ELECTRONIC

CIRCUIT DESIGN
Lecture Notes and
Laboratory Exercises
(Draft 0.2.0)

by

Hasnul Hashim

Institut Teknologi Brunei

2013
 Chapter 1

Electronic Principles

1.1 Symbols and Notation

Fig. 1.1 shows the circuit symbols for npn and pnp transistors where “b” is base,
“c” is collector and “e” is emitter. These transistors can be distinguished from
one another by the direction of the arrow, which should never be omitted, on the
emitter pin. The arrow indicates the direction of positive current flow under normal
operating conditions, that is from the p-region to the n-region of the transistor with
the p-region at higher potential relative to the n-region. When the current flows
out of the emitter, that indicates an npn transistor whilst a pnp transistor has the
current flow into the emitter.
c e
VCB VEB
n p
b p b n
n p
VBE e VBC c
(a) npn (b) pnp

Figure 1.1: Bipolar junction transistor symbols, pin and voltage notation.

In Fig. 1.1, the arrows point in the direction of increasing voltage. The first
letter in the subscripted quantity is the pin where the voltage is measured with
respect to the pin indicated in the second subscript letter. For example, VBE is
the voltage at the base of the transistor with respect to the emitter. Two-letter
subscripted quantities will be interpreted as such unless the letters used are the
same, e.g. VCC and VEE . Identical two-letter subscripts will be used for voltage
supplies. Thus, VCC would be a voltage supply to the collector; VEE would be

1
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 2

voltage supplied to the emitter. If the second letter in the subscript is omitted,
the indicated voltage is measured with respect to a ground reference node common
to the whole circuit. There are a few situations where these rules are not observed
and they will be pointed out explicitly in due course.

Voltage

vbe (t)

VBE
vBE (t) = VBE + vbe (t)
t

Figure 1.2: Variable naming convention for mixed ac and dc analog sig-
nals.

In naming current and voltage variables, the following convention will be

adopted:

• uppercase variable and uppercase subscript: dc or average, e.g. VBE ,

• lowercase variable and lowercase subscript: ac component, e.g. vbe ,
• lowercase variable and uppercase subscript: total, e.g. vBE .

The usage of this convention is exemplified in Fig. 1.2. In addition, the voltage
and current source circuit symbols that will be used are shown in Fig. 1.3.
+ +
VS − vs a0 vi − Vbatt

(a) Voltage sources

IS is gm vi

(b) Current sources

Figure 1.3: Voltage and current source circuit symbols.

In many of the circuits that will be discussed, the npn type shall be used as
representative transistor for the circuit. Often the transistor circuit will also work
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 3

with pnp types provided that terminal voltages and currents necessary for proper
functioning are properly accounted. This may entail checking direction of voltage
drops and terminal currents.

1.2 Bipolar Junction Transistors

(Reading data sheet)

1.2.1 Modes of operation

The mode of operation in a BJT is a function of the bias on the two pn junctions.
There are four modes as shown in Table 1.4.

VBC
forward bias

Inverse Saturation
region VBE VBC Mode
active
F R Forward active
F F Saturation
VBE
reverse bias 0 forward bias R F Inverse active
reverse bias

R R Cut off
Forward
Cut off
active

Figure 1.4: BJT modes of operation for npn type where “F” denotes that
the junction is forward-biased whilst “R” indicates reverse bias.

Unless specified otherwise, it may be assumed that the transistor is in the

forward active mode.

1.2.2 Ideal Electrical Characteristics

1.2.3 Simple DC model

When the transistor is in the forward active mode, an approximate dc model
suitable for calculations by hand is shown in Fig. 1.6.
In the model, it is assumed that the base-emitter voltage drop is 0.7 V and
that the collector current is only linearly dependent on the base current, i.e. inde-
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 4

(a) IC vs VBE
saturation

(b) IC vs VCE with IB as parameter

Figure 1.5: SPICE simulation of quasi-ideal bipolar junction transistor

common emitter characteristics. Refer to Fig. 1.7 for circuit diagram.

c
IB
βIB b c
IB
b +
+ 0.7 V − βIB
− 0.7 V

e e
(a) Form I (b) Form II

Figure 1.6: Simple dc models of a BJT in forward active mode.

pendent of collector voltage.

IC = βIB (1.1)

The constant of proportionality is called the transistor’s “beta”. The base-emitter

CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 5

voltage given is typically used but in some circumstances maybe specified differ-
ently, e.g. 0.6 V. These assumptions are acceptable for hand calculations; more
accurate (and complex) models can be obtained by using a computer program like
SPICE which stands for Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis.

1.2.4 Biasing
Biasing a transistor typically entails the application of dc voltages across its termi-
nals so that the transistor will be in a desired mode of operation. A biasing circuit
is used to provide a stable dc voltage and current operating point or quiescent (Q)
point. For bias calculations, the simple dc model is usually sufficient.
There are four commonly used biasing circuits, namely

• fixing base-emitter voltage VBE (crude biasing) — not practical

• fixing the base current IB or fixed base bias is better than crude biasing but
still not practical

• fixing the emitter current IE or auto-biasing which is commonly used for

discrete circuits

• using a circuit called a current mirror is usually the preferred method in

linear integrated circuits

A crude approach to the biasing of an npn transistor for forward active mode
is shown in Fig. 1.7 where VIN is a variable dc voltage source. The voltage sources

RC 1 kΩ

+ vb (t) + VCC
− VCC − 12V
+ VC VB + vC (t)
VIN − 0.7V − vB (t)

(a) Biasing circuit (b) Small-signal source at base

Figure 1.7: Crude biasing arrangement for forward active mode operation
of an npn transistor.

VIN and VCC supply the base current and collector current respectively. In order for
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 6

the base-emitter pn junction to be forward biased, VIN needs to be approximately

0.7 V. The collector voltage is given by

VC = VCC − IC RC . (1.2)

To ensure that the base-collector pn junction is reverse-biased, the collector voltage

should be larger than the base voltage, i.e. VC > VB . This could be arranged by
an appropriate choice of VCC and RC . Thus, the transistor will operate in the
forward active mode. The two currents which enter the transistor through the
base and collector leaves via the emitter which means that

IE = IB + IC
= IB + βIC
IE = (1 + β)IB . (1.3)

Alternatively

IE = IB + IC
IC
= + IC
β
1+β
IE = IC (1.4)
β
β
IC = IE (1.5)
1+β
If β is large then
IC ≈ IE (1.6)

.
Fig. 1.9 shows biasing by fixing the base current of the transistor. The variable
resistor RB allows in-circuit adjustment of IB to suit the transistor’s characteristics.
From the dc model, it is clear that
VCC − 0.7
IB = (1.7)
RB
from which the collector current can be obtained from IC = βIB . However this
requires knowledge of the value of β. The value of β varies between transistor
models and manufacturers. While a typical value for β maybe 120, it could be 40
or an order larger, say 400. The value of β also varies with temperature and is
also dependent on IC and VCE .
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 7

12
20.0
VC
10

8 IC 15.0

IC , IB (mA)
VC (V)
6
10.0

4
5.0
2 IB

0 0.0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

VIN (V)

Figure 1.8: Variation of VCE (VC ), IC and IB as the base-emitter voltage

is swept in a crude biasing circuit. Q is the operating point.

VCC VCC
RC RC
c c
RB RB
βIB
IB IB
VCE VCE
b b +
VBE VBE
− 0.7 V
e e

(a) Biasing circuit (b) Simple dc model

Figure 1.9: Fixed base current biasing.

When the collector characteristics for a given transistor are available, it can
used to design an appropriate operating point and base resistor using the load line
method. Consider a load line superimposed on the IC -VCE characteristic curves
as shown in Fig. 1.10. The load line is a straight line governed in this particular
circuit by the equation:
VCE = VCC − IC RC . (1.8)
VCC
The load line cuts the VCE axis at VCC and the IC axis at RC
as can be verified
from the load line equation. The gradient of the line is determined by RC . Thus,
the line can be manipulated by choosing values for VCC and RC .
The transistor IC -VCE characateristic curves as shown in Fig. 1.10 were derived
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 8

IC
+
− VCE
IB

(a) Circuit used for obtaining the characteristic curves

VCC IB = 80 µA
16 RC

IB = 60 µA
12
IC (mA)

Operating
point IB = 40 µA
8
IC = 8.1 mA
VCE = 4.9 V IB = 20 µA
4

IB = 0 µA VCC
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
VCE (V)
(b) IC vs VCE

Figure 1.10: IC -VCE characteristic curves as obtained from a SPICE

simulation of the 2N2222 model, with load line superimposed.

with the collector-emitter voltage and base current as independent variables which
is depicted as a variable current source at the base and a variable voltage source
at the collector. For various combinations of base current and collector-emitter
voltage the collector current is recorded and the curves in Fig. 1.10 are obtained.
In the active region, the collector current is directly proportional to the base
current1 .
For operation in the active region, several reasonable choices in load lines and
operating points may be available (see Fig. 1.11). Suppose that VCC has been fixed
to 12 V. For load line A, there are three choices (Q1 , Q3 and Q4 ) for operating
points depending on the desired collector current. Operating points Q2 and Q4
1
The collector current is also slightly dependent on VCE but we will ignore this here and
address it later.
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 9

have the same base current. For load line A, the collector resistance is
VCC 12
= 16 × 10−3 =⇒ RC = = 750 Ω
RC 16 × 10−3
whereas for load line B the collector resistance would be doubled since the maxi-
mum collector current is halved.

16

Load line A

12
IC (mA)

Q3 Q1

Q4
Load line B
4

Q2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
VCE (V)

Figure 1.11: Selecting load line and operating point.

The general structure of an auto-biased BJT circuit is shown in Fig. 1.12.

When the BJT is connected in the manner shown, it is called common emitter.
The autobias method typically utilises four resistors so that the collector current
can be fixed by designing for an appropriate emitter current. (Assuming that
β = ∞ then IC = IE .) The dc biasing signals are separated from the input and
output circuitry via ac coupling capacitors, so that they don’t interfere with dc
signals in those circuitries. For dc analysis of the biasing network, these capacitors
are removed since capacitive impedance is infinite at dc, the common emitter
circuit can be analysed in isolation. The two base resistors R1 and R2 can be
R2
replaced by a voltage source V
R1 +R2 CC
in series with resistance R1 ||R2 .
In order to select appropriate resistor values for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.12
the following procedure could be used. It is assumed that the IC -VCE are available
so that a load line may be drawn. For this particular biasing, the maximum
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 10

VCC VCC
RC RC
R1 IC
R1 ||R2 a

vo + IB (1 + β)IB
vi R2
R2 R1 +R2 VCC
−
RE RE

b
(a) Auto-biasing (b) dc analysis

Figure 1.12: Auto-biased common emitter stage with decoupling capac-

itors.

collector current in the load line equation is given by

VCC
IC = .
RC + RE
The load line cuts the horizontal or VCE axis at VCC . Once the supply voltage
(VCC ) is chosen, the collector and emitter resistances can be selected to yield a
desired collector current at the operating point Q. This will also determine the
dc base current at Q. Assuming that β is reasonably large, then IE = IC where
the latter is specified by Q. The base resistors R1 and R2 can then be chosen to
satisfy the base current at Q, which can be verified by applying KVL in the base-
emitter loop of the dc analysis circuit. While the steps described are specific to the
common emitter circuit, the general procedure is similar for other BJT amplifier
circuits.

1.2.5 DC Analysis
The forward-biased base-emitter voltage (VBE ) and thermal voltage (VT ) are usu-
ally specified. Typically,

VBE = 0.7 V or VEB = 0.7 V (1.9)

VT = 26 mV (1.10)

For dc analysis of transistor terminal currents and voltages:

IC = βIB (1.11)
IE = (1 + β)IB (1.12)
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 11

where β = hf e . For an npn transistor

VE = VB − VBE (1.13)

whilst for a pnp transistor

VE = VB + VEB (1.14)

where VE is the emitter voltage and VB is the base voltage.

Obtaining the dc equations typically involve invoking Ohm’s law and Kirchoff’s
laws especially KVL. One must also be familiar with the formula for current divi-
sion

R2
I1 = I (1.15)
R1 + R2
– not just for dc calculations.
It is often necessary to deal with the typical biasing network shown in Fig.1.13.
Apply Thevenin’s theorem to convert this network into its equivalent form.

VCC
RT h
R1
+
R2 VT h −

(a) Voltage divider (b) Thevenin equivalent

Figure 1.13: Thévenin equivalent circuit for biasing network

where
R2
VT h = VCC (1.16)
R1 + R2
R1 R2
RT h = (1.17)
R1 + R2

1.3 Bipolar Junction Transistor Models

1.3.1 The Ebers-Moll Model

The base emitter pn junction could be more realistically modelled as a diode
instead of a constant dc source as shown in Fig. 1.6. The Ebers-Moll model of the
BJT takes this into account. It is an equivalent circuit model that is based on the
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 12

physics of two interacting pn junctions. The Ebers-Moll model for the static (dc)
condition is discussed further.
The diode equation is given by
VD
ID = IS (e nVT − 1) (1.18)

where VT is the thermal voltage defined as

VT = kT /q (1.19)

and where

k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K

T = temperature in Kelvin
q = charge on an electron = 1.6 × 10−19 C
n = ideality factor (1 < n < 2)
IS = scaling current
ID = diode terminal current
VD = diode terminal voltage.

At room temperature VT ≈ 26 mV. Consequently, the model shown in Fig. 1.14 is

obtained and by current considerations

ID = IE
β
IC = IE
1+β
β
α= (1.20)
1+β
∴ IC = αID (1.21)

For a given transistor, the parameters α and β are usually measured quantities.
A more general model that is valid for any connection of the transistor takes
into account both the base-emitter and base-collector pn junctions. In the Ebers-
Moll model each pn junction is modelled by a diode. The nearness of the two pn
junctions causes current in one diode to control a current source in parallel with the
other diode. The injection version of the Ebers-Moll model utilises two different
α-parameters, namely αF and αR for forward and reverse operations of the emitter
and collector diodes, denoted as DE and DC respectively. This model is shown
in Fig. 1.3.1. An alternative formulation of the Ebers-Moll model from carrier
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 13

IC c

αID
IB
b

ID

IE
e

Figure 1.14: Forward active mode BJT model with diode representing
base-emitter pn junction.

IC c IC c

0
IDC αF IDE IDC IS (eVBE /VT − 1)
b b

IDE αR IDC 0
IDE IS (eVBC /VT − 1)

IE IE
e e
(a) Injection version (b) Transport version

Figure 1.15: Ebers-Moll model of a BJT.

transport considerations is shown in Fig. 1.3.1. The currents in the controlled

sources are determined by the diode voltages. The diode currents are given by

0 IS VBE /VT
IDC = (e − 1) (1.22)
αR
0 IS VBC /VT
IDE = (e − 1) (1.23)
αF
The collector-base current source is controlled by the base-emitter voltage (VBE )
whilst the emitter-base current source is controlled by the base-collector voltage
(VBC ). In the expressions shown in Fig. 1.3.1, note the absence of the adjustment
factor n. When the diode is forward biased, it is assumed that VD = 0.7 V. Hence,
VD /VT >> 1 and the exponential dominates the expression. Conversely, if the
diode is reverse biased, VD /VT is a large negative number and the exponential term
is negligible compared to the unity term (-1). Furthermore, the scaling current
IS of the controlled source is much smaller than the diode current in the parallel
branch.
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 14

For this particular case, the controlled source can be omitted as shown in
Fig. 1.16 where the reverse-biased diode current has been defined as ID = −ICBO .
When the latter is neglected as well (remove the reverse biased diode from the
circuit), then we arrive at the diode-based model as shown in Fig. 1.14 where
IS
ID = α
(eVBE /VT −1). It is often convenient to use a common-emitter configuration

IC c

ICBO IS (eVBE /VT − 1)

IS VBE /VT
α (e − 1)

IE
e

Figure 1.16: Ebers-Moll model reduction when base-emitter diode is for-

ward biased and base-collector diode is reverse biased.

of the model. (See Fig. 1.17.) The input voltage is applied between the base and
the emitter, and the output voltage is taken between the collector and the emitter.
(The emitter is “common” to both the input and the output, hence the naming
convention.)

IB IC
b c

IC
IS (eVBE /VT − 1)
β

IE
e

Figure 1.17: Common emitter configuration of the Ebers-Moll model.

1.3.2 BJT h-parameters

The BJT h-parameters are measured small-signal parameters of real-world transis-
tors subject to an operating point that expresses sensitivity to small changes at an
input port. For a hybrid or h-parameter characterization a current and a voltage
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 15

are selected as excitations. (See Appendix ??.) Consider the h-parameters for the
common emitter circuit shown in Fig. 1.18 where the base current and common-
emitter voltage will be excited (independent variables) and the collector current
and base-emitter voltage used as response quantities (dependent variables). The
biasing circuit is not shown but it is taken for granted that the operating point
is set by IB and VCE (independent variables) which in turn determines IC and
VBE (dependent quantities). The h-parameters vary with collector current and

ib ic

vbe (1) (2) vce

Figure 1.18: Common emitter BJT configuration for definition of h-

parameters.

temperature. Typical values given by data sheets at IC = 5 mA and VCE = 5 V:

hf e = 100
hie = 1 kΩ
1
hoe <
50 kΩ
hre < 10−4

The parameters hf e and hre are ratios; hie is an impedance and hoe is an admit-
tance. The gain parameter hf e could be smaller or larger typically by a factor
of four from the value given above. The input impedance hie could vary by an
order,i.e. a factor of ten.
The four h-parameters are defined by the equations

vbe = hie ib + hre vce (1.24)

ic = hf e ib + hoe vce (1.25)
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 16

where

ic 
hf e = (1.26)
ib vce =0

ic 
hoe = (1.27)
vce ib =0

vbe 
hie = (1.28)
ib vce =0

vbe 
hre = (1.29)
vce ib =0

ib ic
b c

hie
vbe 1 vce
hf e ib hoe
+
− hre vce
e e

Figure 1.19: Small-signal equivalent circuit of common-emitter BJT as

defined by the h-parameters equations.

IC
IC2

∆IC (IBQ,ICQ)
IC1

IB1 IB2
IB
∆IB

Figure 1.20: The small-signal parameter hf e can be obtained from the

slope of the IC -IB curve at the operating point.

The parameter is the small-signal current gain at a particular Q (see Fig. 1.20)
that could be obtained from

dIC  ∆IC
hf e |(atQ) = ≈ (1.30)
dIB at(IB1 ,IC1 ) ∆IB


Often it is assumed that hf e ≡ β, though it is more appropriate to say that β is a

dc parameter whereas hf e is a small-signal ac parameter. In similar manner, the
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 17

other h-parameters can be obtained from instantaneous measurements of terminal

currents and voltages as shown in Fig. 1.21. Thus, hoe is the slope of IC vs VCE
at a given IB , that is
∆IC
hoe = (1.31)
∆VCE
The parameter hie is the reciprocal of the IB -VBE slope at Q
∆VBE
hie = (1.32)
∆IB
The parameter hre is a voltage ratio for some constant IB
∆VBE
hre = (1.33)
∆VCE
In practice, hre is very small.

IC IC
IB2 > IB1
IC2 IB2
IBQ
∆IC ∆IC
IC1
IB1

VCE VCE
∆VCE = 0 ∆VCE
(a) hf e (b) hoe

IB IB VCE1

VCE2 > VCE1 VCE2

∆IB = 0

∆IB Q

VBE VBE
∆VBE ∆VBE
(c) hie (d) hre

Figure 1.21: Obtaining h-parameters from measurements of IC , VCE , IB

and VBE .

Consider an analysis of the common-emitter amplifier using the complete set

of h-parameters. (See Fig. 1.23) From the small-signal ac equivalent circuit the
following equations can be obtained:

ic = hf e ib + hoe vce (1.34)

vbe = hie ib + hre vce (1.35)
vce = −ic Rc (1.36)
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 18

hfe hoe hie hre

IC IC IC IC
(a) hf e (b) hoe (c) hie (d) hre

Figure 1.22: Variation of h-parameters with instantaneous collector cur-

rent.

VCC
RC
R1

vo
vi R2
RE CE

(a) Common emitter amplifier

ib ic
b c

hie
vi RB vbe 1 vce
hf e ib hoe RC vo
+
− hre vce
e e
(b) h-parameter small-signal equivalent circuit

Figure 1.23: Analysis of common-emitter amplifier using complete set of

h-parameters.

ic = hf e ib − hoe ic Rc
ic (1 + hoe Rc ) = hf e ib
hf e
∴ ic = ib (1.37)
1 + hoe Rc
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 19

hf e
vbe = hie ib − hre Rc ib
1 + hoe Rc
 
hre hf e Rc
= ib hie −
1 + hoe Rc
 
hie + (hie hoe − hf e hre )Rc
= ib (1.38)
1 + hoe Rc
Hence the voltage gain can be expressed as
vo vce
=
vi v
be  
−hf e 1 + hoe Rc
= Rc
1 + hoe Rc hie + (hie hoe − hf e hre )Rc
−hf e Rc
= (1.39)
hie + (hie hoe − hf e hre )Rc
The input resistance looking into the base of the transistor is given by
vbe
Rinb =
ib
hie + (hie hoe − hf e hre )Rc
= (1.40)
1 + hoe Rc

1.3.3 Base Width Modulation

Discussion on Early voltage, origins and SPICE model

Figure 1.24: Early voltage

1.3.4 Hybrid-π Model

ib iµ rµ ic
b c

vb rπ gm vb ro vc

e e

Figure 1.25: Hybrid-π equivalent circuit model.

The hybrid-π model (Fig. 1.25) is derived from small-signal considerations of a

dynamic Ebers-Moll model, that is one where charge storage is taken into account.
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 20

The intrinsic parameters of the model are rπ and gm . In addition, the resistance rµ
models the effect of the collector voltage on base current and ro models the effect
of the collector voltage on the collector current in the active mode. The hybrid-π
model is connected to the h-parameters model through a set of defining equations.
Refer to Fig. 1.19 and Fig. 1.25. Firstly note that vb ≡ vbe and vc ≡ vce . For the
hybrid-π model, we have

vb = (ib + iµ )rπ (1.41)

vc = (ic − gm vb − iµ )ro (1.42)
vc − vb
iµ = (1.43)
rµ

Eliminating iµ from these equations and rearranging yields

rπ rµ rπ
vb = ib + vc (1.44)
rπ + rµ rπ + rµ
     
rπ rµ 1 rπ 1 1 1
ic = ib gm + + vc gm + + + (1.45)
rπ + rµ rµ rπ + rµ rµ rµ ro

Therefore, comparing with h-parameter equations

vb = ib hie + vc hre (1.46)

ic = ib hf e + vc hoe (1.47)

gives
rπ rµ
hie = = rπ ||rµ (1.48)
rπ + rµ
rπ rπ ||rµ
hre = = (1.49)
rπ + rµ rµ
1
hf e = (rπ ||rµ )(gm + ) (1.50)
rµ
 
rπ ||rµ 1 1 1
hoe = gm + + + (1.51)
rµ rµ rµ ro

While the hybrid-π model shown in Fig. 1.25 may appear rather complicated,
a simplified version often suffices for hand calculations. From the h-parameters,
the value of hre is very small and can be neglected. Thus, taking hre = 0 means
β βVT
that hie ≡ rπ . (Since rπ = gm
= IC
therefore hie is inversely proportional to
instantaneous collector current.)
The resistance rµ can also be ignored (having infinite resistance) in many simple
situations. In other words, it is assumed that the base is electrically isolated from
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 21

the collector. (For example, typical values of hre = 10−10 and hie = 103 would give
hie 1
rµ = hre
= 1013 Ω.) If it is also assumed that hoe ≈ 0 then ro = hoe
= ∞ and
the output resistance can be removed. With these simplifications, the simplified
hybrid-π model is obtained as shown in Fig. ?? together with the simplified h-
parameters form.
While a careful distinction has been between these two circuit models, param-
eters from the one of them may appear in the other. This should not cause undue
confusion, provided the above assumptions are borne in mind. Furthermore, it is
useful to know (assuming hre = 0) that

hf e
gm = (1.52)
hie
.

ib ic
b c

vbe rπ gm vbe ro vce

e e
(a) Simplified hybrid-π

ib ic
b c

vbe 1 vce
hie hf e ib hoe

e e
(b) Simplified h-parameters

Figure 1.26: Simplified hybrid-π and h-parameters equivalent circuits.

In each model, the output resistance may also be ignored in some cir-
cumstances.

1.3.5 Simplified Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit

Valid at low frequencies. Assuming that hre = 0 and hoe = 0, the small-signal
h-parameters model is shown in Fig.1.27.
Often hie is not provided. The value can be obtained using:
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES 22

ib e
e
c b c

ib hf e b hie i b hf e
b hie
c b c
e
e ib
(a) NPN model (b) PNP model

Figure 1.27: Simplified h-parameters model of a BJT

IC
gm = (1.53)
VT
hf e
gm = (1.54)
hie
where IC is the dc collector current.
The hybrid-π model is related to the h-parameters model by

rπ = hie (1.55)
gm vbe = ib hf e (1.56)

and equation (1.54).

 Chapter 2

BJT Amplifiers

2.1 Linear Amplifiers

When the gain of an amplifier is stated, this is usually taken as the power gain
which is defined as the ratio of the output signal power to the input signal power:
po
A= (2.1)
pi
where subscripts ‘o’ and ‘i’ mean output and input respectively. We may also refer
to voltage gain Av and current gain Ai which are defined as:
vo
Av = (2.2)
vi
io
Ai = (2.3)
ii
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.1 where the dc base voltage, that is the
circuit operating point, has been set to VB = 0.7 V. A small-signal ac source (vb (t))
is connected in series with the base dc voltage source so that the total base voltage
is given by
vB (t) = V B + vb (t). (2.4)

The total voltage at the collector is then

vC (t) = V C + vc (t). (2.5)

The instantaneous variations in the collector voltage as a function of instanta-

neous changes in the base voltage as shown in Fig. 1.8 is depicted again in Fig. 2.2
expanded about the region around the Q-point. The relationship between the two
quantities is almost linear. For small changes in the base voltage, a straight-line

23
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 24

1 kΩ
vb (t) + VCC
− 12V
VB + vC (t)
0.7V − vB (t)

Figure 2.1: Linear BJT amplifier from the crude biasing example.

7
Q
VC (V)

∆VC
6

∆VB
5
dVC
Av =
dVB
4
0.690 0.695 0.700 0.705 0.710
VB (V)

Figure 2.2: Definition of voltage gain as the slope of the instantaneous

collector voltage with respect to the instantaneous base voltage.

approximation would be acceptable. We will adopt this so-called small-signal op-

erating condition and also take it for granted that ac sources are sinusoidal and
that all signals are in steady state.
The voltage gain Av is defined as the ratio of the changes in these small-signals:
dVC
Av = . (2.6)
dVB
In other words, if the base voltage changes by ∆VB then the collector voltage will
dVC
vary approximately by dVB
∆VB . The change in the collector voltage is approxi-
mately given since as can be seen from the graph, it is actually a little bit smaller
(the red curve is below the straight line). Moreover, since the plot is curved, the
voltage gain is also affected by the choice of operating point. In this example, the
voltage gain is
7.4 − 5.4
Av ≈ = −200.
0.695 − 0.705
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 25

The minus sign means that if the input signal was a sine wave, the output signal
will be a sine wave shifted by 180◦ as shown in Fig. 2.3. Note that the ratio of the
instantaneous values at the operating point, that is the ratio of the dc values, is
not the gain.
VC 6.4
Av 6= = = 9.14
VB 0.7

12

10

8
VC
VC (V)

6 Q

4 Output signal

2 Input
signal
0
VB
0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80
VB (V)

Figure 2.3: Instantaneous variation in collector voltage VC with respect

to base voltage VB . Superimposed upon the plot are the operating point
or quiescent point and time-dependent input (vB (t)) and output (vC (t))
signals. Note the difference in scale along the axes.

2.2 Auto-biased BJT Amplifier Circuits

Using the auto-biasing scheme, there are three common BJT amplifier circuits as
depicted in Fig. 2.4. These circuits are called common emitter, common base and
common collector depending on the transistor pin that is grounded possibly via a
resistance and/or capacitance.
In the circuits shown, the pins are connected to ground by so-called bypass or
decoupling capacitors. There are also capacitors connected to the pins which have
been designated as input and output. These capacitors function as ac coupling so
that in a multistage amplifier, dc levels of different stages will not be corrupted.
From a dc point of view (remove all capacitors), all three circuits are identical
for the purposes of calculating dc biasing. These circuits have different voltage
gain, current gain, input resistance and output resistance, and as such will be the
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 26

subject of our investigation. (For the common collector circuit, the resistor RC is
usually omitted.)

VCC VCC
RC RC C
R1 R1 C

vo
vi R2 vi R2
RE CE RE vo

(a) Common emitter (b) Common collector

VCC
RC
R1

vo
CB R2
RE vi

(c) Common base

Figure 2.4: Auto-biased amplifier stages with ac coupling capacitors (un-

marked) and bypass or decoupling capacitors (CE , CC and CB ). The port
marked vi is input; the port marked vo is output.

For analysis in the small-signal steady-state sinusoidal domain, the simplified

Ebers-Moll model is adopted. In the Ebers-Moll model,

iC (t) = IS (evBE (t)/VT − 1)

which can be simplified by assuming that evBE (t)/VT >> 1 to obtain

iC = IS evBE /VT (2.7)

where for convenience time-dependence of ac or total quantities are implicitly

assumed and (t) dropped from expressions. Also, a total variable is the sum of a
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 27

dc (or average) part and a small-signal ac part, i.e.

iC = IC + ic
vBE = VBE + vbe
vC = VC + vc
iB = IB + ib

Consider small changes about the operating point defined by (IC , VBE , IB , VC ).
Differentiating (2.7) with respect to vBE :

 
diC  IS vBE /VT 
= e
dvBE vBE =VBE VT 
vBE =VBE
IS VBE /VT
= e
VT
IC
= (2.8)
VT
Let us define the right-hand side expression as a transconductance
IC
gm , (2.9)
VT
which can be obtained from the dc value of the collector current (IC ).
In the small-signal regime about the operating point

∆iC = ic ,
∆vBE = vbe

and
diC ∆iC ic
= =
dvBE ∆vBE vbe
Therefore,
diC ic IC
= = = gm
dvBE vbe VT
and
ic = gm vbe . (2.10)

The collector voltage is

vC = VCC − iC RC
= VCC − (IC + ic )RC
= (VCC − IC RC ) − ic RC . (2.11)
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 28

Thus the dc component of the collector voltage is

VC = VCC − IC RC

and the ac part is

vc = −ic RC . (2.12)

Using (2.10)
vc = −gm vbe RC . (2.13)

The collector current is related to the base current by ic = βib which means that
ic
ib =
β
gm vbe
ib =
β
β
⇒ vbe = ib (2.14)
gm
where (2.10) has been used. This is an Ohmic expression that relates the base-
emitter voltage to the base current. Hence, the proportionality constant is an ac
input resistance which is defined as
β
rπ = . (2.15)
gm
Taken together, these results allow the construction of a simplified small-signal ac
equivalent circuit (see Fig. 2.5) which will be referred to as the simplified π-model.

b c
vbe rπ gm vbe vce

e e

Figure 2.5: Simplified small-signal ac equivalent circuit of a BJT.

2.2.1 Common-Emitter Amplifier

The small-signal ac equivalent circuit of the common-emitter amplifier is shown in
Fig. 2.6. The BJT has been replaced by its simplified small-signal ac equivalent
circuit that was discussed in the previous section. For ac analysis, superposition
is used to eliminate all dc sources. The parameters gm and rπ are obtained from
dc using (2.9) and (2.15) respectively. For the latter, β need to be known.
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 29

RS ii ib ic io
b c

vS vi R1 R2 rπ gm vbe RC vo

e e
Ri Rib Roc Ro

Figure 2.6: Small-signal equivalent circuit of common emitter BJT am-

plifier.

The voltage gain is

vo io Rc −gm
v
be Rc
Av = = = = −gm Rc (2.16)
vi vbe v
be

The current gain is

io −gm vbe
Ai = = = −β (2.17)
ib vbe /rπ
The input resistance is
vbe
Rib = = rπ (2.18)
ib
The output resistances are
Roc = ∞

Ro = Rc

Assuming typical values for IC = 25 mA and VT = 26 mV

2.5
gm = ≈ 100 mA/V
0.026
Taking β = 100 and Rc = 1 kΩ

Av = −100 × 1 = −100
Ai = −100
Powergain = Av × Ai = 104
100
Rib = = 1 kΩ
100
Ro = 1 kΩ

A variation of the common-emitter amplifier circuit is shown in Fig. 2.7. An

additional resistor (RE1 ) is connected in series with the emitter resistor but is not
shunted by a capacitor. In other words, RE1 is “undecoupled” from the emitter
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 30

VCC
RC

RE1 vo
vi

(a) Actual circuit

ib ic
b c

hie hf e ib
Ri Rib Ro

vi vo RC
RB e
RE1

(b) Small-signal equivalent circuit

Figure 2.7: Common emitter amplifier with un-decoupled emitter resis-

tance.

circuit. For small-signal equivalent circuit analysis, assume that the shunt emitter
capacitance is ideal, i.e. it shorts the emitter resistor, and that hre = 0 and hoe = 0.
The input and output voltages are given by

vo = −ic Rc = −hf e ib Rc (2.19)

vi = ib hie + ib (1 + hf e )RE1 (2.20)

From the second equation, the input resistance can be determined:

vi
Rib = = hie + (1 + hf e )RE1 (2.21)
ib
Ri = Rib ||RB (2.22)
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 31

(The input resistance Rib is high, similar to that of the emitter follower circuit
that will be covered shortly.) The voltage gain is
vo −hf e ib Rc
Av = =
vi ib hie + ib (1 + hf e )RE1
−RC
=
RE1 + hieh+R
fe
E1

RC
≈− (2.23)
RE1
hie +RE1
where in the last line it is assumed that RE1  hf e
usually.
The output resistance Ro of an amplifier (see Fig. 2.8) is defined as an equivalent
Thevenin resistance looking into the output of the amplifier. In general, Ro is not
Vo
the same as the load resistance RL = Io
.

Rs

vs RL vo
Ro

Figure 2.8: Definition of output resistance Ro of an amplifier.

The output resistance can be determined by three different methods (see Fig. 2.9):

1. Tune an external test load resistance at the output, until the resultant output
voltage is half the open-circuit voltage (voc ) whereupon Ro = Rtest .

2. Calculate the open circuit voltage and short circuit current. Ro = voc /isc

3. Injection of source (current or voltage) at output and short-circuiting all

voltage signal sources. Ro = vx /ix

Consider the application of method 1 in determining the output resistance of

the undecoupled common emitter amplifier. From voltage gain with no external
load connected, i.e. open circuit,
RC
vo ≈ − vi (2.24)
RE
which means that the open-circuit voltage is
RC
voc = − vi (2.25)
RE
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 32

Ro Ro

voc RT voc isc

(a) Test resistance (b) Short-circuit current

Ro ix

0 vx

(c) Injection

Figure 2.9: Methods for determining amplifier output resistance. The

amplifier respresented by its Thevenin equivalent circuit (inside dashed
box).

When an external test load (RT ) is placed at the output, it is in parallel with
RC according to the small-signal equivalent circuit. Consequently the voltage gain
equation gives
RC ||RT
vo = − vi (2.26)
RE
Suppose RT is tuned until vo = 21 voc and let the value of RT which satisfies the
voltage condition be RT0 . Substitute these into the above equation:

1 RC ||RT0
voc = − vi
2 RE
RC RC RT0
− vi = − vi
2RE (RC + RT0 )RE
RC + RT0
=2
RT0
RT0 = RC (2.27)

Therefore the output resistance Ro = RC .

2.2.2 Common-Collector Amplifier

The small-signal equivalent circuit of the common-collector amplifier or emitter
follower is shown in Fig. 2.10. The voltage gain can be obtained as follows:
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 33

vi = ib rπ + (gm vbe + ib )RE

vbe = ib rπ ⇒ gm vbe = gm ib rπ = βib (2.28)
⇒ vi = ib rπ + (βib + ib )RE
= (rπ + (1 + β)RE )ib (2.29)
vo = (1 + β)ib RE
vo
∴ Av =
vi
(1 + β)RE
=
rπ + (1 + β)RE
rπ
=1−
rπ + (1 + β)RE

Assuming typical values rπ = RE = 1 kΩ and β = 100:

1
Av = 1 − ≈1
1 + (1 + 100)1

Thus the voltage at the output is approximately the same as the voltage at the
input.

ib ic
b c

rπ gm vbe
RS

vi R1 R2
vS e
Rib RE vo

RB Ro

Figure 2.10: Small-signal ac equivalent circuit of common collector am-

plifier.

Using (2.29), the resistance looking into the base is

vi
Rib = = rπ + (1 + β)RE
ib
which is typically Rib = 1 + (101) × 1 ≈ 100 kΩ.
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 34

The current gain is

io ib (1 + β)
Ai = = = 1 + β = (typically100)
ib ib
and the power gain is

Ap = Av × Ai = (typically100)

The output resistance of the common-collector amplifier can be obtained using

method 2. For this exercise, the small-signal ac analysis will be repeated using the
simplified h-parameters equivalent circuit model as shown in Fig. 2.11 where the
input circuit consisting of the voltage source, source resistance and the biasing re-
sistances have been replaced by its Thevenin equivalent. The Thevenin parameters
are defined by
RB
vs0 = vs (2.30)
RB + Rs
Rs0 = Rs ||RB (2.31)

The output voltage is given by

vo = ib (1 + hf e )RE (2.32)

By KVL, the Thevenin equivalent input voltage source is also

vs0 = ib (Rs0 + hie ) + (1 + hf e )ib RE

= ib (Rs0 + hie + (1 + hf e )RE ) (2.33)

Therefore
(1 + hf e )RE
vo = vs0 (2.34)
Rs0 + hie + (1 + hf e )RE
where the proportionality constant is typically ≈ 1.
The input resistance is given by

Ri = Rib ||RB (2.35)

which is somewhat easier to discern from Fig. 2.10. The resistance looking into
the base is
vi ib (hie + (1 + hf e )RE )
Rib = = (2.36)
ib ib
= hie + (1 + hf e )RE (2.37)
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 35

ib ic
b c

hie hf e ib
Rs0

vi
vs0 e
Rib RE vo

Ro

Figure 2.11: Small-signal analysis using simplified h-parameters equiva-

lent circuit.

Using typical values of transistor parameters and R1 = 10 k, R2 = 10 k (RB = 5 k)

yields Rib = 102 k and Ri = 4.8 k. While the value of Rib is relatively high, the
smaller RB spoils the high input resistance. This problem can be ameliorated by
“bootstrapping” as discussed in later section.
For determining the output resistance using method 2, note that the open-
circuit voltage is given by (2.34). Using method 2 for determining the output
resistance, let isc be the short circuit current through the output when it is short-
circuited. Under this condition, let the base current ib = ib,sc . Hence by KCL

isc = ib,sc (1 + hf e ) (2.38)

By KVL
vs0
ib,sc = (2.39)
Rs0 + hie
Thus
vs0 (1 + hf e )
isc = (2.40)
Rs0 + hie
Therefore the output resistance is
voc
Ro =
isc
vs0 (1+hf e )RE
0
Rs +hie +(1+hf e )RE
= vs0 (1+hf e )
Rs0 +hie
RE (Rs0 + hie )
= (2.41)
Rs0 + hie + (1 + hf e )RE
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 36

This expression is in the form of two resistances in parallel and can be rewritten
as
1 1 1 + hf e
= + 0 (2.42)
Ro RE Rs + hie
that is
Rs0 + hie
 
Ro = RE || (2.43)
1 + hf e
However, RE  than the second resistive term and the output resistance can be
taken as
Rs0 + hie
Ro ≈ (2.44)
1 + hf e
Using typical values: hie = 1 k, hf e = 100, RE = 1 k and Rs = 0 gives Ro =
1
1kΩ|| 101 kΩ ≈ 9.7Ω. For an ideal buffer, a high input resistance (Rib high),
unity voltage gain ( vvoi ≈ 1) and low output resistance (Ro small) are desirable
characteristics.

2.2.3 Common-Base Amplifier

The small-signal equivalent circuit of the common-base amplifier is shown in
Fig. 2.12.
Voltage gain

vi = −vbe
vo = −ic Rc = −gm vbe Rc
vo −gmv
be Rc
∴ Av = = = gm Rc
vi −v
be

which is the same as the collector amplifier gain except for a change in sign;
typically 100 × 1 ≈ 100.
Current gain
io −βib βib β
Ai = = = =
−ie −ie (1 + β)ib 1+β
where emitter current flows out of the emitter, a negative sign has been prefixed
100
in the denominator to get correct gain; typically 101
≈ 1.
Power gain
Ap = Av × Ai = 100 × 1 = 100

In order to determine the output resistance, the injection method will be ap-
plied (method 3). Recall that in this method, all independent input voltage sources
are zeroed and a voltage source is applied to the output of the circuit. The common
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 37

ib ic io
b c

rπ gm vbe
vbe
RC vo
e ie
vi RE

Figure 2.12: Small-signal equivalent circuit of common-base amplifier.

base amplifier typically has high output resistance. Thus in selecting an appropri-
ate small-signal equivalent circuit for determining output resistance, the intrinsic
output resistance of the BJT cannot be neglected. Therefore, unlike the earlier
1
equivalent circuit, the output resistance hoe
is reinstated as shown in Fig. 2.13.

ib ic
b c ix

1
hie hf e ib hoe

2 Roc Ro
RC vx
e

Rs 1
vs = 0 RE

Figure 2.13: Small-signal h-parameters equivalent circuit of common base

amplifier for output resistance analysis.

Applying KVL on loop 1 yields:

0
vx = (ib + ic )RE + (ic − hf e ib ) h1oe
   
0 1 0 hf e
= ic RE + + ib RE − (2.45)
hoe hoe
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 38

Applying KVL on loop 2:

0
−ib hie − (ib + ic )RE =0
0 0
ib (hie + RE ) = −ic RE
0
RE
ib = i
0 c
(2.46)
hie + RE

Substituting (2.46) into (2.45):

0
  
0 1 RE 0 hf e
vx = ic RE + − 0
RE − (2.47)
hoe hie + RE hoe

Therefore the resistance looking into the collector is

vx
Roc =
ic
0 0
   
1 hf e RE 0 RE
= 1+ 0
+ RE 1 − 0
hoe hie + RE hie + RE
!
0
1 hf e RE hie
= 1+ h
+ 0
(2.48)
hoe 1 + R0 ie hie + RE
E

0
The second term is clearly RE ||hie . Since
!
0 1 hf e
(RE ||hie )  1+ (2.49)
hoe 1 + Rhie0
E

!
1 hf e
∴ Roc ≈ 1+ (2.50)
hoe 1 + Rhie0
E

0
where RE = (Rs ||RE ).
Suppose Rs  hie ,
 
1 hf e 1
⇒ Roc = 1+ =
hoe ∞ hoe
0
If RE  hie ,  
1 hf e 1 + hf e
⇒ Roc = 1+ =
hoe 1+0 hoe
1
Taking typical values of hoe
= 100 kΩ and hf e = 100, bounds the output collector
resistance by
10 k < Roc < (101 × 100 k = 10.1 MΩ)

The upper bound on Roc can be a very high value. The output resistance of the
amplifier is Ro = Roc ||RC .
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 39

A high Roc is desirable when the collector load is a resonant circuit such as used
in a tuned amplifier that will be discussed later. (The impedance at resonance of
the tuned circuit will be in parallel with Roc , therefore the latter needs to be much
higher so that the Q will not be affected. ) In practice, the common base amplifier
is used in a cascode configuration such as the one shown in Fig. 2.14 where a
common emitter amplifier draws a common base amplifier thereby screening the
output from the input.

VCC

vo

vi

Figure 2.14: Cascode circuit.

2.3 Cascaded Stages

The output of a single amplifier can be fed into the input of a second amplifier to
create a so-called cascaded circuit. Aside from improvement in overall gain of the
cascaded circuit, it may also benefit from more desirable input-output characteris-
tics inherited from the type of amplifier used in the input and output stages. The
general case for N cascaded stages is shown in Fig. 2.15. The input impedance
of the following stage (for example stage 2) contributes to the load impedance of
the previous stage (for example stage 1). Interstage coupling can be ac or dc. AC
coupling is effected by coupling capacitors.
A two-stage common emitter amplifier is shown in Fig. 2.17 where a pnp bjt
is used in the second stage. The small-signal equivalent circuit is obtained in
the usual manner; the ac equivalent circuit for the pnp based second stage is
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 40

RS

STAGE 1

STAGE 2
vs vi1 vo1 vi2 vo2

Figure 2.15: N -stage cascaded amplifier with stage 1 and stage 2 shown
explicitly.

VCC

coupling
capacitor

vo
vi

Stage 1 Stage 2
(a) AC interstage coupling

VCC

vi
vo

Stage 1 Stage 2
(b) DC interstage coupling

Figure 2.16: Two stage common emitter amplifier (a) and common emit-
ter buffered by common collector (b) with different interstage coupling
mechanisms.

identical to the npn stage. The voltages in the circuit can be related to the circuit
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 41

parameters by
v1 = −gm1 (RC1 ||rπ2 )vi

vo = −gm2 RC2 v1

The total voltage gain is given by

vo vo v1
= ×
vi v1 vi
In this example, the output of the first stage is directly coupled to the second stage
input without using an ac coupling capacitor. Quiescent dc levels are arranged so
that both transistors are biased as desired. This method is often used in integrated
circuits where high coupling capacitors would be difficult to fabricate.

VCC
RC1 RE2 CE2

Q2
Q1
v1
vi RC2 vo
RE1 CE1

(a) NPN-PNP two stage

ib1 ic1 ib2 ic2

b1 c1 b2 c2

vi RB rπ1 gm1 vbe1 RC1 v1 rπ2 gm2 vbe2 RC2 vo

e1 e1 e2 e2
(b) Equivalent circuit

Figure 2.17: Multistage common emitter amplifier.

2.4 Bootstrapped Emitter Follower

The bootstrapped emitter follower circuit (see Fig. 2.18) is the same as the common
collector amplifier insofar as the voltage gain is concerned, but aims to improve the
input resistance by reducing the shunting effect of the high input base resistance
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 42

by the relatively lower biasing resistances. This is accomplished by the addition

of a bootstrap capacitor (Cboot ) that connects the emitter to the base circuit. The
technique of feeding part of the output (at the emitter in this case) to the input
(at the base here) is called bootstrapping.

VCC

R1

R3
vi
Cboot
R2 vo

Figure 2.18: Bootstrapped emitter follower.

The small-signal equivalent circuit of the bootstrapped emitter follower is

shown in Fig. 2.19. Let the resistances in parallel at the emitter be

0
RE = R1 ||R2 ||RE (2.51)

The input voltage is given by

0
vi = ib hie + (ii + hf e ib )RE (2.52)

The output voltage equation is

0
vo = (ii + hf e ib )RE (2.53)

By current division
R3
ib = ii (2.54)
R3 + hie
Substituting (2.54) into (2.52)
 
R3 R3 0
vi = ii hie + ii + ii hf e RE (2.55)
R3 + hie R3 + hie

Hence, the input resistance is

   
vi R3 R3 + hie 0
Ri = = hie + + hf e RE (2.56)
ii R3 + hie R3
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 43

ii ib ic
b c

hie hf e ib
R3

vi e
Ri

R1 R2 RE vo

Figure 2.19: Small-signal equivalent circuit of bootstrapped emittter fol-

lower.

Example values with R3 = 1 k, RE = 1 k, R1 = R2 = 10 k, hie = 1 k and hf e = 100

0
gives RE = 0.833 k and
   
1 1+1
Ri = 1+ + 100 0.8333 = 43kΩ
1+1 1

Consider what happens to the input resistance if the bootstrap capacitor is

removed. The small-signal equivalent circuit without a bootstrap capacitor is
shown in Fig. 2.20. Using the numerical example values, the resistance looking
into the base is
Rib = hie + (1 + hf e )RE = 102kΩ

Therefore the input resistance is

Ri = Rib ||(5 + 1) = 5.6kΩ

which is much smaller than the input resistance with the bootstrap capacitor in
situ.
The bootstrap capacitor provides a feedback path from the emitter to the base
of the transistor via resistor R3 . Miller’s theorem is useful in analysis of circuits
containing feedback impedances. Before presenting the theorem, let us redraw the
bootstrap equivalent circuit as depicted in Fig. 2.21.
First consider the circuit without the feedback resistance R3 . The output
voltage is
0
vo = ib (1 + hf e )RE (2.57)
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 44

ib ic
b c

hie hf e ib
R3

vi Ri Rib e

R1 R2 RE vo

Figure 2.20: Small-signal equivalent circuit of bootstrapped emitter fol-

lower circuit with bootstrap capacitor removed.

R3

ib ic
b c

hie hf e ib
R3

vi Rib e
K
0
RE vo vi vo

(a) Equivalent circuit (b) Symbol

Figure 2.21: Bootstrapped emitter follower equivalent circuit redrawn as

an amplifier with feedback.

The input voltage is

0
vi = (hie + (1 + hf e )RE )ib (2.58)

The input resistance looking into the base is

vi 0
Rib = = hie + (1 + hf e )RE (2.59)
ib
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 45

The voltage gain is

0
vo (1 + hf e )RE
K= = 0
vi (1 + hf e )RE + hie
0
(1 + hf e )RE + hie − hie
= 0
(1 + hf e )RE + hie
hie
=1− (2.60)
Rib
The second term is typically small and the voltage gain is almost unity. Let
hie
ε= Rib
.

Z12

i1 i2
i1 i2
v1 K v2 v1 Z1 K Z2 v2

(a) Linear two-port (b) Miller equivalent

Figure 2.22: Application of Miller’s theorem for linear two-port network

having feedback impedance.

The application of Miller’s theorem for analysing linear two-port networks hav-
ing a feedback impedance will now be presented. Refer to Fig. 2.22. Miller’s
theorem allows the feedback impedance that connects port 1 and port 2 to be
replaced by a pair of Miller impedances (Z1 and Z2 ) that are connected from port
1 and port 2 terminals to ground respectively. The approach can be validated by
consideration of the currents in the feedback path:
v1 − v2 v1 − v2 v1 v1 v1
i1 = = = (1 − K) = Z12
(2.61)
Z12 v1 Z12 Z12 (1−K)

v2
where K is the open-loop voltage gain, that is K = v1
. Hence, the branch current
i1 can be represented as being shunted by an equivalent Miller impedance which
appears in the denominator of the rightmost expression. Thus,
Z12
Z1 = (2.62)
1−K
Similarly, consideration of the branch current i2 yields
v2 − v1 v2 − v1 v1 v2 1 v2 v2
i1 = = = (K − 1) = Z12
(2.63)
Z12 v1 v2 Z12 K Z12 (K−1)
K
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 46

and
Z12 K
Z2 = K−1
= Z12 (2.64)
K
K −1
The Miller equivalent circuit is valid provided that the conditions that existed
in the network when K was determined are not changed. For conveninence, we
may also refer to the Miller impedances as ZM I and ZM O corresponding to Z1 and
Z2 , the input port Miller impedance and the output port Miller impedance. As an
application example of the Miller technique consider the bootstrap emitter follower
once more. (See Fig. 2.23; also note that since we’re dealing with resistances we
use the symbol R instead of the more general symbol Z for impedances.)

R3

K
K
vi RMI RMO vo
vi vo

(a) Bootstrapped emitter follower (b) Miller equivalent

Figure 2.23: Application of Miller’s theorem for the bootstrapped emitter

follower circuit.

The Miller resistances are given by:

R3
RM I = (2.65)
1−K
K
RM O = R3 (2.66)
K −1
Using the numerical values given earlier,
hie 1
K =1− =1− = 0.988258
Rib 1 + 101 × 0.833333
1
RM I = = 85.1666 kΩ
1 − 0.988258
Therefore the input resistance is

Ri = RM I ||Rib = 85.1666||(1 + 101 × 0.8333) = 42.6 kΩ

The equivalent Miller output resistance is

0.988258
RM O = 1 × = −84.2 kΩ
0.988258 − 1
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 47

A negative resistance can be interpreted as a voltage source. Here, RM O is in

parallel with Ro of the emitter follower. Hence, the overall effect is a slight increase
in the total output resistance 1 .

2.5 Frequency Response

2.5.1 High Frequency Equivalent Circuit Model

ib rbb0 Cb 0 c ic
b b0 c

rb0 e Cb 0 e 0 v 0
gm ro
vb0 e be

e e

Figure 2.24: Hybrid-π small-signal BJT equivalent circuit with junction

capacitances and base spreading resistance included.

For circuit analysis at high frequencies the hybrid-π model needs to be mod-
ified to improve accuracy. Two junction capacitances (Cb0 c and Cb0 e ) and a base
spreading resistance rbb0 are added to the model as shown in Fig. 2.24. (The re-
sistance rµ is omitted because the reactance of Cb0 c is usually much smaller.) The
base spreading resistance models the high resistance region between the base con-
tact and the active region of the transistor. An external base node is defined and
labelled as b and a fictitious internal base node is created called b0 . Thus, prior to
the model discussed in this section, it is assumed that rbb0 = 0 and b = b0 . The
resistance rbb0 is typically of the order of 10 Ω to 100 Ω and is not negligible. rb0 e
0 IC
is dependent on collector current since gm = VT
.

hf e hf e
rb0 e = 0
= VT (2.67)
gm IC
With hf e = 100, and IC = 1, 10 and 100 mA, gives rb0 e = 2.6 k, 260Ω and 26Ω
respectively. Clearly, for the last two values rbb0 would have a sizeable impact. The
overall transconductance parameter is given by
hf e hf e
gm = = (2.68)
hie rb0 e + rbb0
1
The total resistance of two resistances, say R1 and R2 , connected in parallel is RR11+R R2
2
.
Suppose R2 is negative; the denominator is reduced and therefore the overall resistance increases,
but would still be positive.
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 48

Taking the reciprocal

1 rb0 e rbb0
= +
gm hf e hf e
1 rbb0
= 0 +
g hf e
m 
1 1
∴ rbb0 = − 0 hf e (2.69)
gm gm

The inclusion of two capacitances originate from capacitance due to the base-
collector pn junction (Cb0 c ) and capacitance due to the base-emitter pn junction
(Cb0 e ) which when forward biased can be capacitively large. At low frequencies the
capacitances can be ignored (open circuit), the two base resistances are in series,
i.e.
rbb0 + rb0 e = rπ = hie (2.70)

and the simpler hybrid-π model is obtained.

A figure of merit for the high frequency performance of the transistor is the
unity gain bandwidth product (fT ) or transition frequency. This parameter is
defined as the frequency at which the current gain of the BJT drops to unity
under short circuit load condition.
At high frequencies, the 3-dB breakpoint is dependent on the intrinsic BJT
input capacitances (Ci ) and resistances (Ri ). Under short circuit load condition,
the input capacitance Ci is determined by

Ci = Cb 0 e + CM I
0
= Cb0 e + (1 + gm (RL ||ro ))Cb0 c
Short circuit load ⇒ RL = 0
∴ Ci = Cb0 e + Cb0 c ≈ Cb0 e (2.71)

2
where CM I is the equivalent Miller capacitance for Cb0 c .
Assume that the short circuit current is wholly supplied by the dependent
source, i.e.
0
|isc | = |ic | ≈ |gm vb0 e | (2.72)

The short circuit current gain can be obtained as follows:

rb0 e
vb0 e = ib (rb0 e ||Cb0 e ) = ib (2.73)
1 + jωrb0 e Cb0 e
2
For purely capacitive impedances, CM I = C12 (1 − K) where K is the gain of the two-port.
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 49

0
ic = gm vb0 e
hf e rb0 e
= ib
rb0 e 1 + jωrb0 e Cb0 e
ic ĥf e
, hf e (ω) = (2.74)
ib 1 + jωrb0 e Cb0 e

where ĥf e is the dc value of the frequency dependent function hf e (ω).

hf e (ω)

ĥf e

log
scale

1 ω
0
ωB ωT

Figure 2.25: Frequency dependence of the short circuit current gain show-
ing the 3-dB breakpoint frequency ωB and unity gain bandwidth product
fT (or ωT ).

The 3-dB breakpoint occurs at ωB where ωrb0 e Cb0 e = 1. Therefore

1
ωB = (2.75)
rb0 e Cb0 e
If ω  ωB
ĥf e
hf e (ω) ≈ (2.76)
jωrb0 e Cb0 e
By definition, |hf e (ω)| = 1 at the frequency ωT . Hence, neglecting the unity term
in denominator, and taking magnitudes

ĥf e
=1
ωT rb0 e Cb0 e

ĥf e
⇒ ωT = (2.77)
rb0 e Cb0 e
Thus
ωT = ĥf e ωB (2.78)

Now
0 ĥf e 0
gm = ⇒ gm rb0 e = ĥf e
rb0 e
g 0 rb0 e g0
⇒ ωT = m = m (2.79)
rb0 e Cb0 e Cb 0 e
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 50

0
But gm is a function of collector current IC ,
0 IC
gm =
VT
hence ωT is a function of collector current (see Fig. 2.26). It is usually prudent

fT

IC

Figure 2.26: Variation of unity gain bandwidth product with respect to

collector current.

to design amplifiers and oscillators well below fT . Moreover, the high frequency
model is valid up to about 0.3fT .

2.5.2 Effect of Input Impedance

Circuit and intrinsic BJT capacitances have significant effect on the the frequency
response of amplifiers. At “midband” these capacitances have no effect on gain.
Consider an amplifier fed via a coupling capacitor (CC ), having an input capac-
itance and resistance of Ci and Ri respectively as shown in Fig. 2.27. Typically
CC is a large capacitance and Ci is relatively small. Let fL and fU be the lower
and upper cutoff frequencies respectively, i.e.the frequencies where the gain drop
by 3-dB with respect to the gain at midband.

Rs CC

vs vi Ri Ci

Figure 2.27: Frequency response model for a wideband amplifier.

At midband, CC is approximately short circuit (ZC ≈ 0) and Ci is open circuit

(Zi = ∞). Therefore the midband gain is
vi Ri
A0 = = (2.80)
vs Ri + Rs
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 51

At low frequencies, the impedance of CC is not negligible though Zi may still

be considered ∞. The frequency dependence at low frequencies is
vi
A(ω) =
vs
Ri
= 1
Ri + Rs + jωC C

Ri 1
= 1
Ri + Rs 1 + jωCC (R i +Rs )

1
= A0
1 − j ωωL
A(ω) 1
∴ = (2.81)
A0 1 − j ffL

where
1
ωL = (2.82)
CC (Ri + Rs )
At high frequencies, ZC = 0 but the impedance of Ci is no longer infinite. Let
Ri
Zi = Ri ||Ci = (2.83)
1 + jωCi Ri
Hence the gain is
vi
A(ω) =
vs
Zi
=
Zi + Rs
Ri /(1 + jωRi Ci )
=
Ri /(1 + jωRi Ci ) + Rs
Ri
=
Ri + Rs + jωRi Rs Ci
Ri 1
=
Ri + Rs 1 + jω RRi R+R
s Ci
s
i
1
= A0
1 + j ωωU
A(ω) 1
∴ = (2.84)
A0 1 + j ffU

where
Ri + Rs 1
ωU = = (2.85)
Ri Rs Ci (Ri ||Rs )Ci
A Bode plot of the frequency response of a wideband amplifier is shown in
Fig. 2.28. The response curve has been normalised by dividing the gain function
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 52

midband
0
3 dB

 (dB)
−10

 A(f ) 
A0 
20 dB/decade
−20 asymptote

20 log10 

−30

fL fU
−40
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108

Frequency (Hz)
Figure 2.28: Bode plot of the frequency response of a wideband amplifier
normalised with respect to the gain at midband due to the effects of
source resistance, coupling capacitance and amplifier input impedance.

|A(f )| with the gain at midband (A0 ). At f = fL ,

 
 A(f )  1
 A0  = √2 (2.86)
 

which in dB is 20 log √12 ≈= −3. Similarly, at f = fU the normalised gain is also

√1 . Thus, fL and fU are the lower and upper frequencies respectively where the
2
gain drops by 3dB with respect to the gain at midband.
When f  fL ,  
 A(f )  1 f
 A0  ≈ fL /f = fL (2.87)
 

the gain is proportional to frequency. Similarly, for f  fU ,

 
 A(f )  1 fU
 A0  ≈ f /fU = f (2.88)
 

and the gain is inversely proportional to frequency. Hence, at these frequency

extremes, if the frequency changes by a factor of ten or one decade, the gain
changes by 20 log10 10 = 20 dB. In other words, the gain drops asymptotically by
20 dB/decade.

2.5.3 Effects due to Output and Bypass Capacitances

Consider the small-signal equivalent circuit of a common emitter amplifier shown
in Fig. 2.29.
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 53

Rs CC

vs vi Ri Ci gm vi RC Co vo

Figure 2.29: Small-signal model of common emitter amplifier for deter-

mining effect due to output capacitance on frequency response.

At high frequencies, assume that CC is short circuit. Let ZC = RC ||Co ,

RC
ZC = (2.89)
1 + jωRC Co
The voltage gain is given by
vo
= −gm ZC
vi
−gm RC
=
1 + jωRC Co
Let Avo , −gm RC
vo Avo
∴ = (2.90)
vi 1 + j ωω3
1
where ω3 = R C Co
Thus, at high frequencies the the gain magnitude drops by a
further 20 dB/decade for a total asymptotic drop rate of 40 dB/decade. The
overall normalised gain magnitude of this common emitter amplifier is shown in
Fig. 2.30.
Consider the frequency response of common emitter amplifier including the
effect due to the emitter bypass capacitance (see Fig. 2.31) on the frequency
response. For the response at low frequencies, CC and CE cannot be ignored.
However, it is assumed that R1 and R2 are sufficiently large so that they can
be neglected in determining the amplifier’s input resistance RIN . Furthermore,
assume that the output coupling capacitance CC2 is negligible at low frequencies.
Let ZE = RE ||CE :
RE
ZE = (2.91)
1 + jωCE RE
The input voltage is given by
 
1
vi = ib + hie + (1 + hf e )ZE = ib ZIN (2.92)
jωCC
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 54

20 log10   (dB) −20 20 dB/decade

asymptotes
 
 vs 
vo

−40

40 dB/decade
−60 asymptote

f1 f3 f2
−80
100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108

Frequency (Hz)

Figure 2.30: Normalised gain magnitude of a common emitter amplifier

with the output impedance taken into account.

The output voltage is

vo = −ib hf e RC (2.93)

Therefore the voltage gain is

vo hf e RC
=− (2.94)
vi ZIN
1
When 1  ωCE RE ,i.e. ω  R E CE
,

RE 1
ZE ≈ = (2.95)
jωRE CE jωCE
Using (2.92),
1
ZIN = + hie + (1 + hf e )ZE
jωCC
1 1 + hf e
= + hie +
jωCC jωCE
 
1 1 1 + hf e
= hie + + (2.96)
jω CC CE
The second term can be written as an effective capacitance formed by a series
CE
connection of CC and 1+hf e
,

1 1 1 + hf e
= + (2.97)
Cef f CC CE
which in turn is in series with hie resulting in ZIN .
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 55

VCC
RC
R1

CC1 CC2
Rs
vo
vs vi
R2 RE CE

(a) Actual circuit

CC1 ib ic CC2
b c

Rs hie hf e ib

ZIN vi RB RC vo
vs e
ZE

(b) Small-signal equivalent circuit

Cef f ib ic
b c

Rs hie hf e ib
vi RC vo
vs
e

(c) Simplified equivalent circuit at low frequencies.

Figure 2.31: Common emitter amplifier with emitter bypass capacitance.

In amplifiers that consist of several cascaded stages, there may be more than one
capacitance that determines the low frequency behaviour. The 3-dB breakpoint
can be examined independently and the overall 3 dB point is given by the highest
frequency. For example, in Fig. 2.32, the frequency breakpoints are f11 due to CC1
and CE1 and f12 due to CC2 and CE2 . The overall 3-dB breakpoint is due to f11
since it is the highest in this example.
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 56

Gain

CC2
CC1
3dB

CE1 CE2
f
f12 f11
(a) Cascaded CE amplifier (b) 3-dB breakpoints

Figure 2.32: Low frequency 3-dB breakpoints for cascaded stages.

Example: Consider the common emitter amplifier shown in Fig. 2.31 with the
following component values

IC = 5 mA
RC = Rext = 2kΩ RE = 1k Rs = 0
CC1 = CC2 = 10µF CE = 1000µF
Cbe = 100 pF Cbc = 3 pF
hf e = 100 rbb0 = 100Ω

where Rext is an external load resistance connected the output. It is assumed

that R1 and R2 are negligibly small. For the small-signal analysis, the high fre-
quency equivalent circuit will be used. (See Fig. 2.24) The high frequency model
parameters can be determined as follows:

0 IC
gm = ≈ 200mS (2.98)
VT
hf e 100
rb0 e = 0
= = 500Ω (2.99)
gm 0.2
At low frequencies, Cb0 e and Cb0 c can be neglected. The ac equivalent circuit
at low frequencies is shown in Fig. 2.33. At midband, the capacitances are short
circuits. The voltage gain can be obtained as follows:
vb0 e rb0 e 500
= = = 0.83
vs rb0 e + rbb0 500 + 110
vo 0
= −gm Rc ||Rext = −0.2(2000||2000) = −200
vb0 e
vo vo vb0 e
= = −200 × 0.83 = −167
 vs vb e vs
0

 vo 
  = 44.5 dB
 vs 
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 57

CE
CC1 1+hf e
rbb0 CC2
b b0 c

vs rb0 e 0 v 0
gm
vb 0 e be RC Rext vo

e e

Figure 2.33: Common emitter amplifier equivalent circuit for determining

low frequency response.

The low frequency breakpoints are determined by the series connections of

components in the base loop at the input and in the collector loop at the output.
In the latter case, the dependent source is taken as open circuit. Their effects will
be considered separately. The input RC circuit time constant can be determined
by:
 
1 1000µ
Cef f = + = 5µF
10µ 101
rb0 e + rbb0 = 600Ω
∴ RC = 600 × 5 × 10−6 = 3 ms

Thus, the 3-dB breakpoint due to the input circuit is

1 1
f11 = = = 53 Hz
2πRC 2π × 3 × 10−3
By voltage division, the output voltage is given by
Rext
vo = vc (2.100)
Rext + jωC1 C2

where vc is the collector voltage, which can be written as

 
0 1
vc = −gm vb0 e × RC || Rext + (2.101)
jωCc2
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 58

Combining these two results, yields

 
0 1 Rext
vo =−gm vb0 e× RC || Rext + ×
jωCc2 Rext + jωC1 C2
 
1
vo R R
C ext +
 
jωCC2 Rext
0  
= −gm 1 × 
vb0 e RC + Rext + jωCC2 1
Rext
 +
 
jωCC2

0 RC Rext 1
= −gm ×
RC + Rext 1
1+
jω(RC + Rext )CC2
0 1
= −gm (RC ||Rext ) (2.102)
1
1+
jω(RC + Rext )CC2
0
The first factor (−gm (RC ||Rext )) is the midband gain obtained earlier. The sec-
ond factor is the effect of the output circuit time constant on the low frequency
response. The output RC circuit time constant is

(RC + Rext )CC2 = (2000 + 2000) × 10−5 = 40 ms

The low frequency 3-dB breakpoint due to the output circuit is

1 1
f12 = = = 4 Hz
2πRC 2π × 40 × 10−3
Therefore, the low frequency 3-dB breakpoint is 53 Hz since f11 > f12 .
At high frequencies, the intrinsic transistor capacitances cannot be ignored.
However, the coupling capacitances and emitter bypass capacitance are assumed
to be negligible. With these in mind, the high frequency equivalent circuit model
shown in Fig. 2.34 is obtained.
The capacitances Cb0 e and Cb0 c determine the high frequency fall off. The
“bridging” capacitor Cb0 c can be removed by applying Miller’s theorem. Without
Cb 0 c ,
vo 0
= K = −gm RL (2.103)
vb0 e
where RL = RC ||Rext = 2000||2000 = 1000Ω. Thus, the Miller capacitance are

0
CMI = (1 − K)Cb0 c = (1 + gm RL )Cb0 c = 201 × 3 = 603pF

CMO ≈ Cb0 c = 3pF

where the CMO approximation is made since K  1. The total input capacitance
is
Ci = Cb0 e + CMI = 100 + 603 = 703pF
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 59

rbb0 Cb 0 c
b b0 c

vs rb0 e Cb 0 e 0 v 0
gm RC ||Rext
vb0 e be

e e
(a) Small-signal model

rbb0
b b0 c

vs rb0 e Cb0 e 0 v 0
gm RC ||Rext
vb 0 e CMI be CMO

e e
(b) Miller equivalent

Figure 2.34: Small-signal equivalent circuit of CE amplifier at high fre-

quencies.

The output voltage is

0 RL
vo = −gm vb0 e (2.104)
1 + jωRL CMO
Therefore,
0
vo −gm RL
= (2.105)
vb0 e 1 + jωRL CMO
which implies a 3-dB breakpoint at
1 1
f3 = = = 53.1MHz
2πRL CMO 2π × 1000 × 3 × 10−12
At the input,
ZI
vb0 e = vs (2.106)
ZI + rbb0
where
rb0 e
ZI = (2.107)
1 + jωrb0 e Ci
Therefore,
rb0 e
vb0 e 1 + jωrb0 e Ci
= rb0 e
vs + rbb0
1 + jωrb0 e Ci
rb0 e
=
r 0 + rbb0 (1 + jωrb0 e Ci )
b e 
rb0 e 1
=   (2.108)
rb0 e + rbb0 rb0 e rbb0
1 + jω Ci
rb0 e + rbb0
CHAPTER 2. BJT AMPLIFIERS 60

Hence, another high frequency 3-dB breakpoint is located at

1 1
f2 = = = 2.72MHz
2π(rbb0 ||rb0 e )Ci 2π(100||500)703 × 10−12

Since f2 < f3 , the 3-dB breakpoint past midband occurs at f2 . Hence, the
amplifier bandwidth is

BW = 2.72MHz − 53Hz ≈ 2.72MHz

A sketch of the Bode plot of the amplifier’s magnitude response is shown in

Fig. 2.35.

midband
20 log | vvos | (dB)

44.5

f (Hz)
f12 f11 f2 f3
(log scale)

Figure 2.35: Frequency response of common emitter amplifier example.