dealing with an integral whose lower limit of integration is greater than the upper
limit, we can use the property that says
Z b Z a
f (x) dx = f (x) dx.
a b
Z 0
EXAMPLE 8: Evaluate the definite integral 2x(1 + x2 )3 dx.
2
Solution. First, note that

Z 0 Z 2
2 3
2x(1 + x ) dx = 2x(1 + x2 )3 dx
2 0
Let u = 1 + x2 so that du = 2x dx which is the other factor. Changing the x limits, we

have when x = 0, then u = 1 + 02 = 1 and when x = 2, then u = 1 + 22 = 5. Thus,
2 5 5
u4 54 14
✓ ◆
625 1 624
Z Z
2 3 3
2x(1 + x ) dx = u du = = = = = 156.
0 1 4 1 4 4 4 4
.
287
(C) EXERCISES
Evaluate the following definite integrals.
2x
Z
1. dx Ans: ln |1 + x2 | + C
1 + x2
Z
2 2
2. 2xex 4 dx Ans: ex 4 +C
x2
Z
3
4 3
3. p4
dx Ans: 9 (x + 2) 4 + C
x3 + 2
cos x
Z
4. dx Ans: ln |1 + sin x| + C
1 + sin x
dx
Z
2p
5. p p Ans: +C
x(1 + x)2 1+ x
Z
6. z 4 (1 + z 5 )3 dz Ans: 1
20 (1 + z 5 )4 + C
Z
7. (sin x + cos x)2 dx Ans: x + sin2 x + C
x 1
Z
8. dx Ans: +C
e x2 e x2
cos x p
Z
9. p dx Ans: 2 1 + sin x + C
1 + sin x
t3 p
Z
1
10. p dt Ans: 2 t4 + 16 + C
t4 + 16
Z
11. cos4 2w sin3 2w dw Ans: 1
10 cos5 (2w) + 1
14 cos7 (2w) + C
x
Z
12. cos3 dx Ans: 3 sin( x3 ) sin3 ( x3 ) + C
3
3x
Z
1
13. dx Ans: (x2 +1)6
(x2 + 1)7
ex
Z
1
14. dx Ans: 2(ex +5)2
+C
(ex + 5)3
1
Z
15. dx Ans: ln | ln x| + C
x ln x
20y
Z
10
16. dy Ans: 19(y 2 +1)19
+C
(y + 1)20
2
Z
2
17. xe 3x dx Ans: 1 3x2
6e +C
12x3
Z
18. dx Ans: ln |3x4 + 1| + C
3x4 + 1
Z π
2
19. esin x cos x dx Ans: e 1
0
Z 6
dx
20. p Ans: 2
1 x +3
Z 2
(x + 1) dx p
21. p Ans: 3
1 x2 + 2x + 4
288
Z 5 p 2
22. x3 x4 + 1 dx Ans: 626 3
6
1
0
Z 1
3
e2 1
23. x2 ex dx Ans: 3e
1
3
3x dx
Z
3
24. Ans: 2 ln 11
3
1 x2 + 2
Z 2
(e+1)3 8
25. (ex + 1)2 ex dx Ans: 3
0
Z 1
e2 +4e 3
26. (ex + 1)2 dx Ans: 2
0
1
t p
Z
2
2 3
27. p dt Ans: 2
0 1 t2
Z π
4
28. cos2 ✓ tan2 ✓ d✓ Ans: ⇡
8
1
4
0
Z 1
ex+e dx
x
29. Ans: ee e
0
e2
(ln x)8 + 1
Z
530
30. dx Ans: 9
1 x
3
ex e x
Z
6
31. dx Ans: ln | e2e+1
3 |
0 ex + e x
Z 2
3x2 +8x e4 1
32. ( 3x + 4)e dx Ans: 2
0
8
x 1
Z
26
33. p dx Ans: 3
3 x+1
Z 1
34. (x + 2)(x2 + 4x 3)3 dx Ans: 160
1
15
x
Z
35. p dx Ans: 36
0 x+1
Solutions to Selected Exercises
1. Letting u = 1 + x2 implies that du = 2dx. Thus,
2x 1
Z Z
dx = du
1 + x2 u
= ln |u| + C
= ln |1 + x2 | + C
289
du
3. Letting u = x3 + 2 implies that du = 3x3 dx. Thus, x2 dx = 3 . Hence,
x2
✓ ◆
1 du
Z Z
p dx = p
4
x3 + 2 4
u 3
1
Z
1
= u 4 du
3
3
!
1 u4
= 3 +C
3 4
4 3 3
= (x + 2) 4 + C
9
4. Put u = 1 + sin x. It will yield du = cos x dx, thus
cos x 1
Z Z
dx = du
1 + sin x u
= ln |u| + C
= ln |1 + sin x| + C
p 1 dx
5. Letting u = 1 + x implies that du = p
2 x
dx. Hence, p
x
= 2du, we have
dx 1
Z Z
p p = (2du)
x(1 + x)2 u2
Z
2
= 2 u du
2+1
✓ ◆
u
= 2 +C
2+1
2
= p +C
1+ x
7. Simplifying (sin x + cos x)2 yields (sin2 x + 2 sin x cos x + cos2 x). Thus,
Z Z
(sin x + cos x)2 dx = (sin2 x + 2 sin x cos x + cos2 x) dx.
Now,
1 cos(2x) 1 cos(2x) 1 1
Z Z Z Z
2
• sin x dx = dx = dx dx = x sin(2x) + C
Z 2 Z 2 2 2 4
• (2 sin x cos x) dx = 2 u du = u2 + C = sin2 x + C, where u = sin x
Z Z
• cos2 x dx = (1 sin2 x) dx
1 cos(2x)
Z Z
= dx dx
2

1 1
=x x sin(2x) + C
2 4
1 1
=x x + sin(2x) + C
2 4
290
Thus,
Z Z
(sin x + cos x)2 dx = (sin2 x + 2 sin x cos x + cos2 x) dx
Z Z Z
= sin x dx + 2 sin x cos x dx + cos2 x dx
2
 
1 1 2 1 1
= x sin(2x) + sin x + x x + sin(2x) + C
2 4 2 4
= x + sin2 x + C
du
11. Let u = cos 2w. Thus du = 2 sin 2w dw and = sin 2w dw. Now, using the
2
trigonometric identity sin2 2w = 1 cos2 2w,
Z Z
4 3
cos 2w sin 2w dw = cos4 2w(1 cos2 2w)(sin 2w) dw
Z
= (cos4 2wcos6 2w) sin 2w dw
✓ ◆
du
Z
4 6
= (u u )
2
✓ 5 7
◆
1 u u
= +C
2 5 7
1 1
= cos5 2w + cos7 2w + C
10 14
16. Letting u = y 2 + 1 implies that du = 2y dy which yields 10 du = 20y dy. Thus,
20y 10 du
Z Z
dy =
(y + 1)20
2 u20
Z
= 10 u 20 du
✓ 19 ◆
u
= 10 +C
19
10
= +C
19(y + 1)19
2
291
LESSON 18: Application of Definite Integrals in the Computation
of Plane Areas
TIME FRAME: 6 sessions
1. Compute the area of a plane region using the definite integral; and
2. Solve problems involving areas of plane regions.
LESSON OUTLINE:
1. Areas of Plane Regions

2. Application of Definite Integrals
292
TOPIC 18.1: Areas of Plane Regions Using Definite Integrals
(A) INTRODUCTION
We have learned how to evaluate definite integrals. One of the many applications of the
evaluation of definite integrals is in determining the areas of plane regions bounded by
curves.
Consider a continuous function f . If the graph of y = f (x) over the interval [a, b] lies
Z b
entirely above the x-axis, then f (x) dx gives the area of the region bounded by the
a
curves y = f (x), the x-axis, and the vertical lines x = a and x = b. This is illustrated in
the figure below:
y = f (x)
Z b
AR = f (x) dx
a
x
x=a x=b
293
EXAMPLE 1: Find the area of the plane region bounded by y = 3x + 1, x = 1, x = 3,
and the x-axis.
Solution. The graph of the plane region is shown in the figure below.
y
10
y = 3x + 1
x
1 2 3
This plane region is clearly in the first quadrant of the Cartesian plane (see figure above)
and hence immediately from the previous discussion, we obtain
Z b
AR = f (x) dx
a
Z 3
= (3x + 1) dx.
1
Evaluating the integral and applying the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we get
Z 3
AR = (3x + 1) dx
1
✓ 2 ◆ 3
3x
= +x
2
✓ ◆ 1✓ ◆
27 3
= +3 +1
3 2
= 14 square units.
.
Z 3
Recall that in the previous discussion, we evaluated (3x + 1) dx and got the value 14. As
1
we previously mentioned, this is the reason why we use the same symbol since antideriva-
tives are intimately related to finding the areas below curves.
EXAMPLE 2: Find the area of the plane region bounded above by y = 1 |x 1| and
below by the x-axis.
Solution. The graph of the plane region is shown below.
294
1
y=1 |x 1|
1 2
0
Observe that the line from the point (0, 0) to (1, 1) is given by
y=1 [ (x 1)] = x
and the line from the point (1, 1) to (0, 2) is given by
y=1 (x 1) = 2 x.
Clearly, we have two subregions here, Region 1 (R1 ) which is bounded above by y = x, and
Region 2 (R2 ) which is bounded above by y = 2 x.
1
y=2 x
y=x
R1 R2
1 2
0
Hence, the area of the entire plane region is given by
A = AR1 + A R2
Z 1 Z 2
= x dx + (2 x) dx
0 1
1 2
x2 x2
 
= + 2x
0 2 2 1
2 2 22 12
 
1 0
= + 2(2) 2(1)
2 2 2 2
= 1 square unit.
295
(B) LESSON PROPER
We now generalize the problem from finding the area of the region bounded by above by
a curve and below by the x-axis to finding the area of a plane region bounded by several
curves (such as the one shown below).
y = f (x)
y = g(x)
x
x=a x=b
The height or distance between two curves at x is
h = (y-coordinate of the upper curve) - (y-coordinate of the lower curve).
Now, if y = f (x) is the upper curve and y = g(x) is the lower curve, then
h = f (x) g(x).
Area between two curves

If f and g are continuous functions on the interval [a, b] and f (x) g(x) for all
x 2 [a, b], then the area of the region R bounded above by y = f (x), below by
y = g(x), and the vertical lines x = a and x = b is
Z b
AR = [f (x) g(x)] dx.
a
EXAMPLE 3: Find the area of the plane region bounded by the curves y = x2 2 and
y = x.
Solution. We start by finding the points of intersection of the two curves. Substituting
y = x into y = x2 2, we obtain
x = x2 2
=) 0 = x2 x 2
=) 0 = (x 2)(x + 1).
296
Thus, we have x = 2 or x = 1. When x = 2, y = 2 while when x = 1, y = 1. Hence,
we have the points of intersection (2, 2) and ( 1, 1). The graphs of the two curves, along
with their points of intersection, are shown below.
y
y = x2 2
4
y=x
2
(2, 2)
x
3 2 1 1 2 3
( 1, 1)
The function f (x) g(x) will be x (x2 2). Our interval is I = [ 1, 2] and so a = 1
and b = 2. Therefore, the area of the plane region is
Z b
AR = [f (x) g(x)] dx
a
Z 2
= [x (x2 2)] dx
1
 2 2
x x3
= + 2x
2 3 1
22 23 12 ( 1)3
 
= + 2(2) + 2( 1)
2 3 2 3
 
8 1 1
= 2 +4 2
3 2 3
9
= square units.
2
.
EXAMPLE 4: Find the area of the plane region bounded by the curves y = x2 , x = 1,
x = 2, and y = 1.
Solution. First, we find the points of intersection of the curves. With respect to the curves
y = x2 and x = 1, we have
y = ( 1)2 = 1.
297
Hence, these curves intersect at the point ( 1, 1). For the curves y = x2 and x = 2, we
have
y = 22 = 4.
Thus, they intersect at the point (2, 4). Now, for the curves x = 1 and y = 1, they
intersect at ( 1, 1). While for x = 2 and y = 1, they intersect at (2, 1). The graphs
of these curves are shown below and the required region is shaded.
y
x= 1 x=2
6
y = x2
4 (2, 4)
( 1, 1)
x
3 2 1 1 2 3
y= 1
2
The function f (x) g(x) will be x2 ( 1) = x2 + 1. Our interval is I = [ 1, 2] and so

a = 1 and b = 2. Therefore, the area of the plane region is
Z b
AR = [f (x) g(x)] dx
a
Z 2
= (x2 + 1) dx
1
2
x3
✓ ◆
= +x
3
1
23
  3
1
= +2 1
3 3
 
8 1
= +2 1
3 3
= 6 square units.
In the formula for the area of a plane region, the upper curve y = f (x) is always above
the lower curve y = g(x) on [a, b]. Hence, the height of any vertical line on the region will
298
always have the same length that is given by the function f (x) g(x). What if this is not
true anymore? Consider the figure below:
y
y=x
3
2
x = y2 2 (2, 2)
1
x
2 1 1 2 3 4
( 1, 1) 1
To the left of x = 1, the upper curve is the part of the parabola located above the x-axis
while the lower curve is the part of the parabola below the x-axis. On the other hand, to
the right of x = 1, the upper curve is the parabola while the lower curve is the line y = x.
Hence, in this case, we need to split the region into subregions in such a way that in each
subregion the difference of the upper and lower curves is the same throughout the subregion.
Teacher Tip
The teacher must illustrate this well in the class so that the students would be able
to visualize the concept properly.
EXAMPLE 5: Set up the definite integral for the area of the region bounded by the
parabola x = y 2 2 and the the line y = x. (Refer to the above figure.)
Solution. First, we find the points of intersection of the parabola and the line. Substituting
x = y in x = y 2 2, we have
y = y2 2
2
=) 0 = y y 2
=) 0 = (y 2)(y + 1).
Hence, we have y = 2 or y = 1. If y = 2, x = 2, and x = 1 when y = 1. Thus, we

have two points of intersection (2, 2) and ( 1, 1).
299
p
Note that the equation of the parabola x = y 2 2 gives us two expressions for y: y = x + 2
p
(points on the parabola located above the x-axis) and y = x + 2 (points on the parabola
located below the x-axis).
We first set up the integral of subregion R1 (part of the region located on the left of x = 1).
p
The upper curve here as we have observed earlier is y = x + 2 and the lower curve is
p
y= x + 2. Thus, the difference of the upper and lower curve is given by
p p p
upper curve lower curve = x+2 [ x + 2] = 2 x + 2.
The interval I is [ 2, 1]. Hence, the area of R1 is

Z 1 p
A R1 = 2 x + 2 dx.
2
For subregion R2 (part of the region located to the right of ( 1, 1), the upper curve is
p
y = x + 2 and the lower curve is y = x. So, we have
p
upper curve lower curve = x+2 x.
The interval I is [ 1, 2]. Hence, the area of R2 is

Z 2 p
A R2 = [ x+2 2] dx.
1
Finally, to get the area of the region R, we simply add the areas of subregions R1 and R2 ,
i.e.,
A R = A R 1 + AR 2
Z 1 2
p p
Z
= 2 x + 2 dx + [ x+2 2] dx.
2 1
300
Consider again the figure below.
y
y=x
3
2
x = y2 2 (2, 2)
1
x
2 1 1 2 3 4
( 1, 1) 1
Observe that if we use horizontal rectangles, the length of a rectangle at an arbitrary point
y would be the same throughout the region. Indeed, using horizontal rectangles is an al-
ternative method of solving the problem.
If u and v are continuous functions on the interval [c, d] and v(y) u(y) for all y 2 [c, d],
then the area of the region R bounded on the left by x = u(y), on the right by x = v(y),
and the horizontal lines y = c and y = d is
Z d
AR = [v(y) u(y)] dy.
c
Observe that the function v(y) u(y) is always given by
right curve – left curve.
EXAMPLE 6: Set up the integral of the area of the region bounded by the curves
x = y + 2 and x = y 2 2.
2
Solution. We first find the points of intersection of the two curves. We have
y2 + 2 = y2 2
=) 0 = 2y 2 4
=) 0 = 2(y 2 2)
p p
=) 0 = 2(y 2)(y + 2).
p p
We get y = 2 and y = 2. Using the curve x = y 2 2, we have the points of intersection:
p p
(0, 2) and (0, 2). The graphs of the two curves are shown below.
301
y x = y2 2
x
−4 −2 0 2 4
−2
x= y2 + 2
Let us now determine the height of a vertical rectangle. Observe that to the left the y-axis
the upper curve is x = y 2 2 while the upper curve to the right of the y-axis is x = y 2 + 2.
Hence, we have to split the region into two subregions to get the area of the shaded region.
However, notice that if we use a horizontal rectangle, we have the same curve on the right
and the same curve on the left. The function v(y) u(y) is given by
right curve left curve = (y 2 2) ( y 2 + 2).
p p
Our interval I = [ 2, 2]. Therefore, the area of the plane region is given by the integral
p p
Z d Z 2 Z 2
AR = [v(y) u(y)] dy = p [(y 2 2) ( y 2 + 2)] dy = p [2y 2 4] dy.
c 2 2
(C) EXERCISES
1. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of
a. x = y 2 4 and x 2y = 1.
b. y = 9 x2 and y = x + 3.
c. 2y 2 + 9x = 36 and 14y = 9x.
d. y = sin x and y = cos x, x = 0, and x = ⇡4 .
e. y = x + sin x and y = x, x = 0, and x = ⇡.
302
1.0
p
0.8 y= x
2. Given the region R bounded by the curves
p
y = x and y = x3 , Set up the definite
0.6
integral for the area of R using
0.4 R y = x3
a. vertical rectangles; and
b. horizontal rectangles. 0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

3. Find the area of the region bounded by x = y2, x= 1, y = 2 and y = 1. (See figure
below.)
y
3
y = x2
2
y=2
x
3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
1
y= 1
2
x= 1
3
4. Derive a formula for the area of a circle of radius r,

a. using horizontal rectangles; and
b. using vertical rectangles.
5. Derive a formula for the area of a sector of a circle with central angle ↵ radians.
6. Find the area of the region bounded by the graphs of
a. xy = 8 and y = 6 x. b. y(1 + x2 ) = 1 and 15y = x2 1
303
TOPIC 18.2: Application of Definite Integrals: Word Problems
Teaching Tip
This is an optional and enrichment topic. These are situational problems for students’
appreciation of the application of definite integrals.
(A) INTRODUCTION
We have learned how to find areas of regions bounded by curves. We will use this concept
in situational problems.
Parcels of land are shaped in the form of regular polygons – usually triangles and quadrilat-
erals. However, there are possibilities that one can acquire a piece of land with an irregular
shape. This can happen in places where the property being acquired is near a river. River-
currents normally erode the soil, changing the shape of the riverbank. Sometimes, land is
divided irregularly resulting in irregular shapes of the land parcels.
(B) LESSON PROPER
WORD PROBLEMS
y
200
⇡ Ilog Ahas
EXAMPLE 1: Juan wants to acquire a lot 200

y = cos x + ⇡
200⇡ meters wide and with length bounded
from the road side to the banks of “Ilog
Ahas”, which follows the equation y =
200
cos x + . (Refer to the figure.)
⇡
a. Find the area of the lot.
b. If the price per square meter is P500,

how much is the cost of land?
200⇡ meters x
304
Solution. .
a. Suppose we place the x-axis along the side of the road and the y-axis on one side of the
lot, as shown. Note that the y-axis is placed such that it runs along the farthest side of
“Ilog Ahas”. We can now apply definite integrals to find the area of the region. (Refer
to the figure.)
200⇡ ✓ ◆
200
Z
A = cos x + dx
0 ⇡
200 200⇡
✓ ◆
= sin x +
⇡ 0
200 200
= sin(200⇡) + (200⇡) sin 0 (0)
⇡ ⇡
= 40, 000 square meters.
b. The price of the lot is 500(40, 000) = P20, 000, 000.
School
City Hall
EXAMPLE 2: Consider the figure on

the right which shows the shape of a park
in a certain city. The Mayor of the city
Park
asked the city engineer to cover the entire
park with frog grass that costs P150 per
square foot. Determine how much budget
the Mayor should allocate to cover the en-
Church
tire park with frog grass.
Solution. To determine the area, the city engineer first places the x axis and y axis
accordingly, as shown. The points of the park’s vertices are then determined. He discovered
that the lines are y = 2x + 200, y = 2x 200, y = 3x + 200 and y = 5x 200. (Refer
to the figure.)
305
Using vertical rectangles, the city engineer
(0, 200)
has to split the region into two subregions.
Subregion R1 is the one to the left of the y-
y = 3x + 200
axis whose upper curve is y = 3x + 200 and
y = 5x 200 as the lower curve. Subregion
y= 2x + 200
R2 is the one to the right of the y-axis whose
( 50, 50)
upper curve is y = 2x + 200 and y = 2x
(100, 0)
200 as the lower curve. The length of the
vertical rectangles on R1 is
y= 5x 200 y = 2x 200 3x + 200 ( 5x 200) = 8x + 400
while the height of the vertical rectangles

on R2 is
(0, 200)
2x + 200 (2x 200) = 4x + 400.
Hence, the area of the region will be

Z 0 Z 100
AR = AR1 + AR2 = (8x + 400) dx + ( 4x + 400) dx
50 0
0 100
= (4x2 + 400x) + ( 2x2 + 400x)
50 0
= 30, 000 square feet.
Therefore, the cost of covering the entire park with frog grass that costs P 150 per square
foot is P 150(30, 000) = P 4, 500, 000.
.
(C) EXERCISES
1. Jeremy wants to acquire a lot which is bounded by a river on one side and a road on the
other side, both of which are mathematically inclined. The river follows the equation
y = cos x and the road follows the equation y = sin x. The shortest distance from the
road to the river is 100
⇡ meters while the distance from one end to the other on the side
of the road is 100⇡ meters. Find the area of the lot.
2. A circular park is to be covered with bermuda grass which costs P50 per square foot.
Use the concept of definite integrals to find the total cost of covering the park. (You
can check your answer by using A = ⇡r2 .)
306
CHAPTER 3 EXAM
I. Evaluate the following integrals.
2
Z ⇣ ⌘ Z
1. 33x2 26x + 11 dx 4. dx
1 7x
4
2x 3
Z Z
2. dx 5. (1 3x) dx
22x 1
Z 2⇣
9
Z ⌘
3. dy 6. 6x2 6x 18 dt
81y 2 + 1 1
II. Find a particular solution to the separable differential equation
x2
(x + 3) sin y dx dy = 0
tan y
if we know that y = ⇡ when x = 1.
III. Find the 3rd Midpoint Riemann Sum of f (x) = 4x with respect to the regular partition of
the interval [0, 3].
⇣ ⇡x ⌘ 7x2
IV. Set up the integral of the area of the region in the figure. y = cos and y = 7
2 9
⇣ ⇡x ⌘
y= cos
2
3 3
7
y = x2 7
9
307
308
Bibliography
[1] H. Anton, I. Bivens, S. Davis, Calculus: Early Transcendentals, John Wiley and
Sons, 7th Edition, 2002.
[2] R. Barnett, M. Ziegler, K. Byleen Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences
and Social Sciences, Pearson Education (Asia) Pre Ltd, 9th Edition, 2003.
[3] L. Leithold, College Algebra and Trigonometry, Addison Wesley Longman Inc.,
1989, reprinted-Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd, 2002.
[4] L. Leithold, The Calculus 7, Harpercollins College Div., 7th edition, December
1995.
[5] Math 53 Module Committee, Math 53 Elementary Analysis I Course Module, In-
stitute of Mathematics, UP Diliman, 2012.
[6] J. Stewart, The Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Brooks/Cole, 6th Edition, 2008.
[7] S. Tan, Applied Calculus for the Managerial, Life and Social Sciences, Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning, 9th Edition, 2014.
309
310
311
312
Biographical Notes
TEAM LEADER:
JOSE MARIA P. BALMACEDA
Dr. Jose Maria P. Balmaceda is a Professor of the Institute of Mathematics and Dean of the
College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman. He obtained the Ph.D. Mathematics
degree from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and master’s and undergraduate
degrees in math from UP Diliman. He is a member of the National Academy of Science and
Technology (NAST Philippines), Chair of the CHED Technical Committee for Mathematics, and
President of the Mathematical Society of the Philippines. He is a recipient of various awards
such as the NAST Outstanding Young Scientist Award, Science Prize (for Mathematics) from
the Third World Academy of Sciences, Achievement Award from the National Research Council
of the Philippines, and UP Diliman’s Gawad Chanselor Awards for Most Outstanding Teacher
and Most Outstanding Researcher.
WRITERS:
RICHARD S. LEMENCE
Dr. Richard S. Lemence is an Associate Professor and Deputy Director for Facilities and Re-
sources, Institute of Mathematics, University of the Philippines Diliman. He obtained the
doctorate degree in mathematics from Niigata University, Japan, specializing in differential ge-
ometry. He was a former faculty member of the Department of Mathematics of the Mindanao
State University-Iligan Institute of Technology, where he also completed his baccalaureate and
master’s degrees in mathematics. Dr. Lemence was awarded by the National Academy of Sci-
ence and Technology as Outstanding Young Scientist and designated by the University of the
Philippines as U.P. Scientist I. He is the current National Director of the Philippine Mathemat-
ical Olympiad.
313
ORESTE M. ORTEGA JR.
Mr. Oreste M. Ortega Jr. is an Assistant Professor in the Mathematics Department of the
Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City. He obtained his BS and MS in Mathematics degrees
from the University of San Carlos in Cebu City. He is currently on dissertation writing for the
Ph.D. Mathematics degree from the Ateneo de Manila University. Mr. Ortega has extensive
experience in teaching calculus and other mathematics subjects, and is an active member of
the Mathematical Society of the Philippines and other professional organizations. His research
interests include graph theory and combinatorics.
CARLENE P. C. PILAR-ARCEO
Dr. Carlene P.C. Pilar-Arceo obtained her doctorate degree in Mathematics from the University
of the Philippines Diliman (UPD), where she also finished her master’s and baccalaureate de-
grees. She is currently a Professor at the Institute of Mathematics, U.P. Diliman and Program
Development Associate of the UPD Office of the Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs. She was
former UPD College of Science Secretary and served as Assistant Secretary of the University.
A sought-after resource person on the teaching and popularization of mathematics, Dr. Pilar-
Arceo has also published scholarly articles on mathematical analysis and mathematical biology
and two high school mathematics textbooks. She has received U.P. Diliman’s Gawad Chanselor
Award for Most Outstanding Teacher.
LOUIE JOHN D. VALLEJO
Dr. Louie John D. Vallejo is an Assistant Professor at the University of the Philippines Diliman.
He holds a Ph.D. Mathematics degree from U.P. Diliman and master’s and baccalaureate degrees
(summa cum laude) from the same university. His doctoral dissertation research is on approxi-
mation theory and harmonic analysis. He has published his results in international journals and
has presented his work in international and national conferences. Dr. Vallejo is currently the
Deputy Team Leader of the Philippine delegation to the International Mathematical Olympiad
and has been a trainer in the Mathematical Olympiad Selection Camp for several years now.
314
TECHNICAL EDITORS:
MARIAN P. ROQUE
Dr. Marian P. Roque is a Professor and Director of the Institute of Mathematics, University
of the Philippines Diliman, where she also obtained her undergraduate, master’s and doctor-
ate degrees in mathematics. She occupies key positions in professional organizations such as
membership in the Executive Committee of the Centre International de Mathématiques Pures et
Appliquées (CIMPA), based in France, and the National Board of Directors of the Mathematical
Society of the Philippines. She has received the Achievement Award from the National Research
Council of the Philippines and UP Diliman’s Gawad Chanselor sa Natatanging Guro. She holds
a designation as UP Scientist I and is member of the UP Diliman General Education Committee.
Dr. Roque co-authored the graduate textbook Introduction to Classical and Variational Partial
Differential Equations published by the UP Press.
JOSE ERNIE C. LOPE
Dr. Jose Ernie C. Lope is a Professor and former Chair of the then Department of Mathematics,
University of the Philippines Diliman. He obtained master’s and doctorate degrees in mathe-
matics from Sophia University, Japan. A Bachelor of Science Mathematics summa cum laude
graduate of UP Diliman, Dr. Lope has received awards for his research and teaching such as the
UP Scientist I designation, Outstanding Young Scientist Awards from the NAST and the Third
World Academy of Science and the Gawad Chanselor sa Natatanging Guro from UP Diliman.
A former member of the Philippine Team to the International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO),
he later became Team Leader of three Philippine delegations to the IMO that set Philippine
records for medals and citations garnered by the team members.
LANGUAGE AND COPY EDITOR:
ERICK B. LIRIOS
Mr. Erick B. Lirios currently teaches journalism and photojournalism at the Manila Times
College, and works as a columnist for The Manila Bulletin. He edited academic books for
McGraw-Hill Education, the Department of Interior and Local Government and the Ateneo
School of Government. He worked as the Communications Executive for Singapore Telecommu-
nications, as the Corporate Communications Executive for the Spastic Children’s Association of
Singapore, and the Editor-in-Chief of Telecable Magazine. Besides doing proofreading, he also
works as a photographer - the latest being with the World Health Organization.
315
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SAYSAY: MEANING HUSAY: MASTERY SARILI: OWNERSHIP

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College Readiness Standards Foundational Skills DepEd Functional Skills

CONTENT PERFORMANCE TOPIC

CONTENT PERFORMANCE TOPIC

CONTENT PERFORMANCE TOPIC

2. formulate and solve 6. approximate the area of a region under a curve

1 Limits and Continuity 1

Lesson 1: The Limit of a Function: Theorems and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Topic 1.1: The Limit of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Topic 1.3: Illustration of Limit Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Topic 1.4: Limits of Polynomial, Rational, and Radical Functions . . . . . . . . . 28

Lesson 2: Limits of Some Transcendental Functions and Some Indeterminate Forms . . 38

Topic 2.1: Limits of Exponential, Logarithmic, and Trigonometric Functions . . . 39

Topic 2.2: Some Special Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Lesson 3: Continuity of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Topic 3.1: Continuity at a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Topic 3.2: Continuity on an Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Lesson 4: More on Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Topic 4.1: Different Types of Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Topic 4.3: Problems Involving Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Lesson 5: The Derivative as the Slope of the Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Topic 5.1: The Tangent Line to the Graph of a Function at a Point . . . . . . . . 91

Topic 5.2: The Equation of the Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Topic 5.3: The Definition of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Lesson 6: Rules of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Topic 6.1: Differentiability Implies Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Lesson 7: Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Topic 7.1: Optimization using Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Lesson 8: Higher-Order Derivatives and the Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Topic 8.1: Higher-Order Derivatives of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Topic 8.2: The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Lesson 9: Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Topic 9.1: What is Implicit Differentiation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Lesson 10: Related Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Topic 10.1: Solutions to Problems Involving Related Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Lesson 11: Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Topic 11.1: Illustration of an Antiderivative of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Topic 11.2: Antiderivatives of Algebraic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

Topic 11.3: Antiderivatives of Functions Yielding Exponential Functions and

Topic 11.4: Antiderivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

Topic 12.1: Antidifferentiation by Substitution and by Table of Integrals . . . . . 205

Lesson 13: Application of Antidifferentiation to Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . 217

Topic 13.1: Separable Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

Lesson 14: Application of Differential Equations in Life Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Biographical Notes 3