CHEM REVIEWER

(1st Quarter)
001: Intermolecular Forces

Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids and Solids

Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)

– common to the three states of matter.

– they are composed of molecules though, not all times for solids and these possess
kinetic energy.

Three States of Matter

 Gases – shape and volume are not definite.

 Liquid – indefinite shape, and definite volume.
 Solid – definite shape and volume.

Intermolecular Forces

– also known as van der Waals forces,

– named after a Dutch chemist, Johannes Van Der Waals (1837-1923).

Van der Waals Forces

– fundamentally electrical in natures; they result from the attraction between centers of
opposite charge in two molecules close to each other.
– is a distance-dependent interaction between atoms or molecules.
– Van der Waals forces are the weakest.

Ion-Dipole Forces

– Forces exist when polar molecules are attracted to a negative ion (anion);
 – While the negative pole is attracted to a positive ion (cation).
– Are involved in solution processes like in the case of sodium chloride dissolving in water.

Hydrogen Bonding

– Hydrogen bond is a weak bond forms when a hydrogen with partial positive charge (a
hydrogen bonded to a small, highly electronegative atom) is close to an atom in a
molecule with lone pairs of electrons or with excess electronic charge (negative).
– They are responsible for determining whether a molecular compound is a gas, a liquid,
or a solid at a given temperature.

Dipole-dipole Forces

– The attraction of bond dipoles in different molecules.

– Bond dipoles arise from the unequal sharing of electrons by covalently bonded atoms.
London Dispersion Forces (LDF)

– Are weakest attractions that are used to explain the attraction between nonpolar
molecules as it is apparent that even nonpolar molecules can have dipoles fore short
periods of time.

 Strongest – weakest
1. Ion-dipole Forces
2. Hydrogen Bonding
3. Dipole-dipole Forces
4. London Dispersion Forces
5. Van der Waals Forces
 Covalent Bond
– Is not part of Intermolecular Forces

Properties due to Van der Waals Forces

  Cohesion – sticking together of particles of the same substance or similar molecules.
(ex. water and another water)
 Adhesion – water’s ability to stick to other substances. (ex. water and glass)

OED: PT1

 Have no hydrogen bonding:

 H2S (covalent)
 CH4
 HCl (polar bonds/have dipole-dipole attractions) (electronegativity = 1.1)
 NO2
 PCl3 (dipole-dipole)
 I2 (strongest and only LDF)
 Have hydrogen bond:
 NH3
 HF
 Molecules (covalent) in solid and liquid phases are kinds of substances that held together
by Intermolecular Forces.
 Intermolecular Forces is strongest than metallic covalent, and or ionic bonds.
 A substance capable of hydrogen bonding has a higher boiling point.

002: Intermolecular Forces of Matter and Properties of Liquids

Surface Tension

– “Tighten their hold to one another”.

– Attracted forces are mainly inward and inward.
– Pulls the surface into spherical shape.
– Substance with strong attractive forces between the molecules have high surface
tensions.
– Surface tension of water can be reduced by heating or temperature increases.

Capillary Action

– The spontaneous rising of a liquid in a narrow tube.

– Results from cohesive forces within the liquid and adhesive forces between the liquid
and the walls of the container.

Incompressibility

– Under ordinary conditions is another property of liquids.

 – Since the molecules in a liquid are already close, touching one another, they cannot be
crowded together anymore unless they are squeezed and deformed, which woud
require a great amount of energy.

Diffusibility

– Is much less in a liquid gas, but it takes place at an easily measured rate.
– Indication of the escape of molecules from the surface of the liquids.

Evaporation

– Is an indication of the escape of molecules from the surface of the liquid.

Cooling Effect of Evaporation

– The molecules that escape are the ones with greatest velocity.
– The amount of heat energy for the given number of molecules is reduced as well as their
temperature; thus, evaporation always results in a cooling effect.

Vapor Pressure

– When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, the space above the liquid becomes
saturated with vapor and an equilibrium state exists between the liquid and the vapor.

Boiling Point

– Is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external
pressure (atmospheric pressure above the liquid).

Molar heat of vaporization

– The amount of heat necessary to boil or condense 1.00 mole of a substance at its boiling
point.
– There is no temperature change.
– Every substance has its own molar heat of vaporization.

OED: WW1

 Density Formula: D = M / V
 Mass Formula: M = V x D
 Volume Formula: V = pi R^2h
 Grams – measuring unit for mass.
 Mass – the amount of matter in an object
 g/cm3 = density units
 viscosity = a liquid’s resistance to flow
  fluid’s slow viscosity = fast / high viscosity = slow
 graduated cylinder – lab tool to measure the volume of liquids
 higher density = sinks in water
 temperature increase = viscosity decrease
 milliliter – unit used for volume

003: Structure and Properties of Water

Water

– is a very remarkable substance with its simple composition and structure. It has unique
properties. Evidence of its uniqueness is that it is the only natural substances that is
found in all three phases: liquid, solid (ice), and gas (stream) at temperature normally
existing in our planet.

Pure water

– is an odorless and tasteless liquid. It has a bluish tint.

– At standard atmospheric pressure (760 mm of Hg or 760 torr), its freezing point is 0℃
(32℉) and boiling point is 100℃ (212℉).

Density.

– Water is at its maximum density at a temperature of 4℃ (39℉).

– It has the unusual property of contracting in volume as it is cooled to 4℃ to 0℃.
– It is the only liquid that expands when it freezes.
– This makes the density of ice lower than that of liquid water and that is why ice floats on
water.
– The H-bonds keep the molecules in fixed positions but with spaces between (open
lattice structure), which results in lower density for solid water (ice) than liquid water

Boiling Point.

Water has a relatively high boiling point (100℃ at 1 atm), which indicates its stability.

Substances of comparable molar mass like ammonia and methane are gases at a temperature
that water is a liquid.

Specific Heat.

– The specific heat of water is higher than any commonly known liquid except ammonia
(Table 2.1).
– This means that water takes much longer time to heat up and also cool down than most
substances in our environment.
 – It can absorb a large amount of heat with only a slight change in temperature.

Solvent Action.

– Water dissolves more substances than any other common liquid. That is why it is the
most commonly used polar solvent.
– This property makes water the most effective liquid for transporting dissolved nutrients,
in the bloodstream, and eliminating wastes from living tissues in our bodies.

Surface Tension.

– Water has a high surface tension because of strong intermolecular H-bonding.

Chemical Properties

1. Water reacts with metals.

a. Potassium, sodium, and calcium react similarly with water, producing metal hydroxides and
liberating hydrogen gas, but they differ in the intensity or vigorousness of their reactions.

b. Aluminum, zinc, and iron react with steam at high temperature, forming hydrogen and
metallic oxides.

2. Water reacts with nonmetals. The element fluorine reacts violently with cold water,
producing hydrogen fluoride and free oxygen.

3. Water reacts with metallic oxides. Soluble oxides like CaO and Na2O react with water to form
hydroxides.

4. Water reacts with nonmetallic oxides. CO2, SO2, and N205 react with water to form acids.

Uses of Water

 Industrial uses
 Agricultural uses
 Domestic uses

OED: WW2

 Solvent Properties – characteristics of water will allow a paperclip to remain floating on

water when the paperclip is gently placed on top of the water.
 Cohesive Force – Force of attraction between similar molecules.
 Adhesion – water’s ability to stick to other non-similar substance.
 Cohesion – sticking together of the same substances. Water droplets take a spherical
shape.
  High surface tension – water beads up on the surface of a penny because of this
property.

004: Types of Solution

A solution is defined as

- a homogenous mixture which mainly comprises two components namely solute and
solvent.

Different Types of Solutions

Depending upon the dissolution of the solute in the solvent, solutions can be categorized into supersaturated
solution, unsaturated and saturated solutions.

 A supersaturated solution comprises a large amount of solute at a temperature wherein it

will be reduced, as a result the extra solute will crystallize quickly.
 An unsaturated solution is a solution in which a solvent is capable of dissolving any more
solute at a given temperature.
  A saturated solution can be defined as a solution in which a solvent is not capable of
dissolving any more solute at a given temperature.
The solutions are of two forms, depending on whether the solvent is water or not.

 Aqueous solution – When a solute is dissolved in water the solution is called an aqueous solution. Eg,
salt in water, sugar in water and copper sulfate in water.
 Non-aqueous solution – When a solute is dissolved in a solvent other than water, it is called a non-
aqueous solution. Eg, iodine in carbon tetrachloride, Sulphur in carbon disulfide, phosphorus in ethyl
alcohol.
Solutions are spoken of as having two components, the solvent and the solute. Another
classification of the solution depends on the amount of solute added to the solvent.

 A dilute solution contains a small amount of solute in a large amount of solvent.

 A concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute dissolved in a small amount of
solvent.

Mixtures
A mixture is composed of two or more substances, but they are not chemically combined. In
contrast, the compound contains various elements that are bonded to each other. For instance,
consider a mixture of salt, that is when salt is dissolved in water it is a mixture but ideally, salts
consist of two components namely sodium and chlorine.
Here Sodium and Chlorine are bonded together with the electrostatic force of attraction to form
sodium chloride even though there is no chemical bond between water and salt in the mixture.
Hence, matter can be classified as mixtures, compounds and elements. Further mixtures can be
classified as homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.

Homogenous and Heterogeneous Solutions

Homogeneous solutions are solutions with uniform composition and properties throughout the
solution. For example a cup of coffee, perfume, cough syrup, a solution of salt or sugar in water,
etc.
Heterogeneous solutions are solutions with non-uniform composition and properties throughout
the solution. A solution of oil and water, water and chalk powder and solution of water and sand,
etc.

Reviewer made by: DZP : )